A P P E N D I X B

The Aerospace Engineers Formula Sheet

B.1 COST ANALYSIS

T/W for a desired T-O distance:


V2
T
q$CD TO
q$CL TO
m 1
LOF
2g$SG
W=S
W=S
W

Quantity discount factor:

QDF FEXP 1:4427$ln N

T/W for a desired cruise airspeed:





T
1
1 W
qCDmin
k
W
W=S
q
S

Number of engineering manhours:

0:791
1:526
HENG 0:0396$Wairframe
$VH
$N 0:183 $FCERT $FCF

T/W for a service ceiling:

$FCOMP $FPRESS
T
VV
4
r

q
W
2 W
k

Number of tooling manhours:

0:764
0:899
$VH
$N 0:178 $Q0:066
$FTAPER
HTOOL 1:0032$Wairframe
m

r
k$CDmin
3

3$CDmin

CLmax for a desired stalling speed:


1
W
CLmax
qstall S

$FCF $FCOMP $FPRESS

Number of manufacturing labor manhours:
0:74
0:543
$VH
$N 0:524 $FCERT $FCF $FCOMP
HMFG 9:6613$Wairframe

B.3 WEIGHT ANALYSIS

Break-even analysis:
NBE

Total Fixed Cost

Unit Sales Price  Unit Variable Cost

Design gross weight:

W 0 We Wu

B.2 CONSTRAINT ANALYSIS

Useful load:
W u Wc Wf Wp

T/W for a level constant velocity turn:

2


T
CDmin
n
W
k
q
W=S
W
q
S

W0 consists of:
W0 We Wc Wf Wp

T/W for a desired specic energy level:

Fuel weight ratio:

2


T
CDmin
n
W
PS
k
q

W=S
V
W
q
S


Wf
W0
W0

Wf

T/W for a desired rate-of-climb:

Empty weight ratio:


T
VV
q
k W

CDmin $
V
W
W=S
q S


We
W0
W0

We

997

998

THE AEROSPACE ENGINEERS FORMULA SHEET

This can be solved for W0:

Nicolai:

Wc Wp
  i
W0 h
W
We
1 W
 W0f
0

WW

Sailplanes:

We
0:2950 0:0386$ln W0

0:3255 0:0386$ln W0
W0

if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg

Powered sailplanes:

We
0:3068 0:0510$ln W0

0:3471 0:0510$ln W0
W0

if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg

ARHT
cos2 LHT

0:414 0:168

0:043

S0:896
HT

100$t=c
cos LHT

0:12

l0:02
HT

Nicolai:
if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg
WHT
if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg

s#0:458
"





nz WO 0:87 SHT 1:2 lHT 0:483
bHT
127
100
10
tHTmax
105

Vertical Tail (VT) Weight

Raymer:

if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg

Agricultural:

We
1:4029  0:0995$ln W0

1:3242  0:0995$ln W0
W0

WVT 0:0731 0:2 Ftail nz WO 0:376 q0:122 S0:873

VT

100$t=c

cos LVT
if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg

0:49


ARVT 0:357 0:039
$
lVT
cos2 LVT

Nicolai:

"

if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg

Wing Weight

WVT

 s




nz WO 0:87 SVT 1:2
bVT
98:5
100
tVTmax
105

Fuselage Weight

Raymer:

Raymer:

0:0035
0:036$S0:758
W WFW

if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg

GA twin turboprop:

We
0:5319 0:0066$ln W0

0:5371 0:0066$ln W0
W0

WW

Raymer:
WHT 0:016nz WO

Light Sport Aircraft (amphib):

We
1:6351  0:1402$ln W0

1:5243  0:1402$ln W0
W0

GA twin piston:

We
0:4074 0:0253$ln W0

0:4274 0:0253$ln W0
W0

Horizontal Tail (HT) Weight

Light Sport Aircraft (land):

We
1:5451  0:1402$ln W0

1:4343  0:1402$ln W0
W0

GA single engine:

We
0:8841  0:0333$ln W0

0:8578  0:0333$ln W0
W0

2
!0:57





nz WO 0:65
ARW
SW 0:61
4
96:948$
100
105
cos2 LC=4
3


 r 0:993
1 l 0:36
VH 5

1
500
2t=c

100$t=c
cos LC=4

!0:3

ARW
cos2 LC=4

nz WO 0:49

!0:6
q0:006 l0:04

0:177 0:051
WFUS 0:052$S1:086
lHT
FUS nz WO

11:9VP DP0:271

lFS
dFS

0:072
q0:241

999

B.3 WEIGHT ANALYSIS

Nicolai:
0:286



WFUS 200

n z WO
lF
10
105




VH 0:338 1:1

100

0:857

wF dF
10

WCTRL 1:066WO0:626

Manual control system

Hydraulic System Weight

Raymer:
WHYD 0:001WO
Avionics Systems Weight

Main Landing Gear Weight

Raymer:

Raymer:

0:933
WAV 2:117WUAV

WMLG 0:095nl Wl 0:768 Lm =120:409

Nicolai:

Nicolai:
0:684

WMNLG 0:054nl Wl

Lm =12

0:933
WAV 2:117WUAV

0:601

Electrical System

Nose Landing Gear Weight

Raymer:

Raymer:

WEL 12:57WFS WAV 0:51

WNLG 0:125nl Wl 0:566 Ln =120:845

Nicolai:

WEL 12:57WFS WAV 0:51

Installed Engine Weight

Raymer:

Air-conditioning and Anti-icing

0:922
WEI 2:575WENG
NENG

Raymer:

Nicolai:

0:68
0:17 0:08
WAC 0:265WO0:52 NOCC
WAV
M

0:922
WEI 2:575WENG
NENG

Nicolai:

Fuel System Weight

0:68
0:17 0:08
WAC 0:265WO0:52 NOCC
WAV
M

Raymer:


WFS

2:49Q0:726
tot

Qtot
Qtot Qint

0:363

0:242
0:157
NTANK
NENG

Furnishings
Raymer:
WFURN 0:0582WO  65

Nicolai:


0:3
1:21

Qtot
0:2
0:13
WFS 2:49 Q0:6
N
N
tot
TANK ENG
Qtot Qint
Flight Control System Weight

Nicolai:
WFURN 34:5N CREW q0:25
H
Center of gravity:

Raymer:
WCTRL 0:053l1:536
FS b


0:371

nz WO  10


4 0:80

Nicolai:
WCTRL 1:08WO0:7

Powered control system

XCG

MX

Wtot

YCG

MY

Wtot

ZCG

MZ

Wtot

PN

i 1 Wi

PN

i 1 Wi

PN

 Xi

Wtot
 Yi

Wtot

i 1 Wi

Wtot

 Zi

1000

THE AEROSPACE ENGINEERS FORMULA SHEET

CG in terms of %MGC:

To convert torque and RPM to SHP:

XCGMGC 100 

XCG  XMGC
MGC


SHP

torque  2p  RPM
torque  RPM

33000
5252

B.4 POWER PLANT

The Basics of Energy, Work, and Power

Units
Concept

Formulation

SI System

UK System

Kinetic energy:
1
KE mV2
2
Potential energy:
PE mgh

Joules (J)
kWh
1 kWh 3.6  106 J

BTU

Work h Force  Distance

Joules N$m

ft$lbf

W J/sec
N$m/s

hp ft$lbf /sec

746 W
0.746 kW

33,000 ft$lbf /min

550 ft$lbf /sec

Energy
The conservation of mass-energy is one
of the fundamental conservation laws of
physics. It basically says that energy can
neither be created nor destroyed, but it
changes form. The form of energy refers
to potential, kinetic, electrical, nuclear,
chemical, and other forms of energy.
Work
Work is dened as the product of force
applied to move an object a given
distance. Work is also the same as torque.
Power
Power is dened as the amount of work
done in a given time. It is also possible to
dene it as shown.

Work
Time
Force  Distance
h
Time
h Force  Speed

Power h

Torque
Time

One horsepower

UK system (T in lbf, V in ft/s):

THP

TV
550

SI system (T in N, V in m/s):
THP

TV
746

Gagg and Ferrar model:


1  s
PSL 1:132s  0:132
P PSL s 
7:55
PSL

s  0:117
0:883

Use the Mattingly method to estimate the effect of

airspeed and altitude on the thrust of gas turbine engines.

1001

B.7 LIFT AND DRAG

Electric Power

METHOD 2: Empirical estimation for swept wings:

8
< IR
Voltage: V p
P=I
:
PR
8
< V=I
Resistance: R V2 =P
:
P=I 2

Volts

8 p
< P=R
Current: I
P=V
:
V=R

Ohms

8
< V2 =R
Power: P R  I 2
:
VI

Raymer:
Amps

Brandt:
Watts

Aspect ratio e general:

AR b2 =S

Wing span from AR:

p
b AR$S

Aspect ratio e constant chord:

AR b=c

Average chord:



Cr Ct
b
Cavg

2
AR

Ct
Cr

Wing loading: w

y-location of MGCLE:




b 1 2l
yMGC
6
1l

tan LC=4 tan LLE

Cr
l  1
2b

Cavg

CR CT
CR

1 l
2
2

2p$AR
r



AR$b
k

tan2 LC=2
b2

The Law of Effectiveness:

PMGC Proot

2yMGC 
Ptip  Proot
b

METHOD 1: Empirical estimation for straight wings:



e 1:78 1  0:045AR0:68  0:64

Dynamic pressure: q

1 2
rV
2

VHT

VVT

LHT $SHT
CREF $SREF

LVT $SVT
bREF $SREF

HT dependent tail arm:

s
2$VHT $SREF $CREF
LHT
pR1 R2
VT dependent tail arm:
s
2$VVT $SREF $bREF
LVT
pR1 R2
HT and VT dependent tail arm:
s
2$SREF VHT $CREF VVT $bREF
LT
pR1 R2

B.7 LIFT AND DRAG

Lift: L 12 rV2 SCL

1
Induced drag onstant k: k
p$AR$e
1
Drag: D rV2 SCD Dmin Di
2

Simplied drag model: CD

B.6 TAIL SIZING

Vertical tail volume:

General lift curve slope:

CLa

1
p$AR$r$CDmin 1=1 0:03t  2t2 u

Mean aerodynamic chord:

MACzMGC

Average chord:

Angle of quarter-chord line:

Horizontal tail volume:




Cr Ct
Wing area: S b
2

x-location of MGCLE:
xMGC yMGC tan LLE

2
p
2  AR 4 AR2 1 tan2 Ltmax

2S
b1 l
Mean geometric chord:




2
1 l l2
MGC
Cr
1l
3
Root chord: Cr

W
S

METHOD 3: Douglas method:

B.5 WING PLANFORM

Taper ratio: l



e 4:61 1  0:045AR0:68 cos LLE 0:15  3:1

2D
2T

CDmin kC2L
rV2 S
rV2 S

Lift coefcient: CL

2L
2W
rV 2 SzrV 2 S

Span efciency:
e 1:781  0:045AR0:68  0:64
e 4:611  0:045AR0:68 cos LLE 0:15  3:1

Straight wing
Swept back

Adjusted drag model: CD CDmin kCL  CLminD 2

1002

THE AEROSPACE ENGINEERS FORMULA SHEET

B.8 THE PROPELLER

B.9 THE ATMOSPHERE

Power coefcient:
P
550  PBHP
118 800 000  PBHP


CP

3
5
3
rn D
r$RPM3 $D5
r RPM
D5
60
Thrust coefcient:
CT

T
3600$T

2
4
rn D
r$RPM2 D4

Pressure ratio:
p
d P0 1  0:0000068756h5:2561 q5:2561
Density ratio:
s rr 1  0:0000068756h4:2561 q4:2561
0

Power-torque relation:
CQ

Temperature: T T0 1  0:0000068756h

Air density:
r 0:0023781  0:0000068753  HREF 4:2561

Q
3600$Q
CP

2p
rn2 D5
r$RPM2 $D5

Q
CP

2
5
2p
rn D

Density: r r0 1  0:0000068756h4:2561

Air pressure:
P 22161  0:0000068753  HREF 5:2561

Torque coefcient:
CQ

Pressure: p p0 1  0:0000068756h5:2561

Temperature ratio: q

P=rn3 D5
2p

P 2pnQ

d
q

1  0:0000068756h

 0:19026
Pressure altitude: HP 145442 1  PP0
T
T0


 0:234957
Density altitude: Hr 145442 1  rr
0

Propeller efciency:
TV
TV
CT

J
CP
P
550BHP

hp

B.10 AIRSPEEDS

Propeller thrust:
Calibrated airspeed:
T

hp P

hp  550  PBHP

KCAS KIAS Derror

Thrust quadratic spline:

!



TSTATIC  2Tmax
3Tmax  2TSTATIC
2
V
TV
V
2
Vmax
Vmax
TSTATIC

Equivalent airspeed

sv
u qc
0:286
1
Pu
P 1
u
KEAS KCAS

0:286
t
P0
qc
1
P0 1
True airspeed:

Ideal efciency:
hi

KEAS
KCAS
KCAS
KTAS pzp p
s
r=rSL
r=rSL

1
2
p

1 w=V0
1 1 CT

Mach number:

Static thrust, TSTATIC:

TSTATIC P2=3 2rA2 1=3
Corrected static thrust:
2=3

TSTATIC 0:85P

2rA2

1=3


Aspinner
1
A2

V
V
V
p
p
a0
gRT
1116 1  0:0000068756H

Speed of sound:
a0

p
p
gRT z49:01 OAT
R

1003

B.12 CLIMB, CRUISE, AND MANEUVERING FLIGHT

B.11 TAKE-OFF

Transition height:

Torenbeeks balanced eld length:






0:863
Wto =S
1
2:7
hto
BFL
1 2:3Dg2 rgCL2
T=Wto  m



DSto
p
s

hTR R1  cos qclimb

B.12 CLIMB, CRUISE, AND

MANEUVERING FLIGHT
Jets in climb:

Acceleration on a at runway:

VV h

dV
g

T  D  mW  L
dt
W

Propellers in climb:

Acceleration on an uphill slope g:

VV h

dV
g

T  D  mW cos g  L  W sin g
dt
W
Lift-off speed:
VLOF 1:1  VS1

s
s
2W
W
1:1
z1:556
rSCLmax
rSCLmax

2 W
VLOF
2gT  D  mW  Lat VLOF =p2

TO

 CD

TO  64:35mW

Rotation distance:

jVLOF j for small aircraft

SROT
3jVLOF j for large aircraft

TD
T
1


W
W L=D

Transition distance:


2

STR R sin qclimb z0:2156  VS1

T
1

W L=D

Level stalling speed at load factor n:

s
2nW
VS
rSCLmax
Stalling speed at angle of bank f:
s
VSlevel
2W
VS
p
rSCLmax cos f
cos f

Climb angle:
sin qclimb

T
1

W L=D

s
2W
VS
rSCLmax

2 W
VLOF
2 SmC
16:09rVLOF
L

General angle-of-climb (AOC):

Stalling speed:

Ground run for piston props:

50051hP PBHP
VLOF

Rate-of-climb:






PAV  PREQ
TV  DV
60
ROC h 60
W
W

Min/max airspeed:
s
p
T  T 2  4CDmin kW 2
V
rSCDmin

Ground run:

SG

hp $PENG  PREQ
PAV  PREQ

V sin q
W
W

sin q

Time to lift-off:
r

2SG
1 for small aircraft

t
3 for large aircraft
a

SG

TV  DV
V sin q
W

Minimum thrust required, VTRmin, or best glide

speed, VBG, VLDmax:

v
u
s
u2 W
k
VTRmin t
r S
CDmin

1004

THE AEROSPACE ENGINEERS FORMULA SHEET

Max L/D:


LDmax

CL
CD


max

1
p
4$CDmin $k

Max sustainable load factor:




Tmax
LDmax
nmax
W
Maximum sustainable turn rate, j_ max :

Carsons airspeed:
VCAR 30:25 VLDmax z1:32VLDmax

g
j_ max

Power required:
PREQ

s
2W 3 C2D

rSC3L

Minimum sustainable turning radius:

VR2 min
Rmin q
g n2Rmin  1

Bank angle:
f cos

1


1
n

Load factor:
n

cos f

T
W



L
D

p
n2max  1
Vmaxj_

p
where: nRmin 2  1=n2max load factor and
q
W=S
VRmin 2 T=W rk airspeed for minimum turning
radius
Maximum level bank angle:

Turn radius:
Rturn

V2
V2
p

n$g$sin f
g n2  1

Time to turn j degrees:

tj

Rturn  p
j
180
V

Turn rate in radians/sec:

p
2
_j g n  1 V
V
Rturn
Thrust required at a load factor n:



 
nW 2
Dtrim
TR qS CDmin k
qS
Load factor that can be sustained at a given thrust T
and airspeed V:
s



qS 1 T
 CDmin
n
W k qS
Airspeed for a given CL:
s



2W
1
V
rSCL cos f

fmax cos

1

nmax

Specic excess power:

PS h

PEX
TV  DV
dh V dV

W
W
dt g dt

Specic energy and height:

1
1W 2
Etotal mgh mV 2 Wh
V
2
2 g
h

and HE h

V2
2g

B.13 RANGE AND ENDURANCE

Range prole 1:
!
"
p
V
2
k
p Wini
R p tan1
rV 2 S CD0
ct kCD0
!#
p
2 k
1
p Wfin
 tan
rV 2 S CD0

Etotal
W

1005

B.13 RANGE AND ENDURANCE

Range prole 2:
p p
1 CL 2 2 p q
p
R
Wini  Wfin
ct CD rS
s
1
8CL p q
Wini  Wfin

rS
ct CD

Endurance prole 3:
1 CL
Wini
E
ln
Wfin
ct CD
TSFC for a jet:

Range prole 3:
V CL
Wini
ln
R
Wfin
ct CD

Endurance prole 1:
!
"
p
1
2
k
p Wini
E p tan1
rV 2 S CD0
ct kCD0
!#
p
2 k
1
p Wfin
 tan
rV 2 S CD0
Endurance prole 2:
E

1 CL
Wini
ln
Wfin
ct CD

+
*
 c lb =sec
jet
f
ct
lbf
3600

where cjet SFC for a jet

TSFC for a piston engine:
ct

 
cbhp V
1
1980000hp sec

where cbhp SFC for a piston

Specic range:
SR h

Distance
R
VTAS

w_ fuel
Quantity of Fuel
Wf

True Airspeed
Fuel Weight Flow