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There are three models that Bawden and Robinson discussed in their textbook that are
important to the informational science field. The three factors include domain analysis theory,
digital literacy model, and philosophy of information. Each model, theory, or philosophy has
several factors that make up the model, theory, or philosophy. Without all three of the different
models, the informational science field would not be what it is today. Librarians need all of
these models for libraries to exist. They are all beneficial to the library by helping people to
learn about technology, do research, etc. The model, theory and philosophy help make
librarians job easier, especially with the cataloging and research materials. Birger Hjorland
summed up how important certain theories, formulas and models are to the informational science
field when he said, if information science is to be taken seriously as a field of study it is
important that basic theories are formulated and examined in the field (Bawden and Robinson
2013, 90).
Domain analysis theory is a major theory that makes up the informational science field.
Domain analysis theory cannot be discussed without mentioning Birger Hjorland, who defined
domain analysis as a metatheoretical framework for library and information science the basic
claim in domain analysis is that domains of knowledge are the proper object of study for LIS
(Bawden and Robinson 2013, 91). Also, according to Bawden and Robinson, domain analysis is
a practical framework which helps to understand certain information on particular topics,
particular groups, and highlights the jobs for informational professionals and applies a sociocognitive approach (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 103). Hjorlands meaning of domain analysis,
according to Bawden and Robinson, is that it sometimes has been used in the library and
information literature with a more restrictive meaning, usually relating either to bibliometric
analysis or to classification (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 91). Bawden and Robinson state that:
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Informational specialists have taken on special roles for many years and some of those
roles are: subject specialist librarians in university or special libraries, subject specialist
cataloguers in national or research libraries, information officers in biomedical research
institutes or pharmaceutical companies, and information researchers in business and
financial institutions. They are not a subject specialist per se and as Hjorland put it: To
be an information specialist with a given specialty is not to be a subject specialist in the
ordinary sense, but rather to be an expert in information resources in that field (Bawden
and Robinson 2013, 101).
There are eleven aspects of domain analysis. The first aspect is resource guide. Resource
guides are significant to comprehending information in the way that numerous sources are listed
and described placed in one area. Resource guides are generally made available to the public.
They can be a variety of resource guides from digital to paper. The second aspect is information
organization tools which includes card catalog systems and databases. The third aspect is
indexing and retrieval. According to Jens-Erik Mai, the purpose of indexing is to determine the
subject matter of documents and express the subject matter in index terms (e.g. descriptors,
subject headings, call numbers, classification codes, or index terms) to make subject retrieval
possible (Jens-Erik Mai 2004, 599). Some of the examples that Bawden and Robinson gave are
chemical medicines, molecular biology, geographic, and fine arts. Fourth aspect of domain
analysis is user studies. User studies have been around for years and focus on professional or
academic. User studies are important to informational specialists or librarians in order for them
to carry out smaller user studies which build on previous studies and to avoid certain results for
narrow interests (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 97).

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The fifth aspect of domain analysis is bibliometric. Bibliometric is used by informational

specialist in scoping the size and nature of the information base of a subject and in assisting in
collection development (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 97). Historical perspectives are the sixth
aspect of domain analysis. There are two aspects to historical perspectives. Those two aspects,
according to Bawden and Robinson, are the study of the historical development of the subject
area itself, and of its concepts, theories and practices; and the historical development of its
information resources, systems and services (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 97). Document and
genre studies are another aspect that goes into helping make up domain analysis. Documents and
genre studies impact informational studies in the way that all informational professionals have to
study documents in their particular field. Domain analysis also has epistemological and critical
study as another aspect. Epistemological and critical studies according to Bawden and Robinson
states that the focus is on the nature and structure of knowledge in specialist subject area
(Bawden and Robinson 2013, 98). J.T. Tennis defines epistemology as how we know (Tennis
2008, 103). It varies according to the subject area and knowledge which are accessed. Bawden
and Robinson make the statement that epistemology affects the kind of information resources
which are provided and the way in which information and knowledge is accessed (Bawden and
Robinson 2013, 98). They also make note of how Hjorland emphasizes the fact that some
subject areas have several paradigms, or schools of thought and it is important that information
providers are aware of these (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 98).
The ninth aspect of domain analysis is the terminology, language, and discourse. This is
an important aspect for information practitioners because they need to be aware of the
terminology in order to help people and for creating, updating and translations of their particular
field. Structures, institutions and organizations is the tenth aspect as well as being the most
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important aspect of domain analysis because it involves all stages of the communication chain
(Bawden and Robinson 2013, 98). The eleventh and final aspect of domain analysis is cognition,
knowledge representation, and artificial intelligence (AI). This aspect has hardly any relevance
for informational specialists. Bawden and Robinson stated that domain analysis forms a bridge
between theory and practice for information science (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 99). Mai
stated that a domain-centered approach to indexing is an alternative (Mai, Jean-Erik 2003,
599). According to Bawden and Robinson, it provides both a theoretical framework and a set of
specific activities and competencies; thereby providing a unique stance for information science
(Bawden and Robinson 2013, 102).
The digital literacy model is a major element that makes up the informational science
field. Digital literacy can be summed up by four concepts: underpinnings, background
knowledge, central competencies, and attitudes and perspectives. Gilster defined digital literacy
as an ability to understand and to use information from a variety of digital sources and regarded
it simply as literacy in the digital age (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 293). Underpins are the
basic knowledge of skills, while background knowledge explains how digital and non-digital
information is designed. The digital literacy model pulls or seeks for material and pushes or
finds the data (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 296-297). In order to comprehend digital literacy,
we must define the different types of digital literacy. Computer literacy is defined by Bawden
and Robinson as the skills and knowledge needed to use IT systems effectively (Bawden and
Robinson 2013, 288). While information literacy is defined by the American Library Association
as the ability to know when there is a need for information, to be able to identify, locate,
evaluate, and effectively use that information for the issue or problem at hand (Bawden and
Robinson 2013, 289).
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Now that all components of digital literacy have been defined, the importance of digital
literacy must be discussed. Although digital literacy started out in school and academic libraries
helping students learn how to use and comprehend multiple resources; digital literacy is also
important to workplaces for training purposes and programs. Digital literacy has grown over
into societal information literacy which is considered to be a persons right to have access to
technology. According to the Prague Declaration of 2003, which discussed how information
literacy plays a leading role in reducing the inequities within and between countries and peoples,
and in promoting tolerance and mutual understanding (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 297).
Rosanne Marie Cordell generalizes digital and information literacy in her article when she made
the statement:
Information literacy and digital literacy are not competing concepts; they are
complementary areas for students in higher education. Further, digital literacy concepts
and skills can provide the fundamentals of managing digital environments that students
need to succeed in Information Literacy and their other areas of study. (Cordell 2013,
178)
Cordell also notes in her article that digital literacy is a more recent concept than information
literacy and can relate to multiple categories of library users in multiple types of libraries
(Cordell 2013, 177). According to Cordell, the way that information and digital literacy applies
to the Library of Informational studies is that:
when a librarian helps a patron search for articles in a database, there is an interplay
between information literacy (which database to search, which terms to use, which
limiters to employ, how to evaluate the articles in the results, how to use the information

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found effectively and ethically, etc.) and digital literacy (how to navigate the library web
site, how to get to a search page or find the advanced search page, how to find the help
files, how to save or export the citations and full text, how to set up an account in a social
media site, how to upload files to that site, how to comment on others postings, etc.)
(Cordell 2013, 178).
Philosophy of information is another major element that goes into the informational
science field. We cannot discuss philosophy without mentioning Luciano Floridi, professor of
philosophy, whose philosophy helped to better understand the informational science field. He
defined philosophy of information (PI) as philosophy of our time, for out time [and] addresses
all aspects of the concepts and nature of information, including the way that it is used and
studied (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 53). Philosophy of information can be applied to the
Library and Information Science. According to Floridi:
Library and information science as Applied Philosophy of Information is the discipline
concerned with documents, their life cycles and the procedures, techniques and devices
by which these are implemented, managed and regulated. LIS applies the fundamental
principles and general techniques of PI to solve definite, practical problems and deal with
specific, concrete phenomena (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 55)
Floridis ideas about philosophy of information have caused controversy from the library and
information science field. The reason why his idea of library and information science as applied
philosophy caused controversy is because it was too restrictive and limited on social context.
Richard Fyffe mentions another definition by Floridi which is stewardship of a semantic
environment (Fyffe 2015, 267). Bawden and Robinson mention how Floridi notes that his

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philosophy has three perspectives as reality (patterns in the physical world), about reality
(semantic and meaningful) and for reality (genetic information, algorithms and recipes)
(Bawden and Robinson 2013, 54). Bawden and Robinson quote Floridis other definition of
philosophy of information The most ambitious aspect of Floridis philosophy of information is
that which addresses the issue of nature of reality itself and argues for an informational
ontology (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 54). Although Floridi is not the only philosopher, the
informational science professionals refer to his philosophy as the main one.
There are several different models, theories, and philosophies that go into creating the
informational science field. This paper covered only one model, one theory and one philosophy
which were domain analysis theory, digital literacy model, and philosophy of information. They
all work to benefit the informational specialist in their own unique way. All of these models,
theories, and philosophies are used by librarians in order to help patrons with research of some
kind or another. We had to mention Floridi, Hjorland, and Gilster since digital literacy, domain
analysis and philosophy of information was discussed because they are the leaders of those
fields. Informational specialists need domain analysis because it forms a bridge between
research and practice (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 103). While digital literacy is important to
the library field to help people use and comprehend all the different types of resources (Bawden
and Robinson 2013, 297). The philosophy of information is important because it gives the
promise of a viable foundational basis (Bawden and Robinson 2013, 55).

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Bawden, David and Robinson, Lyn. 2013. Introduction to Information Science. Chicago: NealSchuman.
Cordell, Rosanne Marie. 2013. INFORMATION LITERACY AND DIGITAL LITERACY:
Competing or complementary? Communications in Information Literacy 7:177-183.
Accessed December 8, 2015. DOI:
Fyffe, Richard. 2015. The Value of Information: Normativity, Epistemology, and LIS in
Luciano Flordi. Library and the Academy. 15:267-286. Accessed December 8, 2015.
DOI: 10.1353/pla.2015.0020.
Tennis. J. T. 2008. "Epistemology, Theory, and Methodology in Knowledge Organization:
Toward a Classification, Metatheory, and Research Framework." In Knowledge
Organization 35:102-112. Accessed December 8, 2015. Assign number: 34050593.
Mai, Jens-Erik. 2005. Analysis in indexing: document and domain centered approaches.
Information Processing & Management 41:599-611. Accessed December 8, 2015. DOI:
10.1016/j.imp.2003.12.004