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UI “suoxTENbo perUALD].IP PAE SIS no.| ‘Sut a4) Wo WoresToNUt pur asnswaua ansoqer] apnjour s190fqns SKU “aqeura auo uy siynaqe pure ‘sazieds ounnaul suds ‘saouanbas 4o wowean sa Su 1 qm sanurtio> pu soquim qras a4 Jo santtdtoud 1 ns stig Ip _poounape a4ou 0} sjeinaumpany aq) wHods “sts UONIpHOY “aE vopRUMLINg pu MSO: s.29) “ep aouatoAuo-9 eUONIpHO “ofp ousttianuoy (amposqy) 30} 89), SouassoAtnor ammjosqy pu souDdOAwE “yp sang € Joxdey 40 sasiauony yeuomppy WKAR] aU, UN, Jo Saag HE OCF 01 aouniiaNO pur sey popUaI atl] AE saavionbasqng 3g SHU Jo soniadong oreagadyy “ae wousnu: yom ay “DE smuury omer] paw addy “aE souo@ianuo) pur ssoupaptmog “yg ssouanbag xopdiuo,) pu jay suaquumy xojd09 a, “az Sroquinyy eHuapuassuRLL pum arexqasyy ~ 9g Aujigeiumo; ‘suorsundy ss. peu youstoag, ae SHOGUINN (HY MLL “VE. Moquiny xojdwio pur jeag ou Z sevodling pur suorisensqy “suouezt[es3u29 "sJ0o!g “qf Sin pur 2ury SUL -.t suionsAg Joquiny shou, Jo mIqSHTY UL AT ONEAHOWY pitt uoREION, “yy ‘wonompoiy oonfang stuajuoDw Contents cries, Radius of Convergence Differentiation of Power Series Products and the Exponential Function SD". Abel's Theorem and Summation 6 Metric Spaces 6A. Metrics 6B. Interior Points, Limit Points, Open and Closed Sets 6C. Coverings and Compactness 6D. Sequences, Completeness, Sequential Compactness GE", The Cantor Set Continuous Functions 7A. Definitions and General Properties Real- and Complex-Valued Functions 1C. The Space CU) 7D". Proof of the Weierstrass Polynomial Approximation Theorem 8 Calculus 8A. Differential Calculus 8B. Inverse Functions 8C__ Integral Calculus 8D. Riemann Sums SE*, Two Versions of Taylor's Theore Additional Exercises for Chapter 8 9 Some Special Functions 9A. The Complex Exponential Function and Related Functions 9B". The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 9C*. Infinite Products and Euler's Formula for Sine 10 Lebesgue Measure on the Line 104. Introduction 10B. Outer Measure 10C. Measurable Sets 10D. Fundamental Properties of Measurable Sets 10E*. A Nonmeasurable Set LI Lebesgue Integration on the Line LA. Measurable Functions 11B*. Two Exampl LC. Integrat LID, Integration: Measurable Functions VE. Convergence Theorems n: Simple Functions 86 86 90 a1 95 99 105 107 112 13 16 19 Lo 14 BI 131 133 136 139 M2 44 Md M8 149 131 155xapuy roa >puy wonDION! saxyuangy aos 4a) Sup ropnung rysany-yoourg 2 spuaddy pansiasy ‘suiarsss pur suoneaby aoury gl ssauianbquyy pur aouarstxy ASL souarsty gy pure ssauanbIMUON “S| swansks 19piQ-KALY WS!IYJOO) NMS “OST stomeniyg our] snosuadowoH] “St oonampanty YS} suorrenbs ouuasagyicy Aseupigy ojdiouig AwurEuaOND ap pUE“wIMUSWIOWY ‘WORISOd EFT esSaqw] J91N0Y LL SHEL uuoystreay s2umo. 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Jo UOISSKIS4 foLUIO JUL say. pee Armuunyaud v 1 oeBu9 O4 St JaMiey> siyp Jo 28odsnd <44J “sIS mep. @ (The one-sided arrow => means “implies.”) Implicit in this discussion is the following fact: Given positive integers p and g. the equation p +r = q does not erally have a solution r in N; the necessary and sufficient condition is that p | aavy prnoys am os ‘anrnsod sy sasoyiuannd uy uoyssondy WR (a) & 1 (_) stuuay auf dnowd oN 5 = Ne Spmopo won “Fung Aue unraca stuns aep pL veMT Sas prow Fos *2ArnEENNOD [pur aanerosse st uonrppe img moun ayy. :A9py0 TUDOAFID w UF UANHELN as KOU PH dooxa ‘sit aq se sptreuuuins sures 294) wuoys'd > upunu> wf Wu > we cana 81 Sumopof ays fo auo Spoxy “SamoustaL, 510 °NLJo siuauinye Amemgae aoouap w pie a Uuny “uoprefas zapuo ue Jo sopstia}sesmy BuquIjap aq1 sul NTU YoRD|>4 39pu0 ZU fon “used soqpo ax wuody SmO]}O} C] JO wed Jaq Hp 2I0y) (uw) sda wee = (d+ a) (8) asHANANSIC AL wwoqdnTMU Jo AHANEINUNLUO,) £3 (dujw = d(uu) suopwoydyyyaus yo we = eh Me w (d+ w+ =d + (u+ w) -womppe yo Kuanepossy :1¥ NE Jo stuouags Sanniqae a1ousp d pue *w ‘we you iewoU! 941 40) poorsuspun s1 11 (soradoal Jo quBUINE) swoneE FuyWOTOY OY) UW) PoZUEUILUNY aq UD NE UE UOReOETN pur uorippe jo saniodoxd aiseq ay, ;Soqnu prnsn,, aur RunuNKs £q ula 24 suiaysig saquiny snope, jo maqpsty 94, “411 ‘angysod are suowsaudya oxaxa yp urAyuaN sg (O1) mms 2 wy Sasaxuaed uy suorssauhx3 ax) 30} UO) RIAU F aAoud puw SALICL ‘aanisod are suowsaudy osauy mi) Tundju38 smug °(6) uns 247 ur sosayiuamed ut suoyssaudxa oxy 20) uO} ata’ t anoad pu aAUscy (5) Aiwa 24) 40 yoasel panass w 244 (Q) ‘vorompus £4 (s) Aiuape oy a9 ip skeva st (4) J0 opts FFs 24) 0 sorEISUIR aK FO BOREIMPL! kq BN0KG 4 vo worsmpu 4 (1) SapuapE smn aNcKg | sospaxg SuoHD9S Oot 1xOU oy Lt Passnasip aq |[IM suoRsaNb asouy, {uoLa\pEnuED Buusayunosus mowptar (E+) + x= 2+ (+ x) Se Yons “Sof JoMsM om YEN ‘sea ns aq en wotp XynyMu pur ppe und am teip Suryur 20, pure “saqtunt yaNe Jo sounisix9 otp Sun9sst 40} 9Aey 9m Op woRNEDKSH Hy sOqUUINU feLOTTE #29) ou WAOUY sf a UH aut “i9adx9 aM axDYa Popma st aotaMhox suip rep HarNsSy s suaaess soquny snoun fo mugaSiy ayy 416 Introduction The order relation has connections with addition and with multiplication: mem+n; men > mp buy > ‘6q pouyop st uondass9pso om pa bu _ bow Ta aw mw bw ud + bu dw q paupop 220 1 uonwsydqyauu pu vorsppy yn uomwousapy stp o13,qm “w= uw suoyssaud yo jas 24) 9€ Jo W¥SnoMp 39 UR srOqUINK fEUOMES Jo) 19834, oD wu wu uf = uf HOIESYEAPL UE 2oMpoNU oF KaessanoU st x URE ‘w= xu vowenba aqp Jo x, wornes,, ax siuasasdas uorssaudsa sty ‘i9HayuN Kae 4 pare s2Boqut 2annsod w stu asa “u/s 0, a1p Jo suoessaudss soprsuD; aK se suaquintt jpuorres 241 Jo uoHansysu09 © OF papuonsa 24 ED porfow Jo ody S14 du = duu ways g m1 ff “worreoydiynims pu s9p40) $0) dud + we way ‘w > wf) -uoRppe pur 49p49 $0 (1) PU ZO 10 'CTN “TW “F¥-LV (0 atos) Sus poatsap 24 ue yp soqyiodaad ony uw pazuecmuins ge {ur suonesado oreigaie 241 pur wonpjatJepa0 aya Usama Krpelinul um St aEAY) (ure ured & soy au0 *Zyy “uoreaydtym fo Snaqermunuos o1p sdosp 2u0 guts ysnymuuod v pa[ye> sti Hou “9% $e PA HN Sousties pur vone>1 dnjnu jo uonerado um suy osye Y Af “nas anim “woo © palieast pY—Ly SSUsTIes wu uOHIPpR Jo worwado ue sHy HEYA Y 198 uty) Wt = ut we! Kttodoud ayy Yat a — oh Uotssaudy9 saqto Cu £4 40 tw — » Kq pany st v — 1 30 98s00m1 oarmppe ai jo.qad 340 pe ts — us suoyssaudy oun jo Aum Xq pod st uowaya juynat a J03]0 a O=(2—)-+2.091 Suadoud ayn Mn 2— jauay9 wo s1 avoys @ > 2 4ODa.104 “~SOSAOA ASIIDDY ‘HV B22 2=942 om Suadeud aya yn Q siow2y2 wo 51 22241 *womppE 40) WuDUIDp Je-IRDN *E¥ t wants soquinyy nouns fo mugadyy au srr8 Introduction We may consider Z as a subset of @ by identifying m € Z with the expressions ‘n/n, where n belongs to IN. The operations and onter in 2 are consistent with those in @ under this identification, The set @Q with the operations (20), (21), and the order relation (22) has all the preceding properties Al-A4, M1, M2, D, 01-04 Again, there are new algebraic properties. Here r denotes an element of M3: Neutral element for multiplication. There is an element 1 such that r= rally M4: Multiplicative inverses. For each r #0, there is an element r=" such thal In fact, the multiplicative neutral element is represented by any n/n, the rational that is identified with the integer 1. A multiplicative inverse of m/n ismn/m it'm > 0 or (m/n)-! = (=n)/(—m) if m <0, There is another impoetant property to be noted concerning @. (OS: The Archimedean property. Ir and» are positive rationals, then there is positive imeger N such that Nr > 5, if we think of » as the amount of water in a bathtub and ras the capacity of teaspoon, this says that we can bal the water from the bathtub with the teaspoon i most N steps. Of course NV may be large.) To verify 05, suppose that r = m/1 and s = p/q. Then Nr = (Nm)/n,and, in view of (22), we need to find Noth Nmg is larger than np. Obviously N = np + 1 will do, ‘As we have noted, we need to go from IN to 22 to Q in order to guarantee thi simple algebraic equations like a +x is still not rich enough to do more interesting algebra. Jn fact, the equation r? doesnot have a solution r € @. Suppose that it did have solution r = p/q. wher rand. q ate in ‘and ax = b have solutions. However, ( 9 and q is positive. We may assume that r isin lowest term: that i, that p andy have no common factors. Then 7? = 2q?, 30 p is even. Thu p= integer. Then 4m? = 2?, so 2m? = q?, x0.q is also even. an so pand g fi contradiction Now itis possible to find an increasing sequence of rationals with ma re the common factor 2, 1. 1a. Lal, LA, 14142, 141421, 1.414213) whose squares get “arbitrarily close” to 2. (The reader is invited to form ‘more precise form of this statement.) As before, we would like 10 be able to asse that (a) this sequence has a number x as it limit and (b) x? = 219g w Jo HIF 241.04 40 28 94, stINOd IT 0 ssIsUOD (| + wu] = "7 asa swArSnay woxlo-jey IOFSyP ow uy ayL jo WONT v aUTLULDEP 7 eIDHoHH “wo os pur ¢/91 = S/1 + ¢ pur gn Se 28aqp Jo say ot “speasanuigns ronbe any ou p pum ¢ sumodpua yaLN PADI SPIN 2964] ;PeanpaUI Sysm9 am syuuoKes Zurunewas ay or Fuypuodsariod: 16 — d\ anqea ammjosqe ain stb pue d usaasiaq aoueisyp aut “b Jo yo ayn on ep FuuwOU auaW0D3 atp sey 6 > d uormaszopa0 YY, 7 Jo uoNeIwasasd Sant SLL“ *°¢—"2—"1— potouop ave yay nun jo sdais uy uiduo ay) uni 20 01 S108 &q pourego sustod “Kymeprung “gz “| se stufod FuIpuodsaLng: Fnouep “ysiuo} stun yo sos uy wuo ax wueay aa 341 on ye pu US 90 8 98004 “UFBH0 aq sm poymUs yurOd uO yyUN auy 8 Yns aUEFRANY ‘OUT son Saou stoHsAS JoqUIMU SNOLEA at Jo VOLEUasaidas >iAraUHO93 Tensy sy pun sur aH OT A ANTHEMS « eHOME OU sy 248 Ep AAR FIN YSNE + fwaoMEL OH ¥ 2196 Np nay 2 vous pruones sobiun ¥ 904 #2 Yoqvenbo om uoun 9 #4518 sone: no yyy pum sa We anDK ‘0 0-4 4p s60ud oF g por yyy suULNE aN | {© 10) 21 pon (yy 24a on (61) dorreqyruapy ayy pu (|) WoUDP OM 59 B05 2V pm ry anos on (61) worry EpH ay UE (QZ) HONK 34h 35) 6 -D steuopes ou 304 (9)) voRUDssH yO anopeuR ay 2Aa) 7291 10 Pu ¢O 2sex4 oF Zz 40} sworn Zon HUAL 3h ae (C1) > °E > € vou snbyun wm w= x + wets oyt wpe a so 9A OM pY|W Wy ana 0= oem = + 2 JL sanbnum st 9 re py—LY ston wy asau '§ “B sso¥ane a 294 yy pure eV KU qosioue 24820) ZW Pu HWY 290x401 (£1) oayRDpE ax pu (Gt) WoRep 241 99 zesstony aM 40) ZV PUR Ly oxnid o1 (61) woMEauHDPL aR pu (+f) HonNYsP sq) 369 — (91) wor2esn out 280% 1 saspaarg 4 pug 2241] Se 9¢p tr Ty 07 29pH0 uw syeuoRRE aep LOH} oquuu ra aA Jo woRNASHEDE YDS om woRD9s 1xoU ay UT Ng Jo satLEAdOn WON} & pul 7” Jo satadoud sO pA symaqae snot aqp aaaid 01 sn Soe YoRKNASHOD ay, “sfouoN aX pad soi Suyurearas aq) soneisvo9 0} moy payoIDys paw (oUTEUL Wer se suOMDdo sm pA 2. Satine aaussod a1 yoo am “192439 H] :uoN9s SMW pousddny sey YR Oy 6 sm paw vary out “Oy10 Introduction strictly tothe leftofn + 1. Given apoints of the line, the integral part of x ved [ly is the unique imeger [x] =m such that x belongs to f,: The point « is at orto the right of the integer mand its distance from m is less than |. It is important to Note that this may be sharpened if we proceed to the rationals: Each point on the line may be approached as closely as we like by rational paints. In fact, partition the interval with endpoints [x] and [x] + | into 10" equal subintervals, The point ¥ lies one of these subintervals and is therefore at distance less than 10~ from one of the endpoints of that subimterval, which are rational numbers, The preceding is the basis for one ofthe first constructions of the reals, due Dedekind. We want the reals to account for all points on the fine, and we want the line to have no gaps: Any sequence of points moving to the right, but staying to the left of some fixed point, should have a limit. We also want to extend the algebraic operations and the order relation to this full set of points, again so that < means “to the left of. Our starting point for this process can only be the rationals themselves; they must be the scaffolding on which the real numbers are constructed. In order to sce how to proceed, we begin by imagining that the goal has already been accomplished. Then, for any point x in the line, we could associate to the point, of real number + set S of rationals ~ all rationals that lie strictty to left of x. Mfx and x’ are distinet points, then there is a rational r strictly between them. (Choose & so large that 1/10 is smalter than the distance between x and.x', and fook at the rational points m/10*, m © Z.) Therefore, the set $ that corresponds to x andthe see 5° that corresponds to x” are different: r belongs to S’ but not 5. Notice also that the set ‘5 that corresponds to x has the following properties: (Cl) Sis notempty and is not alt of @. (C2) Mtr isin S.9 is in @ aod 5 |p. 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Thus, w in this section is to indicate how one can, starting with @, construct a objects R that satisfies all the conditions t (acopy of) @ itself SiUS2USU 26 collection of ied in the section and that contain: Exercises 1. Suppose § and S" are two cuts: Prove that either $C Sor 8! CS. or §=8' Suppose that S and S’ are cuts. Prove that $+ $" is acu, that is, that it ts a subse of the rationals that has the three properties (C1), (C2), and (C3), Prove some or ll ofthe addition propertics A1-A4 for cuts, ani Cheek the campatiil for ratjonals and the corresponding cuts 8, Define the product of positive cuts. Check that your definition gives a cul and tha 5-1" =a fore nonnegative cut S Check the compatibility of multiplication for positive rationals and the correspond ing cuts 10412. Prove some or all of M1, M2, 13, Define the absolute value (S| of # cut and use it to extend the definition of th product to any two cuts, (Hint: Define the product with 0° separately.) 14-18, Prove some or all of axioms M and D for arbitrary cuts 19, Suppose that), Sy... and T are euts that satisfy (25). Prov is cut, and that itis the smallest cut such th and D for positive cuts, atthe et Sin (26 every Sy is smaller than 5 20, Another approach to constructing the reals is to t all formal decimal expan sions. (To remove ambiguities like | versus 9999... we could take ing formal decimal expansions.) Discuss the difficulties in detining the algebrai ‘operations, For example, what would be the first term in the decimal expansion corresponding 10 997999194... +.002000805. .. 2 Is there seme stage (preferably specifiable in advance) at which you would be sun Jo have enough information 1 know whether the sum is greater than 1!) 1D. Proofs, Gener izations, Abstractions, ind Purposes Why do we want proofs? Consider assertions like (4). This is actually an infi nite family of assertions, one for each positive integer n. Any single one af thes198 Wp 40 g Joquiny = p saquny rep onoad dew ayy ‘sonyfenbau OM) SUMOHE 44 paysndurooae 1saq uayo st (si Jo 40) siaquunu [ek JO .Hrpombs ays Kasay ssidoouno ota? iq SUED Ut (porous “9°1) porensGE u99q asey sUYs saqduuexD qwisads Jo saume) 2soq7 JO Kur jo ofmmmeape aye) yous jooud aq wy st uoseas at 29 sew foul sor s3qduns 24s qeoidA “ynsae v fo mawanoys ayn poxoue8 avow ony, pa day Wi ato “RuryunA oxo} Jo 1g w pue suontuyap oy KOH Sp.UIp SIE MO satnsau Kumpy =sna% suusa1 94} oy Huruwous ax}2a0d ant Kou, YetoNAD am suo Tunsaronus ype ayy ddoy oF suoRNoKD PIs YSNoUD YEN pu porrnsM das yoe9 ue “2yqeUES au Jo snyMaTED Wo4s s¥MSaL TuRLLOduH ISouL a4 Was JoquMy 34N Jo sadoud woxy yred a4) Zuope poodaud 01 st 009 sty Jo as0dnd ay sonotad sowed ‘aotisead pin uonmsosqo é¢q {syoard ,op,, oF 19} 240 S90p ofp paranoossp sum (5) Na soins uoas Sow pur ‘uonyyndurma axeqa5ye yum apqunofIuaD s1 oyM U09) exOuO OF orp UI “TuaUDNES FN oud oF fem uo un asouE aq Ae axaKq spayyseuraL isnt axMy 2i¢ se tng ‘uM Wo Sau 01 ame am jt panoud aq or pase: (5) 24H] siuaWIOMS [OLA OP 24 poo suoRo=E sovoding Pun ‘suouonusqy ‘suounyeourey ‘sfoarg “Uh“4 Introduction A= set B by proving ash ant b 4 pug > off ZO 40m > 44> 0 carat 5 Sasonos 241 fo 2uo Spowxd 4 pre vu 404 YQ 24qw q+ 9P=AG+D) 7 yams a > 0 tuoway9 en 5) aay) BION YPME D Y>0B-404 FR P= | - 1° Ro40f 2041 Yons ww) # | MaMa EOS ABUL EW 0 = 40 TIN (290 = 2190) TW (0 =(0~) + 020 yams yy 3: murury9 un sy 290 3D 4209.10) BY B= 0+ 0D /PO.L0f ‘Oy YoME Q tuna} UMS) KOHL EY D4+q=440 BY (0+ +0=34+) IV AL Jo stuawiata Kamnngre aiouap 2°q°P Y>IYM wr ‘suOKIpUOS 49 “stuOFAE FUENOITO} a4 ArsHeS HoRH|AL 49910 up pe suorterado aso1L1,-q > 0 aytam am (Kuo) xxed asap 40) pu -poroojos ase ay yo swatugy9 Jo (q *P) sad pouspuo unmsao anya sunous Ayduuts wows w st > ye, ‘go Aidiars 30 q - » payousp soquunu eal © sarmoosse HOKE ayM “q+ 0 PoroUsp soquunu [wat wg “P ated Ku OF SaTNIDONSR UOLTIPPY “Y Jo SMUD] KTUATIGTE sous q°P 1a] "> YORUAL rapLO uM pure ‘uoNeay dA pux uoNIPpE “suoKEs=do sreagadye Ot Sey nM 19S F SSL “Ay WuoNsKS soquumU yeas axp st yutod SumLANS 20) saaquiny way ou “Vz PUL oq 2481s de oMp MoY|Ka]9.9q Keun IOND Os ~ FuTUOSRaL Jo soyduuMxe YFFNCUd pur ~ syjasas yinous apmjou! o} st sSyes “oR 214 “snoIpar AIpuuaNKa st ‘ojaissod nowy “sunpaooud w yang “paystqeisa w99q ApwasyY aaMy TWIN Sy]MsaH OF 0 SWOT 29471 01 Yo0q pawiajay pw Ino WaT 94 |ILw FurvOSead Jo tTEYyD K1dAD ut dans K1aA wtp AKL OU SSOP SMI, pO feaKHF w (Cypensn) pu Aipeonmwanses r>0Kqns a41 dojsaap 24 s0idny 60 ruuojuy mysotos sem 424d S00 SIAQUINN X2TAWOD pur pray aL t16 The Real and Complex Numbers O83 Ifa @ ifa a Definition. Suppose that A is nonempty subset of R.A number b & R is said to be an upper bound for A if for every a in A we have a . The nd greatest lower bound ot fin infimum axe defined si smc, when it exists is denoted e=inf A. The last property in our list of properties of R is the Least Upper Bound Property 06 1F A is any nonempty subset of RK vuat js bounded above, then there isa least upper bound for A {There isin apparent asymmetry here, but property 06 implics the similae Greer est Lower Bound Property, and vice versa. Infact, if 4 is nonempty and bounded below, then its greatest lower bound is precisely the supremum of the set of its lower bounds, und so on, See Exercise 4.] All the usual algebraic rules for manipulating real numbers and solving sim ple equations and inequalities ean be deduced from these examples axioms, Here are some Proposition 2.1 t Rosch tharay =b () Givena and b in R, there & a unique x © R.sach that o +x (b) Givena andd in R, fa £0, then there is a unique(0 > P yLawniau paw > Q5F aumsod sy 3 MIL Aes aK C1 -Sapss spoq one ppnto—q > 0) 41 -S9pts Yioq oF O— ppe“y > Oy] -(e) uUd Jo siuaWEIS yog saxduu woul AB SIL "P= = (D-) +9 > (P~) +P = 0 UO "O > PIT 'EO SAN STH, :fomd q> Od Mquo pun fi g > vu g pu v kw 04 (Qh ‘> =f) Ayo pun fio > «4000 “oy 1) = 0.40 (n=) > Q'» > g sans 9 Supwopos ay fo auo Soma "> » Kum Jay (a €T wontsodoig 24 sopuo out go saruodoad ‘Swos Japysuod am 1xON "UO oS pur“ _v.404 2/| Sunsm (uayO) (?—) + 440} 4 Bunum (Sygensn) Aq sump tryuMans am wuawUDgeanosua sw s}{NSaL asaMp YILAL = (=) 1p sayin tem ur yon “0 = 9 2 Imp saxtdar ssouraabe ve > (I-40 Ore =0-7=0+0°8 *Aqqouny “ssouanbyun pur Syarmnun0S w0sy 6019) (9) amg -ssouanbrun way smojjoy Ose (4) ud °(e) sancad siyr :suORN|OS mbm anny (QF 2 J!) P= pur p= x49 [-z uoNsodorg or SupYOD9y. :fouig — =m (1) prog =0- 9 > Him soy (ph 0) way 04 Bf v= (9) “0 Kuay (Of amb ave, w asaasuy ousmmoyinm ay (0 # 0) pun v= ascase pp ILE (Qh snbyun aio | pun ¢ stuauoye pounau ruuesnduynu pn asgrppo a Samou0y, |g = sv.an uonmpos enbuun ay) sig, -# & uDyy "0 = 0 FL MEY) SOUS ALINE sETBUNES Y "UORIIOS w SE (— roe F=0F9=4 4 0= 4+ (+O =QH (D-H P= (MIF +Y /pusy sayi0 ay) UD (7) + ¢ = x anbquN sy H Yay “x UORN|OS w st azaKE J} P= QHY=((V-) HO) +x = (0) + (V1) =(0-) + OH wag = 2+ my somd sroquumyy yoo 2m18 The Real and Complex Numbers Proposition 2.4. Ifa and b are positive, then the sum a+b and the product ab are positive. Proof: Using O2 and O3, we see that 0 mesa vasun vidio jog Auodosg punog sad woo") 94) Jo 3ReIuEApe aye pe (jasoud) aAOge papinog $1 yoy Y_ 128 a4) eH OH aM “UORMIOS w sa TEND MOUS OY. = LP ‘Sr woryMos axnsoU UO SOK E94, ued A4>q)“sUOyaLeAL “aanssod st VOT PE suoiae} aarusod so ranpoudl ayy st 2 — aA WEYL (Z) WHOA} SmOqIOH Y HOH “<> ¥ > 0 HH [;V1 wond9g Jo Tumut aq ayy ve soymuuTO} oxy saq|s mMULIO) SiN TEKY AVON (+ a - OF yen § pur xssoquinn peas uw 30-4 sfoaug q= iM iyons vy saquam poo aunnsod ambteat 9 st asany, aoa asad v 31 w pun 124 lunu joas aunsod vst q soy asoddng ‘SY0Os ty-H JO AIUAAS 2LT WAOANL 4 UL awasagip 6} vonenys oy. "z= ;x worthy aif Jo WoRNJOs FouOLTEA OU St AID TOY PoMOYS Bm HL VOHDAS Jo pus amt IV baer uauoja Surpuodsauiog & yx 3? Aue o} amwD0¥s" OF MOLY 3A OF (|) 98M TAKA PE jeunes 24 nea Jo raeqns w KypmUDp Ist} Kou aM “FAS HONS pUCDS FA IEAON w [o> 4:3 adns =o -sAo}}o} Se sfeuorts Jo 108 r yo wuurBIdn so paugo 2q uma 9g 3 1 wont AUy -~ Jo FaSANS se I) JApysUOD 'HoJaq se "SIG panoud s} ns stp oy St 2x94] “TUOn Wap Se popHTRas ag ue> 2 ple A “SPO Joxgo ul ‘wont Jopuo ox souasaut pune*stonpaud ox sianpoad "stuns oy Stns SO aj, Jo-stuousoyo pum a siuawoy> u9artoq douispuods:a1109 |] Y 24 pinoM 212 tay) *sworxe Surpasaid 94) ye paystes rey sapio wH pur suoTado owt SULA Jos Joxpoue 2199. JF 984 SUN STILL “Wl 2EALMINYD swoRD Susparaad 4 AL J0 }asqns w aq 011 sopisu09 pu doo sug qua & Afiawapr as uo mou uiOL “Jo Adoo yexo we st "A May ropio pur suoesado ogy Supsn “9g 0 (@) 345 4) = Q 1osqns amp “spsom s9uN0 A 5 > 431 suo purest s>2 0) (sa) pun £4 4=(62. @) = 2 py Aquo pug = 4 (0) pun 2 sjouones Kur 40g “Tuimorqoy aqp anoud teD om Jog 2u0s yung “2 Ke, moUDp am YOYAN* C= W)C = ad) S9quaNEE yeas OY H/ 4 = a usquiny yoy 4 -Ve20 The Real and Complex Numbers First, suppose that x is positive and x" b, x such ot an upper bound for this purpose, we may asst from (2) that Wo set A, 80.4 ne to begin with tit y b. Finally, suppose that y is positive and y" > b, If we show that there isa posi * such that x < y and b J \ [bn ~ dl ave limit zero, (This means that, for a ger NV such that |/4| <¢ ifm > W,) Show that there is exactly or ‘eal number « that belongs toll the interval, fd suppose that the lengths |f,puy am ‘FapmmoD “or/1 + O1/!9-+E uw S x > OL /lo-+ w veep yons'6 = 19S) “lo soayuy onbyun ws axo47 YoMp 28 54 “HagDye aM We SuPFOOH Siduns30 'Q4/| UD] Jo sjeasonunqns wodo-jjey, ua1 on) [] + wn) [easoiut oy SumonNsea ('UO Os pu @ “WSxS0:max=ler) las 2>e mes =la-o ono TeAsoru pumpurys Ayqeuosvat ay) 3x99 95m 34A) ‘2UH] gL HORNA [++ wu) eA -tn uodo-yy ox sey sts Ayduns smu XpeoENAUIDDD "y+ mS > we TOM YM tw saan anbrun st 212% ety sjear ayy Jo saasadoud soo 941 pum CO Ai did ueopoumpay 2x7 waxy 2onpap wu 9AQ “AaquMN fer w sy TENN sod Synqeiunog :suosuedxg s91NO pure eUPAR ~AT ‘ssaosic]'vaumt snowgeA ay pe Sood oyp Yo weaKU aq wey S59] 5} eM ats Zod nsaqn um uy smear soumn W Jo yea Te YaowsP uy | —ws — uf] Auynbouy ays yoy yns t pus ve satan aanysced ane axoqa yy < 2 Auan9 40 {yey 30 ana, ssomyd yourtsop sayy oy, Bmw yy} = NIT U—mieh t1>0>1 sy saad “u = yo veKR asoddng aSoIu we st z= wu pure annsOd st» yryY asoddag We twee (0 =u tao Aue pow y aamnsod Sun 305 rep aon wut | = du-+ 1) "0 = wasn Ku pue y axmsod Luo 40) eK 204g fp =u sofa Aue nog yexn anon ov < z soqyely tg > u ve aa fuadoy punog sod y9or] omy ane oe SoM OM SarEASHONLP st Z— PUSS > 4 PUP <4: 34) =v ange vider =o sr mm mous op ostaroxs Suposead om >) wuotres 99 0: uasoy> ag Kou im ous °Z < of yp yns a> A> Q year e st ausye sm anaig -Z < -F paw g-< x Imp axoddng «@) uous 9g 09 uavoy> 29 Seu yeyR mous yp yons x -< 6 yar w st ara mp aNDLg “Z > x PUT g < X HUD aexkdng (F) ‘ouambonue w se Ayxadody punog odd) 1982"] amp anode “5 asTauON_ UT poTETMEMIOG Avadod TRASHET poISDN' om PRATSUL auinsst 90) Auadoxy punog sad isto" 241 40} saan seas oy 0 sinOHXE a BuINSHY 1 Kinqonumy isuopsumdhg sey peo pounpreg “az2 The Real anul Complex Number unique sequence of integers m. a, as... that is characterized by the propertie: mete ge Dice cmt Se 10” 16 10 10 a 9, q 1” 10 = If we also write the integer part m in its decimal form, the result is the expansion of x For convenience, suppose that n = 0, that is, 0 (1 ~ WE), ah ouapuodsasio9 atp Tip sou o1 S| yoroudde satTOUE Ist] FAIA OL MOY 38.01 1N ITT sou 4a} "yqanmon sy 285 Uy “a]qeUNOD st_Z “spo sDIPIO UE :Ss9ONUL IP JO TH odin] yon, xf pun xg u92%sIaq Saugpuodsauod |—| w YSHIESS oF MOH SMOKE Sunsyy ‘uonsanp saqvo amp uy “aon luana Jo 198 Jo]TOuNS Yon, oY YALA gu soySTQEHSD Wz <> WV HOTA Sup SAA ul Jo Burstsuo as s9yjeuNs,, YF Plu NI UseMIeq PaUEpUOdsEILO [=] we saystiqeiss | + a <> a uoRNyaL ay, “samay BuIsudins awos sey woHOU sty ‘jqpnuno.i 9901 pins S11 “aseauatpC) ‘suaianu aarsod Jo NAS OM ATE AaTIapUOdsALOD |=] nut rnd 9q ue 1 Jt 9jgnnunoo aq 01 pres st Aas autuyUE Um cannotime Uy sios am 61 Papi 2p pana ums auC) “sIMaMIO|D OU HIEA 196 25 Ccduu> aap SAO LAP (rec Mec te tw S98 puepanns 24) 0 940 pure parmos Sin1aq s139{qe otf) taaAj3q asuapuodsanod || © TunystioRD yo ssazoud ayy s# Zununoo yo ssaooud yonsn oxy Aot4 UE> 940 “toMy UI] “SWEDUID| Jo quan axties otf 2xey 12S OME MYL APL AYP asfoaud ax o1 sUO Smoqe wadHO9 SL “amapwodsaizy || v yo 1d2ou09 2yF SOUT JexONS pouOTHIU aAKY ayy Sugeno seuonaundg soy pur pousogy aeNumbers The Real and Comples Exercises be expressed asa finite st F Van oo. Wan, where the qy are inteyers anil 9) HON “UIDBODKLL SNA weDYA 2p Xypeay}rods— smpnsyea ‘oy yeaddy 01 saya¢nb 34-14 nq ‘oxeagadye Ayaand oper aq ues jooud ox, :fOaK ep ways “ss sano] us b/d = 4fi*«pouoyos X24 sof roy yons (y < x mmepsuo> vs) aap way 4 aantop fo fo caquunu oat smsiqa8 yn ua st x tour asoddng “QV WARM, sqruonns q uoRmutKoxide inoge wouODKp sty wo pasTg “OTANOTT Sa wand aaam sajdurexe say o¢yf, soquinu prIuepuddsimeN KuP YAR? 104 S20P If nq *Tewuapusostren a1e syear SOUL, ASUS MNOS UL WY SM S|}>} GZ HAO, CASA FI) pm ZF soos yeas aan _ spetuiousjod omp “ojdunexe sop :sjeuoneat ay # uEygo 3 suoquumy, jouspusssubay pup syeuqaiyy “9%6 The Real ant Complex Numbers of rationals: 1 Moa Ie ol et P— saat 0 1 i 10” 10 ~ 10 * 10" eventually violates (1.4), Therefore x is not algebraic of any degree. Remark. The algebraic numbers form a field: the sum, product, diff quotient of algebraic numbers is algebraic: see the exercises Exercives J. Suppose thar is algebraic of degree n. Prove that —x and (if algebraic of degice n 2 Suppose tha « i areal number. Prove tht the following are equivalent: (i) x isalgebrae of (i) Leto, at a ave linearly dependent over @: (ii) every nonnegative imeger power of «i linear combin With tational eaetcients (iv) there are rational numbers, ys» se of x ie linear combi 3. Use the pres fact its Ax re also every nonnegative integral power ficients ion of the y» with ling exercise wo show that 2 real numbery that are algety + y and xy ane algebraic of degree = mn. petmic of degree at most 6. In grees 2D. The Complex Numbers To start, we take as the complex numbery the set of all expressions a + ib, where «and > are real numbers and i is simply a place marker, we could equally well \write this as an ordered pair (a, b). In the set we define operations (+ ib) +(c+ id) =a +0) +106 +ay, (a+ ibe + id) = (ac — bd) + iad + be), ug) Proposition 2.12. satisfies the field axioms Al-A4, MI-M4, and D, Proof: Most of this is rou scking. The neutral elements for addition and ‘multiplication respectively are 0 + 10 and | +10, Ifa + ib 4 0-+i0, which isthe same as saying a + 6 4 0, then the multiplicative inverse is a b (a+iby a9 +P ETEyo vonersudiown atawoad oy. stxv aympIoND yeIUOZLIOY ayp INO HOHIOYaH ESE uonn{uos xajdmioa Jo wopmraudisiu aunawoad 241 uOy "4 Suvi (PaznEUTpIOO) aqp us (x) quod om yum f+ = 2 squinu x2jdu0> ayy KyssvD S10 ‘suomuyap 2tf jo 2auanbasuos sna ue sana 8} (€z)-(Oz) ut AirMape YD JOA (so im “9 AEH [m/z wage oz auE ohm) m2) Zl +f =20y oun) + 22u=2 uymoxjoy ayn ut dn pousuns aur siow, omagasqe jyasn smoery 2/8 Arum “aun ou) ae asa4 136} UL QT snynpour yuu Qf + x = x saquinu x2jduio9 e se paraprsuad og ase uD [xj anjea aunjosqe qin x saquamu peas ¥aoqis “aay UorTEIOU Jo 121 JUOD TeHURIOM wt 394 2 40 smmpou atq pay st + ex) = [2] equ yeas any, "2 Jo 2708nfuos xaphun’ axp poyes st &y— x =F aaquumu xajd09 sa zuy=« 9 2aM=¥ 2 Jo tend Kuma pare tzod pas 2m pae> ame € pur x uy °As + x= 2 1} puv yeas ase « puw x rey asoddng “suon ya 1 &q ,-2 s10u9p Ae am “ospy “7g uan2 40 z Sus dq yosouad ur suaquanu xoydaacs avouap Amu am “kanoauopy “|= ¢2 SMU, "7 -(15F) 404 FF pu qs-+ 040} q? oN spt [as 2a Pue “p+ pu 9 UDaAIaq UOTDUASID OU ayeUL LA Dx YO MoU OL [= Pq yeas axa quien payruapr saquants xaxduao9 amy “OF + 1— = (11+) my Afasea 30K uma uo ‘(g}) uanuyap 21 Fuys/] “D Jo I9sqne w sw yw sOpIsUOD pum QF + 2 MILK > Sfmvapy kow om axo}su94J, °D Jo smOW]D jEANDU am oF YL UE Young day pue worippe soy swuawio]e jesiNOU oy pur “sionpaid oF sionposd ‘stuns oF sums SOW QF-+ 2 soquimu xopduN09 ay) YS OOF SU|ssE HE eoUSpUOdsaLIOD ayy, eraqumny royhuog aun “az2% The Real and Complex Numbers fe} is that itis the Euclidean distance from the point < to the origin (Pythans Theorem), More generally, 2 —| is the Euclidean distance between the points = and w The following inequalities are elementary but very important. The third, (28 is known as the triangle inequality for the modulus. With the interpretation of the modulus as the distance it may seem geometrically evident, but it is important to prove it Proposition 2.14. For any complex numbers z and w [Rezl <|el [lmel = (26) [el < [Rez] + {lmz} 7) le-+w| < lal + wl 8) = Ime. Then |:| = ¥7 + 9° is clearly larger than or both sides. To Proof: Let x = Re equal to both |x| and |y]. Converse prove (O8) we square and then use Propasi 27) follows from squat jon 2.13 together with (26) 10 obiain i+w + w)(-+ 90) = zi + (ow + we) + = Jef? + 2Re caw) + [ef S lel? + 2lewel + wh = ef? + 2icllwl + bw = (lel + Remarks. We have not introduced an onder into . It is not possible 10 do s0 such a way that @ becomes an ordered field, that is, so that O1~O4 are satis < w has no meaning unless w and 2a (see Exercise 2). Am inequality =< or ‘both real, Note that the inequalities in the preceding proposition all involve re: numbers! From complex number is writen in the form z =x +1, then it ts understood that x an ‘aw on we shall frequenily use the following convention: Whenever y are real, the real and imaginary parts of = Exercises LL Prove thatan ordered field cannot be fii Prove that there is no way to choose an ordering in such that it becomes an onder field 4. Suppose that = = x-+ fy with x and y real Show that max (jx 19H} = fe = 141 4, (@)-(4) Prove Pr sition 2.13 in deta complex number. Show tha there is a unique par ww. This is called the polar decomposition o ‘C such that r ~0, [we] =1, and= 2 womb oq oF suorimos xajduioo Spex ane a13y) ng > m Kur puny) # a xayduand Cue 40y weg MOUS, 1 = <2 onnbs ayi 1 suonnjos wading u Aipoexe ane asoyt Ny 3 ¥ Awe s0} 141 MOYS 'S “uae aug wt Sanps009 sejod on SH aWEIAW "A 3 19 < £3094 24 unto 34, uD #2 xOHMIOD IED TU ABOU O1 EL PUB “ZT “E SAHIN NY oe > pe | = 1,21 HN mous 1 YRa1 10] {uns +2809 — 2 Stauyp Ken ot 2809 pur 1 urs Jo suoetiedas xot38 tomod 29 a) utumous 1as0o} » sy saniaeaN9 oFauy UF 3n4 ,/2Anud, 40} wwoUES © se nos, POAT Dam am saRTIEG “6 saudi UH AIsnoLOT pado}>4op 2x 14m FoKH feLAWT Jo maznand snavOH NOU w s9HAB KOsIIAAD JO Fos FUIOHOS AL yen 40 9p stg 32: 2)s)} = (9)/ 980m ey aq oEMA xojduso9 oy WH 9 IEA 40 BHD BSL § J) ANY AAC "QF P+ 29 ABAOUAGA (P+ 2)/q Vf Aq f wousany 8 auyoq) 0 #2q— PE ANB Yons ssOquuNU xoAuOD am ppuHE°D °q “” qwHY asoddng uy sty Jo worrenbo we 6g oquuasop ag ues umd x9 dion 94) aun ySyeas 40.9149 CUE TEN K|assAAHo2.N0%g (9) 19s Kado axp 30 “Dany 1yinas waaay w sDUUID stg = 9 + 2a + 2g + FIV FON MS ‘2 xopdvoo Jo 198 ogy any Dna “xa}duIOD $17 plas was smH 2 pu HEM asodddng (e) (o-< 2uy £2) auejd-yiey soda ou Jo ooune oy puny “{y 2) 2qou9 un 34 5} (a) J aun pean aqiyo afeuny ong mg Aug a4 = (2) a0mp pas? aabwun estoaayp | sexu xoydi99 483 20} “HEY MONS *) lao sey () 4+2/(5 — 1 omawosd omy snap pow ip 2] =|>— 4g —|g—o| imp snag O= 94g +e pow | = [ol = [ql = [o) mgt qons sxoquine xojduzoa asm 2 pow @ °0 en as0ddag ynsss sap Jo wort: oyuiauioa’ ¢ any seas st 2 3p Ayu pu py [7+ 2| = [2— 2] aByp mos *> xopdiao> io ‘quawia]2 jaye jo ounie pur sn Jo sue up Stas oso 9qUEECL "|S > = pe (22y 5 (Pum) ow> ae suoquinyy xopduey 2yL ae