Tyler McKay

Impacts from Oil and Gas Exploration on Global Fish Ecology

Oil and gas exploration is a globally necessary process that is utilized worldwide. They
are both necessary resources that many of us use on a daily basis, but they are also
environmentally dangerous to procure. The process of drilling and extracting oil and gas is
complex and leaves many opportunities for error or accidents, causing large scale negative
environmental impacts. Many of the planets most diverse and ecologically important regions
happen to hold large underground deposits of oil and gas, which can cause dangerous ecological
impacts to communities of fish in both freshwater and saltwater systems. Some of the ecological
impacts of exploration include decreased juvenile growth rates and survivability, interfering with
migration and spawning, habitat destruction, and population decrease. This report will be
analyzing these ecological impacts from oil and gas drilling, as well as some of the methods used
by the corporations to counteract these damages.
To better understand how these ecological disturbances can occur, it is important to gain a
very basic understanding of both oil and gas exploration processes, as well as how these projects
effect with the environment. Offshore oil and gas exploration begins by attempting to find an oil
deposit on the seafloor to begin an operation. The methods of finding oil and gas deposits can
range from noninvasive gravity readings to more ecologically impactful methods such as
compressed air-gun shockwaves. (Freudenrich, 2015) After determining a site, shallows water
oilrigs are constructed while deeper semisubmersible rigs are towed into place and the legs are

extended down into the seafloor to initiate the drilling. Jacked oilrigs are built for long-term
placement with the legs built into the seafloor, requiring breakdown after use. (Bolze, 1989)
Inland oil and gas rigs require clearing and leveling of drill sites with access roads built. A source
of nearby water is required for drilling operations. If none is available, then a water well must be
dug and the groundwater tapped into. Reserve pits are dug to dispose of mud and rock cuttings.
Once prepared, several holes are cut in the area to make ready for the big rig and main hole.
(Freudenrich, 2015) Each of these exploration projects has different chances for error and
environmental byproducts that negatively affect fish ecology in a wide array of ecosystems.
When searching for offshore oil and gas deposits, one of the more common and
consistent methods utilized is measuring sound waves from seismic air guns. These seismic air
gun surveys can cover an area of around 300,000 km^2, raising background noise levels 100 fold
(20+ dB) several kilometers deep. These studies are generally conducted for several weeks or
months at a time, firing off air gun blasts on 10-12 second intervals the entirety of the survey.
(Weilgart, 2013) Air gun surveys showed changes in fish distribution throughout the water
column for more than a week after the air gun tests. Studies found that cod fry exposed to shortrange bursts of air guns showed severe loss of balance, as well as high mortality from direct
impacts. (Dalen and Knutsen, 1987) Changes of the behavior patterns of the fish along the course
lines of seismic vessels were observed several kilometers deep. Fish were observed dropping to
deeper depths, milling in compact schools, freezing, and showing aggravated activity. This lead
to a reported 40-80% drop in catch rates along these survey zones, indicating large changes in
habitat preference from seismic interference. (Weilgart, 2013) Seismic air guns were shown to
cause decreased egg viability, increased embryonic mortality, or decreased larval growth when
exposed to sound levels of 120 dB re 1Pa from close range blasts in more shallow water.

Studies on Turbot larvae showed damage to brain cells and neuromasts, which play an important
role in escape reactions for predator avoidance. (Popping and Hastings, 2009)
The building of gas and oil structures with offshore platforms can alter fish habitat and
ecosystem structures. Shallow oilrig platforms cause the worst impacts for habitat loss. Fixed or
compliant platforms pile the steel and concrete feet into the sea floor, while deeper water
semisubmersible rigs are generally held by cable supports and extendable legs that are less
invasive. (Boesch, 1987) After an offshore oilrig that is not on a semisubmersible tow structure
has reached the end of its lifespan, it must be decommissioned. The platforms with supports can
be taller than the empire state building. The support structures create a network of open surface
area on the metal structure which can build up to over a foot thick layer of shells and marine
organisms. Many species, such as rockfish, use the structure growth as spawning habitat.
(Pondella et al, 2015) The oil rigs are sometimes decommissioned by cutting the supports as the
base and towing the structure out to be disposed of. Decommissioning long-term oilrigs can be
detrimental to fish communities that choose to make the structure a new spawning habitat. To
counteract these ecological effects oil companies have begun the practice of habitat creation by
either toppling the rigs or cutting them at a midway point and leaving them on the seafloor.
(Burnstein et al, 2010) During a study on Red Snapper assemblages, it was determined that fish
populations were the most abundant and species diverse when oilrigs were left with some level
of height. The taller underwater structures provided habitat for some species that spanned several
life stages with depth preference. Structure type and relief were shown to influence species
richness and community structure, but decommissioned rigs with supplemented extra artificial
habitat added to the surrounding region held the best diversity and community structure.
(Ajemian et al, 2015) Converting decommissioned oilrigs into habitat is not practiced globally

and is important to not further damage the fish communities surrounding the exploration sites.
These studies have shown that using the structures for artificial habitat for marine life serves as a
crucial method to compensate for the possible damage or interference of initially placing the
structure.
Another important ecological offshore impact is the towing and laying of offshore
pipeline. Underwater pipelines that are placed along seabeds with large fish assemblages have
been observed interfering with migratory routes, spawning, and feeding areas for target fish
species. (MMS, 2000) When pipeline and other seafloor structures are laid out, trenches are dug
along the seafloor to minimize abrasions from currents. These are usually dug using water jetting
or mechanical cutting depending on the seabed composition. (Palmer and King, 2008) Seabed
cutting and laying pipeline is especially damaging to sensitive benthic fish communities that can
have small spawning habitat that the species relies heavily upon. K-selected species, such as
many species of shark, can have detrimental community impacts when spawning sites are
destroyed from laying a large amount of pipeline over habitat regions. Many species travel
hundreds of miles to spawn and sometime not on an annual basis. Miles of seabed pipeline dug
and laid through habitat and spawning ground can be detrimental to impact sensitive species.
(Fowler, 2002)
During the offshore oil drilling process, drill cuttings and water that accumulates in the
oil is filtered out and deposited into the ocean. Operational discharges of produced water and
drill cuttings from offshore oil and gas platforms are a continuous source of contaminants to
continental shelf ecosystems. Millions of gallons of contaminated water dumped into the oceans
yearly. Waste water from oilrigs have toxic chemicals such as Alkylphenols (AP) and
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) which are released into the environment. Alkylphenols are of

a great concern as they contain the heavy metals arsenic, cadmium, copper, chromium, lead,
mercury, nickel and zinc. The highest levels of lead, mercury and zinc were more than a factor
1000, and arsenic and cadmium more than a factor 100 above the recorded coastal water
background levels. Toxin buildup was observed in cod, which affected reproductive functions,
and affect several chemical, biochemical and genetic biomarkers. Toxic levels were found up to
2km away from project sites and damage to fish habitat fauna over 5km (Bakke, Klungsyr, and
Sanni, 2013) Fish collected on the newly formed habitat from the platforms from oilrigs with
high wastewater runoff showed acute histological lesions and sluggish behavior. (MMS, 2000)
In some locations, wastewater may carry naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) to
the surface. NORM radionucleotides are generally dissolved in the produced water, but a portion
of the NORM can precipitate into solid form in scales and sludges that can collect in pipelines
and storage vessels. The study of some coastal fish species shows that some radioactive materials
can bio accumulate in aquatic environments and build up to toxic levels in fish that come into
direct contact with solid precipitate. Radioactive buildup can cause genetic mutations and death,
especially in juveniles. ( Paschoa,1998)
One of the most ecologically dangerous and most commonly associated impacts of
drilling is oil spills. Small errors can result in millions of gallons of oil flooding an ecosystem.
he toxicity of oil and its impact on biota are primarily determined by its chemical
composition. Oil can cause environmental damage through several mechanisms, including
the toxicity associated with ingestion or absorption through the gill or skin; coating or
smothering, which affects gas exchange, temperature regulation, or other life-supporting
processes; and oxygen depletion by microbial processes associated with oil degradation.
(Mendelsshon et al, 2012) Floating oil can contaminate plankton, algae, fish eggs, larvae of

various invertebrates. Species of fish that lay egg clusters that float at the top of the water
column are especially susceptible to surface oil contact. Fish that come up to the surface to feed
can become contaminated through ingestion of contaminated prey or by direct toxic oil effects.
(FWS, 2010) Contamination of surface invertebrates alters the feeding ecology of fish, such as
the Red Snapper, by forcing them to consume more trophic invertebrates. The loss of surface
feeding activity has shown an over 50% decrease in zooplankton consumption and an increase in
high level trophic prey ( 15%-22%) such as shrimp, crab, and squid. (Tarnecki and Patterson,
2015) Higher consumption of benthic species can lead to alterations to food chains and
negatively affect other fish species that rely on the benthic prey.
A common example of devastating impacts from oil spills is the damage done to the
Niger Delta, one of the five most severely petroleum damaged ecosystems in the world. This oil
spill may pose a unique case for fishery ecology, as the spills encompass a large region that
include both offshore marine and coastal habitat, as well as mangrove swamps, freshwater
swamps, and river systems within rainforests. Over the past 50 years, 9-13 million barrels worth
of oil have been spilled from vandalism and pipeline decay, with a majority of the oil spilled
within the mangrove swamps. (Kadafa, 2012) Destruction of fishing grounds and declination of
fish has been so severe in some inland regions that entire communities of people have had to
relocate due to fishing being a primary source of income. The Niger Delta has also had high
retention of hydrocarbons in sediments, which can cause health issues in the fish populations
months or years later, such as reduction of reproductive rates or reproductive defects in juveniles
(Kadafa, 2012).
One method widely used to reduce impacts of oil spills is the usage of dispersant
chemicals. Dispersants are a chemical mixture that breaks down oil particulate, reducing impacts

from oil concentration, and allowing for faster degradation. The dispersant chemicals create
smaller droplets of oil, which can be more easily weathered and broken down into base
components. Although, the dispersants themselves are created from toxic compounds and can be
damaging to fish in early life stages. (Vikeb et al, 2015). Dispersants distributed over spawning
ground has shown abnormalities in cell division and differentiation, reduced heart, altered eye
pigmentation, and low growth rates. Larvae in contact with high dispersant concentrations
showed abnormal flexures of the spine, which prevented them from feeding successfully.
(Wilson, 1976). Adding dispersants may break down the oil to limit physical saturating impacts
but his also results in higher concentrations of TPAHs in a reduced volume of water. Although
the droplets are weathered, the chemicals in the oil may not break down and will accumulate to
higher levels deeper in the water column. Chemical buildup in lower water columns can show
higher acute mortality or sub lethal effects. Model simulations of spill scenarios showed that
addition of chemical dispersant only moderately decreased the proportion of eggs and larvae that
were exposed to oil saturation above the selected threshold values. (Vikeb et al, 2015) The toxic
effects hold an inverse relationship with the water salinity. Dispersants used in freshwater show a
much higher concentration of PAH when compared to the concentration in high saline offshore
environments. PAH exposure decreased as salinity increased whereas dispersant effectiveness
decreased only at the highest salinity. (Ramachandran, 2006).
I will now analyze some of impacts that are unique to inland oil and gas exploration. In
terms of inland habitat impacts, one of the largest effector of freshwater fish communities is the
construction of transportation services, including both roads and pipelines. One of the primary
effects of these transportation services is sedimentation. Facility construction causes an increase
of sediment when the construction is done near a water body. Habitats can be modified at

pipeline crossing sites by excavation and backfilling (using backhoe or dredge) of the pipeline
trench, which may alter embankments and land adjacent to water. High levels of sedimentation
are generally observed during blasting, trench excavation, and backfilling. (Yukon, 2002) Trench
excavation for pipelines is one of the most sediment heavy processes of construction.
Excavations leave bare surface dirt the bare dirt that is more easily washed into nearby streams
and lakes during rainfall and floods. Steeper slopes are also more prone to heavy runoff and
buildup at baselines. (Entrekin et al, 2015).
The effects of sedimentation are directly related to how long the runoff is occurring and
the amount of sedimentation. The effects of sedimentation can greatly differ based on
seasonality. Seasonality affects both the amount of precipitation and runoff levels. The time of
year is important in regard to spawning time of fish and nutrient requirements. Heavy sediment
runoff can interfere with spawning processes by smothering eggs and clouding water columns of
turbidity sensitive juveniles. (Newcombe and Macdonald, 1991) A study on salmonids showed
that high levels of suspended sediment could cause increased respiration rates and loss of
equilibrium. (Levy, 2009). Depending on the season, fish may look for prey that are heavily
impacted by sedimentation levels, as the food source may have high lethality from sediment or
be more difficult to find in turbid waters. Pipeline construction often causes an increase in drift
rate of invertebrates, and post construction causes a decrease in benthic invertebrate densities.
Fish that have high invertebrate reliance are impacted the most heavily from high sedimentation
runoff with many food sources requiring several months to recover. Stream recovery time is
linked to the length and intensity of the construction period, as well as the amount of runoff and
streamflow. (Yukon, 2002)

Another important impact to freshwater communities from oil and gas exploration is
habitat fragmentation. Oil and gas development creates a complex network of roads, well pads,
pipelines, pumping stations, and other infrastructure across a landscape. Habitat fragmentation
can occur from poorly designed construction and infrastructure, which can isolate populations
that use river and stream waterways as migratory routes or channels of passage. (Brittingham, et
al, 2014). Habitat fragmentation can cause decreases in fish population sizes. A study found that
fish along braided channels that had been separated due to road and pipe construction showed
limited range and smaller population sizes among species with specialized habitat requirements.
A midstream-fragmented section seems to alter fish communities for several miles upstream and
downstream of the sites. Stream modifications can affect the temperature from a decrease in
shade as trees are removed from road and pipeline installations, allowing more sunlight to reach
and warm the water surface. These temperature fluctuations can heavily affect sections of stream
that have been cut off from primary sources or lost connectivity. (Eikaas et al, 2005).
Construction of drilling facilities can also affect the ground water hydrology of a region.
Building the pits and wells required for drilling can deplete water from aquifers and natural
drainage paths. A large amount of water is used in the extraction processes, which results in less
water for streams and lakes. This can alter the flow characteristics and thermal regime of a river
and streams. Effects of low flow can cause sediment buildup, which decreases fish habitat and
alters spawning grounds. Less water often creates more temperature variation, especially in
smaller streams and rivers that can have high temperature fluctuations. (Levy, 2009). Warmer
environments cause increased food requirements to meet metabolic demands. Low water levels
and slow stream flow can lead to high enough temperatures for lethal impacts during the warmer
seasons. Thermal changes in the water column can also cause damage to invertebrate populations

and aquatic flora. (Lessard and Hayes, 2003) Many regions have low seasonal precipitation,
resulting in drastically increased stress on the fish populations as a result of increased water
consumption. Water loss can cause lesser stream connectedness, shallower pool formations, and
changes in physical characteristics such as low dissolved oxygen (Entrekin, 2015). Changes in
stream flow resulst in a multitude of negative impacts to a stream or river system, which can
heavily impact disturbance sensitive species
One of the final impacts of oil and gas exploration on freshwater fish populations that the
pollution from gas flaring and methane production. In many regions, excess gas is flared, or
burned off, at the oil well. Large amounts of flaring leads to acid rains in areas where gas is
burned. Acid rain impacts cause lower system productivity, as well as biodiversity loss in
sensitive and diverse ecosystems such as mangrove swamps and estuaries. These systems
generally have high biodiversity and contain sensitive fish species with low disturbance
tolerances and small native ranges. (Kadafa, 2012). Often during the extraction process, excess
methane is also produced and released into the water column. In northern regions or during the
winter months, methane can become trapped in large quantities under the ice. The increased
methane concentrations feed the preexisting methane-metabolizing bacteria, causing drastically
higher growth rates. As the methane metabolization process requires oxygen, when enough
bacteria are metabolizing methane it can cause lethal anoxic conditions. (Yukon, 2002),

Oil and gas exploration are a necessity whose environmental impacts can be devastating
to fish in both marine and freshwater environments. Fossil fuels continue to be one the sole
energy resources utilized globally and will continue to be until more efficient alternative are

discovered. The fish communities near these resources will continue to be impacted until better
methods are created to mitigate the impacts on fish habitats and populations. Industry regulations
are becoming stricter to help limit large-scale impacts such as oil spills and poorly placed drill
sites. If more advanced energy technologies are investigated and oil companies continue to be
required to help fund environmentally beneficial programs, the ecological impacts on fish from
oil and gas exploration may someday be nearly eliminated.

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