Basics of Enthalpy Change

Exothermic reactions: Reactions that release energy to the surroundings.

Endothermic reaction: Reactions that absorb energy from the surroundings.
Enthalpy change: The energy exchange between a chemical reaction and its surroundings at
constant temperature.
The surroundings include:
- the solvent
- the air around the test tube
- the test tube
- anything dipping into the test tube (e.g. thermometer).
Examples of exothermic reactions:
- Combustion of fuels
- Oxidation of carbohydrates in the bodies of animals (respiration).
- The reaction of water with quicklime
Examples of endothermic reaction:
- All thermal decompositions
- Photosynthesis (using energy from sunlight)
- Dissolving certain ammonium salts in water
Enthalpy change formula: H=H(products)H(Reactants)
Standard Enthalpy Changes
To make fair comparisons of enthalpy changes, the same conditions must always be used
(standard conditions).
- Temperature: 25 = 298
- Pressure: 1 atmosphere = 101 kPa
- All the substances used in the reaction must be in their normal physical state at standard
temperature and pressure.
is the symbol used to show that a reaction occurred under standard condition, showing that
standard enthalpy change has been measured.
There are a variety of enthalpy changes:
- Enthalpy change of reaction: It is the enthalpy change when the amounts of reactants shown
in the equation react to give products under standard conditions. The reactants and products
must be in their standard states.
This applied to both exothermic and endothermic reactions.
If the amount of reactants is doubled, the enthalpy change of reaction will also double.
- Enthalpy change of formation: It is the enthalpy change when one mole of compound s
formed from its elements under standard conditions. The reactants and products must be in
their standard states.
Can be exothermic or endothermic.
The standard enthalpy change of formation of any element in its standard state is 0.
In the formulas carbon is written as C(graphite) because graphite is the most stable
allotrope of carbon.
- Enthalpy change of combustion: it is the enthalpy change when one mole of substance is
burnt in excess oxygen under standard conditions. The reactants and products must be in
their standard states.
- Enthalpy change of neutralisation: It is the enthalpy change when one mole of water is formed
by a reaction of an acid with an alkali under standard conditions.
- Enthalpy change of solution: It is the enthalpy change when one mole of solute is dissolved in
a solvent to form an infinitely dilute solution under standard conditions.
An infinitely dilute solution is one that does not produce any further enthalpy change when
more solvent is added.
- Enthalpy change of atomisation: It is the enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous atoms is
formed from its element under standard conditions.
- Enthalpy change of hydration of an anhydrous salt: It is the enthalpy change when one mole
of hydrated salt is formed from one mole of anhydrous salt under standard conditions.

Finding Enthalpy Changes

Enthalpy change equation: H = -mcT
- H : enthalpy change (J/mol)
- m : mass of water (g)
- c : the specific heat capacity (J/g)
- T: change in temperature ()
Activation energy: The minimum energy required to break certain bonds in a compound to get a
reaction to start.
Hesss Law: The total enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is independent of the route by which
the chemical reaction takes place as long as the initial and final conditions are the same.
Bond energy (a.k.a. bond dissociation energy): The amount of energy needed to break one mole of
a specific covalent bond in one mole of gaseous molecules.
Calorimetry is used to determine the enthalpy change of some reactions, but in others
calorimetry cannot be used and Hesss law applies.
- Enthalpy changes of reactions can be found from the enthalpy changes of formation of the
reactants and products.
- Enthalpy changes of formations can be found from the enthalpy changes of combustion of the
reactants and products.
- Enthalpy changes of hydration of anhydrous salts can be found from the enthalpy changes of
solution of the hydrated and anhydrous salt.
Breaking
bonds requires energy. So, if more energy is needed form new bonds than break

bonds, the reaction is exothermic.

If more energy is needed to break bonds than to make new bonds, the reaction is endothermic.
Average bond energies are found from breaking the same type of bonds in different
environments. They are necessary because identical bonds are affected by atoms surrounding
them and the do not have the exact same bond energy in different parts of a molecule or in
different molecules.