Assignment on

Sources of Data
Collection Submitted
To: Prof. Dr. Zahid
Anwar SB
Introduction:
Data collection means gathering
any research study, inductive or deductive, which you
undertake for academic or for business purposes & not just a
description of what others have said.
To plan data collection, you must think about the
questions to be answered and the information sources
available.
you must begin to think ahead about how the

information could be organized, analyzed, interpreted and

then reported to various audiences

There are many methods available to gather information,

and a wide variety of information sources.

Definition of data:

Any kind of information (collection of

numbers, quantities, facts or records) researchers obtain on the subjects,
respondents or participants of the study. In research, data are collected and used
to answer the research questions or objectives of the study.
Data, plural for datum, are collection of numbers, quantities, facts or records.
Are what research is searching for and which are subjected to analysis,
statistical procedures and interpretation. Reveal unsatisfactory conditions that
need to be improved.
In research, data are collected and used to answer the research questions or
objectives of the study.

Examples of data:
Examples of data Demographic information such as age, sex, household size,
civil status or religion. Social and economic information such as educational
attainment, health status, extent of participants in social organizations,
occupation, income, housing condition and the like. Scores in exams, grades,
etc.

Objectives of Data:
Identify major types of data collection methods
Perform a data collection plan
Compare different type of Self-Reports
Discuss observational methods: Unstructured
observations.
Structured

observations.

Differentiate between validity and reliability

Pre-Data Collection Steps:

 Clearly define the goals and objectives of the data collection

Reach understanding and agreement on operational
definitions and methodology for
the data collection plan.
Ensure data collection (and measurement) repeatability,
reproducibility, accuracy,and stability.
Prepare a clear and concise statement of purpose
Develop a set of meaningful measurable specific objective
Determine the type of analyses needed
Determine what data is required.
What data to collect.
Where or from whom the data will be obtain.
What instrument/s or device/s to use in collecting the
data.

What kind of data should be

collected?
The information you collect is the evidence you will have
available to answer the evaluation questions.
Poor evidence is information which cannot be trusted, is
limited, or simply is not relevant to the questions asked.
Good evidence is information that comes from reliable
sources
and through trustworthy methods that address
important questions.

Requirements for Data Collection:

 Resources available
Credibility
Analysis and reporting
Resources
And the skill of the evaluator

Instrumentation: There are several kinds of instruments

that can be used in data collection. Certain conditions
dictate the type of instrument to use, such as the
characteristics of the research subjects/respondents,
availability of subjects/ respondents, and the available
resources for the study.

Developing a data collection

plan:
Identify types of data needed for the study.
Select the types of measures to measure each variable.
Select and/or develop instruments.
Secure written permission to use each instrument.
Pilot test researcher-developed instrument & revise plan.
Develop data collection forms and procedures.

Implement data collection plan.

Develop data collection forms and procedures:

Forms

Screening potential subjects

Consent & assent forms
Explanations to potential subjects for people referring subjects

Advertisements to recruit subjects

Records for tracking contacts with subjects
Mailing lists and logs for receipts
Procedures

Specific conditions for data collection

Specific procedures and sequencing for experiments
Standard information for subject's questions
Procedures for risks if they occur
List of all materials needed
Interview guidelines, instruments, observation directions.

Types of data:
Types of Research Data Research data are
generally classified either as quantitative or qualitative. Based on their source,
data fall under two categories namely: Primary & Secondary.

A) General types:
1) Quantitative:
Continuous (measuring)
Discrete (Counting)
Numbers, tests, counting,
measuring.
2) Qualitative (categorical):
Nominal
Ordinal
Words, images, observations,
conversations, photographs.

Differences between quantitative and qualitative approaches:

Characteristics
Quantitative
methods

Applications

Use data in the

Are commonly used to provide

form of numbers
Require variables

snapshots of numerical data that can

to be predetermined
Data collected

performance indicators, milestones

be compared against clear

and targets
An example is the

through methods such aso

questionnaires (closed-

increase in the number of people

responses), record

participating in a program from one

keeping and population

year to the next compared to a

surveys
Data usually

target of a 20% increase

Are used to provide evidence

analysed through

of trends and patterns, for instance

methods of statistical

by collecting data on frequencies of

analysis

different responses
An example is the

number of questionnaire respondents

indicating different responses for why
they chose to participate in the
program. This data can be further
analysed by sorting respondents into
types (male/female, age groups etc)
and looking for differences in
responses
Can be used to examine two
or more variables through statistical
analysis to identify cause and effect
relationships (see tip box below)
Qualitative
methods

Use data in the

form of words
Do not require predetermined variables and
can be used for openended or exploratory
questions
Data usually
collected through
methods such as:
observation, interviews,
questionnaires, focus

Are used to:

gather perceptions of events
and other experiences
explore and compare the
range of perspectives
identify important factors or
variables when these are poorly
understood
provide vignettes or stories
that illustrate patterns or outcomes
captured by quantitative data

Differences between quantitative and qualitative approaches:

Characteristics

Applications

groups and document

analysis
Data may be
analysed through
methods of qualitative
data analysis, the most
common of which is
content analysis

B)Types on the basis of

sources:
1) Secondary Data
2) Primary data

Primary data:
1)

Def:-

Data you collect.

Primary data means original data that has
been collected specially for the purpose in mind. It means
someone collected the data from the original source first
hand.
Primary data has not been published yet and
is more reliable, authentic and objective. Primary data has
not been changed or altered by human beings; therefore
its validity is greater than secondary data.

Finding primary sources

1) Use the library catalog
2) Ask your librarian
3) Search article databases and limit to primary sources
or peer-reviewed
4) Search Google Books

2) Sources:
1. interview
2. observation
3. action research
4. case studies
5. life histories
6. questionnaires
7. ethnographic research
8. longitudinal studies
9. survey.

Interview:

1) Definition:

Interview is a face-to-face conversation

with the respondent. It is slow, expensive, and they
take people away from their regular jobs, but they
allow in-depth questioning and follow-up questions.
Interviews are purposeful conversations used to
gather open-ended qualitative data.

2)Types:

Unstructured: Unstructured interviews provide

information in the form of stories of experiences. This allows
mini-evaluations of activities to be gathered from a range of
perspectives that can be compared with the evaluators own
observations and impressions of the same event and/or with
the observations and impressions of others. These stories can
provide greater resonance with some audiences than sets of
numerical data.
Semi-structured: Based on a guiding set of
topics or questions.
Structured: Based on written questions that
are asked verbatim.
3) Importance: As with questionnaires, interviews are

commonly used to gather information about participants

perception of the success of a community engagement
activity, both in terms of the process and the outcomes .
4) Interview Includes:

what happened.
peoples impressions of why things happened in certain
ways.
how they felt this affected themselves, others and the
activity overall.
Interviews can also be conducted with government officers and
decision-makers who use the results of community
engagement to explore issues such as:

how the information received from community

engagement is valued and used

how it could be improved

which types of information are most useful.

5) Drawbacks:

The major drawback to interviews is the time and

cost involved. Interviews are time-intensive for both the
researcher and the respondent. This is especially the case
when full transcription and coding of interviews is
undertaken. However, in the case of less formal evaluations
as part of formative evaluation, informal interviews can

provide valuable insights into community engagement

activities from a range of perspectives.

Observations:1) Definition: Observation is a technique of qualitative

research by which the researcher observes the object of
study as either a participant or a neutral observer. Usually
a researcher will observe an activity with specific
questions in mind. However, a good researcher will also
be open-minded about noting things that appear to be
important to how an activity functions.
Observations can be done while letting the observing
person know that he is being
observed or without
letting him know. Observations can also be made in natural
settings as well as in artificially created environment.
2)Importance: Observation is useful because it
provides the opportunity to gain information on informal
and taken-for-granted aspects of a situation which people
often fail to acknowledge or have diffi culty articulating. It
also more realistically captures the chaotic nature of most
processes, whereas, respondents in recounting these
processes will often make them sound more rational and
ordered than they were.
3)Info gathered through Observation: Observation of
community engagement activities is commonly used to
gather information on:
group processes
group dynamics
the quality of facilitation
the nature of interaction
the time spent participating and relative dominance
of discussion by different individuals/ groups.
issues raised in discussions which can be compared
to the formal records of the event to evaluate the

quality and accuracy of the data collection in

community engagement activities
statements made by participants (either as a formal
part of the process or in informal conversation)
about the quality of the community engagement
process and what they felt they gained from the
process.

Questionnaire:1)Definition: Questionnaires are a list of questions either an

open-ended or close -ended for which the respondent give
answers.
Questionnaire can be conducted via telephone, mail,
live in a public area, or in an institute, through
electronic mail or through fax and other methods.
Questionnaire is the most commonly used method in
survey.
2) Participant questionnaires:
Participant questionnaires can be used to collect both
quantitative and qualitative data.
Questionnaires which involve sampling a population and the
production of quantitative data-sets that can be statistically
analysed are refered to as questionnaire surveys (see below).
Quantitative data are collected using closed-response questions
that can be numerically coded. For example:

yes/no responses
multiple-choice responses
likert scaled items which ask respondents to indicate
which of a range responses most accurately reflects their
opinion or experience (see examples in Box 3).
Questionnaires can be:

self-administered, for example in the form of

questionnaires mailed or emailed to respondents or given out
to respondents during a community engagement activity or

researcher-administered, for example by asking the

questionnaires questions over the telephone or face-to-face.

Survey:
Survey is most commonly used method in social sciences,

management, marketing and psychology to some extent .

Methods of Conducting Surveys:

Population
surveys most commonly involve phone or written
questionnaires administered to a random sample of a
selected target population, using closed-response
questions or pre-coded open response questions.

Importance of Surveys:
They are commonly used to
provide:

o
o
o
o
o

baseline data, for example demographic information to

compare with data collected on community engagement
activity participants to establish how representative the
participants in the activity were of the target group
data on the percentage of a target population who had
contact with large-scale community engagement activities (for
example, information provision activities or large public
consultation opportunities) and their experiences and
perceptions of that contact.
benchmarking data on whole-of-government community
engagement and related social indicators, including:
levels of participation in civic activities
linking social capital
feelings of effi cacy
sense of community
community capacity
data on community opinions or preferences related to
opportunities to participate.
knowledge about issues.

Why use primary sources?

1) To explain how major events are related to each other in

time.
2) To think critically and distinguish between fact and opinion.
3) To recognize point of view in print and visual materials.
4) To develop your own conclusions and analyze how historical
events affect your life.
5) To recognize failures and successes in the past in order to
make better decisions as a citizen.
6) To understand who you are by examining your roots or
placing yourself in that time period or situation.

3) ADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA:

Data interpretation is better.
Targeted Issues are addressed.
Efficient Spending for Information.
Decency of Data.
Addresses Specific Research Issues.
Greater Control.
Proprietary Issues.

4) DISADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA:

High Cost
Time Consuming
Inaccurate Feed-backs
More number of resources is required

5)Limitations Of Primary Data:

Do you have the time and money for:
Designing your collection instrument?
Selecting your population or sample?
Pretesting/piloting the instrument to work out sources
of bias?
Administration of the instrument?
Entry/collation of data?
Uniqueness.
Researcher error.

Secondary Data:-

1)

Definition:
Data someone else has collected.
Secondary data is the data that has been
already collected by and readily available from
other sources. When we use Statistical Method
with Primary Data from another purpose for our
purpose we refer to it as Secondary Data. It
means that one purpose's Primary Data is
another purpose's Secondary Data.
That secondary data is data that is being reused.
Such data aremore quickly obtainable than the
primary data.
These secondary data may be obtained from
many sources, including literature, industry
surveys, compilations from computerized
databases and information systems, and
computerized or mathematical models of
environmental processes .

Finding Secondary Sources

1) Use the library catalog
2) Ask a librarian
3) Use article database
4) 4) Search Google Books

2) Sources:
1. Previous research
2. Official statistics
3. Mass media products
4. Diaries
5. Letters

6. Government reports
7. Web information
8. Historical data and information
9. Published Electronic Sources
10.
E-journals
11.
Weblogs
1) Published Electronic Sources:
As internet is
becoming more advance, fast and reachable to the
masses; it has been seen that much information that is
not available in printed form is available on internet. In the
past the credibility of internet was questionable but today
it is not. The reason is that in the past journals and books
were seldom published on internet but today almost
every journal and book is available online. Some are free
and for others you have to pay the price.
2) E-journals:
E-journals are more commonly
available than printed journals. Latest journals are
difficult to retrieve without subscription but if your
university has an e-library you can view any journal,
print it and those that are not available you can make
an order for them.
3) General Websites:
Generally websites do not contain very
reliable information so their content should be checked for
the reliability before quoting from them.
4) Weblogs:

Weblogs are also becoming common.

They are actually diaries
written by different
people. These diaries are as reliable to use as personal
written diaries.

Why use secondary sources?

1)

To get expert opinions in order to evaluate what really

happened.

2) To gain insight by examining the same event from

different perspectives.
3) To form your own opinion.
4) To save time by reading information collected from a
number of different sources.

3)

Advantages:-

No need to reinvent the wheel.

If someone has already found the data, take
advantage of it.

It will save you money.

It will save you time.
It may be very accurate.
It has great exploratory value.
Inexpensive.
Easily accessible
Immediately available
Will provide essential background and help to clarify or refine
research problem essential for literature review
Secondary data sources will provide research method
alternatives.
Will also alert the researcher to any potential difficulties .

4)

Disadvantages: Expensive.
Not immediately available takes time to define
problem, sampling frame,method and analysis.
Not as readily accessible.
Incomplete Information.

5) Limitations: Are the data consistent/reliable?

Is the information exactly what you need
Limitations of internet as data sourses:
The Internet survey has a very high efficiency rate
compared to the traditional paper survey, as well as other
various merits. Firstly, it cuts down the cost of the
statistical survey.It can save on high personnel expenses
and the surplus of labor could be put to use in other areas.
Secondly, it can reduce the processing time of statistical
data.The monthly industry e-survey could save 1.5 days of
processing and the household e-survey could reduce its
response time by 10 days. Thirdly, it can increase the
accuracy of data. The editing program can assure a high
accuracy of responses and strengthen administration.
After starting the Internet household survey, the response
rate improved from 81% to 83%. It proves that the
survey,which would otherwise burden respondents, such
as the household survey, iseffective using this method.
There are several problems in utilizing the Internet. An
area deprived of Internet access cannot apply this
method. Therefore, it is necessary to continue using the
traditional survey in rural and/or elderly communities, who
might be unfamiliar with computers.
Secondly, only those who want to respond through the
Internet can be targeted in this method. Therefore, the esurvey is simply a supplemental method to the traditional
paper survey.

Data evaluation
1) Risk assessors must evaluate both the quality of the
available sources of data for the purpose of the analysis,
and the means of characterizing the uncertainty of all the
data used. Formalized quality control of raw data and its
subsequent treatment is desirable, but also highly
dependent on availability and the use to which the data
are applied. There is no formalized system for evaluation
of data for hazard characterization. Few generalizations
can be made, but the means by which data are collected
and interpreted needs to be transparent. "Good" data are
complete, relevant and valid: complete data are objective;
relevant data are case-specific; and validation is context
specific.
2) Complete data includes such things as the source of the
data and the related study information, such as sample
size, species studied and immune status. Characteristics
of relevant data include age of data; region or country of
origin; purpose of study; species of microorganism
involved; sensitivity, specificity and precision of
microbiological methods used; and data collection
methods. Observations in a database should be "model
free" - i.e. reported without interpretation by a particular
model - to allow data to be used in ways that the original
investigator might not have considered. This may require
access to raw data, which may be difficult to achieve in
practice. Using the Internet for such purposes should be
encouraged, possibly by creating a Web site with data sets
associated with published studies.
3) Valid data is that which agrees with others in terms of
comparable methods and test development. In general,
human data need less extrapolation and are preferred to
animal data, which in turn are preferable to in vitro data.
Data on the pathogen of concern are preferred to data on
surrogate organisms, which should only be used on the
basis of solid biological evidence, such as common
virulence factors.
4) Currently, the recommended practice is to consider all
available data as a potential source of information for
hazard characterization. Data that can be eliminated from

the risk assessment depends on the purpose and stage of

the assessment. In the early stages of risk assessment,
small data sets or those with qualitative values may be
useful, whereas the later stages of risk assessment may
include only those data that have been determined to
have high quality standards. Excluding data from the
analysis should be based on predefined criteria, and not
based solely on statistical criteria. If the analysis is
complicated by extreme heterogeneity or by outliers, it is
advisable to stratify the data according to characteristics
of the affected population, to microbial species, to matrix
type or to any other suitable criterion. This practice should
provide increased insight rather than information loss.
5) Sources of data are either peer-reviewed or non-peerreviewed literature. Although peer-reviewed data are
generally preferable for scientific studies, they also have
some important drawbacks as inputs for dose-response
modelling. First and foremost, they have limited
availability. Also, important information may be missing
concerning how dose and response data were obtained, as
outlined here below. Data presentation in the peerreviewed literature is usually in an aggregated form, not
providing the level of detail necessary for uncertainty
analysis. In older papers, the quality control of the
measurement process may be poorly documented. For any
of these reasons, the analyst might wish to add
information from other sources. In that case, the quality of
the data should be explicitly reviewed, preferably by
independent experts.
6) An important aspect with regard to dose information is the
performance characteristics of the analytical method.
Ideally, a measurement reflects with a high degree of
accuracy the true number of pathogens in the inoculum.
Accuracy is defined as the absence of systematic error
(trueness) and of random error (precision). Trueness of a
microbiological method is defined by the recovery of
target organisms, the inhibitory power against non-target
organisms, and the differential characteristics of the
method, as expressed in terms of sensitivity and
specificity. Precision is related to the nature of the test
(plating vs enrichment), the number of colonies counted or
the number of positive subcultures, and the dispersion of

the inoculum in the test sample (see Havelaar et al.,

1993). It is also important to know the variation in
ingested dose between individuals, related to the
dispersion of the pathogens in the inoculum, but also in
relation to different quantities of the inoculum being
ingested. These characteristics are of particular relevance
when using observational data on naturally occurring
infections. A pathogen's infectivity can be affected by both
the matrix and the previous history of the pathogen, and
this should be taken into account.
7) With regard to response information, it is important to
note whether the outcome was represented as a binary or
a continuous outcome. Current dose-response models (see
Chapter 6) are applicable to binary outcomes, and this
requires that the investigator define the criteria for both
positive and negative responses. The criteria used for this
differentiation may vary between studies, but should
explicitly be taken into account. Another relevant aspect is
the characteristics of the exposed population (age,
immunocompetence, previous exposure, etc.).
8) The aspects listed in this section are not primarily
intended for differentiating "good" from "bad" data for
hazard characterization, but rather to guide the
subsequent analysis and the use of the dose-response
information in a risk assessment model.

Evaluation of information sources:

Relevance
Authority
Timeliness/Currency
Validity/Accuracy
Argument
Coverage:
Bias/Objectivity

Authenticity
Credibility
Representativeness
Meaning
1)Relevance:
Is the document related to your on topic?
Is the information at appropriate depth or level for your assignment?
2)Authority:
Is the source a scholarly or popular publication? And is the publisher
reputable in this discipline?
Is the author a recognized authority in this field of study? What are their
credentials? (And are their credentials related to the subject matter?)
Do other authors quote from this author's works?
Is there a means of contacting the author?
3)Timeliness/Currency:
When was the document written? (Look for a publication, copyright, or
last updated date.)
Is it recent enough to be relevant to your topic or discipline? Sometimes
you are required to use recently published material; sometimes you must
use historical documents.
4)Validity/Accuracy:
Does the author provide sources for statistical information?
Is the data from a valid study (that utilized accepted methodologies for
the discipline)?
5)Argument:

 Analyze the author's argument, the assumptions made, the evidence or

data gathered, and the interpretation of the data.
Are there any flaws in the author's logic?
Does the author consider alternate interpretations of the evidence?
If you discovered that the author ignored other interpretations, is the
author attempting to deceive or manipulate readers?
6)Coverage:
Does the author refer to relevant information or data that was available at
the time the work was published?
Or, does the author use out-of-date information; or ignore information or
data that was available at the time?
Did the author consider all aspects relevant to the topic?
7)Bias/Objectivity:
9) Does the author state any bias?
10)
If you discovered any omissions in the coverage of the topic, did
this reveal a bias or prejudice?
Is the author selling something? Do they have a corporate sponsor?
8) Authenticity: consideration of how genuine the document or source
is with regards to its soundness and authorship.
9) Credibility: consideration must be given to the amount of distortion to
the document or source, which will affect its sincerity and accuracy. i.e.
has the author given a true account of the situation, or has it been
distorted in some way to make the situation look better?
10)Representativeness: Scott states that '...sampling documents must
be handled carefully and as systematically as the sampling of
respondents in a survey' and a researcher must give careful
consideration to how typical or untypical the documents being sourced

are in order that they can recognise limits to the conclusions they can
drawn from them. Scott identifies survival and availability as two of the
factors which may limit the representation of documents .
11) Meaning: concerned with how well the researcher will be able to
understand the document.

Importance of Data
sources:Conclusion: The most important issue related to data collection is
selecting the most appropriate information or evidence to
answer your questions.
To plan data collection, you must think about the
questions to be answered and the information sources
available. Also, you must begin to think ahead about how
the information could be organized, analyzed, interpreted
and then reported to various audiences.
Primary research entails the use of immediate data in
determining the survival of the market. The popular ways
to collect primary data consist of surveys, interviews and
focus groups, which shows that direct relationship
between potential customers and the companies.
Secondary research is a means to reprocess and reuse
collected information as an indication for betterments of
the service or product.

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