Kylar Hanley

Carbohydrates are macromolecules that provide energy and are used in cell respiration.
There are three types of carbs. These types include: monosaccharides(simple sugars),
disaccharides(double sugars), and polysaccharides (composed of manny sugars). There are
two types of reactions: dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reaction. In dehydration synthesis
is lost and monomers join from the water being removed. Water breaks apart in a hydrolysis
reaction. Disaccharides are formed by dehydration reactions. Carbs are made of C,H, and O.
Sugars have multiple hydroxyl groups (-OH). Aldose sugars have a carbonyl group that is on the
end of the molecule. Ketose sugars have a carbonyl group located in the center. Dehydration
synthesis form glycosidic linkages (covalent bond. There are four types of polysaccharides:
starch(plants), glycogen( animals), cellulose ( structure for plants), and chitin (arthropods and
fungi). Starch stores granules within plastids and are all in the alpha configuration . Glycogen is
branched to create quick releases of glucose. Cellulose is in the beta configuration and most

abundant. Chitin is very difficult to digest and has a hydroxyl group on the second carbon
replaced by NHCOCH3 group. Alpha configuration has an -OH group below the plane on 1c,
beta has the -OH placed above.
Proteins are instrumental for everything including : chemical reactions, structure,
transport,signaling, receptors, contractile and motor, and defense. Enzymes regulate
metabolism by acting as a catalyst. Monomers are made up of 20 different amino acids.
Polymers are made with dehydration reactions joined by peptide bonds. The structure of an
amino acid contains a central carbon, attached are a carboxyl group, amino acid, hydrogen
atom, and an R group. Non polar amino acids are grouped according to the R chains. Proteins
are built by dehydration synthesis. -COOH and NH2 are joking by peptide bond. one end of the
polypeptide is free(N Terminus= NH2) and the -COOH that is free is called C terminus. The
backbone of the polypeptide is the repeated N-C-C sequence. The function of a protein depends
on the structure. There are 4 levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary.
Primary has a linear structure based on order of amino acid. Secondary have hydrogen bonds.
Tertiary have hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions, h bonds, disulfide bridges, ionic bonds
and vander waals interactions. Quaternary is two or more polypeptide chains joined. Factors
that affect proteins depend on physical conditions like PH, salt concentration, and temperature.

If the environment isn't right it will denature or unravel. Chaperoning assist in folding of other
proteins and provide shelter from cytoplasmic influences.

Lipids are not polymers and include: fats, phospholipids, steroids, waxes, and pigments.
It's hydrophobic due to molecular structure that's composed of mostly hydrocarbons. Fats are
composed of a glycerol and fatty acid linked by Este linkages. 3 fatty acids and glycerol makes
triacylglycerol. In general fats have long hydrophobic, non polar HC chain. They are used for
energy storage, cushion, and insulation. Saturated fats have all single bonds between C atoms.
Unsaturated fats have double bonds between C atoms. Phospholipids are made up of two fatty
acids and glycerol. They self assemble into double layers in aqueous solutions. Steroids are

lipids composed of carbon skeleton of four fused rings. Cholesterol is a steroid that keeps
membranes fluid and flexible.