Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Basic Principles of
Ultrasonic Testing
Theory and Practice

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Examples of oscillation
ball on
a spring

pendulum

rotating
earth

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Pulse
The ball starts to oscillate as soon as it is pushed

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Oscillation

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Movement of the ball over time

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Frequency

Time
From the duration of one oscillation
T the frequency f (number of
oscillations per second) is
calculated:

One full
oscillation T

11
ff

T
T

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

The actual displacement a is
termed as:

aa AAsin
sin

a
Time

90

180

270

360
Phase

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Spectrum of sound
Description

Example

0 - 20

Infrasound

Earth quake

20 - 20.000

Audible sound

Speech, music

> 20.000

Ultrasound

Bat, Quartz crystal

Frequency range Hz

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Atomic structures
gas

low density
weak bonding forces

liquid

medium density
medium bonding
forces

solid

high density
strong bonding forces
crystallographic
structure

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Understanding wave propagation:

Ball = atom

Spring = elastic bonding force

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

star
t

of o

scil
la

tion

distance travelled

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

During one oscillation T the wave

front propagates by the distance :

Distance travelled

From this we derive:

cc ff

or

Wave equation

T
T

cc

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound propagation
Longitudinal wave
Direction of oscillation

Direction of propagation

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound propagation
Transverse wave
Direction of oscillation

Direction of propagation

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Wave propagation
Longitudinal waves propagate in all kind of materials.
Transverse waves only propagate in solid bodies.
Due to the different type of oscillation, transverse waves
travel at lower speeds.
Sound velocity mainly depends on the density and Emodulus of the material.
Air
Water
Steel, long
Steel, trans

330 m/s
1480 m/s
5920 m/s
3250 m/s

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Reflection and Transmission
As soon as a sound wave comes to a change in material
characteristics ,e.g. the surface of a workpiece, or an internal
inclusion, wave propagation will change too:

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Behaviour at an interface
Medium 1

Medium 2

Incoming wave

Transmitted wave

Reflected wave
Interface

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Reflection + Transmission: Perspex - Steel
1,87

Incoming wave

1,0
0,87

Transmitted wave

Reflected wave

Perspex

Steel

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Reflection + Transmission: Steel - Perspex
Transmitted wave

Incoming wave
1,0
0,13

-0,87
Reflected wave

Perspex

Steel

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Amplitude of sound transmissions:

Water - Steel

Copper - Steel

Strong reflection
No reflection
Double transmission Single transmission

Steel - Air
Strong reflection
with inverted phase
No transmission

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect

+
Battery

Piezoelectrical
Crystal (Quartz)

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect

The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of the crystal lattice

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect

+
The effect inverses with polarity change

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect
Sound wave
with
frequency f

U(f)

An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the frequency f

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect

Short pulse
( < 1 s )

A short voltage pulse generates an oscillation at the crystals resonant

frequency f0

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Reception of ultrasonic waves
A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces crystal
vibration which then causes electrical voltages at the crystal
surfaces.
Electrical
energy

Piezoelectrical
crystal

Ultrasonic wave

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Probes
Delay / protecting face
Electrical matching
Cable

socket
crystal
Damping

Straight beam probe

TR-probe

Angle beam probe

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

RF signal (short)

100 ns

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

RF signal (medium)

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound field

Focus

Crystal

Accoustical axis

Angle of divergence
6

D0

Near field

Far field

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Instrument

10

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Instrument

+
Uh

10

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Instrument

+
Uh

10

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Instrument
+
Uv

+
Uh

10

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Block diagram: Ultrasonic Instrument
amplifier

IP

screen
BE

horizontal
sweep
clock
pulser

probe
work piece

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound reflection at a flaw
s

Probe

Sound travel path

Work piece

Flaw

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Plate testing
IP
BE

plate

delamination

IP = Initial pulse
F = Flaw
BE = Backwall echo

10

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Wall thickness measurement

s
s

Corrosion

10

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Through transmission testing
Through transmission signal

2
0

Flaw

10

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Weld inspection
a = s sin

a' = a - x

s
0

20

d' = s cos
40

60

80

100

d = 2T - t'

a
a'

Work piece with welding

= probe angle
s = sound path
a = surface distance
a = reduced surface distance
d = virtual depth
d = actual depth
T = material thickness

Lack of fusion

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Straight beam inspection techniques:
Direct contact,

Direct contact,

single element probe

dual element probe

Through transmission

Fixed delay

Immersion testing

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Immersion testing
1

surface =
sound entry

water delay

backwall

flaw

IP

IE

IP

BE

10

IE

F
0

BE

10