1

winamdebare
zogadi

saswavlo

qimiis

Teoriuli

Teoriul

programiT

sakiTxebi

saxelmZRvaneloSi

gaTvaliswinebuli

(I_dan

XIII

Tavis

ganxilulia

ZiriTadi

sakvanZo

CaTvliT)

naSromi

gaTvaliswinebulia araqimiuri specialobis studentebisaTvis. Ggarda

Teoriuli masalisa naSromi moicavs sakontrolo kiTxvebs, pirveli da
meore reitinguli SefasebisaTvis (XIV_XV) agreTve testur kiTxvars
(XVI). naSroms Tan erTvis danarTebi, agreTve elementTa perioduli
sistemis sxvadasxva variantebi.
vTvliT,

rom

mocemuli

saswavlo

Teoriuli

saxelmZRvanelo

jerovan daxmarebas gauwevs teqnikuri universitetis bakalavriatis

safexurze,

zogadi

(araqimiuri)

fakultetebis

qimiis aTvisebaSi.

recenzenti prof. n. bokuCava

sagamomcemlo saxli teqnikuri universiteti, 2008

ISBN 978-9941-14-065-5
http:|// www.gtu.ge/publishinghouse/

studentebs

zogadi

Sesavali
qimia

farTod uwvdis Tavis xelebs adamians mis saqmianobaSi.

saiTac ar unda mimovixedoT TvalSi gvecema misi warmatebiTi gamoyeneba

_ miuTidebda m.v. lomonosovi jer kidev 1751 wels.
SeuZlebelia

warmovidginoT

sicocxle

qimiisa

da

qimiuri

mrewvelobis gareSe.
qimias SeiZleba vuwodoT
Ggarda

imisa,

rom

qimia

saswaulebriv gardaqmnaTa industria.

swavlobs

bunebaSi

arsebul

nivTierbebs,

Sedgenilobas, aRnagobas, Tvisebebs, maT gardaqmnasa da gardaqmnebis

Tanmxleb movlenebs, agreTve iZleva bunebaSi ar arsebul nivTierebaTa
sinTezirebis saSualebas, romelSic farTod gamoiyeneba yovlisSemZle
manqanebis

da

unikaluri

xelsawyoebis

Sesaqmnelad

tele,

radio,

reketul da kompiuterul teqnikaSi, atomur energetikaSi da sxva.

qimiuri mrewveloba uSvebs sinTezur kauCuks, plastikur masalebs,
xelovnur

boWkos,

xelovnur

saTbobs,

saRebavebs,

samkurnalo

nivTierebebs, mineralul sasuqebs da a. S.

qimiuri

meTodebis

industrializaciis

daxmarebiT

safuZvlis

xdeba

metalebis

nebismieri

qveynis

mopoveba,

tardeba

metalebis dacva koroziisagan, iwarmoeba ZiriTadi qimiuri mrewvelebis

produqtebi _ mJavebi, fuZeebi, marilebi.
qimiis

SesaZlebloba

praqtikulad

amouwuravia.

Mmarto

navTobisagan SeiZleba miviRoT oci aTasze meti organuli nivTiereba,

xolo qvanaxSirisagan gacilebiT meti. Mmravalgvaria misi gamoyeneba
saxalxo

moxmarebis

sagnebis

misaRebad

da

uwinares

yovlisa,

tansacmlisa da fexsacmlis sawarmoeblad. imis gamo, rom msoflio

maStabiT swrafi tebpiT izrdeba qimiuri produqtebis gamoSveba Savi da
feradi metalurgiis, navTobis _ qimiuri da sxva profilis mrewvelobis
sawarmoebSi, am sferoebis nedleulis kompleqsuri gamoyenebis bazaze,
mudmivad farTovdeba qimiis samecniero baza.
Qqimiis Rrma codna sruliad aucilebelia saxalxo meurneobis
yvela sferos specialistisaTvis.

10

Qqimia,

fizikasa

da

maTematikasTan

erTad

Seadgens

maRali

kvalifikaciis specialistTa profesiuli momzadebis safuZvels.

Cvens yovel majiscemas, amosunTqvas, azrovnebis poetur gaelvebas,
xalisianad yofnas Tu ugunebobas, agreTve rTuli qimiuri procesebi
udevs safuZvlad _ zogi Secnobili da zogi jer kidev Seucnobeli.
amitom TiTqos TavisTavad cxadi unda iyos, raoden aucilebelia qimiis
sawyisebis

codna

yoveli

CvenTaganisaTvis.

mogiwodebT

Cveulebrivi

movlenebis arsze dafiqrebisa da Secnobisaken, ra specialobac ar unda

gqondes da vinc ar unda viyoT _ inJineri Tu maswavlebeli, mecnieri Tu
diasaxlisi, jariskaci Tu oficeri, moxuci Tu axalgazrda _ saWiroa
SegveZlos martivi kiTxva mainc dausvaT am yovlisSemZle jadoqars _
qimias _ rogori haeriT visunTqoT (amas codna unda! ), rodis ra wamali
varCioT, ra vWamoT da ra vsvaT? ra CavicvaT da ra davixuroT, rogor
davisvenoT. movisminoT , swored gavigoT misi keTili rCeva da yurad
viRoT igi. Ees bevrad gamogvadgeba Cveni cxovrebis yovel nabijze _
siyrmesa da xandazmulobaSi, kargad yofnisa da avadmyofnobis dros.
qimia

safuZvelia

adamianTa

keTildReobis,

mecnierebisa

da

teqnikis progresisa. Cvens yoveldRiur cxovrebaSi TiToeuli sagani da

bunebis movlena faravs uamrav saocrebas, romelTa arsSi garkveva qimiis
gareSe SeuZlebelia.

11

Tavi I
qimiis ZiriTadi cnebebi da kanonebi
qimia

aris

sabunebismetyvelo

mecniereba,

romelic

Seiswavlis

materiis konkretul saxes nivTierebas, mis Sedgenilobas, aRanagobas,

Tvisebebs, nivTierebaTa gardaqmnas da masTan dakavSirebul energetikul
da sxva movlenebs.
qimiis

gareSe

warmoudgenelia

bunebis

Semswavlel

iseT

mecnierebaTa ganviTareba, rogoricaa biologia, mineralogia, geologia,

metalurgia, medicina, liTonmcodneoba da sxva.
Tanamedrove qimia mWidrodaa dakavSirebuli fizikasTan, romlis
SesaniSnavi

miRwevebi

xels

uwyobs

qimiis

ganviTarebas

da

piriqiT.

xSirad Zneldeba garCeva, sad mTavrdeba qimia da sad iwyeba fizika, ris
gamo am or mecnierebas Soris zRvari nebismieria. amiT aixsneba iseTi
mosazRvre dargebis Camoyalibeba, rogoricaa fizikuri qimia da qimiuri
fizika.
qimiuri elementebi. atomur-molekuluri moZRvrebis TvalsazrisiT
atomTa yovel garkveul saxes qimiuri elementi ewodeba.
atomis

umniSvnelovanes

maxasiaTebels

warmoadgens

atomgulis

dadebiTi muxti, romelic ricxobrivad elementis atomuri nomris tolia.

atomgulis muxti atomTa sxvadasxva saxis ganmasxvavebeli niSania, rac
saSualebas

gvaZlevs

ufro

srulad

gadmovceT

elementis

cnebis

ganmarteba: qimiuri elementi es aris atomTa saxe atomgulis erTnairi

dadebiTi muxtiT.
dReisaTvis
perodulobis

cnobilia

kanonis

118

qimiuri

avtoris

elementi.

pativsacemad

101-e

d.

i.

mendeleevis

qimiur

elements

mendeleviumi Md uwodes. 104-e elementis saxelwodeba aris kurCatoviumi

Ku gamoCenili fizikosis v. i. kurCatovis pativsacemad. kurCatoviumi
aRmoCenil
institutSi,
aRmoCenil

iqna
q.
iqna

1964

wels,

dubnoSi.
105-e

atomguluri
imave

elementic.

gamokvlevebis

institutSi
am

1970

elementis

wlis

gaerTianebul
TebervalSi

pirvelaRmomCnlebma

wamoayenes winadadeba, - misTvis daerqmiaT nilsboriumi XX saukunis

12

gamoCenili fizikosis nils boris pativsacemad. qimiuri niSniT Ns, masuri

ricxviT

261,

magram

dReisaTvis

105-e

elementi

periodul

sistemaSi

dafiqsirebulia dubniumis saxelwodebiT. qimiuri Tvisebebis mixedviT

dubniumi - Db aris niobiumis Nb da tantalis Ta analogi.imave wels q.
dubnoSi

momuSave

fizikosTa

koleqtivis

mier

Catarda

eqperimentTa

cikli 106- da 107-e elementebis sinTezis irgvliv.

yvela

elements

(da

martiv

nivTierebebsac)

Cveulebriv

yofen

metalebad da arametalebad. arametalebi elementebia, romlebic qimiur

reaqciebSi monawileobisas gascemen kidec eleqtronebs da imuxtebian
dadebiTad da iZenen kidec eleqtronebs da imuxtebian uaryofiTad,
xolo metalebi mxolod gascemen eleqtronebs da imuxtebian dadebiTad.
elementebis

mniSvnelovan

maxasiaTebels

warmoadgens

maTi

gavrcelebuloba dedamiwis qerqSi, e.i. miwis zeda myar garsSi, romlis

sisqed pirobiTad miRebulia 16 km. elementebis gavrcelebas dedamiwis
qerqSi swavlobs geoqimia mecniereba dedamiwis qimiis Sesaxeb. rusma
geoqimikosma
qimiuri

a.

p.

vinogradovma

Semadgenlobis

Seadgina

cxrili,

am

dedamiwis

monacemebis

qerqis

saSualo

Tanaxmad

yvelaze

gavrcelebul elementad iTvleba Jangbadi - dedamiwis qerqis masis 47,2%,

Semdeg modis siliciumi 27,6%, alumini 8,80, rkina 5,10, kalciumi
3,6, natriumi 2,64, kaliumi 2,6, magniumi 2,10, wyalbadi 0,15%.
motanili
gavrcelebulia

cifrebidan
ukiduresad

Cans,

rom

dedamiwis

araTanabrad.

qerqSi

elementebi

miTiTebuli

elementi

Seadgens dedamiwis qerqis 99,79%-s, yvela danarCeni mxolod 0,12%,

rogorc pirvelad d. i. mendeleevma daadgina, ufro metad bunebaSi
gavrcelebulia mcire atomuri masis mqone elementebi, organizmebSi
martooden Warboben umsubuqesni (H, C, N, O). kosmosSic agreTve umetesad
gavrcelebulia yvelaze msubuqi elementebi wyalbadi da heliumi.

martivi da rTuli nivTierebebi. martivi nivTiereba es aris

nivTiereba, romelic warmoqmnilia erTi elementis atomebisagan. mag:
martivi

nivTiereba

rkina

Sedgeba

element

rkinis

atomebisagan,

martivi nivTiereba azoti element azotis atomebisagan.

rTuli
romelic

nivTiereba,

warmoqmnilia

anu

qimiuri

sxvadasxva

13

naerTi

elementis

es

aris

atomebisagan.

nivTiereba,
ase

mag.:

spilenZis (II) oqsidi Sedgeba elementebis spilenZisa da Jangbadis

atomebisagan, wyali elementebis wyalbadisa da Jangbadisagan.
martivi
elementis

nivTierebis

cnebasTan.

cneba

martivi

ar

SeiZleba

nivTiereba

gavaigivoT

xasiaTdeba

qimiuri

gansazRvruli

simkvriviT, xsnadobiT, duRilisa da dnobis temperaturiT da sxva. es

Tvisebebi

ekuTvnis

nivTierebisaTvis
atomgulis

atomTa

isini

erTobliobas

sxvadasxvaa.

ganszRvruli

da

qimiuri

dadebiTi

sxvadasxva
elementi

muxtiT

martivi

xasiaTdeba

(atomuri

nomriT),

daJangulobis xarisxiT, izotopuri SedgenilobiT da sxva. elementis

Tvisebebi

miekuTvneba

mis

calkeul

atomebs.

rTuli

nivTierebebi

Sedgebian ara martivi nivTierebebisagan, aramed elementebisagan. mag.:

wyali Sedgeba ara martivi nivTiereba wyalbadisa da martivi nivTiereba
Jangbadisagan, aramed elementi wyalbadisa da elementi Jangbadisagan.
elementebis

saxelwodebebi

emTxveva

Sesabamisi

martivi

nivTierebebis

saxelwodebebs, gamonaklisia naxSirbadi.

alotropia.
martivi

mravali

nivTierebas,

gansxvavdebian.

am

qimiuri

romlebic

movlenas

elementi

agebulebisa

ewodeba

warmoqmnis

da

alotropia,

ramdenime

Tvisebebis
xolo

mixedviT

warmoqmnil

nivTierebebs alotropiuli saxecvlilebani an modifikaciebi. mag.:

elementi Jangbadi warmoqmnis or alotropiul modifikacias: Jangbadi da
ozoni; elementi naxSirbadi xuTs; almasi, grafiti, karbini, grafini da
fulereni. elementi fosforic warmoqmnis ramdenime modifikacias da a.S.
alotropiis movlena gamowveulia ori mizeziT: 1) molekulaSi
atomTa sxvadasxva ricxviT, mag,: Jangbadi O2

da ozoni O3; sxvadasxva

kristaluri formis warmoqmniT, mag: almasi, grafiti, karbini, grafini da

fulereni.

fardobiTi atomuri masa. atomTa masebi metismetad mcirea, magram

kvlevis

Tanamedrove

meTodebi

maTi

didi

sizustiT

gansazRvris

saSualebas iZleva. mag: wyalbadis atomis masa Seadgens 1,674X10-27 kg,

Jangbadis 2,667.10-26, naxSirbadisa 1,993X10-26 kg.
am

ricxvebiT

sargebloba

sxvadasxva

gaangariSebebSi

metad

uxerxulia. amitom iyeneben masis ara absolutur, aramed farTobiT

mniSvnelobas.

fardobiTi

atomuri

masis

erTeulad

1961

wlidan

miRebulia masis atomuri erTeuli (Semoklebulad m. a. e.), romelic

14

warmoadgens

naxSirbad 12-is, e.i. naxSirbadis izotopis

12C

atomis masis

1/12 nawils.
elementis fardobiTi atomuri masa ewodeba misi atomis masas,
romelic gamosxulia masis atomur erTeulebSi (aRiniSneba Ar-iT, indeqsi
r aris inglisuri sityvis relative fardobiTi sawyisi aso).
elementis fardobiTi atomuri masa (an ubralod atomuri masa)
gviCvnebs, ramdenjer metia mocemuli elementis atomis masa naxSirbad
12-is atomis masis 1/12 nawilze.
Ar-is

mniSvnelobebi

motanilia

d.

i.

mendeleviis

elementTa

periodul sistemaSi.
fardobiTi molekuluri masa. fardobiTi molekuluri masebi, iseve
rogorc

atomuri,

gamoisaxebian

masis

atomur

erTeulebSi

(m.

a.

e.).

nivTierebis fardobiTi molekuluri masa (martivad molekuluri masa)

Mr ewodeba mis molekulur masas, gamosaxuls masis atomur erTeulebSi.
molekuluri masa ricxobrivad udris nivTierebebis molekulis
SedgenilobaSi myofi yvela atomis fardobiTi atomuri masebis jams. is
namdvilad iangariSeb nivTierebis formulis mixedviT. mag: MrH2O iqneba

2Ar H=2.1,00797=2,01594
Ar O=1 . 15,9994=15,9994
Mr H2O=2,01594 + 15,9994 = 18,01534
masSasadame,

wylis

molekuluri

masa

tolia

18,01534,

anu

damrgvalebiT 18 m. a. e.
molekuluri
nivTirebis

masa

gviCvenebs,

Tu

ramdenjer

metia

mocemuli

molekulis masa naxSirbad 12-is atomis masis 1/12 nawilze.

Cvens magaliTSi wylis molekulis masa 18-jer aRemateba naxSirbad 12is atomis masis 1/12-s. molekuluri masa nivTierebis erT-erTi ZiriTadi
maxasiaTebelia.
moli.

erTeulTa

saerTaSoriso

sistemaSi

(si)

nivTierebis

raodenobis erTeulad miRebulia moli. moli es aris nivTierebis

raodenoba, romelic Seicavs imden struqturul erTeuls (molekulas,
atoms, ions, eleqtrons an sxvas), ramden atomsc Seicavs

12C

naxSirbadis

izotopis 0,012 kg.

viciT ra 1 atomi naxSirbadis

12C

masa (1,993 . 10-26 kg), advilad

gamoiTvleba atomTa ricxvi Na 0.012 kg naxSirbadSi:

15

0.012 kg/moli

Na =

nebismieri

1,993 . 10-26kg

nivTierebis

moli

6,02 . 1023 1/moli

Seicavs

nawilakTa

erTnair

raodenobas. igi tolia 6,02 . 1023-isa da mas avogadros mudmiva ewodeba

(aRiniSneba Na). cxadia, 2 moli naxSirbadi Seicavs 2.6,02
.

moli 3.6,02

1023 atoms, 3

1023 atoms da a. S.

nivTierebis masas, aRebuls 1 molis raodenobiT, ewodeba moluri

masa. mas gamosaxaven kg/moliT an g/moliT da Cveulebriv aRniSnaven M
asoTi.
nivTierebis moluri masis gamoTvla advilia, viciT ra molekulis
masa. mag: Tu wylis molekulis masa tolia 2,99
moluri masa MH2O=2,99
nivTierebis

moluri

10-26 kgX6,02
masa,

10-26 kg-isa, maSin misi

1023 1/mols, anu 18 g/mols. zogadad,

gamosaxulia

gramebSi,

ricxobrivad

misi

fardobiTi molekuluri (atomuri) masis tolia. mag: C, Fe, O2, H2O is

fardobiTi atomuri da molekuluri masebi Sesabamisad tolia 12,56,32,18
da maTi moluri masebi Seadgens 12,56,32,18 g/mols.
nivTierebis masa da raodenoba sxvadasxva cnebebia. masa gamoisaxeba
kilogramebSi (gramebSi), xolo nivTierebis raodenoba molebSi. mag:
wyalbadis fardobiTi molekuluri masa Mr, H2 tolia 2,0158-is, xolo misi
fardobiTi atomuri masa Ar,H tolia 1,0079-is. nivTierebis raodenoba,
struqturuli erTeulebis ricxviTY gansazRvruli, orive SemTxvevaSi
erTnairia (Na) 1 moli. magram molekuluri wyalbadis moluri masa
tolia 0,0020158 kg/molis, anu 2,0158 g/ molis, xolo atomuri wyalbadis
moluri masa tolia 0,0010079 jg/molis, anu 1,0079 g/molis.
qimiuri niSnebi, formulebi da gantolebebi. miRebulia elementebis
gamosaxva

qimiuri

niSnebiT,

romlebic

Sedgeba

elementis

laTinuri

sxelwodebis pirveli an pirveli da momdevno asosagan. mag: wyalbadis

laTinuri

saxelwodebaa

Hydrogenium, aRiniSneba

asoTi,

Jangbadi

Oxigenium O, alumini Alumini > um AI, rkina Ferrum Fe, TuTia Zincum
Zn da a. S.
qimiuri niSani aRniSnavs: 1) elementis saxelwodebas; 2) elementis 1
atoms; 3) misi atomebis 1 mols; 4) elementis fardobiT atomur masas; 5)
atomur nomers. mag: niSani AI gviCvenebs rom: 1) es aris alumini; 2) misi
16

erTi

atomi;

3)

aluminis

atomebis

moli;

4)

aluminis

fardobiTi

atomuri masa Ar=27 (damrgvalebiT) m.a.e, 5) atomuri nomeri 13.

rTul nivTierebaTa Sedgeniloba gamoisaxeba qimiuri formulebis
saSualebiT. qimiuri formula gviCvenebs 1) nivTierebis saxelwodebas; 2)
mis 1 molekulas; 3) nivTierebis erT mols; 4) romeli elementisagan
Sedgeba nivTiereba; 5) TiToeuli elementis atomTa ramden mols Seicavs
nivTierebis 1 moli; 6) nivTierebis fardobiT molekulur masas.
mag: formula H2SO4 gviCvenebs, rom 1) es aris gogirdis mJava; ,2)
misi erTi molekula; 3) 1 moli gogirdmJava; 4) gogirdis mJava Sedgeba
sami elementisagan wyalbadis, gogirdisa da Jangbadisagan; 5) 1 mol
gogirdmJavaSi Sedis 2 wyalbadis atomTa 2 moli, gogirdis atomTa 1
moli da Jangbadis atomTa 4 moli; 6) fardobiT molekuluri masa tolia
98-is, e.i. 2

1+32+4.16=98 m. a. e.

formulebiT

aRiniSneba

martiv

nivTierebaTa

molekulebic,

Tu

cnobilia, ramdeni atomisagan Sedgeba molekula. mag: H2, O2, F2. magram Tu
martiv nivTierebas aqvs atomuri, anu metaluri struqtura, an Tu ar
aris cnobili molekulis atomuri Sedgeniloba, maSin mas gamosaxaven
elementis qimiuri niSniT. mag: He, Si, AI.
qimiuri gantoleba gamoisaxeba qimiuri formulebisa da qimiuri
niSnebis

saSualebiT.

yoveli

romlebic

SeerTebulia

reaqciaSi

Sesul

Sedegad

gantoleba

tolobis

nivTierebaTa

warmoqmnil

Sedgeba

niSniT.

formulebs,

nivTierebaTa

ori

marcxena

nawilisagan,

mxareSi

marjvenaSi

formulebs.

TiToeuli

weren

reaqciis
elementis

atomTa ricxvi gantolebis marcxena da marjvena nawilebSi unda iyos

erTnairi.

am

mosazrebiT

xelmZRvaneloben

qimiuri

reaqciebis

gantolebebis Sedgenisas.
magaliTis saxiT SevadginoT reaqciis gantoleba spilenZis (II)
oqsidis

urTierTqmedebisa

marilmJavasTan.

amisaTvis

aucilebelia

SevadginoT am reaqciis sqema (daiweros reaqciaSi monawile da reaqciis

Sedegad warmoqmnil nivTierebaTa formulebi): CuO+HCI = CuCI2+H2O. isari
uCvenebs reaqciis mimarTulebas. imisaTvis, rom gantolebis marcxena da
marjvena nawilSi spilenZis, Jangbadis, wyalbadisa da qloris atomTa
ricxvi erTnairi iyos, HCIis win unda davweroT koeficienti 2; CuO+HCI

17

1/2 CuCI2+1/2 H2O. am SemTxvevaSic is agreTve swori iqneba, ramdenadac

daculia

nivTierebis

masis

mudmivvobis

kanoni.

qimiur

gantolebebSi

koeficienti 1 Cveulebriv ar ixmareba.

rogorc

Cans,

koeficientebis

SerCeva

qimiur

gantolebebSi

xorcieldeba martivi msjelobiT imis Semdeg, rac daiwereba reaqciis

sqema.

e.w.

Jangva-aRdgeniTi

raqciebis

gantolebebis

koeficientebis

spovnelad xelsayrelia visargebloT gansakuTrebuli meTodebiT.

qimiuri

formulebisa

da

gantolebebis

mixedviT

awarmoeben

sxvadasxva raodenobriv gamoTvlebs, romlebic aucilebelia samrewvelo

da sasoflo-sameurneo sawarmoebSi, agreTve laboratoriul praqtikaSi.
valentoba. qimiuri formulis sworad dawerisaTvis unda vicodeT
elementTa

valentoba

an

mocemuli

elementis

atomTa

elementis

atomTa

gansazRvruli

miRebulia

wyalbadis

daJangulobis
unars

atomis

xarisxi.

miierTos
ricxvi.

valentoba
an

Caanacvlos

valentobis

valentoba.

is

ewodeba
sxva

erTeulad

yvela

naerTSi

erTvalentiania. Tu elementis atomi ierTebs wyalbadis 1 atoms, maSin es

elementi iTvleba erTvalentianad, Tu ierTebs wyalbadis 2 atoms
orvalentianad,

Tu

3-s

-3

valentianad

da

a.S.

elementis

valentoba

SeiZleba ganvsazRvroT sxva elementebTan kavSirSi, romelTa valentoba

cnobilia. mag: Tu cnobilia, rom qlori erTvalentiania, maSin naerTebSi
NaCI, CaCI2, FeCI3, CCI4, PCI5 natriumi erTvalentiania, kalciumi 2, rkina
3,

naxSirbadi

4,

fosfori

valentiani.

8-ze

meti

valentoba

aRmoCenili ar aris.
naTqvamidan
naerTis

gamomdinareobs,

formulis

mixedviT,

rom

Tu

ori

elementisagan

erT-erTi

elementis

Semdgari
valentoba

cnobilia, ganisazRvreba meore elementis valentobac.

amJamad

valentobis

cneba

metad

gafarTovda.

valentobas

ukavSireben atomebs Soris molekulaSi qimiuri bmis bunebas. amitom mas

gansazRvraven rogorc ricxvs eleqtronuli wyvilisa (bmaTa ricxvi),
romliTac mocemuli atomi SeerTebulia sxva atomTan.
Sebrunebuli amocana qimiuri formulebis Sedgena valentobis
mixedviT

dafuZnebulia

imaze,

rom

ori

elementisagan

Semdgar

nivTierebaTa yvela formulaSi erTi elementis atomTa ricxvis namravli

18

mis valentobaze tolia meore elementis valentobisa da atomTa ricxvis

namravlisa.
vTqvaT, saWiroa SevadginoT naerTis formula, romelic Seicavs
alumins

(samvalentiani)

Jangbads

(orvalentiani).

cxadia,

aluminis

atomTa ricxvis namravli mis valentobaze (3) toli unda iyos Jangbadis
atomTa

ricxvisa

da

valentobis

(2)

namravlisa.

oeive

elementis

valentobebis umciresi jeradi iqneba 6. Tu am ricvs gavyofT 3-ze

(aluminis

valentobaze),

maSin

miviRebT

aluminis

atomTa

ricxvs,

romelic tolia oris; Tu umcires jerads gavyofT 2-ze (Jangbadis

valentobaze), masin miviRebT Jangbadis atomTa ricxvs, romelic tolia 3is. naerTis formula iqneba AI2O3.
Zalian xSirad molekulebis formulebi gamoisaxeba grafikulad.
avxsnaT,

rogor

xdeba

es.

elementebis

valentoba

aRiniSneba

xaziT.

xazebis ricxvi, romlebic gamodian elementebis qimiuri niSnidan, misi

valentobis tolia, mag: H_, CI_,O=,AI ,=C= da a.S. ramdenadac molekulaSi
Tavisufali valentobebi ar aris, saWiroa ise SevadginoT formula, rom
erTi

elementis

elementis

valentobebis

valentobis

(xazebi)

ricxvi

(xazebi)

ricxvs.

amis

Seesabamebodes
Semdeg

meore

SesaerTebeli

atomebis xazebi iqcevian serTo xazebad. mag:

H_ + _CI
2H_ + =O

H_CI (HCI)
H_O_H (H2O)

rogorc vxedavT, HCI-is molekulaSi (grafikuli gamosaxuleba HCI) yoveli SeerTebuli atomi amJRavnebs valentobis TiTo erTeuls (erTi
xazi), meore naerTSi (H-O-H) wyalbadis ori atomi da Jangbadis erTi
atomi amJRavnebs or-or valentobas (ori xazi). molekulaSi sxvadasxva
atomebis valentobebi urTierTgajerebulia (ar arsebobs Tavisufali
xazebi).
analogiurad gamoisaxebian, mag: nivTierebaTa P2O5, Fe (OH)3, H3BO3
formulebi (saWiroa viswavloT aseTi formulebis wera Seucdomlad):
O

O
O= p_ O_ p=O

Fe

O-H
OH
O-H

19

H _O
H _O
H _O

qimiis Seswavlisas xSirad sargebloben molekulebis modelebiT.

maTi saSualebiT TvalsaCinod gamosaxaven atomTa Soris kavSirebs da
maT urTierTganlagebas.
ufro metad gavrcelebulia modelis ori tipi: burTulRerovani da
masStaburi.
meSveobiT,

pirvelSi,
romlebic

burTula-atomebi
gamosaxaven

plastelinis

burTulebi

molekulebis

sivrceebis

SeerTebulia

savalento

SeWyletilia
amovsebas.

kavSirebs,

erTimeoreSi
orive

meoreSi

da

modeli

Reroebis

gamosaxavs
TvalsaCinod

gadmoscems molekulis formas. wylis, amiakis da meTanis molekulebis

modelebi warmodgenilia naxazze.
molekulebis
grafikuli
formulebis
dawera,
maTi
modelebis
Seqmna
metad
mniSvnelovania,
vinaidan
molekulis
agebulebaze
damokidebulia
misi
qimiuri
Tvisebebi.
yvelaferi
es
metyvelebs
qimiaSi
atomurmolekulur
moZRvrebis
gamoyenebis udides mniSvnelobaze.
Formulebis
gamosaxvis
grafikuli
meTodi
aadvilebs
valentobis
gagebas
da
mis
Segnebul gamoyenebas.

qimiuiri
cvlilebebs.

reaqciebi.
mag.,

magniumi

yvela

nivTiereba

dawvisas

ganicdis

gardaiqmneba

sxvadasxvagvar

magneziad,

wyali

gaxurebisas gardaiqmneba orTqlad. movlenebs, rodesac erTi nivTiereba

gardaiqmneba

sxva

nivTierebebisagan

nivTierebad,
SedgenilobiTa

romlebic
da

gansxvavdebian

TvisebebiT,

qimiuri

gamosavali
movlenebi

ewodeba. isini metad gavcelebulni arian da maT vxvdebiT yovel nabijze:

rkinis Jangva, metalebis miReba madnebidan, dnoba, wva.
movlenebs, romelTa dros icvleba nivTierebis forma an fizikuri
mdgomareoba,

fizikuri

movlena

ewodeba.
20

fizikuri

movlenis

dros

nivTierebis

Sedgeniloba

ar

icvleba,

e.i.

axali

nivTierebebi

ar

warmoiqmnebian. mag: mavTulis moRunva, rkinis Wedva, marilis msxvreva,

metalebis

dnoba

da

a.S.

qimiuri

movlenebi

Cveulebriv

Tan

axlavs

fizikurs. mag: naxSiris wvisas gamoiyofa siTbo, akumulatorSi qimiuri

procesebis Sedegad aRiZvreba eleqtruli deni.
qimiur

movlenebs

sxvanairad

qimiur

gardaqmnebs,

anu

qimiur

reaqciebs uwodeben. misi arsi daiyvaneba gamosaval nivTierebebSi bmebis

gawyvetamde da reaqciis produqtebSi axali bmebis aRZvramde. am dros
yoveli elementis atomTa saerTo ricxvi reaqciamde da reaqciis Semdeg
rCeba mudmivi. qimiuri reaqciebis Sedegad warmoiqmnebian rogorc martivi
nivTierebebi, ise naerTebi.
qimiuri reaqciebis klasifikacias axdenen gansxvavebuli Tvisebebis
mixedviT.
1.

siTbos

gamoyofis

an

STanTqmis

mixedviT

raqciebs

yofen

egzoTermul da endoTermul reaqciebad.

egzoTermulia
gamoyofiT.

mag:

iseTi

reaqcia,

qlorwyalbadis

romelic

warmoqmnis

mimdinareobs
raqcia

siTbos

wyalbadisa

da

qlorisagan:

endoTermulia

H2+CI2=2HCI,

H= _ 92,3 kj/moli.

iseTi

romelic

reaqcia,

mimdinareobs

garemodan

siTbos STanTqmiT. mag: azotis (II) oqsidis warmoqmnis reaqcia azotisa

da Jangbadisagan, romelic mimdinareobs maRal temperaturaze:
N2+O2-2NO, H=90,4 kj.moli.
raqciis Sedegad gmoyofili
ewodeba

raqciis

siTburi

an STanTqmuli energiis raodenobas

efeqti.

qimiis

ganyofilebas,

romelic

Seiswavlis sxvadasxva procesebis siTbur efeqtebs, Termoqimia ewodeba.

qimiur

gantolebebs,

romlebSic

motanilia

reaqciis

siTburi

efeqtebi, ewodeba Termoqimiuri gantolebebi.

ramdenadac reaqciis siTburi efeqti damokidebulia temperaturisa
da wnevisgan, amitom SeTanxmebiT igi miakuTvnes wnevas p=101325 pk, anu100
kpk (p=1 atm, anu 760 mm vercxliswylis svetis), da temperaturas 298 K, anu
ufro zustad 298,15 K (250C). Termoqimiur gantolebebSi, rogorc wesi,
mieTiTeba moreagire nivTierebaTa mdgomareoba: kristaluri (k), Txevadi
(T), gazobrivi (g), gaxsnili (gax) da sxva. miRebulia, siTburi efeqti
21

aRiniSnos H-iT (ikiTxeba delta aS), gamoisaxos kilojoulebSi (kj)

da miekuTvnos nivTierebis (Cveulebriv reaqciis produqtis) 1 mols.
endoTermuli procesebisTvis siTburi efeqtis niSani iTvleba dadebiTad
(siTbo STainTqmeba,

H>O),

xolo

uaryofiTad (siTbos gamoyofa,

yovel

nivTierebas

egzoTermuli

procesebisaTvis

H<O).
gaaCnia

gansazRvruli

enTalpia

(siTboSemcvleloba). enTalpia (aRiniSneba H asoTi) es aris energiis

raodenoba, romelic grovdeba nivTierebaSi misi warmoqmnisas.
reaqciis

siTburi

efeqti

warmoadgens

reaqciis

saboloo

produqtebisa da sawyis (moreagire) nivTierebaTa enTalpiis sxvaobas, e. i.

H = Hsab. _ Hsawy.

(1.1)

amaSia H sididis fizikuri azri (aq berZnuli aso delta niSnavs

sxvaobas). amitom Cveulebriv, laparakoben reaqciis Aara siTbur efeqtze,
aramed enTalpiis H cvlilebaze.
naTqvamis

Tanaxmad,

Sesabamisi

martivi

nivTierebebisagan

qlor-

wyalbadis warmoqmnis (egzoTermuli raqcia) da azotis (II) oqsidis

warmoqmnis (endoTermili reaqcia) Termoqimiuri gantolebebi ase iwereba:
H2(g)+CI2(g)=2HCI(g), H=_92,3 kj/moli,
anu
1/2H2(g)+1/2CI2=HCI(g), H= - 92,3 kj,
N2(g)+O2(g),=2NO(g), H=90,4 kj/moli,
anu
1/2N2(g)+1/2O2(g)=NO(g), H=90,4 kj.
es gantolebebi moaswavebs, rom gazobrivi wyalbadis 0,5 molis da
0,5 moli gazobrivi qloris gardaqmnis 1 mol gazobrivi qlor-wyalbadad
p=100 kpk da T=298K-is dros Tan axlavs 92,3 kj siTbos gamoyofa, xolo
0,5 moli gazobrivi azotisa da 0,5 moli gazobrivi Jangbadisagan 1 mol
gazobriv azots (II) oqsidad gardaqmnis p=100 kpk da T=298 K-s dros 90,4
kj siTbos STanTqma.
qimiuri

reaqciis

siTbos

zomaven

kalorimetrebis meSveobiT.

22

specialuri

xelsawyoebis

2. Seqcevadobis mixedviT reaqciebi iyofian Seqcevad da Seuqcevad

reaqciebad.
3.

moreagire

nivTierebaTa

SemadgnelobaSi

myofi

atomebis

daJangulobis xarisxis cvlilebebis mixedviT yvela reaqcia iyofa: 1)

atomTa

daJangulobis

xarisxis

Seucvlelad

mimdinare

reaqciebad.

(mimocvlis reaqciebi) da 2) daJangulobis xarisxis cvlilebiT mimdinare

reaqciebad (Jangva aRdgeniTi reaqciebi).

qimiis ZiriTadi kanonebi

(steqiometriuli kanonebi)
steqiometria es aris qimiis ganyofileba, romelSic ganixileba
moreagire

nivTierebaTa

Soris

masuri

da

moculobiTi

Sefardeba,

berZnuli sityva steqiometria qarTulad niSnavs: Semadgenel

nawils vzomav.
steqiometriis

safuZvels

Seadgenen

steqiometriuli

kanonebi:

nivTierebis masis mudmivobis, Sedgenilobis mudmivobis, ekvivalentebis,

jerad

SefaradebaTa,

moculobiT

SefardebaTa

da

avogadrosi.

maT

daamtkices atomur molekuluri moZRvreba axali qimiis safuZvlebi.

Tavis mxriv, atomur molekuluri moZRvreba xsnis steqiometriul
kanonebs.
nivTierebis masis mudmivobis kanoni. m. v. lomonosovma jer Teoria
wamoayena

(1748),

nivTierebaTa

xolo

masis

formulirdeba:

Semdeg

mudmivobis

qimiur

reaqciaSi

eqsperimentalurad
kanoni.

amJamad

monawile

daasabuTa
igi

nivTierebis

(1756)

Semdegnairad
masa

tolia

reaqciis Sedegad warmoqmnili nivTierebis masisa.

ufro

gvian

frangi

qimikosi

lavuazie,

romelmac

Seiswavla

metalTa daJangvis zogierTi reaqcia, mivida imave daskvnamde da m. v.

lomonosovisagan damoukideblad formulireba misca am kanons (1789).
atomur molekuluri moZRvrebis TvalsazrisiT nivTierebis masis
mudmivobis kanonis arsi imaSi mdgomareobs, rom qimiuri reqciebis dros
atomebi ar qrebian da ar warmoiqmnebian arafrisagan raqciamde da
reaqciis Semdeg maTi raodenoba rCeba ucvleli. ramdenadac atomebs aqvT
mudmivi

masa

da

maTi

raodenoba

reaqciis

Sedegad

ar

nivTierebis masa reaqciamde da reaqciis Semdeg rCeba mudmivi.

23

icvleba,

m. v. lomonosovma daakavSira nivTierebis masis mudmivobis kanoni

energiis (moZraobis raodenobis) mudmivobis kanonTan da maT ganixilavda
erTianobaSi rogorc bunebis sayovelTao kanons, romelsac 1748 wels
Semdegnairi formulireba misca: bunebaSi momxdari yvela cvlileba
iseTia, rom ramdenic erT sxeuls akldeba, imdenive meores emateba, e.i.
Tu marteriam raime moiklo, igive emateba meore adagilas. bunebis es
sayovelTao kanoni vrceldeba TviT moZraobis wesebSic: radgan sxeuli,
romelic

Tavisi

ZaliT

sxvas

amoZravebs,

kargavs

imdens,

ramdensac

aniWebs sxvas, romelic misgan moZraobs.

amgvarad,

nivTierebis

masis

mudmivobis

kanoni

da

energiis

mudmivobis kanoni es aris bunebis erTiani kanoni, kanonis ori mxare

materiisa da misi moZraobis maradisoba.
Tanamedrove mecnierebam daadastura lomonosovis daskvnebi, masisa
da

energiis

urTierTkavSiri

(igi

ganixileba

fizikaSi)

gamoisaxeba

ainStainis gantolebiT:

E=mc2,
sadac E aris energia, m masa, c sinaTlis siCqare sicarieleSi.
C=3 . 1010 sm/wm.
masis mudmivobis kanoni warmoadgens sxvadasxva nivTierebebs Soris
mimdinare reaqciebis Seswavlis safuZvels: misgan gamomdinare, SeiZleba
SevadginoT

qimiuri

gaangariSebani:

gantolebebi

igi

warmoadgens

da

maTi

raodenobiTi

mixedviT

vawarmooT

qimiuri

analizis

safuZvels.
Sedgenilobis mudmivobis kanoni. yovel sufTa nivTierebas misi
miRebis gzebisagan damoukideblad yovelTvis aqvs mudmivi TvisebiTi da
raodenobiTi Sedgeniloba aseTia Sedgenilobis mudmivobis kanonis
formulireba.
magaliTis
wyalbadisa

da

saxiT

ganvixiloT

Jangbadisagan

wylis

(TvisebiTi

Sedgeniloba:

Sedgeniloba),

igi

Sedgeba

amasTan,

masis

mixedviT, wyalSi wyalbadi Sedis 11,19%, Jangbadi 88,81%, (raodenobiTi

Sedgeniloba). wyali SeiZlevba miviRoT sxvadasxva gziT: wyalbadisa da
Jangbadisagan

sinTeziT,

neitralizaciis

reaqciiT,

kristalohidratebisgan da sxva. yvela SemTxvevaSi sufTa wyals, miRebis

xerxisagan

damoukideblad,

aqvs

zemoT
24

moyvanili

Sedgeniloba.

Sedgenilobis mudmivobis kanons pirvelad formulireba misca frangma

mecnierma prustma (1808).
qimiis

Semdgomma

ganviTarebam

gviCvena,

rom

arsebobs

rogorc

mudmivi, aseve cvalebadi Sedgenilobis mqone naerTebi. akademikos n. s.

kurnakovis winadadebiT, pirveli saxis naerTebs ewodeba daltonidebi
(ingliseli fizikosisa da qimikosis daltonis pativsacemad), meores
berTolidebi (frangi qimikosis barToles pativsacemad, romelmac
gaiTvaliswina aseTi naerTebi). daltonidebis Sedgeniloba gamoisaxeba
martivi formulebiT mTelricxva steqiometriuli indeqsebiT, mag: H2O,
HCI, CH4, C6H6. berTolidebis Sedgeniloba icvleba da ar upasuxebs
steqiometriul fardobas; berTolidebs aqvT wiladi steqiometriuli
indeqsebi. mag: titanis (II) oqsids sinamdvileSi aqvs Sedgeniloba TiO0.7dan TiO1.3-mde, xolo TiO2-is Sedgeniloba icvleba TIO1.9-dan TIO2. 0-mde
(sinTezis pirobebisagan damokidebulebiT). cirkoniumis nitridisaTvis
cnobilia naerTebi SedgenilobiT ZrNo. 59, ZrN0. 69, ZrNo, 74, ZrNo. 89. berTolidebi
gavrcelebulia oqsidebs, hidridebs, sulfidebs, nitridebs, karbidebs,
solicidebsa da sxva kristalur araorganul naerTebs Soris..
amasTan

dakavSirebiT

Sedgenilobis

mudmivobis

kanonis

formulirebaSi saWiroa SevitanoT dazusteba. molekuluri struqturis

naerTebis

Sedgeniloba

mudmivia

maTi

miRebis

xerxebisagan

damoukideblad. aramolekuluri struqturis naerTebis Sedgeniloba ki

damokidebulia miRebis pirobebze (mag: titanis (II) oqsidis Sedgeniloba
Jangbadis wnevasa da temperaturaze).
saWiroa

agreTve

angariSi

gaewios

elementebis

izotopur

Sedgenilobas: Cveulebrivi wyali, mag: Seicavs 11,19% wyalbads, xolo

mZime wyali 20%.
ekvivalentebis
mtkiced

kanoni.

ganszRvruli

elementebi

raodenobiTi

erTmaneTTan

TanafardobiT.

urTierTqmedeben
ase

mag:

moli

wyalbadis atomebisa (1,0079 g) unaSTod uerTdeba qloris atomTa 1 mols

(35,453 g), natriumis atomTa 1 mols (22,9898 g). es masuri raodenobebi
erTmaneTis ekvivalenturia (tolfasia).
elementis

qimiuri

ekvivalenti

ewodeba

romelic uerTdeba wyalbadis atomTa 1 mols

Caenacvleba wyalbadis atomTa igive raodenobas.
25

mis

iseT

raodenobas,

an qimiur reaqciebSi

ekvivalenturi masa es aris nivTierebis 1 ekvivalentis masa

(ganzomileba

g/moli).

Cvens

magaliTSi

qlorisa

da

natriumis

ekvivalenturi masebi Sesabamisad tolia 34,453 da 22,9898 g/molis.

mocemul naerTSi elementis ekvivalentur masas , atomebis molur
masas A da steqiometriul valentobas V Soris arsebobs damokidebuleba

=A/V.
am
masis

formulis

Teoriuli

mixedviT

ganisazRvreba

mniSvneloba.

mag:

elementis

ekvivalenturi

Al AI2O3-Si=26,9815

g/moli/3=8,9938

g/moli;
ca CaSO4-Si=40,08 g/moli/2=20,04 g/moli; Na NaCI-Si=22,9898 g/moli/1=22,9898
g/moli.
zemoT aRniSnuli damokidebulebis analizi gviCvenebs, rom atomuri
da

molekuluri

warmoadgens

masebisagan

mudmiv

gansxvavebiT

sidides;

igi

qimiuri

ekvivalenti

damokidebulia

ar

valentobaze.

ekvivalentis mudmivi mniSvneloba SeZileba hqoondes mxolod mudmivi

valentobis mqone elementebs.
ekvivalentis cnebas qimiaSi aqvs didi mniSvneloba, ramdenadac misi
saSualebiT

formulirdeba

qimiis

erT-erTi

ZiriTadi

kanoni

ekvivalentebis kanoni: nivTierebebi erTamaneTs Soris urTierTqmdeben

maTi qimiuri ekvivalentebis proporciuli raodenobebiT. es niSnavs:
imisaTvis, rom nivTierebebi unaSTod reagirebdnen erTmaneTTan, isini
unda

aviRoT

unaSTod

ekvivalenturi

reagirebs

35,4609

raodenobiT.
g/

mol

mag:

8,9938

qlorTan

anu

g/moli

alumini

36,4609

g/moli

marilmJavasTan; 17,9876 g/moli alumini reagirebs 70,906 g/mol qlorTan,

anu 72,9218 g/mol marilmJavasTan.
atomur molekuluri moZRvrebis meSveobiT ekvivalentebis kanoni
advilad aixsneba. qimiur reaqciebSi erTi nivTierebis atomebi uerTdeba
meore nivTierebis atomTa ganszRvrul ricxvs, da ramdenadac yoveli
atomi

xasiaTdeba

nivTierebaTa

mudmivi

masuri

atomuri

Tanafardoba

masiT,

reaqciaSi

erTmaneTs

monawile

Soris

mtkiced

gansazRvrulia da tolfasi (ekvivalenturia).

aramolekuluri
steqiometriul

agebulebis

indeqsebs

naerTebSi,

Seicaven,

Semadgeneli

romlebic

wiladur

elementebis

masuri

raodenobani maTi ekvivalentebis mniSvnelobebisagan gansxvavebuli iqneba.

26

ase, mag: titanis (II) oqsidis misaRebad, SedgenilobiTi TiO, titanis

ekvivalenturi masa 47,9/2, anu 23,95 g/moli reagirebs 8 g/mol JangbadTan,
xolo titanis (II) oqsidSi, SedgenilobiT TiO0.7 . igive 23,95 g/moli titani
reagirebs 16

0,7/2, anu 5,6 g/mol JangbadTan, e.i. mis 8-5,6=2,4 g/moliT

nakleb ekvivalentur masasTan.

jerad SefardebaTa kanoni. or elements SeuZlia erTamaneTTan
warmoqmnas ramdenime naerTi. mag: azotis oqsidebi: N2O, NO, N2O3, NO2, N2O5.
maTSi Jangbadis raodenoba, romelic modis azotis erTsa da imave
raodenobaze, ise Seefardeba erTmaneTs, rogorc 0.57 : 1,14 : 1,71 : 2,28 :
2,85, anu 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : 5. es faqti gamogvadgeba jerad SefardebaTa kanonis
sailustraciod: Tu ori elementi erTmaneTTan warmoqmnis ramdenime
naerTs,
uerTdeba

maSin

erTi

meore

elementis

elementis

masuri

erTsa

da

raodenobebi,
imave

masur

romliTac
raodenobas,

is
ise

Seefardebian erTamaneTs, rogorc martivi mTeli ricxvebi.

daltonis

mier

1803

wels

aRmoCenilma

am

kanonma

daadastura

atomistikuri warmodgenebi. marTlac, elementebis umciresi raodenoba,

romelic Sedis naerTSi, aris atomi. naerTSi SeiZleba monawileobdes
atomTa mxolod mTeli ricxvi da ara wiladi. jerad SefardebaTa
kanonidan

SeiZleba

(daltonidebis)

gavakeToT

Sedgeniloba

ori

icvleba

daskvna

:1)

nivTierebaTa

naxtomiseburad,

ramdenadac

naerTSi Sedian atomTa mTeli ricxvebi; 2) raodenoba gadadis TvisebaSi,

es , engelsis gamoTqmiT, aris bunebis, sazogadoebis da azrovnebis
ganviTarebis

sayovelTao

kanoni.

marTlac,

rogor

gansxvvdeba

N2O

(malxeni airi) N2O5-isagan (TeTri feris adviladSladi kristaluri

nivTiereba). sxvaTa Soris, - SeniSnavs engelsi, - mTeli gansxvaveba maT
Soris Sedgenilobis mixedviT imaSi mdgomareobs, rom meore sxeulSi 5jer meti Jangbadia, vidre pirvelSi.
sayovelTao

kanonidan

gamomdinare,

engelsma

mogvca

qimiis

Semdegnairi ganmarteba: qimias SeiZleba ewodos mecniereba sxeulTa

Tvisebrivi cvlilebebis Sesaxeb, romelic mimdinareobs Sedgenilobis
raodenobrivi cvlilebebis gavleniT.
jerad fardobaTa kanoni, rogorc Sedgenilobis mudmivobis kanoni,
samarTliania mxolod gazobriv da orTqlisebr mdgomareobaSi myofi
nivTierebisTvis.

aramolekuluri

struqturis
27

naerTebisTvis

erTi

elementis masuri raodenoba, romelic uerTdeba meore elementis erTsa

da

imave

wiladi

raodenobas,
ricxvebi.

Sedgenilobis

SeiZleba

amas

aqvs

Seefardebodnen
adgili

TiO0,7-dan

oqsidebSi

mag:

TiO1,3-mde.

erTmaneTs

titanis
magram

rogorc

gardamavali

steqiometriuli

Sedgenilobis oqsidebisaTvis TiO, Ti2O3 (TiO1,5) da TiO2igi Seadgens rogorc

2 : 3 : 4.
martiv

moculobaTa

fardobis

kanoni.

martivi

nivTierebebi

da

qimiuri naerTebi SeiZleba imyofebodnen sam mdgomareobaSi: kristalur,

Txevad

da

gazobrivSi.

nivTierebis

agregatuli

mdgomareoba

ganisazRvreba temperaturiT da wneviT.

gasul

saukuneSi

umeteswilad

Seswavlil

iqna

gazobriv

nivTierebaTa Soris qimiuri reaqciebi. frangma qimikosma gei-lusakma 18051808

wlebSi

Caatara

mravalricxovani

cdebi

gazobriv

nivTierebaTa

Soris mimdinare reaqciebis Seswavlis mizniT da aRmoaCina moculobaTa

fardobis

kanoni:

reaqciaSi

Sesuli

gazebis

moculobebi,

agreTve

miRebul gazobriv produqtTa moculobebi ise Seefardebian erTamneTs,

rogorc martivi mTeli ricxvebi. am dros igulisxmeba, rom gazebis
yvela moculoba dayvanilia erTanair temperaturamde da wnevamde. mag: 1
l wyalbadi uerTdeba 1 l qlors da warmoiqmneba 2 l qlorwyalbadi
(moculobiTi Sefardeba 1 : 1 : 2). martivi moculobiTi Sefardebani
dadgenil iqna moreagire sxva gazebisTvisac. am kanonzea dafuZnebuli
gazuri analizis meTodebi.
moculobaTa fardobis kanoni SeuZlebeli iyo axsniliyo daltonis
moZRvrebis mixedviT imis Sesaxeb, rom martivi nivTierebebi mxolod
atomebisagan Sedgebian. marTlac, Tu gazebis, mag: wyalbadis da qloris,
tol

moculobaSi

urTierTqmedebisas

Sedis
unda

atomTa

migveRo

erTnairi
l

ricxvi,

qlorwyalbadi,

maSin
da

ara

maTi
2

l,

rogorc amas cda gviCvenebs.

avogadros kanoni. moreagire gazebis moculobebs Soris martivi
Sefardebebis

asaxsnelad

italielma

mecnierma

amedeo

avogadrom

gamoTqva hipoTeza, romelic SemdgomSi damtkicda cdis monacemebiT da

amitom

wodebulia

moculobebi

erTnair

avogadros
pirobebSi

kanonad:

sxvadasxva

(temperatura

erTnair ricxvs Seicavs.

28

da

gazebis

wneva)

toli

molekulaTa

avogadro gulisxmobda, rom martivi gazebis molekulebi Sedgebian

ori erTnairi atomisagan. wyalbadis qlorTan SeerTebisas aRniSnuli
molekulebi iSlebian atomebad, romlebic warmoqmnian qlorwyalbadis
molekulebs. magram, ramdenadac erTi molekula wyalbadisa da erTi
molekula qlorisagan warmoiqmneba ori molekula qlorwyalbadi, am
ukanasknelis

moculobac

toli

moculobaTa jamisa, e.i. H2+CI2

amgvarad,
gamovalT

moculobaTa

martivi

gazebis

unda

iyos

gamosavali

gazebis

2HCI.
fardobis

kanoni

molekulebis

advilad

aixsneba,

(H2, N2, O2, CI2

da

Tu
sxva)

oratomianobis Tvalszrisidan. qimiur reaqciebSi gazobriv nivTierebaTa

formulebis

win

koeficientebi

miuTiTeben

moreagire

gazebis

moculobebs. avogadros kanonidan gamomdinareobs ori Sedegi:

1. nebismieri gazis erTi moli erTnair pirobebSi ikavebs erTi da
igive moculobas. SeiZleba am moculobis gamoTvla, Tu cnobilia 1 l
gazis masa. normalur pirobebSi, e.i. 273,15 K da 101325 pk-is dros, 1 l
wyalbadis masa tolia 0,09 g-is, molekuluri wyalbadis moluri masa
tolia 2,0158 g/moli, maSin 1 moli wyalbadis mier dakavebuli noculoba
iqneba

2,0158 g/moli/0,09 g/l = 22,4 l/moli

imave pirobebSi 1 l Jangbadis masa tolia 1,429 g-is, molukuluri
Jangbadis moluri masaa 31,9988 g/moli, maSin moculoba iqneba

31,9988 g/moli/1,429 g/l = 22,4 l/moli,

maSasadame, normalur pirobebSi nebismieri gazis 1 moli ikavebs
22,4 l-is tol moculobas (zusti mniSvneloba 22,4135 0,0006 l). am
moculobas

gazis

moluri

moculoba

ewodeba:

v=22,4

l/moli=22,4

m3/kmoli.
2. gazobriv mdgomareobaSi myofi nivTierebis moluri masa (agreTve
fardobiTi
wyalbadis

molekuluri
mimarT

(ufro

masac

Mr)

zustad

udris
simkvrive

gaorkecebul
2,0158).

erTi

simkvrives
da

igive

moculobis gazis masa miT metia., rac metia misi molekulis masa. Tu
gazebis toli moculobebi erTanair pirobebSi Seicaven molekulaTa
erTnair

ricxvs,

maSin,

cadia,

tol

moculobaTa

gazebis

Sefardeba maTi molekuluri masebis Sefardebis toli iqneba, e.i.

29

masebis

m1 : m2=M1 : M2, sadac m1 aris gansazRvruli moculobis pirveli gazis

masa, m2 imave moculobis meore gazis masa, M1 da M2 pirveli dameore
gazis mluri masebia.
gansazRvruli

moculobis

erTi

gazis

masis

Sefardebas

imave

moculobis meore gazis masasTan (aRebulia imave pirobebSi) ewodeba

pirveli gazis simkvrive meoris mimarT (aRniSneba D asoTi),

maSin

M1/M2=D da M1=M2D.
Cveulebriv gazis simkvrives gansazRvraven yvelaze msubuqi gazis
wyalbadis

mimarT

DH2).

(aRniSnaven

wyalbadis

molekula

atomisagan, e.i. wyalbadis moluri masa tolia 2

Sedgeba

1,0079 g/moli = 2,0158

g/moli. jamSi miviRebT

M = 2,01158 DH2 (1)

xSirad gazis simkvrives gansazRvraven haeris mimarT (Dh). Tumca
haeri warmoadgens gazTa narevs, mainc laparakoben mis saSualo molur
masaze.

igi

tolia

29

g/moli.

am

SemTxvevaSi

gazis

moluri

masa

gamoisaxeba

M = 29 Dh

(2)

(1.) da (2) formulidan advilad ganiszRvreba DH2 da Dh, e.i. gazebis

fardobiTi simkvriveebi. cadia, amisaTvis erTi gazis moluri masa unda
gavyoT meore gazis molur masaze. mag:

DH2 = M/2,0158
Dh = MM/29
molekuluri

masebis

gansazRvram

aCvena,

rom

martivi

gazebis

molekulebi Sedgebian 2 atomisagan, xolo inertuli gazebis yoveli

molekula Sedgeba TiTo atomisagan (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn Vuo ekaradoni)
inertuli gazebisaTvis molekulis da atomis cnebebi tolfasia. magram
zogierTi martivi molekula Sedgeba 3 da meti atomisagan, mag: ozoni O3,
fosfori P4, gogirdis orTqli aramaRal te,peraturaze S8.
avogadros moZRvrebam aRiareba hpova mxolod 1860 wels qimikosTa
saerTaSoriso yrilobaze karlsrueSi, sadac mocemul iqna molekulisa
da

atomis

molekuluri

cnebaTa

ganmartebani.

moZRvrebis

yrilobam

ganviTarebas.

30

xeli

Seuwyo

gansakuTrebiT

atomurmZlavri

ganviTAreba ki man miiRo d. i. mendeleevis mier qimiuri elementebis

periodulobis kanonis aRmoCenis Semdeg.

Tavi II

d. i. mendeleevis periodulobis kanoni da

perioduli sistema
d. i. mendeleevis mier periodulobis kanonis aRmoCena
d. i. mendeleevis mier periodulobis kanonis aRmoCena da elementTa
perioduli sistemis Seqmna warmoadgenda misi xangrZlivi da daZabuli
mecnieruli

Sromis

Sedegs.

periodulobis

kanoni

da

elementTa

perioduli sistema qimiis mecnierebis umiSvnelovanesi miRwevaa. isini

warmoadgenen Tanamedrove qimiis safuZvels.
perioduli sistemis Camiyalibebisas atomis mTavar maxasiaTeblad
atomuri

masa

iTvleboda,

Tavis

wignSi

qimiis

safuZvlebi

d.

i.

mendeleevi werda: nivTierebis masa aris misi iseTi Tviseba, romlisganac

damoukidebeli unda iyos yvela danarCeni Tviseba, amitom yvelaze axloa
da

bunebrivi,

veZeboT

damokidebuleba

elementebis

Tvisebebsa

da

msgavsebas Soris, erTi mxriv, da maT atomur wonebs Soris, meore mxriv.
d. i. mendeleevis winamorbedi (dobereineri, niulendsi, lotar
maieri da sxva). erTamenTs adarebdnen mxolod msgavsi eloementebis
Tvisebebs,
maTgan

da

amitomac

gansxvavebiT,

ver

SeZles

adarebda

bunebriv jgufebs, d. i.

ra

periodulobis
erTamaneTs

kanonis

elementebis

aRmoCena.
aramsgavs

mendeleevma aRmoaCina elementTa Tvisebebis

perioduli cvlileba maTi atomuri masebis sidideebis Tanmimdevruli

cvliT.

am

dros

cnobili

iyo

elementebis

iseTi

bunebrivi

jgufi,

rogoricaa, mag: halogenebi, tute da tutemiwaTa metalebi. mendeleevma

amoiwera da Seapirispira am jgufebis elementebi Semdegnairad, ganalaga
ra isini atomuri masis zrdis mixedviT:

F = 19
Na = 23
Mg = 24

CI = 35,5
K = 39
Ca = 40

Br = 80
Rb = 85
Sr = 87
31

J = 127
Cs = 133
Ba = 137

am sam jgufSi Cans saqmis arsi, - werda d. i. mendeleevi. halogenebs

gaaCniaT mcire atomuri wona, vidre tute metalebs da am ukanasknelebs
ufro mcire, vidre tutemiwaTa metalebs. maSasadame, atomuri masis
zrdis mixedviT ganlagebul elementTa uwyvet rigSi, ftoris Semdeg
unda idges natriumi da magniumi, qloris Semdeg kaliumi da kalciumi,
bromisa rubidiumi da stronciumi, iodis Semdeg ceziumi da bariumi.
elementebis uwyveti rigi SeiZleba gamovsaxoT ase:

... F, Na, Mg,...,

19 23 24

aqedan

CI, K, Ca,...,
35,5 39 40
I,
Cs,
Ba...
127 133
137

Br, Rb, Sr,...,

80 85 87

Cans, rom TvisebaTa mkveTri cvlileba halogenidan tute

metalze gadasvlisas da ZiriTadi Tvisebebis Semcireba tute metalidan

tutemiwaTa metalisaken gadasvlisas periodulad meordeba, Tu yvela
elements ganvalagebT atomuri wonis sididis mixedviT. elementebis
TvisebaTa

es

perioduli

cvla

SeiniSneba

imisagan

damoukideblad,

ramdeni elementic ar unda akldes rigSi magniumsa da qlors, kalciumsa

da broms, stronciumsa da iods Soris.
aRmoCnda, rom elementTa naerTebis formebic agreTve periodulad
meordeba. mag: liTiumis oqsids aqvs forma Li2O. analogiuri forma aqvs
liTiumis msgavsi Tvisebebis mqone elementebis: natriumis, kaliumis,
rubidiumis da ceziumis oqsidebs Na2O, K2O, Rb2O, Cs2O.
yovelive

aman

d.

i.

mendeleevs

saSualeba

misca

mis

mier

aRmoCenili kanonis formulirebisa: martiv sxeulTaA Tvisebebi, agreTve

elementTa naerTebis formebi da Tvisebebi peiodul damokidebulebaSi
imyofebian elementTa atomuri wonebis sididesTan.
d. i. mendeleevma Seadgina elemenTa perioduli sistema (ix.Zveli
varianti), romelic obieqturad asaxavs peiodulobis kanons. atomuri
masebis zrdis mixedviT ganlagebuli elementebis rigi iyofa periodebad.
yoveli periodis SigniT kanonzomierad icvleba elementebis Tvisebebi
(mag: tute metalidan halogenamde). ganalaga ra periodebi iseTnairad,
rom msgavsi elementebi dajgufebuliyo, d. i. mendeleevma Seqmna qimiur
elementTa perioduli sistema, amasTan man Seaswora rigi elementebis

32

atomuri masebi, xolo jer kidev aRmouCeneli 29 elementisaTvis datova

carieli adgilebi.
elementebis

perioduli

sistema

warmoadgens

perioduloobis

kanonis grafikul gamosaxvas.

1869 wlis 1 marti kanonis aRmoCenis da Seqmnis TariRia. elemenTa
perioduli

sistemis

gaumjobesebisaTvis

d.

i.

mendeleevi

muSaobda

sicocxlis dasasrulamde.
periodulobis kanonis da perioduli sistemis safuZvelze d. i.
mendeleevi mivida im daskvnamde, rom arsebobda axali, im droisaTvis
jer kidev aRmouCeni elementebi; sami maTganis Tvisebebi man dawvrilebiT
aRwera da maT misca pirobiTi sxelwodebebi ekabori, ekaalumini da
ekasiliciumi. yoveli elementis Tvisebebs d. i. mendeleevi sazRvravda
atomanologebze

dayrdnobiT.

ase

asaxelebda

igi

im

elementebs,

romlebiTac garSemortymuli iyo mocemuli elementi. atomuri masa, mag:

element magniumisaTvis gamoiTvleboda, rogorc atomanalogebis atomur
masaTa saSualo ariTmetikuli, e.i.

9,01(Be)+40,08(Ca)+22,99(Na)+26,98(AI)

= 24,76

4
SemdgomSi

d.

i.

mendeleevis

winaswarmetyveleba

brwyinvaled

dadasturda. zemoxsenebuli yvela samive elementi missave sicocxleSi

iqna aRmoCenili, xolo maTi nawirnaswarnametyvelebi Tvisebebi zustad
daemTxva

cdiT

gansazRvrul

Tvisebebs.

aman

periodulobis

kanons

sayovelTao aRaireba da rusul mecnierebas warmateba moutana.

Cems mier aRwerilia 3 elementi, - werda d. i. mendeleevi qimiis
safuZvlebSi, - ekabori, ekaalumini da ekasiliciumi da ar gasula 20
welic ki, rac me ganvicade udidesi sixaruli, menaxa samive aRmoCenili
da

im

qveynebis

saxeliT

wodebulni,

sadac

napovnia

maTi

Semcveli

iSviaTi mineralebi, da sadac moxda maTi aRmoCena: - galiumi, skandiumi

da germaniumi.
galiumi

aRmoCenilia

skandiumi nilsonis mier,

mier

1886

wels.

1870

lekok

de

buabodranis

mier,

1875

wels,

1876 wels, xolo germaniumi vinkleris

wlidan

dawyebuli
33

Cexma

mecnierma

boguslav

braunerma bevri gaakeTa mravali elementis atomuri masis dazustebisa

da periodulobis kanonis sisworis damtkicebis mizniT. am mecnierebs d.
i. mendeevi uwodebda periodulobis kanonis WeSmarit ganmamtkiceblebs.
d. i. mendeleevis elementTa perioduli
sistema
amJamad cnobilia perioduli sistemis 400-ze meti varianti; isini
warmoadgenen periodulobis kanonis gadmocemis sxvadasxva formebs.
d. i. mendeleevis mier 1869 wlis 1 marts warmodgenil elementTa
sistemis pirvel variants hqonda grZeli forma e.i. masaSi periodi
ganlagebuli

iyo

erT

xazze.

1870

wlis

dekemberSi

man

gamoaqveyna

perioduli sistemis meore varianti e.w. mokle forma. am variantSi

periodebi iyofa rigebad, xolo jgufebi qvejgufebad (mTavari da
Tanuri).
postsabWour

qveynebSi

umetesad

gavrcelebulia

perioduli

sistemis mokle formis varianti, rogorc ufro kompaqturi. magram, misi

arsebiTi nakli aris erT jgufSi aramsgavsi elementebis arseboba, e.i.
mTavari

da

Tanauri

qvejgufebis

elementTa

Tvisebebis

Zlieri

gansxvaveba, es ramdenadme Crdilavs elementTa Tvisebebis periodulobas

da aZnelebs sistemiT sargeblobas. amitom ukanasknel xanebSi daiwyes,
gansakuTrebiT saswavlo mizniT, d. i. mendeleevis perioduli sistemis
grZeli formis variantis gamoyeneba. am variantis ZiriTadi naklia
gaweliloba,
kompaqturi

arakompafaqturoba
rom

gaxadon,

xSirad

(sistemis

nawili

gamoaqvT

carielia),

lanTanoidebi

ufro

meeqvse

da

aqtinoidebi meSvide periodebidan da maT calke, sistemis qveS aTavseben.

aseT variants zogjer naxevradgrZels uwodeben.
perioduli sistemis mokle varianti Sedgeba periodebis, rigebisa
da jgufebisgan.
horizontalis

mixedviT

periodul

sistemaSi

(aRniSnulia romauli cifrebiT), maTgan I, II

aris

periodi

da III-s mcire periodebi

ewodeba, xolo IV, V, VI da VII-s didi. pirvel periodSi aris 2

elementi, meore da mesameSi 8 8, me-4 da me-5-Si 18 18, meeqvse da,
meSvideSi 32-32 elementi.

yoveli periodi, pirvelis gamoklebiT, iwyeba

tute metaliT da mTavrdeba keTilSobili

34

gaziT. meore da mesame

periodebis elementebs mendeleevi tipobrivs uwodebda. maTi Tvisebebi

kanonzomierad

icvleba

tipobrivi

kanonzomierad

icvleba

periodebSi

metalidan
elementTa

keTilSobil
naerTebis

gazamde.
formebic.

naerTTa formebis periodulobas d. i. mendeleevi did mniSvnelobas

aniWebda.
mendeleevis sistemaSi (ix.sistemis Zv.varianti)10 rigia. yoveli mcire
periodi Sedgeba erTi rigisagan, yoveli didi periodi 2 rigisagan:
wyvili (zeda) da kentis (qveda). magram VII periodi Sedgeba erTi kenti
rigisgan,

romelic

ananoqtiumi

dReisaTvis

(ekaradoni)

moicavs

32

Vuo..(ix.sistemis

elements.

118-e

elementia

uaxlesi

varianti)

didi

periodebis luw rigebSi (meoTxe, meeqvse, merve da meaTeSi) moTavsebuli

arian mxolod metalebi da rigSi marcxnidan marjvniv Tvisebebis cvla
naklebad SeimCneva. didi periodebis kenti rigebis elementebis (mexuTe,
meSvide

da

mecxre)

Tvisebebi

rigSi

marcxnidan

marjvniv

icvleba

tipobrivi elementebis msgavsad.

meeqvse periodSi lanTanis Semdegom 14 elements atomuri nomrebiT
58-71,

lanTanoidebi*

ewodebaT..

lanTanoidebi

moTavsebulia

calke,

tabulis qvemoT. lanTanoidebis qimiuri Tvisebebi erTmaneTTan metad

axlosaa. mag: maT yvelas aqvs +3 daJangulobis xarisxi, warmoadgenen
reaqciis

unarian

metalebs,

reagireben

wyalTan

hidroqsidis

da

wyalbadis warmoqmniT. Sesabamisi hidroqsidebi wyalSi mcired xsnadebia,

magram kargad ixsnebian mJavebSi, lanTanoidebs Zlierad aqvT gamosaxuli
horizontaluri analogia.
VII priodSi 32 elementidan 14, atomuri nomrebiT 90-103, Seadgens
aqtinoidebis ojaxs. isini agreTve gamotanilia calke lanTanoidebis
qvemoT. erTsa da imave vertikalur svetSi ganlagebuli aqtinoidebi
lanTanoidebis

msgavsebia.

magram

lanTanoidebisagan

gansxvavebiT

aqtinoidebs horizontaluri analogia gamosaxuli aqvT sustad. isini

ufro avlenen sxvadasxva daJangulobis xarisxs. mag: aqtiniumisTvis igi
+3 tolia, uranisaTvis +3, +4, +5 da +6. aqtinoidebis qimiuri Tvisebebis
Seswavla ukiduresad rTulia maTi atomgulebis umdgradobis gamo.

sityva lanTanoidi niSnavs lanTanis msgavss, xolo aqtinoidi aqtiniumis msgavss.

xan maT uwodeben lanTanidebs da aqtinidebs, rac niSnavs lanTanis momdevnos,
aqtiniumis momdevnos.

35

perioduli
romliTac

sistemis

isini

yvela

erTmaneTs

elementi

mosdeven.

aRniSnulia

elementebis

im

nomrebs

rigiT,

ewodebaT

atomuri nomrebi.
elementTa
jgufi.

periodul

jgufis

nomeri

sistemaSi

vertikalurad

dakavSirebulia

masSi

ganlagebulia

arsebul

elementTa

daJangulobis xarisxTan. rogor wesi, elementTa umaRlesi dadebiTi

daJangulobis

xarisxi

jgufis

nomris

tolia.

gamonakliss

Seadgens

ftori misi daJangulobis xarisxis tolia 1; spilenZi, vercxli,

oqro

avlenen

daJangulobis

xarisxebs

+1,

+2

da

+3;

VIII

jgufis

elementebidan +8 daJangulobis xarisxiT cnobilia mxolod osmiumi da

ruTeniumi*
VIII jgufSi moTavsebulia inertuli elementebi. winaT maT qimiuri
naerTebis warmoqmnis uunarod Tvlidnen, magram es ar dadasturda.
yoveli jgufi iyofa or qvejgufad mTavar da Tanaurad. mTavar
qvejgufebs

Seadgenen

tipobrivi

elementebi

(II

da

III

periodebis

elementebi) da qimiuri Tvisebebis mixedviT msgavsi didi periodebis

elementebi.

Tanaur

qvejgufs

Seadgenen

didi

periodebis

mxolod

element-metalebi.
qimiuri

Tvisebebis

mixedviT

mTavari

qvejgufis

elementebi

mniSvnelovnad gansxvavdebian Tanauri qvejgufis elementebisagan. mag: VII

jgufSi mTavar qvejgufs Seadgenen element-arametalebi: F, CI, Br, I, At,
Tanaurs element-metalebi: Mn, Tc, Re. mTavari da Tanauri qvejgufebi
gansxvavebis mizniT gamoyofilia: erTi marjvniv da meore marcxniv
(ix. perioduli sistemis Zv. varianti). amgvarad, qvejgufebs yvelaze ufro
aerTianebs erTamaneTs Soris msgavsi elementebi.
Tumca

yvela

elementi,

garda

heliumis,

neonis

da

argonisa,

warmoqmnis JangbadnaerTebs, Jangbadiani naerTebis formebi mxolod rvaa.

periodul

sistemaSi

maT

romlebic

ganlagebulni

xSirad
arian

gamosaxaven

yoveli

jgufis

zogadi

formulebiT,

qveSA

daJangulobis

xarisxis zrdis mixedviT: R2O, RO, R2O3, RO2, R2O5, RO3, R2O7, RO4. yvela
formulaSi R aRniSnavs mocemuli jgufis elements. JangbadnaerTebis

ruTeniumi aRmoCenilia rusi qimikosis k. k. klausis mier 1844 wels da ase ewodeba
ruseTis pativsacemad. laTinuri Rutenia ruseTi.

36

formulebi ekuTvnis jgufis yvela elements, garda im SemTxvvebisa, roca

elementebi ar avlenen jgufis nomris tol daJangulobis xarisxs.
IV jgufidan dawyebuli (ix.sistemis Zv.varianti) mTavari qvejgufis
elementebi warmoqmnian gazobriv wyalbadnaerTebs. naerTTa forma sul 4ia. maT agreTve gamosaxaven zogadi formulebiT daJangulobis xarisxis
klebis mixedviT: RH4, RH3, RH2, RH. wyalbadnaerTebis formulebi iwereba
mTavari qvejgufis elementebis qveS da mxolod maT ekuTvniT.
qvejgufebSi elementebis Tvisebebi kanonzomierad icvleba: zevidan
qveviT Zlierdeba metaluri Tvisebebi da sustdeba arametaluri. cxadia,
metaluri
(franciumi

Tvisebebi

yvelaze

radioaqtiuri

Zlierad
elementia,

gamoxatuli
miRebulia

aqvs

franciums

xelovnuri

gziT,

naklebSeswavlilia), Semdeg ceziums; arametaluri ftors.

elementTa perioduli sistemis struqturis dasabuTeba ganixileba
atomis aRnagobis Seswavlisas.

atomis aRnagobis pirvandeli Teoriebi

XIX saukunis bolomde atomebi ganuyoflad iTvlebodnen. magram
cdis

monacemebis

dagrovebis

kvalobaze

moxda

aseTi

warmodgenebis

uaryofa, vinaidan mravali faqti atomebis rTul aRnagobaze mianiSnebda.

amasve amtkicebda d. i. mendeleevis periodulobis kanonic.
jer kidev 1871 wels d. i. mendeleevi werda: advilia vivaraudoT,
magram amJamad jer ar aris SesaZlebloba davamtkicoT... rom martiv
sxeulTa atomebi arsebiTad rTuli nivTierebebia, warmoqmnili zogierTi
ufro mcire nawilebis SekrebiT, rom Cvens mier ganuyoflad (atomi)
wodebuli ganuyofelia mxolod Cveulebrivi qimiuri ZalebiT... Cems
mier wamoyenebuli perioduli damokidebuleba Tvisebasa da wonas Soris,
rogorc Cans, amtkicebs aseT wianTgrZnobas. es aris gadakruli, magram
damajarebeli Cveneba atomis sirTulis Sesaxeb, rom atomebi Sedgebian
ufro mcire struqturuli erTeulebisgan. amasve metyvelebs eleqtruli
denis gavla gazebSi, eleqtrolizisa da radioaqtivobis movlenebi.
mas Semdeg, rac eqsperimentulad damtkicebul iqna, rom atoms
rTuli Sedgeniloba aqvs, ingliselma mecnierma j. tomsonma wamoayena
37

atomis aRnagobis e.w. statistikuri an eleqtronul ionuri Teoria

(1903).

am

Teoriis

sferosagan

Tanaxmad,

(dadebiTi

muxti

moculobaSi),

romelSic

aneitraleben

dadebiT

atomi

Sedgeba

Tanabradaa

ganawilebuli

Cawinwklulia
muxts.

isini

dadebiTad

eleqtronebi.

asruleben

damuxtuli

atomis

mTel

eleqtronebi

rxeviT

moZraobas

(amitomac ewodeba Teorias statikuri). atomebSi msgavs elementebs aqvT

eleqtronebis msgavsi ganlageba (elementebis Tvisebebis periodulad
gameorebadobis axsnis cda).
magram

ukve

1911

wels

cnobilma

ingliselma

mecnierma

ernest

rezerfordma daasabuiTa atomis aRnagobis dinamikuri, anu atomguluri

Teoria. akvirdeboda ra Txel metalur firfitaSi a nawilakebis
gavlas, man aRmoaCina, rom aRniSnuli nawilakebis nawili ixreba Tavisi
gzidan sxvadasxva kuTxiT, xolo calkeuli nawilakebi mkveTrad icvlian
frenis mimarTulebas. es movlena

cnobilia a nawilakebis ganbnevis

saxelwodebiT. igi ar SeiZleboda axsniliyo atomis aRnagobis statikuri

TeoriiT, ramdenadac dadebiTad damuxtuli sferos eleqtruli veli
arasakmaod Zlieria imisTvis, rom gadaxaros a nawilakebi. aman aiZula
uareyoT tomsonis modeli.
rezerfordma a nawilakebis gabnevis asxssnelad wamoayena atomis
agebulebis planetaruli modeli, am modelis Tanaxmad atomi Sedgeba
metad mcire zomis dadebiTad damuxtuli gulisagan. gulSi Tavmoyrilia
atomis TiTqmis mTeli masa. gulis

garSemo moZraoben eleqtronebi,

romlebic qmnian atomis eleqtronul Rrubels.

atomguli
eleqtroni
a nawilakebis gza

38

mTeli atomis zoma (diametri) 10-10 m-mdea, gulis zoma 10-15 m-is
rigisaa, e.i. zomiT atomguli daaxloebiT 100000-jer mcirea atomze.
amitom a nawilakebis umravlesoba metaluri firfitebis atomebs Soris
mifrinavs maTi gulebisgan didi manZilebze da ar gadaixrebian Tavisi
gzidan. nawilakebis mcire nawili gaivlis gulTan axlos, riS Sedegadac
aRiZvreba ganzidvis kulonuri Zalebi da nawilakebi gadaixrebian swyisi
mimarTulebidan. calkeuli nawilakebi uaxlovdebian guls sakmaod mcire
manZilze da gadaixrebian kidev ufro mkveTrad imave Zalebis moqmedebiT.
ramdenadac

atomi

mTlianobaSi

eleqtronulad

neitraluria,

eleqtronebis jamuri muxti toli unda iyos gulis muxtisa. Semdgomma

gamokvlevebma daamtkica, rom atomgulis dadebiTi muxti ricxobrivad
tolia elementis atomuri nomrisa d. i. mendeleevis periodul sistemaSi.
amgvarad, elementis atomuri nomeri gviCvenebs atomgulis dadebiTi
muxtis ricxvs, agreTve gulis velSi moZravi eleqtronebis ricxvs.
amaSia atomuri nomris fizikuri arsi.
saWiroa aRiniSnos, rom d. i. mendeleevis elementTa perioduli
sistema gaxda gamosavali punqti atomis modelis Seqmnisa da aRnagobis
sakiTxis gadasawyvetad. ase mag: birTvuli modelis Tanaxmad, yvelaze
ufro

martivad

wyalbadis

atomia

agebuli.

guli

Seicavs

erT

elementarul dadebiT muxts, xolo eleqtronul garsSi moZraobs erTi

eleqtroni. rkinis atomuri nomeri 26-is tolia. maSasadame, atomgulis
dadebiTi muxti tolia 26-is da neitraluri atomis eleqtronul garsSi
moZraobs 26 eleqtroni. element kurCatoviumis Z=104, gulis dadebiTi
muxti = 104-s, xolo eleqtronul garsSi moZraobs 104 eleqtroni da a.S.
analogiurad

SeiZleba

warmovidginoT

sxva

elementebis

atomTa

agebulebac.

elementTa perioduli sistemis Teoriuli

dasabuTeba
energetikuli
eleqtronebiT

doneebisa

Sevsebis

wesi

(eleqtronuli
gvaZlevs

d.

Sreebis)
i.

da

mendeleevis

qvedoneebis
elementTa

perioduli sistemis Teoriul dasabuTebas. ukve I da II periodebis

elementebis eleqtronuli formulebis ganxilvidan advilia im daskvnis
39

gamotana, rom periodi iwyeba elementiT, romlis atomis gareTa doneze

moTavsebulia

1s

eleqtroni:

pirvel

periodSi

es

aris

wyalbadi,

danarCenebSi tute metalebi. periodi mTavrdeba inertuli elementiT:

pirveli heliumi (1 s2), danarCeni periodebi elementebiT, romelTa
atomebs gareTa doneze aqvT eleqtronuli konfiguracia s2p6.
amrigad, pirveli periodi Seicavs or elements: wyalbads (Z=1) da
heliums (Z=2).
meore periodi iwyeba element liTiumiT (Z=3) da mTavrdeba neoniT
(Z=10). meore periodSi aris 8 elementi.
mesame

periodi

iwyeba

natriumiT

(Z=11),

romlis

eleqtronuli

konfiguracia aris 1s22s22p63s1. misgan daiwyo mesame energetikuli donis

Sevseba. es done mTavrdeba inertuli elementiT argoniT (Z=18), romlis
3s da 3p-qvedoneebi mTlianad Sevsebuli arian. argonis eleqtronuli
gormulaa 1s22s22p6 3s23p6. natriumi liTiumis analogia, argoni neonisa.
mesame periodSi rogorc meoreSi, aris 8 elementi.
meoTxe

periodi

iwyeba

kaliumiT

(Z=19), romlis

eleqtronuli

aRnagoba gamoisaxeba formuliT 1s22s22p6 3s23p64s1. misma me-19 eleqtronma

daikava 4s-qvedone, romlis energia 3d-qvedonis energiaze dabalia. gareTa
4s1-eleqtroni elements aniWebs natriumis Tvisebebis msgavs Tvisebebs.
kalciumis (Z=20), 4s-qvedone Sevsebulia ori eleqtroniT: 1s22s22p6 3s23p64s2.
element skandiumidan (Z=21) iwyeba 3d-qvedonis Sevseba, ramdenadac igi
energetikulad

ufro

momgebiania,

vidre

4p-qvedone..

3d-qvedonis

orbitali SeiZleba dakavebul iqnes 10 eleqtroniT, rac xorcieldeba

skandiumidan

cinkamde

(Z=30)

elementebis

atomebSi.

amitom

Sc-is

eleqtronuli aRnagoba Seesabameba formulas

1s22s22p6 3s23p6 3d1 4s2

xolo TuTiisa

1s22s22p6 3s23p6 3d10 4s2*

Semdgomi elementebis atomebSi inertul element kriptonamde (Z=36)
mimdinareobs 4p-qvedonis Sevseba. meoTxe peroidSi 18 elementia.

Tumca 3d qvedone ivseba 4s qvedoneze gvian, formulaSi is iwereba adre, ramdenadac

TanmimdevrobiT iwereba mocemuli donis yvela qvedone.

40

mexuTe periodi moicavs elementebs rubidiumidan (Z=37) inertul

element

(Z=54).

qsenonamde

maTi

energetikuli

doneebis

SEvseba

mimdinareobs iseve, rogorc meoTxe periodis elemntebSi: Rb-is da Sr-is

Semdeg 10 elementisaTvis itriumidan (Z=39) kadmiumamde (Z=48) ivseba 4dqvedone, ris Semdeg eleqtronebi ikaveben 5d-qvedones. mexuTe peiodSi,
rogorc meoTxeSi, aris 18 elementi.
meeqvse periodis elementebis ceziumis (Z=55) da bariumis (Z=56)
atomebSi ivseba 6s-qvedone. lanTanis (Z=57) erTi eleqtroni Tavsdeba 5dqvedoneze, ris Semdeg am qvedonis Sevseba yovndeba, samagierod Sevsebas
iwyebs 4f-qvedone, romlis 7 orbitali SeiZleba dakavebul iqnes 14
eleqtroniT. ase xdeba lanTanoidebis atomebSi Z=58-71, ramdenadac am
elementebs evsebaT garedan mesame donis siRrmiseuli 4f-qvedone, maT
gaaCniaT msgavsi qimiuri Tvisebebi. hafniumidan (Z=72) xelaxla xdeba d
qvedonis

Sevseba

eleqtronebi

da

avseben

mTavrdeba
6p-qvedones.

(Z=80), ris

vercxliswyalSi
donis

Sevseba

mTavrdeba

Semdeg

inertul

element radonSi (Z=66). meeqvse periodSi 32 elementia.

meSvide periodi (Z=87 118)-ic moicavs dReisaTvis 32 elements. am
periodSic energetikuli doneebis eleqtronebiT Sevseba analogiuria
meeqvse

periodisa.

7s-qvedonis

Sevsebis

Semdeg

franciumsa

(Z=37) da

radiumSi (Z=88) aqtiniumis eleqtroni Tavsdeba 6d-qvedoneze,, romlis

Semdegac Sevsebas iwyebs 14 eleqtroniT 5f-qvedone. ase mimdinareobs
aqtinoidebis atomebSi Z=30-103; 103-e elementis Semdeg xdeba 6d-qvedonis
Sevseba kurCatoviumis (Z=104), dubniumis (Z=105), elementebis Z=106 da
Z=107-saTvis.

aqtinoidebs,

rogorc

lanTanoidebs

gaaCniaT

mravali

msgavsi qimiuri Tviseba.

imisgan damokidebulebiT, Tu eleqtronebiT romeli qvedone ivseba
bolos, yvela elements yofen 4 tipad (ojaxad).
1. s elementebi; eleqtronebiT ivseba gareTa donis s-qvedone. maT
ekuTvnis yoveli periodis pirveli 2 elementi.
2. p elementebi; eleqtronebiT ivseba gareTa donis pqvedone. esenia
yoveli periodis ukanaskneli 6 elementi (garda 1-isa da VII-si).
3. d elementebi; eleqtronebiT ivseba garedan meore donis dqvedone,
xolo gareTa doneze rCeba erTi an ori eleqtroni (Pd-s nuli). maT
41

ekuTvnian didi
ganlagebulia

periodebis Cadgmuli dekadis elementebi, romlebic

s da

p elementebs

Soris

(maT

agreTve

gardamaval

elementebsac uwodeben).
4. f elementebi; eleqtronebiT ivseba garedan me-3 donis fqvedone,
xolo gareTa doneze rCeba ori eleqtroni, esenia lanTanoidebi da
aqtinoidebi.
erTi tipis elementebs aqvT mTeli rigi saerTo qimiuri Tvisebebi.
amgvarad, elementebis perioduli Tvisebebi dakavSirebulia maTi
atomebis

eleqtronuli

energetikul

doneebze

konfiguraciebis

konfiguraciebTan
eleqtronebis

periodul

da,

ricxvTan.

gameorebadobas

pirvel
gareTa
mivyavarT

rigSi,

gareTa

eleqtronuli
elementebis

Tvisebebis periodul ganmeorebamde.

atomgulis Sedgeniloba. atomguluri reaqciebi

amJamad atomgulSi aRmoCenilia elementaruli nawilakebis didi
ricxvi. maTgan umniSvnelovanesia protonebi (p) da neitronebi (n). orive
es nawilaki ganixileba rogorc birTvuli nawilakis, nuklonis ori
sxvadasxva

mdgomareoba.

elementaruli

nawilakebi

xasiaTdebian

gansazRvruli masiTa da muxtiT. protons gaaCnia masa 1,0073 m. a. e. da

muxti +1. neitronis masa tolia 1,0087 m. a. e., xolo muxti nulis
(nawilaki eleqtrulad neitraluria).
neitronis aRmoCenidan male rusma mecnierebma d. d. ivanenkom da e.
n. gaponma Seqmnes atomgulis agebulebis proton neitronuli Teoria
(1932). am Teoriis Tanaxmad, yvela atomis atomguli, garda wyalbadis
atomisa, Sedgeba

protonebisa da (A-Z) neitronebisagan, sadac Z aris

elementis atomuri nomeri; A masuri ricxvi.

masuri ricxvi A es aris protonebis Z da neitronebis N ricxvebis
jami, e.i.

A=Z+N.
Zalebs, romlebic akaveben protonebsa da neitronebs atomgulSi,
atomguluri Zalebi ewodeba. es araCveulebrivad didi, metad mokle
42

manZilze (10-15 m rigisa) moqmedi da ganzidvis Zalebze Zlieri Zalebia, am

Zalebis bunebas Seiswavlis birTvuli qimia.
atomis TiTqmis mTeli masa Tavmoyrilia gulSi. eleqtronis masa
atomgulis masasTan SedarebiT SeiZleba praqtikulad ugulebelvyoT.
ase, mag: qloris atomisaTvis eleqtronebis wilad modis 1/1837

17 = 0,009

m. a. e.
atomgulis

Tvisebebi

umTavresad

ganisazRvreba

protonebisa

da

neitronebis ricxviT. e. i. gulis SedgenilobiT. rogorc ukve aRiniSna,

protonebis ricxvi gulSi tolia elementis atomuri nomrisa, xolo
neitronebis ricxvi advilad gamoiTvleba sxvaobiT A-Z. mag: Jangbadis
atomguli

16O

Seicavs 8 protonsa da 16 8=8 neitrons. da es mokled ase

Caiwereba: (8p, 8n); kurCatoviumis atomgulSi

260 Ku
101

aris 104 protoni da

260-104=156n da a.S. ananoqtiumis (ekaradonis) atomgulSi aris 118 protoni

da 176.
Tanamedrove

warmodgenebiT

atomguls

aqvs

garsovani

(Sreuli)

aRnagoba: protonebi da neitronebi gulSi erTmaneTisagan damoukideblad

ganawilebulni arian birTvuli garsebisa da qvegarsebis mixedviT.
atomgulis

SigniT

protonebi

da

neitronebi

gansazRvrul

pirobebSi SeiZleba erTmaneTSi gardaiqmnan: n = p+e-+~v da p = n+e++v, sadac

e+ aris pozitroni, e.i. elementaruli nawilaki eleqtronis masis toli
da muxtiT +1; neitrino v da antineitrino v elementaruli nawilakebia,
romelTa

uZraobis

masa

da

eleqtruli

muxti

nulis

tolia,

erTamaneTisagan gansxvavdebian spiniT.

gamokvlevebma gviCvena, rom bunebaSi erTsa da imave elementis
atomebs aqvT sxvadasxva atomuri masebi. mag: qloris atomebs aqvs masa 35
da

37.

am

atomTa

atomgulebi

Seicaven

protonebis

erTsa

da

iamve

raodenobas, magram neitronebis sxvadasxva ricxvs. atomTa nairsaxeobas,

romelTa aqvT atomgulis erTnairi muxti, magram sxvadasxva masuri
ricxvebi, ewodeba izotopebi.
yoveli

izotopi

(aRiniSneba zeviT
nomriT

ori

sididiT:

masuri

ricxviT

marcxniv qimiuri niSnidan) da elementis atomuri

(aRiniSneba

Sesabamisi

xasiaTdeba

elementis

qimiuri

niSnis

simboloTi.

ricxviT 12 Caiwereba ase:

12 C
6

an

qveviT,
mag:

12C,

marcxniv)

naxSirbadis

da

aRiniSneba

izotopi

masuri

an sityvebiT naxSirbad-12. Caweris

43

es

forma

neitroni

gavrcelebulia

0n,

protoni

1p,

elementarul
1

an

nawilakebze:

0 e,
1

eleqtroni

1H.

yvela qimiuri elementisaTvis cnobilia izotopebi. mag: Jangbads

16

aqvs izotopebi masuri rixcxvebiT 16, 17, 18, e.i.

izotopebia:

36

18Ar,

38

18Ar,

40

18Ar.

kaliumis izotopebia:

39

8O,

19K,

17

40

8O,

19K,

18
41

8O.

argonis

19K.

elementis atomuri masa aris misi yvela izotopis masuri ricxvebis

saSualo

sidide,

aRebuli

bunebaSi

gavrcelebulobis

procentuli

fardobiT, ase, mag: bunebrivi qlori Sedgeba 75,4% izotopisagan masuri

ricxviT 35 da 24,6% izotopisagan masuri ricxviT 37, qloris saSualo
atomuri masa aris 34, 453 m. a. e. bunebrivi liTiumis saSualo atomuri
masa, romelic Seicavs 92,7%,

3Li-s

da 7,3%

3Li-s,

tolia 6,94 m. a. e-isa da

a.S.
periodul
izotopebis
atomuri

sistemaSi

bunebrivi

masa

ar

elementebis

narevebis

SeiZleba

atomuri

saSualo

iyos

masebi

masuri

atomis

mTavari

es

ricxvebi.

aris

cxadia,

maxasiaTebeli,

da

maSasadame, arc elementisa. aseTi maxasiaTebelia atomgulis dadebiTi

muxti. am safuZvelze mocemulia elementis ufro zusti ganmarteba:
qimiuri elementi es aris atomTa saxe atomgulis erTnairi dadebiTi
muxtiT.
es ukanaskneli kidev ufro TvalsCinod mtkicdeba izobarebis
arsebobiT. izobarebi es aris atomebi, romelTac aqvT erTnairi masuri
ricxvebi, magram atomgulis muxtis sxvadasxva sidideebi. mag: argonis
40 Ar
18

kaliumis

boris

10

5B,

19K

izotopebi atomuri masiT A=40, beriliumis

naxSirbadis

da germaniumis
atomgulSi

40

70

32Ge

10

6C

izotopebi atomuri masiT A=10, TuTiis

10
70

4Be,

31Zn

izotopebi atomuri masiT A=70 da sxva. izobarebs

nuklonebis

saerTo

ricxvi

(A)

erTnairi

aqvT,

magram

protonebis (Z) da neitronebis (N) ricxvi gansxvvebuli. maSasadame,

elementis

atomur

masas

ar

SeuZlia

gansazRvros

misi

mdgomareoba

periodul sistemaSi.
wyalbadis izotopebs aqvT sakuTari saxelwodebebi
2

1H-deiteriumi

(aRiniSneba D niSniT)

1H-triTiumi

1H-proTiumi,

(aRiniSneba T niSniT).

proTiumis atomguli Sedgeba erTi protonisagan, deiteriumisa erTi

protonisa da erTi neitronisagan, triTiumis ki erTi protonisa da
ori

neitronisagan.

wylis

SedgenilobaSi
44

proTiumTan

(Cveulebrivi

wyalbadi)

erTad
:

maTi Sefardeba 500

atomguluri

Sedis

deiteriumic

219

86Rn

wyalbadi)

1. triTiumi bunebaSi ar aris aRmoCenili, igi miiReba

reaqciebis

daxmarebiT.
222

agreTve radonis izotopebs (Z=86):

da

(mZime

sakuTari

86Rn

saxelwodebani

radoni (Rn),

220

86Rn

aqvT

toroni Tn)

aqtinoni (An). yvela danarCen izotopebs aqvs igive saxelwodeba

da simbolo, rac TviT elementebs.

atomguluri raqciebi es aris atomis birTvis (gulis) gardaqmnebi
maTi

elementarul

nawilakebTan

an

erTmaneTTan

urTierTqmedebis

Sedegad. aseTi reaqciebis gantolebebis dawerisas daculia masis da

muxtis

mudmivobis

kanoni.

es

niSnavs,

rom

masisa

da

muxtis

jami

gantolebis marcxena nawilSi toli unda iyos gantolebis marjvena

27

nawilSi masisa da muxtis jamisa. mag:

gviCvenebs,

rom

aluminis

atomis

4
30
1
18AI+ 2He= 14Si+ 1H.

nawilakTan

es gantoleba

urTierTqmedebiT

warmoiqmneba siliciumis atomi da protoni

radiumis radioaqtiuri daSla radonisa da heliumis warmoqmniT
ase unda daiweros:

226

88Ra=

222
4
86Rn+ 2He.

pirvelad xelovnuri atomguluri reaqcia ganxorcielebul iqna

rezerfordis mier 1919 wels, azotis atomgulis dabombviT a nawilakebiT:
14

4
17
1
7N+ 2He= 8O+ H.

atomguluri reaqciis Sedegad moxda azotis gardaqmna

Jangbadad protonis gamoyofiT.

ciklotronis Seqmnis (1930) Semdeg aRmoCenilia da gamokvleuli
mravalnairi atomguluri reaqciis didi ricxvi.
yvelaze
aseTia:

jer

ufro

xmarebuli

atomguluri

weren

gamosvali

atomgulis

reaqciis
qimiur

mokle
niSans.

Cawera
Semdeg

(frCxilebSi) aRniSnaven nawilaks, romelic reaqcias iwvevs da reaqciis

Sedegad warmoqmni nawilaks, ris Semdeg svamen saboloo atomgulis
qimiur niSans. am dros gamosvali da saboloo atomgulis simboloebTan
Cveulebriv ismeba mxolod masuri ricxvebi, ramdenadac atomgulebis
muxtebi advilad ganisazRvreba d. i. mendeleevis elementTa peioduli
sistemis

mixedviT.

Semdegnairia:

27

AI(a,p)

wina
30

Si;

atomguluri
14

N(a,p)17O da

reaqciebis
226

mokle

Ra (-,a)222Rn, sadac

Cawera
a-aris

nawilakebis aRniSvna (42He) p-protonis (H11). xazi niSnavs, rom daSlis

SemTxvevaSi moqmedi nawilaki ar aris radioaqtiuri.

45

atomguluri

reaqciebis

daxmarebiT

Rebuloben

radioaqtiur

izotopebs. isini yvela umdgradia da radioaqtiuri daSlis Sedegad

gardaiqmneba sxva elementebis izotopebad.
radioaqtiuri izotopebi miRebulia yvela qimiuri elementisaTvis.
isini

1500-mdea

cnobili.

mxolod

radioaqtiuri

izotopebis

Semcvel

elemntebs radioaqtiuri elementebi ewodeba. es is elementebia, romelTa

Z=43; 61 da 84-118.
cnobilia 300-mde stabiluri (araradioaqtiuri) izotopi. maTgan
Sedgeba perioduli sistemis qimiuri elementebis umravlesoba. magram
zogierT elements stabilurTan erTad aqvs xangamZle radioaqtiuri
izotopebic. esenia:

40

19K,

87

115

37Rb,

49In

da sxva.

qimiuri Tvisebebis mixedviT radioaqtiuri izotopebi TiTqmis ar

gamsxvavdebian stabilurisgan, amitom isini gamoiyenebian niSandebuli
atomebis saxiT, romlebic maTi radioaqtivobis gazomviT saSualebas
iZlevian. radioaqtiurma izotopebma farTo gamoyeneba hpoves samecniero
gamokvlevebSi,

mrewvelobaSi,

biologiasa

qimiaSi.

da

soflis

amJamad

aseT

meurneobaSi,

izotopebs

medicinaSi,

didi

raodenobiT

Rebuloben.
atomguluri

reaqciebis

umniSvnelovanes

Taviseburebas

energiis

uzarmazari raodenobis gamoyofa warmoadgens warmoqmnili nawilakebis

kinetikuri energiis an gamosxivebis energiis formiT. qimiur reaqciebSi
energia

umTavresad

siTbos

saxiT

gamoiyofa.

birTvuli

reaqciebis

energia qimiuri reaqciebis energiebs ramdenime milionjer aRemateba. amiT

aixsneba atomgulebis didi mdgradoba qimiuri raqciebis mimdinareobisas.
atomguluri
elementebis

reaqciebi

sinTezisaTvis.

am

farTod

gamoiyeneba

mimarTulebiT

didi

transuranuli
muSaoba

Catarda

ruseTSi. atomgulur gamokvlevaTa gaerTianebul institutSi q. dubnoSi

akad. g. n. flerovis xelmZRvanelobiT. iq pirvelad iqna sinTezirebuli
elementebi rigobrivi nomrebiT 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, da 109.

46

periodulobis kanoni atomis aRnagobis

Seswavlis Suqze
atomis aRnagobis Sesaxeb moZRvrebam gamoaaSkarava piriodulobis
kanonis Rrma fizikuri azri.
rogorc ukve iTqva, atomis mTvar maxasiaTebels warmoadgens ara
atomuri masa, aramed atomgulis dadebiTi muxtis sidide. es aris atomis
ufro

zogadi

da

zusti

daxasiaTeba

da,

maSasadame,

elementisac.

atomgulis dadebiTi muxtis sididisagan damokidebulia elementis yvela

Tviseba da misi mdgomareoba periodul sistemaSi. amasTan dakavSirebiT
cvlileba ganicada kanonis formulirebamac.
d. i. mendeleevis piriodulobis kanonis Tanamedrove formulireba
aseTia:

qimiur

elementTa

Tvisebebi,

agreTve

elementTa

naerTebis

formebi da Tvisebebi periodul damokidebulebaSia maTi atomebis muxtis

sididasagan.

kanonis

sruliadac

ar

axali

formulireba

ewinaaRmdegeba

d.

i.

ekuTvnis

mozlis

mendeleevis

mier

da

igi

mocemul

formulirebas. igi mxolod eyrdnoba axal monacemebs, romlebic kanons

da

sistemas

aZleven

mecnierul

dasabuTebas

da

adastureben

mis

siswores.
d. i. mendeleevis elementTa sistema sworad asaxavs piriodulobis
kanons da, masTan erTad, elenetTa atomis aRnagobasac. atomis aRnagobis
Teoria

kargad

atomgulebis

elementebis

elementebis

dadebiTi

eleqtronuli
ramdenadac

xsnis

muxtebis

Rrublebis
eleqtronuli

qimiuri

Tvisebebis
zrdas

aRnagobis

periodul

Rrublebis

Tvisebebi,

isini

1-dan

periodul
118-mde

mivyavarT

gameorebamde

aRnagobazea

periodulad

cvlas.

da

damokidebuli

meordebian.

amaSia

piriodulobis kanonis fizikuri azri.

mcire

periodebSi

atomgulis

muxtis

zrdasTan

erTad

izrdeba

gareTa doneze eleqtronebis ricxvic (1-dan 2-mde 1 periodSi da 1-dan

8-mde II da III periodebSi), rac ganapirobebs elenemtebis Tvisebebis
cvlas, periodis dasawyisSi (garda I periodisa) moTavsebulia tute

47

metali, Semdeg metaluri Tvisebebi TandaTan sustdeba da Zlierdeba

arametaluri Tvisebebi.
did periodebSi, atomgulis muxtis zrdasTan erTad, eleqtronebiT
Sevseba mimdinareobs ufro rTulad, rac xsnis elementebis Tvisebebis
ufro rTul cvlas mcire periodis elementebTan SedarebiT. ase mag:
didi periodebis wyvil rigebSi, atomgulis muxtis zrdasTan erTad,
gareTa doneze eleqtronebis ricxvi rCeba mudmivi, amasTan 2-is an 1-is
toli, amitom, vidre mimdinareobs garedan meore donis eleqtronebiT
Sevseba, elementis Tvisebebi wyvil rigebSi icvleba ukiduresad nela.
mxolod kent rigebze gadasvliss, roca atomgulis muxtis
zrdiT

izrdeba

eleqtronebis

ricxvi

gareTa

doneze

sididis

(1-dan

8-mde).

elementis Tvisebebi iwyeben cvlas iseve, rogorc tipobrivebis rigSi.

atomis aRnagobis moZRvrebis Suqze gasagebi xdeba d. i. mendeleevis
mier yvela elementis dayofa Svid periodad. periodis nomeri Seesabameba
atomTa

energetikul

ganlageba
asaxsnelia

doneebs,

ganpirobebulia
jgufebis

maTi

dayofa

e.i.

piriodul

atomebis

sistemaSi

aRnagobiT.

qvejgufebad,

elementebis

aseve

romelic

advilad

dafuZnebulia

energetikuli doneebis eleqtronebiT Sevsebis gansxvavebaze. rogorc

ukve aRniSneboda, mTavari qvejgufis elementebSi ivseba an gareTa donis
s qvedoneebi. (esenia s-elementebi), an p-qvedoneebi (p-elementebi). Tanauri
qvejgufis
elementebi).
qvedoneebi

elementebSi

ivseba

lanTanoidebSi
(f elementebi).

da

garedan

meore

aqtinoidebSi

amgvarad,

yvela

donis

d-qvedone

(d-

4f da

5f-

Sesabamisad

qvejgufSi

gaerTianebulia

elementebi, romelTa atomebis gareTa eleqtronuli donis agebuleba

msgavsia. amasTan mTavari qvejgufis elementebis atomebi gareTa doneze
Seicaven eleqtronebis jgufis nomris tol ricxvs. Tanaur qvejgufs
Seadgenen elementebi, romelTa atomebs gareTa doneze aqvT or-ori an
TiTo eleqtroni.
aRnagobaSi es gansxvavebani ganapirobeben erTi jgufis qvejgufSi
sxvadasxva

elementebis

Tvisebebis

gansxvavebas.

mag:

halogenebis

qvejgufis elementTa atomebi gareT doneze Seicaven 7-7 eleqtrons,

xolo manganumis qvejgufis 2-2 eleqtrons. pirvelni tipobrivi
arametalebia, meoreni metalebi.

48

magram am qvejgufis elementebs aqvT serTo Tvisebebic. Sedian ra

qimiur reaqciebSi, yvela maT (ftoris gamoklebiT)

SeuZliaT qimiuri

bmis warmoqmnaze gamoiyenon 7- eleqtroni. am dros manganumis qvejgufi

atomebi gamoiyeneben or gareTa eleqtrons da 5 eleqtrons misi Semdgomi
donidan.

amgvarad,

Tanauri

qvejgufis

elementebisaTvis

savalentod

iTvleba ara marto gare donis, aramed gareswina (garedan meore) donis
eleqtronebi,

raSic

mdgomareobs

ZiriTadi

gansxvaveba

mTavari

da

Tanauri qvejgufebis elementTa TvisebebSi.

aqedanve
miuTiTebs

gamomdinareobs,

eleqtronebis

rom

ricxvs,

jgufis

nomeri,

romlebsac

rogorc

SeuZliaT

wesi,

monawileoba

miiRon qimiuri bmis warmoqmnaSi. amaSia jgufis nomris fizikuri azri.

atomis aRnagobis Teoriis poziciidan advilad aixsneba is faqtic,
rom atomgulis muxtis zrdiT elementTa metaluri Tvisebebi yovel
jgufSi izrdeba, xolo arametaluri mcirdeba. mag: ftorisa F da iodis
I atomebSi doneebze eleqtronebis ganawilebis SedarebiT vrwmundebiT,
rom maT Sesabamisad aqvT 2.7 da 2.8.18.18.7, e.i. 7-7 eleqtroni gareTa
doneze; es miuTiTebs Tvisebebis msgavsebaze, magram gareTa eleqtronebi
iodis atomSi imyofeba atomgulidan daSorebiT, vidre ftoris atomSi
(iods meti atomuri radiusi aqvs) da amitom sustad kavdebian. am mizeziT
iodis atomebs SeuZlia eleqtronebis gacema an sxva sityvebiT, metaluri
Tvisebebis gamomJRavneba, rac ar aris damaxsiaTebeli ftorisaTvis.
amrigad,

atomis

agebuleba

elementebis

Tvisebebis

marcxnidan

marjvniv

cvla

ganapirobebs

or

horizontalis

susteba

metaluri

kanonzomierebas:

mixedviT

Zlierdeba

1)

periodSi

arametaluri

Tvisebebi; 2) elementebis Tvisebebis cvla vertikalis mixedviT jgufSi

atomuri nomris zrdasTan erTad Zlilerdeba metaluri Tvisebebi. aseT
SemTxvevaSi

elementi

da,

maSasadame,

sistemis

ujra

imyofeba

horizontalisa da vertikalis gadakveTaze, rac gansazRvravs elementis

Tvisebebs. es gvexmareba movZebnoT da avRweroT Tvisebebi elementebisa,
romlebic

xelovnuri

gziT

miiRebian.

Tu

miiRebian

VIII

periodis

elementebi, maTi atomebis agebulebaze da qimiur Tvisebebze SeiZleba

msjeloba

pirioduli

sistemis

Sesabamis

periodSi

da

jgufSi

mdgomareobis mixedviT. warmodgena elementis adgilis Sesaxeb sistemaSi,

49

romelic

ganisazRvreba

periodisa

da

jgufis

nomriT,

pirvelad

Semotanilia d. i. mendeleevis mier.

atomis

aRanagobis

poziciidan

SeiZleba

avxsnaT

wyalbadis

gansakuTrebuli mdgomareoba periodul sistemaSi, wyalbadis atoms aqvs

erTi eleqtroni, romelic SeiZleba gacemul iqnes sxva elementebis
atomebze. ramdenadac am Tvisebas avlens periodebis damwyebi yvela
elementi: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr, maSin wyalbadic SeiZleba idges I jgufis
mTavar qvejgufSi. meore mxriv, ramdenadac atomgulTan yvelaze axlo
doneze

SeiZleba

imyofebodes

ori

eleqtroni,

wyalbadis

atoms

halogenebis atomebis msgavsad gaaCnia unari miierTos erTi eleqtroni

(H+e= H-) radganac
Tvisebas,

is

unda

am

SemTxvevaSi

iyos

wyalbadi

moTavsebuli

VII

amJRavnebs

jgufis

arametalur

mTavar

qvejgufSi.

wyalbadis qimiur qcevaSi es oradoba gvaiZulebs moTavsdes igi or

qvejgufSi. amasTan erT-erT qvejgufSi elementebis simbolos aTavseben
frCxilebSi.
piriodul sistemaSi 4 adgilas elementebi ganlagebulni ar arian
atomuri masebis zrdis mixedviT: Ar (39.948) K (39.102), Co (53.933) Ni (58.71),
Te (127.60) I (126.904), Th (232.038 Pa (231). adre am gadaxrebs pirioduli
sistemis nakls uwodebdnen. atomis aRnagobis Seswavlam axsna misca
miTiTebul

gadaxrebs.

zeviT

AaRiniSna,

rom

elementis

Tvisebebi

damokidebulia atomgulis dadebiTi muxtis sidideze da ara atomur

masaze. atomgulebis muxtis cdiseulma gansazRvram elementebis zemoT
moyvanili 4 wyvilisaTvis daadastura, rom mendeleevma isini sworad
ganalaga:

18Ar

19K, 27CO 28 Ni, 52Te 53I, 90 Th

91

Pa. rogor avxsnaT is faqti,

rom argonis atomuri masa metia kaliumis atomur masaze (igive sxva
wyvilebisaTvis)? rogorc cnobilia, elementis atomis masa aris yvela
misi

bunebrivi

izotopis

masuri

ricxvis

saSualo

sidide.

argonis

atomuri masa ZiriTadat ganisazRvreba ufro didi masuri ricxviT (igi

gvxvdeba bunebaSi didi raodenobiT), maSin rodesac kaliumis SemTxvvaSi
Warbobs
sistemaSi

mcire

masuri

ricxvis

naklovanebani

ar

mqone

aris

da

izotopi,

amgvarad

atomgulebis

periodul

muxtis

sididis

gansazRvram

mogvca

gaTvaliswinebiT elementebi ganlagebulia sworad.

Elementis

atomuri

nomris

cdiseulma

saSaualeba gangvesazRvra elementebis ricxvi wyalbadsa da urans Soris,

50

agreTve

lanTanoidebis

ricxvi.

amJamad

periodul

sistemaSi

yvela

adgili Sevsebulia da axali elementebi SualedSi Z=1-dan Z=118-mde ar

SeiZleba aRmoCenil iqnen arc dedamiwaze da arc kosmosSi. marTlac,
mTvaris gruntis analiziT, romelic dedamiwaze Camotanil iqna sabWoTaA
kavSiris

da

aSS-is

mier.

aRmoCenili

iqna

mxolod

is

elementebi,

romlebic arian periodul sistemaSi. magram imTaviTve Tvlidnen, rom

perioduli sistema ar iyo damTavrebuli da

SesaZlebeli iyo axali

transuranuli elementebis aRmoCena, rac dReisaTvis dadasturebulia da

VII periodi mTavrdeba 118-eelementiT_ekaradoniT.

atomebis perioduli Tvisebebi

atomebis iseTi Tvisebebi, rogoricaa maTi zoma, ionizaciis energia,
swrafva eleqtronisadmi, eleqtrouaryofiToba, daJangulobis xarisxi,
dakavSirebulia
atomuri

atomis

nomris

eleqtronul

gazrdasTan

konfiguraciasTan.

erTad

maT

elementebis

cvlilebaSi

SeiniSneba

perioduloba.
eleqtronebis moZraobis talRuri xasiaTis gamo atomebs ara aqvT
mkacrad

gansazRvruli

efeqturi,

anu

sazRvari.

moCvenebiTi

gamoTvlebisas

radiusebiT,

e.i.

sargebloben

sferosebri

e.w.

atomebis

radiusebiT, romlebic erTmaneTs Soris miaxloebulni arian kristalis

warmoqmnisas.

Cveulebriv

radiusebs

Tvlian

rentgenografiuli

monacemebidan.
radiusi atomis metad mniSvnelovani maxasiaTebelia.. rac metia
atomuri

radiusi,

eleqtronebi
eleqtronebi
atomis

da,

miT

piriqiT,

miizidebian

radiusi

ufro

sustad

atomuri

gulTan

mcirdeba

miizideba
radiusis

ufro

Zlierad.

maarcxnidan

atomgulis

gareTa

SemcirebiT

gareTa

saerTod

marjvniv.

es

periodSi
aixsneba

eleqttronebis mizidvis Zalebis zrdiT atomgulis muxtis zrdasTan

erTad.

qvejgufebSi

SemTxvevaSi

zevidan

damatebiTi

qveviT

eleqtronuli

atomuri
Sris

radiusi

gaCenis

izrdeba.

xarjze

am

izrdeba

atomis moculoba da, maSasadame, misi radiusi.

ionizaciis energia es aris yvelaze ufro sustad dakavSirebuli
eleqtronis atomisagan mowyvetisaTvis aucilebeli energia; am dros
warmoiqmneba

Sesabamisi

kaTioni.

es
51

energia

Cveulebriv

gamoisaxeba

eleqtron

voltebSi.

erTi

periodis

elementebisaTvis

ionizaciis

energia izrdeba marcxnidan marjvniv, ramdenadac izrdeba atomgulis

muxti. qvejgufSi igi mcirdeba zemodan qvemoT atomgulidan eleqtronis
manZilis

gazrdis

gamo,

atomebis

ionizaciis

energiis

cvlileba

atomgulis muxtis zrdasTan erTad warmodgenilia moc. naxazze.

ionizaciis energia ganapirobebs elementebis qimiur Tvisebebs. mag:

mcire

ionizaciis

gamoxatuli

energiis

metaluri

inertuloba

mqone

tute

Tvisebebi.

dakavSirebulia

maTi

metalebs

keTilSobili
ionizaciis

gaaCniaT

naTlad

gazebis

qimiuri

energiis

maRal

sidideebTan.
atomebs

SeuZliaT

ara

marto

gascen,

aramed

miierTon

kidec

eleqtronebi. am dros Sesabamisi anioni warmoiqmneba. energias, romelic

gamoiyofa

atomTan

erTi

eleqtronis

mierTebisas,

ewodeba

eleqtronisadmi swrafva. Cveulebriv eleqtronisadmi swrafva, rogorc

ionizaciis energia, gmaosaxeba eleqtron voltebSi. yvela elementis
eleqtronisadmi swrafvis sidideebi cnobili ar aris. maTi gazomva metad
Znelia. am sidideebis yvelaze didi mniSvnelobebi aqvT halogenebs,
romlebsac

gareTa

doneze

gaaCniaT

7e-. es

miuTiTebs

arametaluri Tvisebebis gaZlierebaze periodis bolosaken.

52

elementebis

eleqtrouaryofiTobis Tanamedrove ganmarteba mogvca amerikelma

mecnierma l. polingma 1932 wels. manve SemogvTavaza eqtrouaryofiTobis
pirveli

skala,

polingis

Tanaxmad,

eqtrouaryofiToba

aris

atomis

unari, molekulaSi Tavisken miizidos eleqtronebi (mxedvelobaSi miiReba

savalento eleqtronebi, romlebic monawileobas Rebuloben qimiuri bmis
warmoqmnaSi).
arsebobs,

cxadia,

inertul

ramdenadac

maT

elementebSi

atomebSi

gareTa

eqtrouaryofiToba
done

dasrulebulia

ar
da

mdgradi.
rodenobrivi

daxasiaTebisaTvis

SemoRebulia,

eleqtrouaryofiTobis zomad CaiTvalos energia, romelic tolia atomis

ionizaciis energiisa (I) da eleqtronisadmi swrafvis (E) ariTmetikuli
jamisa, e.i.

X=I+E,
sadac X atomis eleqtrouaryofiTobaa da, maSasadame, elementisac.
magaliTis saxiT ganvsazRvroT X ftorisa da liTiumisaTvis. sacnobo
cxrilSi vipovoT, rom

IF=17,42

EF=3,62

ev,

ev, ILi=5,39 ev. ELi=0,22 ev, maSin

XF=17,42+3,62=21,04 ev, xolo X Li=5,39+0,22=5,61 ev.

ftors aqvs (I+E)-is yvelaze didi mniSvneloba, amitom is iTvleba
yvelaze

ufro

eleqtrouaryofiT

elementad.

eleqtrouaryofiTobis

yvelaze mcire mniSvneloba aqvT tute metalTa atomebs (ix. cxr. 1).
Cveulebriv liTiumis eleqtrouaryofiTobas Rebuloben erTeulad
da mas sxva elementebis eleqtrouaryofiTobas adareben. ase Rebuloben
elementebis fardobiTi eleqtrouaryofiTobis martiv da Sesadarebel
xelsayrel sidideebs (igi aRvniSnoT X-iT): XLi=1, XF=21,04/5,614 da a.S.
amJamad

farTo

gamoyenebulia

atomTa

gavrceleba

hpova

eleqtronuli

cxrilma,

aRanagobis

romlis
da

maTi

Sedgenisas
radiusebis

ukanaskneli monacemebi (cxr. 1). aucilebelia aRvniSnoT, rom qimiis

sxvadasxva wignSi fardobiTi eleqtrouaryofiTobis moyvanili sidideebi
ramdenadme gansxvavdebian. es aixsneba imiT, rom isini gamoiTvlebodnen
sxvadasxva meTodebiT, gamodiodnen ra gansazRvruli daSvebebidan da
mosazrebebidan.

amasTan,

mTavaria
53

gvqondes,

sxeldobr,

fardobiTi

ricxviTi monacemebi, romlebic miuTiTeben, Tu ori atomidan romeli

maTgania ufro eleqtrouaryofiTi.
cxrili #1 moicavs sidideebis 0,86-dan (franciumisaTvis), 4,10-mde
(ftorisaTvis). maTi Sedarebidan advilad SeiniSneba, rom fardobiTi
eleqtrouaryofiToba eqvemdebareba peeriodulobis kanons: periodSi igi
izrdeba elementis nomris zrdasTan erTad, qvejgufSi mcirdeba.es
sidideebi aris elementebis arametalurobis sazomi. cxadia, rac metia
fardobiTi

eleqtrouaryofiToba,

miT

Zlierad

amJRavnebs

elementi

arametalur Tvisebebs.
cxrili #1-dan agreTve Cans, rom arametalebi xasiaTdebian didi
fardobiT eleqtrouaryofiTobiT,metalebi mcire.

cxrili 1.
elementTa fardobiTi eleqtrouaryofiTobebi

I
II
III
IV

VI

VII

I
H
2,1
Li
0,97
Na
1,01
K
0,91
Cu
1,75
Rb
0,89
As
1,42
Cs
0,86
Au
1,42
Fr
0,86

elementebis

II
Be
1,47
Mg
1,23
Ca
1,04
Zn
1,66
Sr
0,99
Cd
1,46
Ba
0,97
Hg
1,44
Ra
0,97

III
B
2,01
AI
1,47
Sc
1,20
Ga
1,82
Y
1,11
In
1,49
La
1,08
Ti
1,44
Ac
1,00

qimiuri

IV

VI

VII

C
N
O
F
2,50
3,07
3,50
4,10
Si
P
S
CI
1,74
2,1
2,5
2,83
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
1,32
1,45
1,56
1,60
Ge
As
Se
Br
2,02
2,20
2,48
2,74
Zr
Nb
Mo
Te
1,22
1,23
1,30
1,36
Sn
Sb
Te
I
1,72
1,82
2,01
2,21
Hf
Ta
W
Re
1,23
1,33
1,40
1,46
Pb
Bi
Po
At
1,55
1,67
1,76
1,90
* lanTanoidebi. 1.08-1.14
** aqtinoidebi. 1.11-1.2
urTierTqmedebisas

VIII
He
----Ne
----Ar
---Fe
1,64

Co
1,70

Ni
1,75
Kr
----

Ru
1,42

Rh
1,45

Pd
1,35
Xe
----

Os
1,52

eleqtronebi

Ir
1,55

Pt
1,44
Rn
----

gadainacvleben

mcire eleqtrouaryofiTi atomidan didi fardobiTi eleqtrouaryofiTi

atomisaken.
54

periodulobis kanonisa da atomis aRnagobis

Teoriis mniSvneloba
d.

i.

mendeleevis

periodulobis

kanons

gansakuTrebiT

didi

mniSvneloba aqvs. man dasabami misca Tanamedrove qimias, gaxada igi

erTian, mTlian mecnierebad. elementebi ganixilebian urTierTkavSirSi,
imis mixedviT, Tu ra adgili ukaviaT maT periodul sistemaSi.rogorc
akad.

n.

d.

zelinski

miuTiTebda,

periodulobis

kanoni

warmoadgens

samyaroSi yvela atomis urTierTkavSiris aRmoCenas.

qimia

aRar

aRmoCeniT

aris

aRweriTi

SesaZlebeli

mecniereba.

gaxda

periodulobis

mecniereuli

kanonis

ganWvreta,-

viwinaswarmetyveloT da avRweroT axali elementebi da maTi naerTebi.

aseTi SesaZleblobis brwyinvale magaliTebi gvaCvena d. i. mendeleevma,
iwinaswarmetyvela

ra

aRmouCeneli

elmentebis

arseboba,

sami

maTganisaTvis Ga, Sc da Ge mogvca maTi Tvisebebis zusti aRwera.

d. i. mendeleevis kanonis safuZvelze Sevsebul iqna yvela carieli
ujra Z=1 elementidan Z=92-mde, agreTve aRmoCenilia transunaruli
elementebi

da

dResac

es

kanoni

aris

orientiri

axali

qimiuri

elementebis aRmosaCenad an xelovnurad Sesaqmnelad.

xelmZRvanelobda ra periodulobis kanoniT, mecniereba amtkicebda,
rom sinTezirebuli iqneboda Z=114 elementi ekatyvia (ananqodiumi) Vug289,
da Z=118 _ekaradoni(ananoqtiumi)_ rac dReisaTvis marTlac asea.
cnobilma rusma revolucuinerma da mecnierma n. a. morozovma 80-ian
wlebSi

iwinaswarmetyvela

keTilSobili

gazebis

arseboba,

romlebic

Semdeg iqna aRmoCenili. elementTa periodul sistemaSi isini amTavreben

periodebs da qmnian VIII jgufis mTavar qvejgufs. periodul kanonamde , werda d. i. mendeleevi elementebi warmoadgendnen bunebis nawyvetnawyvet,

SemTxveviT

movlenebs;

ar

iyo

sababi

davlodebodiT

raime

siaxles, xolo axlad napovni srul moulodnel siaxles warmoadgenda.

peiodulma kanonzomierebam pirvelma mogvca saSualeba, dagvenaxa jer
kidev aRmouCeneli elementebi iseT siSoreze, sadamdec SeiaraRebul
mxedvelobas ver miuRwevia.
periodulobis kanoni safuZveli gaxda elemenTa atomuri masebis
dazustebisa.

d.

i.

mendeleevis

mier

55

Sesworebul

iqna

20

elementis

atomuri masa, ris Semdegac am elementebma TavianTi adgili daikaves

periodul sistemaSi.
periodulobis

kanonis

zogadmecnieruli

da

filosofiuri

mniSvneloba imaSi mdgomareobs, rom daadastura bunebis ganviTarebis

yvelaze zogadi kanonebi (dapirispirebulTa erTaianobisa da brZolis,
raodenobriobis
mendeleevma,
TvisebaSi

TvisebriobaSi

Seugneblad

gadasvlis

gadasvlis,

gamoiyena

Sesaxeb,

ra

Caidina

uaryofis

hegelis

uaryofis).

kanoni

mecnieruli

raodenobis

gmiroba,

aseTi

maRali filosofiuri Sefaseba misca periodulobis kanons da periodul

sistemas engelsma wignSi bunebis dialeqtika.
periodulobis

kanonma

da

sistemam

Seasrules

da

amJamadac

asruleben udides rols sabunebismetyvelo mecnierebaTa ganviTarebis

saqmeSi,

romelTa

warmatebebi

unda

ganixilebodes

dialeqtikuri

materializmis poziciebidan.
periodulobis
periodulobis

kanonisa

sistemis

da

d.

safuZvelze

i.

mendeleevis

ganviTarda

elementTa

moZRvreba

atomis

aRnagobis Sesaxeb. man gamoaaSkarava periodulobis kanonis fizikuri

azri

da

axsna

aRnagobis

elementebis

Sesaxeb

ganlageba

moZRvrebis

periodul

siswore

sistemaSi.

yovelTvis

atomis

mowmdeboda

periodulobis kanoniT..
1921 wels nils borma aCvena, rom elements atomuri nomriT Z=72,
romlis arseboba iwinaswarmetyvela d. i. mendeleevma 1870 wels, unda
hqondes cirkoniumis atomis analogiuri agebuleba (Zr 2.8.18.10.2 da Hf
2.8.18.32.10.2), da amitom igi unda veZeboT cirkoniumis mineralebs Soris,
am rCevidan gamomdinare, 1922 wels ungrelma qimikosma d. xeveSim da
holandielma

fizikosma

rentgenospeqtruli
romelsac

uwodes

d.

analizis
hafniumi

kosterma
meTodiT

(qalaq

cirkoniumis

aRmoaCines

madanSi

elementi

kopenhagenis-elementis

Z=72,

aRmoCenis

adgilis laTinuri saxelwodeba). es iyo atomis aRnagobis Teoriis

udidesi triumfi: atomis aRnagobis safuZvelze nawirnaswarmetyvelebia
elementis bunebaSi arseboba!
atomis aRnagobis Sesaxeb moZRvrebam migviyvana atomuri energiis
aRmoCenisa

da

misi

adamianis

saWiroebisaTvis

gamoyenebamde.

gadauWarbeblad SeiZleba iTqvas, rom periodulobis kanoni warmoadgens

56

XX saukunis qimiisa da fizikis yvela diadi aRmoCenis pirvel wyaros.

man

gansakuTrebuli

roli

Seasrula

sxva,

qimiasTan

momijnave

sabunebismetyvelo mecnierebaTa ganviTarebaSi. periodulobis kanoni da

elementTa perioduli sistema safuZvlad udevs qimiis mecnierebisa da
teqnologiuri

procesebis

Tanamedrove

amocanebis

gadawyvetas.

d.

i.

mendeleevis elementTa perioduli sistemis gaTvaliswinebiT, warmoebs

muSaoba axali naxevargamtaruli masalebis, siTbomedegis Senadnobebis,
winaswar

gansazRvruli

Tvisebebis

mqone

atomguluri energiis gamoyenebis

nivTierebebis

miRebis

da

mizniT mimdinareobs gamokvlevebi

miwis wiaRis da sruliad samyarosi...

Tavi III

atomis aRnagoba
atomi rTuli sistemaa. igi Sedgeba dadebiTad damuxtuli atomgulisa
da uaryofiTad damuxtuli eleqtronuli garsisagan. atomis birTvi Sedgeba
dadebiTad

damuxtuli

nawilakebis

nawilakebis

neitronebisagan.

protonebisagan

protoni

da

da

neitroni

neitraluri

erTi

da

igive

nawilakis nuklonis ori sxvadasxva mdgomareobaa. atomis birTvis irgvliv

moZraobs uaryofiTi muxtis mqone elementaruli nawilakebi eleqtronebi,
romelTa

masa

simciris

(wyalbadis

masaze

2000-jer

mcire)

gamo

ugulvebelyofilia, protonis masa aris 1-is toli, neitronis masac 1-is

tolia. atomis mTeli masa atomgulSia moTavsebulia: A=P+n; SesaZlebelia
protonis daSla neitronad da pozitronad da am ukanasknelis gamotyorcna
birTvidan. pozitroni dadebiTad damuxtuli,

eleqtronis masis mqone

nawilakia da misi gamosxivebiT elementis atomis birTvSi erTiT mcirdeba

dadebiTi muxti.
atomis aRnagobis Seswavlas xeli Seuwyo radioaqtivobis aRmoCenam.
radioaqtivoba ewodeba qimiuri elementis TviTgardaqmnas sxva elementad. igi
mimdinareobs

atomgulidan

elementaluri
57

nawilakebis

gamotyorcniT.

es

nawilakebia , da nawilakebi.

nawilakis masa udris oTxs da muxti

+2-s.

sxivebi uaryofiTi nawilakebia, romlebic atomgulSi neitronuli

daSlis

Sedegad

amoityorcneba

birTvidan,

n=+,

warmoiqmneba:
xolo

protoni

nawilaki

CarCeba

anu

atomgulSi,

eleqtroni
rac

1-iT

gazrdis elementis atomur nomers.

_sxivebi Zlieri gamWoli unaris mqone neitraluri nawilakebia. igi

rentgenuli sxivebis msgavsia. _gamosxivebiT elementis saxeoba ar icvleba,
mcirdeba elementis atomis masa, anu miiReba igive elementis izotopi
periodulsistemaSi
radioaqtiulia.

bismutis

xSirad

Semdeg

radioaqtiuli

moTavsebuli
gardaqmnis

yvela

elementi

Sedegad

miRebuli

elementic radioaqtiulia da masSic grZeldeba radioaqtiuli gardaqmnebi:

mag.
+2
90
91
92
82
U 92
238 4 Th 234 Pa 234 U 234 " Pb 207 .

radioaqtiuli daSlis saboloo produqtia tyviis mdgradi izotopi.

radioaqtiuli

gardaqmnis

procesi

sxvadasxva

elementSi

sxvadasxva

siCqariT mimdinareobs. dadgenilia, rom drois erTeulSi Tu daiSala aRebuli

radioaqtiuli nivTierebis naxevari, Semdeg igive droSi iSleba darCenilis
naxevari

da

nivTierebis

a.S.

im

dros,

naxevardaSlis

romelSic
periodi

nivTierebis

ewodeba.

igi

naxevari
elementis

iSleba,

am

sicocxlis

xangrZlivobas gviCvenebs. radioaqtiuli elementebis naxevardaSlis periodi

mkveTrad gansxvavdeba erTmaneTisagan. mag. radonis naxevardaSlis periodi 3,85
dRea, uranisa 4,5 weli, xolo radiumis 1620 weli.
radioaqtivoba SeiZleba gamoviwvioT xelovnuradac. mag. aluminis nawilakebiT dabombvisas mimdinareobs Semdegi procesi:
13
Al 27
+ 42 P3015 + n

P3015

aris aramdgradi izotopi da gardaiqmneba mdgrad siliciumis

izotopad:
+

P3015 Si 1430 + e (pozitroni).

58

birTvuli
energia

yvelaze

reaqciebis
metia

Seswavlam

gviCvena,

perioduli

sistemis

rom
Sua

birTvSi

nuklonebis

nawilSi

moTavsebul

elementebSi. mZime elementebis daSlisas ufro msubuq elementebad (dayofis

reaqcia),

aseve

msubuqi

(TermobirTvuli

sinTezis

elementebis
reaqcia),

gardaqmnisas

gamoiyofa

mZime

energiis

elementebad

didi

raodenoba,

romelSic xelovnurad provocirebuli reaqcia SemdgomSic TavisiT, uwyvetad

grZeldeba.
atomis eleqtronuli garsis aRnagoba
eleqtrons

aqvs

ormagi

buneba,

is

erTdroulad

talRacaa

da

korpuskulac (nawilakic). eleqtroni moZraobs atomis mTel moculobaSi da

warmoqmnis

e.w.

eleqtronul

Rrubels.

daqvantul

sivrces

eleqtronul

garsSi, sadac eleqtronis yofnis albaToba maqsimaluria (anu sadac metia

eleqtronuli Rrublis simkvrive) orbitali ewodeba. igi aRiniSneba

-iT;

atomSi eleqtronis mdgomareoba xasiaTdeba oTxi qvanturi ricxviT, esenia: nmTavari qvanturi ricxvi, l-Tanauri qvanturi ricxvi, m_magnituri qvanturi
ricxvi. s _ spinuri qvanturi ricxvi.
n_mTavari qvanturi ricxvi gansazRvravs eleqtronis energias, rameTu
igi gviCvenebs Tu romel energetikul doneze imyofeba eleqtroni. rac ufro
Sorsaa eleqtroni atomgulidan miT metia misi energia da piriqiT. n iRebs
ricxviT mniSvnelobebs: n=1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
aRiniSneba

K, L, M, N, O, P, Q

eleqtronTa maqsimaluri ricxvi am energetikul doneebze z=2n2 e.i.

K-ze 2 eleqtroni moZraobs, L-ze 8 eleqtroni moZraobs, M-ze 18
eleqtroni moZraobs, N-ze 32 eleqtroni moZraobs..
K energetikul doneze (n=1) gvaqvs erTi qvedone s
L energetikul doneze (n=2) gvaqvs s, p qvedone
M energetikul doneze (n=3) gvaqvs s, p, d qvedone
N energetikul doneze (n=4) gvaqvs s, p, d, f qvedone.
eleqtronTa maqsimaluri ricxvi qvedoneebze

59

s-ze 2 eleqtroni, p-ze 6 eleqtroni, d-ze 10 eleqtroni, f-ze 14

eleqtroni.
Tanauri anu orbitaluri qvanturi ricxvi l gviCvenebs eleqtronuli
Rrublis formas da gansazRvravs eleqtronis energias energetikuli donis
farglebSi.
l iRe bs ricxviT mniSvnelobebs
l = 0,1,2,3" (n 1) Sesabamisad aRiniSneba s,p,d,f,g

mag. Tu n=4 maSin l = 0,1,2,3 .

m_magnituri qvanturi ricxvi gansazRvravs eleqtronuli Rrublis
orientacias atomgulis mimarT da iRebs ricxviT mniSvnelobebs

m = l,0, + l
mag. Tu l=4 m = -4,-3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3,+4.
magnitur qvantur ricxvTa simravle _ m = 2l + 1
spinuri qvanturi ricxvi s gviCvenebs eleqtronis brunvas sakuTari

1
RerZis irgvliv. igi iRebs ricxviT mniSvnelobebs s = .
2
elementTa
wesi,

paulis

atomebSi
akrZalvis

eleqtronebis

ganawilebas

principi

umcires

da

gansazRvravs:

energiaTa

hundis

principi

anu

kleCkovskis ori wesi.

hundis wesi: erTi da igive qvedonis orbitalebze jer saTiTaod
saxldebian eleqtronebi, xolo momdevno elementebSi xdeba maTi gawyvileba,
anu erTi da igive qvedonis orbitalebze eleqtronebi imgvarad saxldebian,
rom spinuri qvanturi ricxvis absoluturi mniSvneloba maqsimaluria.
mag. azotSi N 7 n=2
2S

2P

08-Si xdeba Px qvedoneze gawyvileba me-8 eleqtroniT F9-Si xdeba Py

qvedonis gawyvilebac da Ne10-Si gawyvildeba Pz qvedonec, azotisaTvis N7Tvis spinuri qvanturi ricxvebis absolutur mniSvnelobaTa jami tolia:

S = 2 + 2 + 2 = 1,5
paulis akrZalvis principi.
60

e.i. maqsimaluria

nebismieri atomSi ar arsebobs ori eleqtroni, romelTac oTxive

qvanturi ricxvi erTnairi eqnebaT, isini spiniT mainc iqnebian gansxvavebuli.
umcires energiaTa principi (kleCkovskis ori wesi).
kleCkovskim

daadgina,

rom

atomTa

orbitalebis

eleqtronebiT

Tanmimdevruli Sevsebisas is qvedone ivseba adre, romlis n+l-ic naklebia (II

wesi) da Tu es jami tolia is qvedone ivseba adre, romlis mTavari qvanturi
ricxvicnaklebia,e.i.
1s < 2 s < 2 p < 3s < 3 p < 4 s < 3s < 4 p < 5s < 4d < 5 p < 6 s < 4 f < 5d < 6 p < 7 s < 6d <
< 7 p < 6 f < 7d < 7 f .

hundis
principisa

wesis,
da

paulis

qvedonis

akrZalvisa

orbitalebze

principis,

eleqtronTa

umcires
maqsimaluri

energiaTa
ricxvis

gaTvaliswinebiT SegviZlia gamovsaxoT nebismieri elementis eleqtronuli da

eleqtronul-grafikuli konfiguraciebi;
mag. p 15 1s22s22p63s23p3 eleqtronuli formula

n=3
n=2

3d

n=1

Ca

20

eleqtronul-grafikuli
formula

2p
2

4s<3d
4+0<3+2

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s

n=4
n=3

4f
3s

3p

3d

Cr 24 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5

Cavardna 3d

Cr-Si 4s qvedonidan xdeba e-nis

qvedoneSi

n=4
n=3

4f
3s

3p

3d

e-nis Cavardna (erTmagi Cavardna) qromis msgavsad xdeba spilenZis

atomSic.
61

Cu 29 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d10

n=4
n=3

4f
3s

xolo

3p

paladiumis

3d
atomSi

5S

qvedonidan

orive

eleqtroni

gadadis

4d

qvedoneze (ormagi Cavardna).

Pd 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s04d10

n=5
n=4
n=3
3s

3s

3d
eleqtrouaryofiToba(ix.wina TavSi)

atomis mier eleqtronis mizidvis unars eleqtrouaryofiToba ewodeba.

liTonebs aqvT mcire eleqtrouaryofiToba, xolo araliTonebs aqvT didi
eleqtrouaryofiToba. yvelaze didi eleqtrouaryofiToba aqvs F-s yvelaze
mcire

H-s.

ftoridan

wyalbadisaken

eleqtrouaryofiToba

aseTi

TanmimdevrobiT mcirdeba: F, O, Cl, N, S, P, C, Si, H.

daJangulobis xarisxi
daJangulobis xarisxi aris atomis pirobiTi muxti molekulaSi gamoTvlili im
daSvebiT, rom naerTi Sedgeba mxolod ionebisagan. misi ricxviTi mniSvneloba
damokidebulia

naerTSi

Semavali

elementebis

eleqtrouaryofiTobaze

da

gamoiTvleba imis mixedviT, Tu ramdeni eleqtroni miizida an ganizida atomma.

daJangulobis xarisxi SeiZleba iyos dadebiTi, uaryofiTi da nuli, mag.

H+CI_, H 2+ S +6 O 42 ;
daJangulobis

Cl Cl ,

Cl2-Si

xarisxia

_1,

C0H +2 Cl 2 - diqlor

wyalbadis
62

+1,

xolo

meTanSi

Cl-is

naxSirbadisa

nuli,

WianWvelas aldehidSi (formaldehidSi) H + C -O-H_Si OO-s daJangulobis

xarisxi _2-ia, wyalbadisa +1, xolo naxSirbadisa nulia. azotmJavaSi azotis
daJangulobis xarisxi aris +5, xolo valentoba oTxi:
O

H O N <

Tavi IV

Kqimiuri bmebi, molekulis aRnagoba

qimiuri
arapolaruli,

bmis

ZiriTadi

tipebia:

donorul-aqceptoruli

ionuri,
anu

kovalenturi

koordinaciuli),

(polaruli,
wyalbaduri,

metaluri, molekulaTaSorisi urTierTqmedebis anu van-der-vaalsis Zalebi.

qimiuri bmis maxasiaTebeli parametrebia: bmis energia, bmis sigrZe, valenturi
kuTxe,

najeroba

da

mimarTuleba

anu

gezuroba.

xuTive

am

parametriT

xasiaTdeba bmaTa Soris universaluri-kovalenturi bma, xolo ionuri bma

xasiaTdeba

pirveli

sami

parametriT

da

ar

xasiaTdeba

najerobiTa

da

gezurobiT anu mimarTulebiT es imitom, rom ionis eleqtrul vels aqvs

sferuli simetria, e.i. velis energia yvela mimarTulebiT kanonzonierad
mcirdeba, ris gamoc ionebs Soris urTierTqmedeba erTnairad xorcieldeba
yvela mimarTulebiT, e.i. ionur bmas ugezoba anu umimarTuloba axasiaTebs.
amis garda sawinaaRmdegod damuxtul ori ionis urTierTqmedebisas maTi
eleqtruli velis sruli ganeitraleba ar xdeba, ris gamoc maT aqvT
saSualeba damatebiT miizidon am molekulis gareSe mdebare, sawinaaRmdego
muxtis

mqone

ionebi.

aRniSnulidan

Cans,

rom

ionur

bmas

garda

umimarTulobisa axasiaTebs ujerobac. qimiuri bmis warmoqmnisas gamoyofili

energiis raodenobas bmis warmoqmnis energia ewodeba, rac ufro mtkice iqneba
qimiuri bma, miT meti energia unda daixarjos misi gawyvetisaTvis, amitom bmis
63

gawyvetis

energia

aris

qimiuri

bmis

simtkicis

sazomi.

qimiuri

bmebis

warmoqmnis pirobad iTvleba urTierTqmedi atomebis sistemis potencialuri

energiis Semcireba.
qimiurad

SekavSirebuli

atombirTvebs

Soris

manZils

ewodeba

bmis

sigrZe. bmis sigrZis miaxloebiTi Sefaseba SeiZleba atomuri an ionuri

radiusebis mixedviT, an avogadros ricxvis daxmarebiT, an molekuluri
speqtroskopiisa da rentgenis sxivebis difraqciis daxmarebiT.
qimiurad SekavSirebul atombirTvTa warmosaxviT xazebs Soris kuTxes
ewodeba valenturi kuTxe. mag. wylis molekulaSi valenturi kuTxe 104,5-ia.
molekulebSi atomebi SeerTebulia erTmaneTTan garkveuli TanmimdevrobiT da
am

Tanmimdevrobis

TvisebebiT,

xolo

cvlileba
atomTa

iwvevs

axali

nivTierebis

SeerTeba

xdeba

maTi

warmoqmnas

valentobis

axali

Sesabamisad.

nivTierebaTa Tvisebebi damokidebulia ara mxolod maT Sedgenilobaze, aramed

maT aRnagobazec, e.i. molekulaSi atomTa SeerTebis rigsa da urTierTgavlenis
xasiaTze.
qimiuri elementis atomTa unars, monawileobdes kovalentur bmaTa
gansazRvruli

ricxvis

warmoqmnaSi,

najeroba

ewodeba.

mag.

ar

SeiZleba

wyalbadis molekulas H2-s SeuerTdes wyalbadis kidev erTi atomi, radgan

mis molekulaSi bma gajerebulia. kovalenturi bmis warmoqmnas marTalia
urTierTqmedi

atomebis

valenturi

eleqtronuli

Rrublebis

urTierTgadafarva ganapirobebs, magram aseTi gadafarva mxolod eleqtronuli

Rrublebis

garkveuli

urTierTorientaciis

gadafarvis are orientirebuli

unda

iqnes

SemTxvevaSia
garkveuli

SesaZlebeli

da

mimarTulebiT,

e.i.

kovalentur bmas axasiaTebs mimarTuleba-gezuroba.

molekulaSi

qimiuri

bmebis

aRwerisaTvis

upiratesad

gamoiyeneba

valenturi bmebisa da molekuluri orbitalebis (mo) meTodi.

valentoba ganisazRvreba, rogorc gauwyvilebeli eleqtronebis ricxvi,
romlebic

monawileoben

qimiuri

bmebis

warmoqmnaSi.

mTlianobaSi

atomis

kovalenturoba (valentoba) jamurad ganisazRvreba qimiuri bmis warmoqmnaSi

monawile savalento orbitalebis ricxviT.
64

hibridizacia (sp, sp2 da sp3)

sxvadasxva energetikuli mdgomareobis eleqtronebiT da Sesabamisad
sxvadasxva

formis

orbitalebis

urTierTSerevis

(kombinaciis)

process

ewodeba hibridizacia. aseTi kombinaciis Sedegad miRebul orbitalebs ewodeba

hibriduli

orbitalebi.

hibriduli

orbitalebi

erTnairia

formiTa

da

energiiT da gansxvavdeba hibridizaciaSi monawile atomuri orbitalebisagan.

ricxobrivad ki maTi tolia. s-p (es-pe) hibridizaciis Sedegad miiReba ori
hibriduli sp orbitali, romlebic erTmaneTis mimarT ganlagebulia 180-iani
kuTxiT. rac niSnavs, rom am orbitalebis monawileobiT warmoqmnili
bma,

aseve

180-iT.

ganlagdeba

BeCl2-is

mag.

molekulaSi

qimiuri

adgili

aqvs

beriliumis atomis sp hibridizacias, amitom BeCl2-s aqvs sworxazovani forma.

sp2 (es-pe ori) hibridizaciis dros xdeba erTi S da oriPP eleqtronuli
Rrublis kombinacia, rac iwvevs sami hibriduli orbitalis warmoqmnas,

romlebic erTmaneTis mimarT ganlagebulia 120-iT. maTi monawileobiT

warmoqmnili qimiuri bmebic aseTive kuTxiT ganlagdebian. mag. BCl3-Si boris
atomis sp3 aqvs samkuTxedis forma

..
: Cl :
B

..
: Cl
..
sp3

(es-pe-sami)

eleqtronuli

hibridizaciis

Rrublis

..
..

Cl :

kombinacia,

dros

xdeba

miiReba

oTxi

erTi

da

hibriduli

romlebic simetriulad arian orientirebulni tetraedris

sami

pe

orbitali,

oTxive wveros

mimarT, e.i. 10928 kuTxiT.

molekuluri orbitalebis meTodi

molekuluri
rogorc

orbitalebis

atombirTvebisa

da

Teoriis

eleqtronebis
65

Tanaxmad

molekula

erToblioba,

sadac

ganixileba
TiToeuli

eleqtroni moZraobs danarCeni eleqtronebisa da yvela birTvis velSi. am

Teoriis mixedviT atomisaTvis dadgenili qvantur-meqanikuri kanonzomierebebi
vrceldeba ufro rTul sistemaze-molekulaze da rom molekulis mTeli
moculoba

dakavebulia

eleqtroni.

yoveli

orbitalebiT,

molekuluri

romlebzec

orbitali

ganlagebulia

xasiaTdeba

Tavisi

yvela

qvanturi

ricxvebiT, romlebic aRweren eleqtronTa Tvisebebs mocemul energetikul

mdgomareobaSi.
molekuluri orbitalebi aRiniSneba: (sigma), (pi), (delta), (fi)...
atomuri orbitalebis s, p, d, f analogiurad.
molekuluri orbitalebis Teoriis mizania gansazRvros molekulis
orbitalTa tipebi, maTi energiebi da orbitalebze eleqtronebis ganawilebis
xasiaTi energiebis zrdis rigis mixedviT, romelic dafuZnebulia paulis
akrZalvis principze da hundis wesze. radganac molekuluri orbitalebi mraval
centriania, amitom isini formiT ufro rTulia, vidre atomuri orbitalebi
molekuluri

orbitalebi

SeiZleba

warmovidginoT,

rogorc

atomuri

orbitalebis xazovani kombinacia, anu rogorc atomuri orbitalebis Sekrebisa

da gamoklebis kombinirebis Sedegi. am meTodis mixedviT molekulaSi TiToeul
eleqtrons

Seesabameba

Tavisi

molekuluri

orbitali,

romlis

aRwera

SeiZleba (fsi) talRuri funqciiT eleqtronis mdgomareoba, rodesac igi

imyofeba erT-erT atombirTvTan (A) aiRwereba A talRuri funqciiT, xolo
Tu eleqtroni imyofeba meore atombirTvTan (B), maSin misi mdgomareobis
aRwera SeiZleba B funqciiT. magaliTad Tu eleqtroni aris sadRac A da B
atombirTvebs

Soris,

maSin

funqciebis A B xazovani

misi

mdgomareobis

aRwera

SeiZleba

atomTa

kombinaciiT (mo-molekuluri orbitali aris

atomuri orbitalebis xazovani kombinacia);

amrigad eleqtroni SeiZleba aRmoCndes erT SemTxvevaSi 1 = A + B
mdgomareobaSi,
funqciebi

xolo

ukeTesad

orbitalebi.

isini

sxva

SemTxvevaSi

1 = A B

axasiaTeben

eleqtronis

gviCveneben,

rom

mdgomareobaSi.

mdgomareobas,
SemTxvevaSi

vidre

eleqtroni

aseTi
atomTa
aris

atombirTvebs Soris da ufro didia molekulis warmoqmnis albaToba. vidre

66

atomTa gancalkavebis albaToba, xolo 2 SemTxvevaSi eleqtroni moklebulia

molekulis

warmoqmnis

SesaZleblobas.

talRuri

meqanikis

TvalsazrisiT

molekuluri orbitali aris sivrcis is nawili, romelSic eleqtronis

arsebobis albaToba winaswargansazRvruli sididis tolia.
garkveuli
(molekuluri

ricxvis

orbitalis)

ao

(atomuri

orbitalidan)

igive

raodenoba.

mag.

miiReba

wyalbadis

mo

molekulis

warmoqmnisas ori atomuri 1s orbitalebisagan warmoiqmneba ori molekuluri

(sigma) orbitali, sawyis atomur 1s orbitalebis energiasTan SedarebiT

warmoqmnili ori molekuluri orbitalidan erTi xasiaTdeba ufro dabali
energiiT, meore ufro maRali energiiT. dabali energiis mqone molekuluri
orbitali

energetikulad

xelsayrelia

da

misi

eleqtronebiT

Sevseba

gamoiwvevs atomTa Soris qimiuri bmis warmoqmnas, ris gamoc am molekulur

orbitals (mo-s) SemakavSirebeli anu Sembmeli orbitali ewodeba. meore
molekuluri orbitali, sadac energetikuli done ufro maRalia, H2-is
SemTxvevaSi eleqtronebisagan Tavisufalia. am mo-is Sevseba eleqtronebiT
xdeba H2-is aRgznebis SemTxvevaSi, rasac mosdevs qimiuri bmis mkveTri
Sesusteba

da

aRniSnulis

molekulis
gamo

aseT

daSla

atomebad.

mo-ebs

ewodeba

gamTiSveli anu damSleli anu gamafaSarebeli

molekuluri orbitali da aRiniSneba * niSniT.
atomuri

orbitalebidan

molekuluri

orbitalebis wamoqmnis sqema aseTia:

molekuluri orbitals, romlis drosac
sistemis
atomur

potencialuri
orbitalebTan

energia

mcirdeba

SedarebiT,

xolo

sistema ufro mdgradi xdeba SemakavSirebeli

orbitali ewodeba.
Sesabamisad
arseboben

SemakavSirebel

molekulur

eleqtronebi ewodeba.
67

eleqtronebs,
orbitalebze,

romlebic
SemakavSirebeli

molekulur orbitals, romlis drosac sistemis potencialuri energia

izrdeba

atomur

orbitalTan

SedarebiT,

xolo sistema aramdgradi xdeba

damSleli anu gamTiSveli orbitali ewodeba.

eleqtronebs,

romlebic

moTavsebulni

arian

damSlel

molekulur

orbitalebze damSleli eleqtronebi ewodebaT.

molekuluri

orbitalebis

Teoriis

mixedviT

wyalbadis

atomebidan

wyalbadis molekulis warmoqmnis reaqcia SeiZleba ase gamovsaxoT:

H[1s]+H[1s] H2[(1s)2].
damakavSirebel eleqtronTa ricxvs, rom gamovakloT gamTiSvel eleqtronTa
ricxvi, miRebuli sxvaobis naxevari iqneba molekulaSi arsebuli qimiuri
bmebis raodenoba:

n=

SemakavSirebeli eleqtronebis ricxvi - gamTiSveli eleqtronebis ricxvi

2
nH =
2

20
22
= 1 n He =
=0
1
2

(He 2 praqtikulad ar arsebobs). sazogadod molekulis warmoqmnas eqneba

adgili Tu n>0 da

Tu n=0, maSin molekula praqtikulad ar warmoiqmneba.

molekuluri orbitalebis meTodi

saSualebas iZleva ara marto erTnairi
atomebisagan

Semdgari

molekulis

warmoqmna ganvixiloT, aramed sxvadasxva

atomebisagan

Semdgari

warmoqmnac.

mag.

molekulebis
molekulis

CO-s

warmoqmna.
CO molekulis gare energetikuli donis
molekulur
eleqtroni,

orbitalze
maT

SemakavSirebel

Soris

aris

10

eleq-troni

molekulur

orbitalze

da 2 eleqtroni damSlel molekulur

orbitalze. maT Soris sxvaoba

68

naxSirbadis (II) oqsidis molekulis

CO warmoqmnis energetikuli diagramaO
naxSirbadis (II) oqsidis molekulis
CO warmoqmnis energetikuli diagramaO

Seadgens

eleqtrons

SemakavSirebeli

molekulur

orbitalze

da

Sesabamisad CO-s molekulaSi bmis rigi n=3 tolia.

ionuri bma.
ionuri

bma

myardeba

eleqtrouaryofiTobiT

mkveTrad

gansaxvavebul

elementebs Soris, anu tipiur liTonebsa da tipiur araliTonebs Soris

(sxvaoba elementebis eleqtrouaryofiTobebSi meti unda iyos 1,7-ze). am bmis
warmoqmnisas liToni gascems eleqtrons, romelsac iZens araliToni. liTonis
dadebiTi ionis aRnagoba xdeba mis wina periodSi arsebuli inertuli airis
aRnagobis msgavsi, xolo araliTonis uaryofiTi ionis aRnagoba xdeba igive
periodis inertuli airis atomis msgavsi.
_e
mag. Na + Cl Na + Cl

Na1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s e Na + 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 ( Ne s emsgavseba)
Cl 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 3 p 5 e Cl 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 6
( Ar -s aRnagobas emsgavseba).
damuxtul

atoms

an

atomTa

jgufs

ewodeba

ioni.

dadebiTi

ioni

kaTionia. uaryofiTi ioni anionia. sxvadasxva muxtis ionebi erTmaneTs izidavs

da warmoiqmneba ionuri molekula. rac ufro didia moreagire elementebs
Soris eleqtrouaryofiTobis sxvaoba, miT ufro mdgradia miRebuli ionuri
molekula.
kaTionis radiusi gacilebiT naklebia Sesabamisi neitraluri atomis
radiusze, radgan kaTionis dadebiTi muxti ufro metad izidavs darCenil
eleqtronul Sreebs.
0

mag. r ( Li ) = 1,55 A;
anionis

radiusi

r ( Li + ) = 0,60 A .

gacilebiT

metia

Sesabamisi

neitraluri

atomis

radiusze, radgan eleqtronebis moZraobis sivrce isedac didia da damatebiTi

eleqtroni kidev ufro metad zrdis maT.
0

mag. r ( F ) = 0,64 A;

r ( F ) = 1,36 A;

69

kovalenturi

bma

warmoiqmneba

iseTi

elementis

urTierTqmedebisas,

romelTa eleqtrouaryofiTobebis sxvaoba naklebia 1,7-ze. am dros elementis

savalento

eleqtronebi

saziaro

da

gawyvilebuli

xdeba,

rac

iwvevs

elementebis gare savalento Sris dasrulebas anu eleqtronuli oqtetis

warmoqmnas.
+
..
..
H + Cl : H + : Cl : H Cl
..
..

S-p gadafarva
HCl-is molekula polarul-kovalenturia. polarul-kovalenturi bmaa
wylis

molekulaSi

wyalbadis

atomebsa

da

Jangbadis

atoms

Soris.

wyalbadebidan saziaro eleqtronuli wyvili gadazidulia Jangbadisaken, ris

gamoc dipoli warmoiqmneba. wyalbads aqvs dadebiTi efeqtiuri muxti, xolo
Jangbads uaryofiTi.
+ .. +
H . + O + H H : O
.. : H

s-p-s gadafarva

bma arapolarul kovalenturia ori erTnairi elementisagan (erTnairi

sididis eleqtrouaryofiTobiT warmoqmnil molekulaSi
70

.. ..
.. ..
: C.. + .C.. :: C.. : C.. :
saziaro

eleqtronuli

wyvili

simetriis

RerZzea

ganTavsebuli

da

polarobas adgili ara aqvs, e.i. molekula arapolarul-kovalenturia.

P-Pgadafarva (Cl2)

H . + .H H : H

s-sgadafarva (H2)
rac metia eleqtronuli orbitalebis urTierTgadafarvis are, miT
ufro mtkicea kovalenturi bma.

.
.
: N. + N. :: N ## N : N N .

azotis molekulaSi sammagi bmidan erTi aris (sigma) bma, ori ki

(pi) bma. bma warmoiqmneba eleqtronuli Rrublebis urTierTgadafarvisas

atomgulebis SemaerTebeli RerZis gaswvr

71

bma

warmoiqmneba

eleqtronuli

Rrublebis

urTierTgadafarvisas

atomgulebis SemaerTebeli RerZis marTobul sibrtyeSi

elementis

valentoba

ganisazRvreba

yvela

im

qimiuri

kavSirebis

ricxviT, romlis damyarebis unaric aqvs mocemuli elementis atoms sxva

elementis

atomebTan.

eleqtronebis

am

kavSirebis

raodenobiT

ricxvi

ganisazRvreba.

ki

atomSi

gauwyvilebeli

gauwyvilebeli

eleqtronebis

raodenoba izrdeba atomis agznebul mdgomareobaSi gadasvlisas. mag. Tu

normalur mdgomareobaSi naxSirbads aqvs ori gauwyvilebeli eleqtroni da
igi

orvalentiania

agznebul

mdgomareobaSi

naxSirbads

aqvs

oTxi

gauwyvilebeli eleqtroni da oTxvalentiania

C n=2

2s

2p

C * n=2

2s
atomis

agznebas

2p
sWirdeba

energia.

damatebiTi

qimiuri

kavSiri

warmoiqmneba im SemTxvevaSi roca am qimiuri kavSiris warmoqmnisas gamoyofili

energia metia an udris atomis agznebul mdgomareobaSi gadasayvanad saWiro
energias.
Jangbadi mxolod orvalentiania. misi valentobis gazrda ver xerxdeba,
radganac savalento energetikul doneze Tavisufali orbitali ar gaaCnia.
2s2

2p4

O 8 n=2

gogirdis atomis agznebisas SeiZleba is gaxdes oTx da eqvsvalentiani

72

16

3s23p4

S n=3

3s

2p

3d
3s23p33d1

S * n=3

3s

3p

3d

3s13p33d2

S * * n=2

3s

3p

3d

azotis atoms Tavisufal mdgomareobaSi aqvs sami kenti eleqtroni e.i.

samvalentiania.

azotis

atomis

agznebiTac

ki

mis

2S

luw

eleqtroni

gawyvilebis saSualeba ara aqvs (ar aqvs Tavisufali orbitalebi) da amitom

is agznebis SemTxvevaSic rCeba samvalentiani, meoTxe kavSiri mas SeuZlia
Tavisufali eleqtronuli wyviliT daamyaros.
donorul-aqceptoruli anu koordinaciuli bma.
donor-aqceptoruli

bma

xorcieldeba

erTi

elementis

atomis

Tavisufali eleqtronuli wyvilisa da II elementis atomis Tavisufali

orbitalis meSveobiT.
H

mag.

|
+
.. ..

: N H + H Cl H : ..N H
|

H
H

C +1O 2 s molekulaSi C = O erTi bma donor-aqceptorulia, romelic

xorcieldeba

naxSirbadis

Pz

Tavisufali

orbitalisa

da

Jangbadis

Pz

Tavisufali eleqtronuli wyviliT.

C 6 n=2

n=2
Jangbadi

donoria,

naxSirbadi

aqceptori

naxSirbadic da Jangbadic samvalentiania.

73

O8

naxSirbadis

monoqsidSi

wyalbaduri bma
wyalbaduri bma xorcieldeba erTi molekulis wyalbadisa da meore
iseTive

molekulis

spirtebSi,

eleqtrouaryofiT

aminomJavebSi,

wyalbaduri

bma

elements

Soris.

ganapirobebs

mag.

Txevad

wyalSi,

agregatul

mdgomareobas.

H F "H F "H F
wyalbaduri bmisaTvis damaxasiaTebelia mimarTuleba da najeroba.
liTonuri bma gvxvdeba mxolod liTonis kristalur meserSi. liTonis
kristalis kvanZebSi moTavsebulia dadebiTi ionebi, maT Soris ki qaosurad
moZraobs eleqtronebi. liTonSi Tavisufali eleqtronebi akavSirebs ara or,
aramed uamrav ions, radganac savalento orbitalebis urTierTgadafarvis
Sedegad warmoiqmneba erTiani sivrce (molekuluri orbitali), romelzedac
Tavisflad

moZraobs

eleqtroni.

eleqtronebis

moZraobis

sivrcis

aseT

gazrdas delokalizacia ewodeba.

Tavi V
araorganul nivTierebaTa ZiriTadi
klasebi
araorganuli nivTierebebi iyofa oTx ZiriTad jgufad. 1) oqsidebi;
2)hidroqsidebi; 3) mJavebi; 4) marilebi.
oqsidebi
binarul

(ori

elementisagan

Semdgar)

naerTs,

romelSic

erT-erTi

elementi Jangbadia daJangulobis ricxviT _ 2 ewodeba oqsidi.

cnobilia

oqsdidebis

msgavsi

Sedgenilobis

naerTebi

peroqsidebi,

romelTa Semadgeneli Jangbadis daJangulobis xarisxi aris _1, amitom isini

ar miekuTvnebian oqsidebs. saxeldobr wyalbadis peroqsidi susti mJavaa,
74

xolo metalTa peroqsidebi misi Sesabamisi marilebia. mag. BaO2, Na2O2 da

sxva. isini Seicaven Jangbadis molekula ions (O2 ) 2 .
oqsidebi iyofian or qvejgufad:
1) marilarwarmomqmneli oqsidebi: mag. CO, NO, N2O, SiO,
2) marilwarmomqmneli oqsidebi.
marilwarmomqmneli oqsidebi Tavis mxriv iyofa sam jgufad: 1) fuZe
oqsidebi, 2) mJavuri oqsidebi, 3) amfoteruli oqsidebi (ormagi Tvisebis
mqone).
fuZe

oqsidebia

metalTa

oqsidebi,

garda

zogierT

metalTa

im

oqsidebisa, sadac metali umaRlesi daJangulobis xarisxiTaa. mag. Mn2O7,

CrO3.
fuZe oqsidebia: Na2O, CaO, CuO, FeO, CrO da sxv. fuZe oqsidebi. maT
imitom ewodaT, rom maTi hidratebi fuZeebia. mJavuri oqsidebia: SO2, SO3,

P2O5, CO2, CrO3, Mn2O7 da sxva. maT mJavuri imitom ewodeba, rom maTi
hidratebi mJaveebia.
amfoteruli oqasidebia: ZnO, Al2O3, Cr2O3 da sxva.
oqsidebis miRebis xerxebi
oqsidebi miiRebian: 1) martivi nivTierebebis urTierTqmedebiT JangbadTan:

4Na+O22Na2O

4Al+3O22Al2O3

S+O2SO2

4P+5O22P2O5

2) rTuli nivTierebebis urTierTqmedebiT JangbadTan^

4FeS2+11O22Fe2O3+8SO2

CH4+2O2CO2+2H2O

2H2S+3O22SO2+2H2O
3) JangbadSemcveli rTuli nivTierebebis Termuli daSliT:
t 2CuO+4NO +O
2Cu(NO3)2
2
2

t CaO+CaO2
CaCO3
t CuO+H2O
Cu (OH)2

H2CO3 CO2+H2O

t ZnO+H2O.
Zn(OH)2

75

oqsidebis qimiuri Tvisebebi

1) fuZe oqsidebi (wyalSi xsnadi metalebis oqsidebi) urTierTqmedebs
wyalTan tutis warmoqmniT:

Na2O+H2O2NaOH

CaO+H2OCa(OH)2+Q

(wyalSi xsnadi metalebia Li, Na, K, Pb, Cs, Fr, Sr, Ba, Ca, Ra, Tl _ am
metalebis oqsidebia wyalSi xsnadi)
2)

fuZe

oqsidebi

urTierTqmedeben

mJavebTan

marilisa

da

wylis

warmoqmniT:

CuO+H2SO4CuSO4+H2O
3)

fuZe

oqsidebi

FeO+2HClFeCl2+H2O

urTierTqmedeben

mJava

oqsidebTan

da

marilebs

warmoqmnian:

MgO+SO3MgSO4

CaO+CO2CaCO3

4) mJava oqsidebi urTierTqmedeben tuteebTan marilisa da wylis

warmoqmniT:

CO2+Ca(OH) 2CaCO3+H2O

SO2+2NaOHNa2SO3+H2O

5) mJava oqsidebi ixsnebian wyalSi (garda SiO2-isa) da Sesabamis mJavebs

warmoqmnian:

SO2+H2OH2SO3

P2O5+H2O2HPO3

amfoteruli oqsidebi urTierTqmedeben mJavebTan rogorc fuZe oqsidebi

da tuteebTan rogorc mJavuri oqsidebi

ZnO+H2SO4ZnSO4+H2O

ZnO+2NaOHNa2ZnO2+H2O
natriumis
cinkati

Al2O3+3H2SO4Al2(SO4)3+3H2O

Al2O3+2NaOH2NaAIO2+H2O
natriumis
metaaluminati

76

fuZeebi
fuZe
metalis

aris

erTi

rTuli
atomisa

qimiuri
da

nivTiereba,

masTan

romlis

dakavSirebuli

molekula

erTi

an

Sedgeba

ramodenime

hidroqsilis jgufisagan. hidroqsilis jgufis anu wylis naSTis- OH -is

raodenoba gansazRvravs fuZis mJaurobas. wyalSi xsnadi fuZeebia (tuteebia)

NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2 da sxva.

wyalSi uxsnadi fuZeebia: Cu(OH)2, Fe(OH)2, Fe(OH)3 da sxva. Tu metali
wyalSi xsnadia, maSin misi oqsidic da hidroqsidic wyalSi xsnadia da Tu
metali wyalSi uxsnadia, misi oqsidic da hidroqsidic wyalSi uxsnadia.
fuZeebis miRebis xerxebi:
tuteebi

miiRebian:

1)

wyalSi

xsnadi

liTonebis

wyalTan

urTierTqmedebiT:

2Na+2H2O2NaOH+H2

Ca+2H2OCa(OH)2+H2

2) wyalSi xsnadi liTonebis oqsidebis wyalTan urTierTqmedebiT:

Na2O+H2O2NaOH

CaO+H2OCa(OH)2

3) zogierTi marilis wyalxsnaris eleqtroliziT:

2NaCl+2H2O 2NaOH + Cl2 + H2

xsnarSi

anodze kaTodze

4) uxsnadi fuZeebi (zogierTi tutec) miiReba Sesabamis marilebze

Zlieri tutis moqmedebiT:

CuSO4+2NaOHCu(OH)2+Na2SO4

FeCl2+2NaOHFe(OH)2+2NaCl

K2CO3+Ca(OH)2CaCO3+2KOH
amfoteruli hidroqsidebic miiRebian amave xerxiT. sasurvelia NH4OHis gamoyeneba, raTa Warb tuteSi miRebuli amfoliti ar gaixsnas.
fuZeebis qimiuri Tvisebebi
1) fuZeebi moqmedeben mJaveebTan (neitralizacia)

Ca(OH)2+H2SO4CaSO4+2H2O

Cu(OH) 2+2HClCuCl2+2H2O

2) tuteebi reagireben mJava oqsidebTan:

2NaOH+SO2Na2SO3

Ca(OH)2+CO2CaCO3+H2O

3) tuteebi reagireben marilebTan:

77

2NaOH+FeCl2Fe(OH)2+2NaCl

Al2O3+2NaOH2NaAlO2+H2O

4) tuteebi reagireben araliTonebTan:

2KOH+Cl2NaCl+NaClO+H2O
civi

6KOH+Cl25KCl+KClO3+3H2O
cxeli

5) tuteSi ixsneba amfoteruli liTonebi:

2NaOH+ZnNa2ZnO2+H2

2NaOH+Al+2H2O2NaAlO2+3H2

6) uxsnadi fuZeebi gaxurebiT iSlebian:

t CuO+H O.
Cu(OH)2
2

t Fe2O3+3H2O
2Fe(OH)3

7) fuZeebi wyalSi ionebad disocirdebian:

NaOH
Na + + OH
Ca(OH) 2 OH + + CaOH +
2OH + Ca +2

amfoteruli hidroqsidebis Tvisebebi

amfoteruli hidroqsidebi reagireben mJavebTan, rogorc fuZeebi da
fuZeebTan rogorc mJaveebi:

Zn(OH)2+H2SO4ZnSO4+2H2O

amfoteruli hidroqsidebi wyalSi

Zn(OH)2+2NaOHNa2[Zn(OH)4]

disocirdebian rogorc fuZe da

natriumis tetrahid-

rogorc mJava

roqsicinkati

2
ZnO22 + 2 H +
2OH + Zn
Zn(OH ) 2

AlO2 + H + + H 2 O
Al (OH ) 3
3OH + Al +3

2Al(OH)3+3H2SO4Al2(SO4)3+6H2O

Al(OH)3+NaOH+2H2ONa[Al(OH)42H2O]
natriumis diaqvatetrahidroqsoaluminati
mJavebi
mJava

aris

rTuli

qimiuri

nivTiereba,

romelic

Seicavs

liToniT

Canacvlebis unaris mqone wyalbadis ionebs da masTan dakavSirebul mJavur

78

naSTs. mJauri naSTis anu mJavis radikalis valentoba ganisazRvreba mJavis

fuZianobiT.
erTfuZiani mJavebia: HCl, HI, HNO2, HNO3, HPO3.
orfuZiani mJavebi: H2S, H2SO4, H2CO3.
samfuZiani mJava H3PO4.
Sedgenilobis mixedviT mJavebi or jgufad iyofa:
Jangbadiani da uJangbado.
Jangbadiani mJavebia: H2SO4-gogirdmJava, H2SO3-gogirdovani mJava, H2CO3naxSirmJava,

H2SiO3-siliciummJava,

HPO3-metafosformJava,

HNO3-azotmJava,

H4P2O7-pirofosformJava,

HNO2-azotovani

mJava,

H3PO4-orTofosformJava,

H3PO3-orTofosforovani mJava, HClO-qveqlorovani mJava, HClO2-qlorovani

mJava, HClO3-qveqlormJava, HClO4-qlormJava da sxva.
uJangbado mJavebia: H3S-gogirdwyalbadmJava, HCl-qlorwyalbadmJava anu
marilmJava; HBr-bromwyalbadmJava, HF-ftorwyalbadmJava anu mlRobi mJava da
sxva.
mJavebis miRebis xerxebi:
uJangbado

mJaveebi

miiRebian

araliTonis

da

wyalbadis

uSualo

SeerTebiT:

H2+Cl2 2HCI

H2+SH2S

2) Jangbadiani mJavebi miiRebian mJauri oqsidis anu mJavis anhidridebis

wyalSi gaxsniT:

SO2+H2OH2SO3

P2O5+H2O2HPO3

3) saerTo xerxi: mJavebi miiReba Sesabamis marilze Zlieri mJavis

moqmedebiT:

Na2SiO3+H2SO4Na2SO4+H2SiO3
(siliciummJava mxolod am xerxiT miiReba)

2NaCI+H2SO4Na2SO4+2HCl.
mJavebis qimiuri Tvisebebi
mJavebi urTierTqmedebs: 1) liTonebTan:

Zn+H2SO4 ZnSO4 +2H2O

Cu+2H2SO4 CuSO4+SO2+2H2O
79

Cu+4HNO3 Cu(NO3)2+2NO2+2H2O
konc.

3Cu+8HNO 3Cu(NO3)2+2NO+4H2O
ganz.

2) liTonTa oqsidebTan:

CuO+H2SO4CuSO4+H2O

FeO+2HClFeCl2+H2O

3) liTonTa hidroqsidebTan: (neitralizacia)

Cu(OH)2+H2SO4CuSO4+2H2O

Fe(OH)2+2HClFeCl2+2H2O

4) marilebTan:

BaCl2+H2SO4BaSO4+2HCl
5) Jangbadiani mJavebi iSlebian Termulad:
t P O +3H O
2H3PO4
2 5
2

H2CO3 CO2+H2O

6) mJavebi ganicdian eleqtrolitur disociacias

HCl
H + + Cl

+
2
+
3
H 3 PO 4
H + H 2 PO 4
2H + HPO 4
3H + PO 4

+
+
2
H 2 SO4
H + HSO4
2 H + SO4 .

mJava garemoSi lakmusi wiTldeba, meTilnarinji vardisferdeba, mJavis

damaxasiaTebeli ionia H + ioni.
marilebi
marili aris rTuli qimiuri nivTiereba, romlis molekula Seicavs
metalis erT an ramodenime atomsa da masTan bmul mJavas radikals.
cnobilia

marilTa

Semdegi

tipebi:

1)

sruli

anu

saSualo

anu

normaluri, 2) mJava marilebi, 3) fuZe marilebi, 4) ormagi marilebi, 5)

kompleqsuri marilebi, 6) Sereuli marilebi.

saSualo anu sruli marilebis miRebis meTodebi:

sruli marilebi miiRebian:
1. mJavebis moqmedebiT liTonebTan:

Zn+H2SO4ZnSO4+H2

Fe+2HCl FeCL2+H2
80

Cu+4HNO3 Cu(NO3)2+2NO2+2H2O
konc.

2. mJavebis moqmedebiT fuZe oqsidebTan:

ZnO+H2SO4ZnSO4 +H2O

FeO+H2SO4FeSO4+H2O

3. mJavas moqmedebiT fuZesTan:

H2SO4+2NaOHNa2SO4+2H2O

Ca(OH)2+2HClCaCl2+2H2O

4. mJavas moqmedebiT marilebTan:

Na2SiO3+H2SO4Na2SO4+H2SiO3

BaCl2+H2SO4Ba2SO4+2HCl

5. tutis moqmedebiT marilTan:

2NaOH+FeSO4Na2SO4+Fe(OH)2
Ca(OH)2+Na2CO3CaCO3+2NaOH
6. tutis moqmedebiT mJava oqsidTan:

Ca(OH)2+CO2CaCO3+H2O

2KOH+SO3K2SO4+H2O

7. tutis moqmedebiT zogierT araliTonTan:

2NaOH+Cl2NaCl+NaClO+H2O
civi

8. ori marilis urTierTqmedebiT:

BaCl2+Na2SO4BaSO4+2NaCl

AgNO3+NaClAgCl+NaNO3

9. fuZe da mJavuri oqsidis urTierTqmedebiT:

CaO+CO2CaCO3

Na2O+SO2Na2SO3

10. liTonis urTierTqmedebiT marilTan:

Fe +CuSO4FeSO4+Cu

Zn+2AgNO3Zn(NO3) 2+2Ag

11. liTonis da araliTonis urTierTqmedebiT:

Cu+Cl2 CuCl2

Fe+SFeS

12. mJavuri oqsidisa da marilis urTierTqmedebiT:

SiO2+Na2CO3Na2SiO3+CO2
13. zogierTi marilis Termuli daSliT:

t 2KNO +O
2KNO3
2
2

t 2KCl+3O
2KClO3
2

14. araliTonis moqmedebiT marilTan:

Cl2+2KBr2KCl+Br2

Br+2KI2KBr+I2
81

15. amiakisa da mJavis urTierTqmedebiT:

2NH3+H2SO4(NH4)2SO4.

NH3+HClNH4Cl
saSualo marilebis qimiuri Tvisebebi
marilebi urTierTqmedeben:
1. liTonebTan:

Fe+CuSO4FeSO4+Cu
2. tuteebTan:

CuSO4+ 2NaOH Cu(OH)2+Na2SO4

3. mJavebTan:

2NaCl+ H2SO4 Na2SO4+2HCl

4. marilebTan:

AgNO3+NaClAgCl+NaNO3
5. wyalTan kristalhidrats warmoqmnian:

CuSO4+5H2O CuSO4+5H2O
6. JangbadSemcveli marilebi gaxurebiT iSlebian:
t CaO+CO2
CaCO3

t 2KNO2+O2
2KNO3

7. marilebi ganicdian eleqtrolitur disociacias:

Na + + HSO 4
Na + + H + + SO 42
NaHSO 4

Na2SO4 Na + + SO 24

+3

2
AlOH + + + SO 42
AlOHSO 4
Al + OH + SO 4

NH 4+ + Fe +3 + 2SO 42
NH 4 Fe(SO 4 ) 2

3K + + [Fe(CN) 6 ] .
K 3 [Fe(CN) 6 ]
3

mJava marilebis miReba da gadayvana srulSi:

H3PO4+NaOHH2O+NaH2PO4

NaH2PO4 +2NaOH2H2O +Na3PO4

fuZe marilebis miReba da gadayvana srulSi:

Al(OH)3+H2SO42H2O+AlOHSO4

2 AlOHSO4+H2SO42H2O+Al2(SO4),

82

Tavi VI
Jangva-aRdgena
eleqtronuli TvalsazrisiT Jangva aris atomis, molekulis an ionis
mier eleqtronis gacema, xolo aRdgena aris atomis, molekulis an ionis mier
eleqtronis SeZena.
Jangva-aRdgeniTia
nivTierebaTa

is

daJangulobis

reaqciebi,
xarisxis

romlebic

mimdinareobs

cvlilebiT.

atomebs,

moreagire
ionebs

an

molekulebs, romlebic gascemen eleqtronebs, aRmdgenelebi ewodebaT, xolo

atomebi, ionebi da molekulebi, romlebic iZenen

eleqtronebs damJangvelebi

ewodebaT.
eleqtronis gacema SeuZliaT e.i. aRmdgenelia:
1. neitraluri atomebi, rogorc metalis aseve metaloidisa.
e S +6
S
6

Fe 2e Fe +2

2. uaryofiT ionebs araliTonisas:

e S 0
S 2
2

Cl e Cl 0

e N 0
N 3
3

3. dadebiT ionebs, rogorc liTonis aseve araliTonisas, romelic gaizrdis

dadebiTi muxtis sidides:
e S +6
S + 4
2

Fe +2 e Fe +3

e N +5
N + 3
2

eleqtronis SeZena SeuZliaT, e.i. damJangvelebia:

1. neitralur atomebs araliTonisas:
e S 2
S +
2

e Cl
Cl +

e N 3
N +
3

2. dadebiT ionebs, rogorc liTonisas aseve araliTonisas:

e Mn + 2 S + 6 +
e S 0
Mn + 7 +
5
6

e S 2 .
S + 6 +
8
83

Jangva-aRdgeniTi reaqciebi iyofa sam ZiriTad jgufad:

1. atomTaSorisi, molekulaTaSorisi, ionTaSorisi
mag. 4 P 0 + 5O20 2 P2+5 O52
e P +5
P 0
5
4
20
e 2O 2 5
O +
4
2

4 Fe +2 S 2 + 11O20 2 Fe2+3 O3 + 8S +4 O2
e Fe +3

Fe +2
2 S 10e 2 S

+4

44

O2 + 4e 2O 2

11

2. Sigamolekuluri Jangva-aRdgeba

(N

t 0 Cr + 3 O 2 + N 0 + 4 H O
H 4 )2 Cr2+ 6 O7
2
3
2
2

2 N 3 6e N 2
6
e Cr + 3
Cr + 6 +
3

1 daiJanga, aRmdgenia
3 aRdga, mJangavia

t 0 KCl + 3O
2 KCIO3
2
e Cl
Cl + 2 +
6
12
e O
4
2O 2

2 aRdga, mJangavia
3 daiJanga, aRmdgenia

3. TviT-Jangva, TviT-aRdgena anu disproporcionireba:

+5

+3

2 N +4O2 + H 2O H NO 3 + H NO 2
civi

e N +5
N +4

e N +3
N +4 +

1
+2

3 N + 4O2 + H 2O 2 HN +5O3 + NO
cxeli

e N +5
N +4

e N +2
N + 4 +
2

2 daiJanga, aRmdgenia
1 aRdga, mJangavia

gavatoloT eleqtronuli balansis meTodiT:

84

6 Fe +2 SO4 + 2 HN +5 O3 + 3H 2 SO4 3Fe 2+3 ( SO4 ) 3 + 2 N +2 O + 4 H 2 O

daJangvis
produqti

e Fe +3
3
Fe +2

3
e N + 2
1
N + 5 +
3

aRdg. Tanaproproduqti duqti

3P 0 + HN +5 O3 + 2 H 2 O 2 H 3 P +5 O4 + 5 N +2 O
e N +2
5 aRdga, mJangavia
N +5 +
3
e P +5
P 0
5

15

3 daiJanga, aRmdgenia

2 KMn +7 O4 + 5 H 2 S 2 + 6 HCl 2 Mn +2 Cl 2 + 5S o + 2 KCl + 8 H 2 O

aRdg.
produqti

e Mn + 2
Mn + 7 +
5
10
2
0

e
2
S S

daJangvis
produqti

Tanaproduqti

5 aRdga, mJangavia
3 daiJanga, aRmdgenia

2 KMn +7 O4 + Na +3 NO2 + 2 KOH 2 K 2 Mn +6O4 + NaN +5O3 + H 2O

aRdg
produqti

daJangvis
produqti

Tana
produqti

Tavi VII
Qqimiuri procesebis energetika
Kqimiuri Termodinamika Seiswavlis qimiuri reaqciebis dros energiis
gadasvlas

erTi

formidan

meoreSi.

Termodinamikis

Seswavlis

obieqts

warmoadgens sistema, romelic aris garemosagan gamoyofil, urTirTqmedebaSi

arsebuli nivTierebebis erToblioba. Aarsebobs homogenuri da heteregenuli
sistemebi. Hhomogenuri sistema erTi fazisagan Sedgeba, xolo heteregenuli
sistema

ori

an

meti

fazisagan.

faza

aris

sistemis

nawili

romelic

SedgenilobiT da TvisebebiT yvela wertilSi erTgvarovania da sistemis sxva

nawilebisagan gamocalkavebulia gamyofi zedapiriT.
85

sistemis yoveli mdgomareoba xasiaTdeba Termodinamikuli parametrebiT:

temperaturis_T,

moculobis_V,

koncentraciis-C

garkveuli

wnevis_P,

simkvrivis_D

mniSvnelobebiT.

erTi

Dda

parametris

cvlilebac ki iwvevs mTlianad sistemis mdgomareobis cvlilebas.

sistemis Termodinamikur mdgomareobas ewodeba wonasworuli Tu
igi muSaobis daxarjvis gareSe ar icvleba. Qqimiuri Termodinamika
sistemas swavlobs or wonasworul mdgomareobaSi (sawyisSi da
boloSi)

da

amiT

gamsazRvravs

mocemul

pirobebSi

procesis

TavisTavad mimdinareobis SesaZleblobas.

sistemis erTi mdgomareobidan meoreSi gadasvlis pirobebze
damokidebulebiT,

TermodinamikaSi

erTimeorisagan

ganasxvaveben:

izoTermul, izoqorul, izobarul da adiabatur procesebs.

izoTermulia
izoqorulia

mudmiv

mudmivi

temperaturaze

moculobis

dros

mimdinare

procesi.

mimdinare

pricesi.

izobarulia mudmivi wnevis dros mimdinare procesia da adiabaturi

procesis mimdinareobis dros sruldeba muSaoba, magram ar xdeba
siTbos mimocvla sistemasa da garemomcvel ares Soris.
sistemis Sinagani energia.
Eenergiis

iseT

formas,

romelic

faruli

saxiT

arsebobs

nivTierebaSi da gamoiyofa qimiuri da agreTve fizikuri procesebis

dros, nivTierebis Sinagani energia ewodeba. Sinagani energia aris
sistebis mdgomareobis Termodinamikuri funqcia. Sinagani energiis
cvlileba ar aris damokidebuli sistemis erTi mdgomareobidan
meoreSi gadasvlis gzaze da ganisazRvreba am or mdgomareobaSi
86

sistemis Sinagani energiebis sidideTa sxvaobiT

U1 da U2

U=U2__UU1, sadac,

Aaris sistemis Sinagani energia sawyis da saboloo

mdgomareobaSi.^

siTbo da muSaoba.
sistemam

garemomcveli

aris

nivTierebebs

SeiZleba

mimoucvalos energia siTbos_Q da muSaobis_A formiT. Tu aseT

mimocvlas adgili ar aqvs, maSin sistemas izolirebuli ewodeba.
siTbo

aris

energiis

zoma,

gadacemuli

erTi

sxeulidan

meoreze an sxeulebis temperaturaTa sxvaobis xarjze.

muSaoba aris energiis zoma, masis gadanacvlebis xarjze
raime Zalebis moqmedebiT gadacemuli erTi sxeulidan meoreze.
Termodinamikis pirveli kanoni.
Tu sistema monawileobs ama Tu im procesSi, maSin masze
modebuli siTbos xarjze SeiZleba gaizardos sistemis Sinagani
energia

U sididiT da Sesruldeba garkveuli muSaoba A, e.i.

Q=U+A Ees

gantoleba

aris

Termodinamikis

pirveli

kanonos

maTematikuri gamosaxuleba.

sistemis enTalpia.
izoqoruli

procesis

SemTxvevaSi,

radganac

sistemis

moculobis cvlileba ar xdeba A=0, maSin sistemis gadasvlas

pirveli mdgomareobidan meoreSi Seesabameba toloba: QV=U2-U1= U
87

izobaruli procesis dros siTburi efeqti tolia: QQP= U+PV;

QP=(U2-U1)+P(V2-V1)

QP=(U2+PV2)-(U1+PV1),

an

Tu

SemovitanT

aRvniSvnas U+PV=H MAmaSin QP=H2-H1=H. H sidides ewodeba enTalpia.

izoqoruli procesis SemTxvevaSi reaqciis energetikuli efeqti sistemis
Sinagani energiis cvlilebis

tolia QV= U, xolo izobaruli procesis

dros igi sistemis enTalpiis cvlilebis tolia QP= H:

qimiuri reaqciebis siTburi efeqti.

reaqciebs,

romlebic

mimdinareoben

siTbos

gamoyofiT

ewodeba

egzoTermuli, xolo siTbos STanTqmiT mimdinares ewodeba endoTermuli.

Qqimiuri

reaqciis

dros

gamoyofil

an

STanTqmul

siTbos

raodenobas erT mol produqtze siTburi efeqti ewodeba da aRiniSneba Q

simboloTi, igi gamoisaxeba kilokaloriebiT da kilojoulebiT TiTo
mol produqtze, magaliTad:

H2+CI=2HCI+2,92kj
H2+Br2=2HBr+2,50kj

Hhesis kanoni. Termo qimiis ZiriTadi kanoni

reaqciis

siTburi

saboloo

mdgomareobaze

reaqcia.

Hhesis

siTburi

efeqtebis

kanonis

efeqti
da

ara

damokidebulia
im

daxmarebiT

gzaze,

sistemis

romliTac

SesaZlebelia

gaangariSeba,romelTa

pirdapiri

da

mimdinareobs

iseTi
gziT

sawyis

reaqciebis
gazomva

an

Znelia anda SeuZlebeli. Hhesis kanoni samarTliania im reaqciebicaTvis,

romlebic mimdinareoben izobarul izoTermul an izoqorul-izoTermul
pirobebSi.

88

Termodinamikisagan gansxvavebiT TermoqimiaSi energias, romelic

siTbos saxiT gamoiyofa Tvlian dadebiTad, xolo sistemaze modebuls
uaryofiTad.

Qqimiis

dargs

romelic

raodenobrivad

Seiswavlis

reaqciebis siTbur efekts, Termo qimia ewodeba. Termo dinamikis pirveli

kanonisAAaRiarebamde lomonosovma aRmoaCina da mogvianebiT laplasma da
lauaziem

daadgines,

gamoiyofa

an

rom

STainTqmeva

Tu

raime

siTbos

nivTierebis

garkveuli

warmoqmnis

raodenoba,

dros

maSin

imave

pirobebSi am naerTis daSlis dros STainTqmeva an gamoiyofa siTbos

iseTive raodenoba.
Eentropia.
daxasiaTdes

Nnebismieri nivTierebis makro mdgomareoba SeiZleba

P, V, T da a.S. parametrebiT, xolo im SemTxvevaSi Tu

daxasiaTebuli iqneba TiToeuli molekulis mdgomareoba, misi siCqare,

moZraobis

mimarTuleba

mdgomareoba.

im

xorcieldeba

da

a.S.

maSin

mikromdgomareobebis

mocemuli

es

iqneba

ricxvs,

makromdgomareoba,

nivTierebis

mikro

romelTa

daxmarebiTac

sistemis

mdgomareobis

Termodinamikuri albaToba ewodeba da aRiniSneba W, TermodinamikaSi

ufro

moxerxebulobisaTvis

iyeneben

ara

sidides,

aramed

mis

logarims_ InW-s S=KInW, sadac S sidides ewodeba sistemis entropia,

xolo

aris

raodenobrivi

bolcmanis
sazomi.

mudmiva.

sistemis

entropia

ufro

aris

mouwesrigeblobis

mowesrigebuli

mdgomareobidan

naklebad mowesrigebuli mdgomareobaSi gadasvlisas entropia izrdeba

(S>0), xolo sistemis naklebad mowesrigebuli mdgomareobidan ufro
mowesrigebulSi

gadasvlisas

entropia

mcirdeba

(S<0).

Aamrigad

entropia aris sistemis mdgomareobis Termodinamikuri funqcia da misi

sidide

damokidebulia

gansaxilveli

89

nivTierebis

masaze,

qimiur

reaqciebSi

entropiis

cvlileba

ganisazRvreba

S2-S1

sxvaobiT

romelSic S1 aris yvela sawyisi nivTierebis entropiebis jami, xolo S2

aris reaqciis yvela produqciis entropiaTa jami. sistemis swrafvas
entropiis
swrafvas

zrdisaken

ewodeba

potencialuri

entropiis

energiis

faqtorebi,

Semcirebisaken

xolo

ewodeba

sistemis
enTalpiis

faqtorebi.
Termodinamikis meore kanini, Tavisufali da bmuli energiebi.
swrafad an nela, magram yovelgvari sistema miiswrafvis WeSmariti
wonasworobis mdgomareobisaken.
Tu

sistemaSi

mimdinareobs

reaqcia

mudmivi

wnevisa

da

tebperaturis dros, maSin enTalpiis cvlilebac SeiZleba gamoisaxos

ori Sesakrebis saxiT _ Tavisufali energiis cvlileba G da bmuli
energiis cvlileba L e.i. H=G+L. Bbmuli energiis cvlileba L
gamoisaxeba

absoluturi

temperaturisa

da

mdgomareobis

funqciis

cvlilebis namravliT: L=TS, maSin Tavisufali energiis cvlileba da

G=H-TS

Sesabamisad Tavisufali energia gamoisaxebian Semdegnairad:

da

G=H-TS

izolirebuli

sistemebi

garemosTan

ar

mimocvlian

siTbos da arc muSaobas, rodesac Q=0 da A=0, maSin sidide

izolirebuli

sistemis

Sinagani

energia

mudmivia

misi

arc

U=0 e.i.

moculobac

mudmivia. izolirebul sistemebSi TviTneburad mimdinareoben mxolod

iseTi procesebi romlebsac Tan axlavs sistemis entropiis zrda S>0

(S=S2-S1) . Aamave dros procesis TviTneburad mimdinareobis zRvrad

iTvleba mocemuli pirobebisaTvis maqsimaluri entropiis miRweva

S umaxV

da amiT ganpirobebulia toloba: S=0. Gganxiluli mdgomareoba aris

Termodinamikis meore kanonis erT-erTi formulireba.

90

Tavi VIII
Qqimiuri kinetika da wonasworoba
P

qimiuri kinetika Seiswavlis qimiuri reaqciebis siCqaresa da maT

molekulur meqanizms.
moreagire

nivTierebaTa

buneba,

temperatura,

wneva,

koncentracia,

katalizatori, dasxiveba da a.S. gavlenas axdenen wonasworobis damyarebaze,

sasurveli da arasasurveli reaqciebis siCqareebze, romelTa TviTneburi
mimdinareoba Termodinamikurad SesaZlebelia. procesebis kinetikis Seswavla
SesaZleblobas iZleva Rrmad iqnes Secnobili qimiuri reaqciebis meqanizmi,
rolmelTa gareSe maTi marTva SeuZlebelia.

qimiuri reaqciis siCqare

qimiuri

reaqciis

siCqare

aris

moreagire

nivTierebaTa

moluri

koncentraciis cvlilebis absoluturi mniSvneloba drois erTeulSi

c 2 c1
c
=
t 2 t1
t

V =

sadac c aris nivTierebis molTa raodenobis cvlileba t droSi.

qimiuri reaqciebi mimdinareoben sxvadasxva siCqariT. erTi da igive
reaqciac

ki

sxvadasxva

neitralizaciis

da

pirobebSi

mimocvlis

sxvadasxva

reaqciebi,

agreTve

siCqariT

mimdinareobs.

feTqebad

nivTierebaTa

daSlis reaqciebi wamebSi mimdinareobs. nela midis rkinis daJangva haerze:

4 Fe + 6 H 2 O + O2 4 Fe(OH ) 3

xolo dedamiwis siRrmeSi mimdinare procesebi saukuneebis ganmavlobaSi.

homogenuri
gamoiTvleba.

da

heterogenuli

homogenur

sistemaSi

reaqciis
reaqcia

siCqareebi
mimdinareobs

sxvadasxvanairad
sistemis

mTel

moculobaSi da amitom homogenuri reaqciis siCqare ganisazRvreba drois

91

erTeulSi

erT-erTi

moreagire

nivTierebis

koncentraciis

cvlilebiT,

sistemis ucvleli moculobis dros

v=

c
.
t

sadac c aris nivTierebis molTa raodenobis cvlileba t droSi, s aris im

gamyofi zedapiris farTi, romelzec reaqcia mimdinareobs.
reaqciis

siCqareze

moqmedi

faqtorebia:

koncentracia,

moreagire

nivTierebaTa buneba, temperatura, katalizatori.

koncentraciis gavlena reaqciis siCqareze
reaqciis

siCqare

izrdeba

moreagire

nivTierebis

koncentraciis

gazrdiT. moqmed masaTa kanonis Tanaxmad, mudmivi temperaturis pirobebSi

reaqciis

siCqare

moreagire

nivTierebaTa

koncentraciebis

namravlis

pirdapirproporciulia.
mag. reaqciisaTvis nA + mB pC , pirdapiri reaqciis siCqare iqneba
V = K [ A] n [ B] m ,

sadac

[A ]

da

[B ]

moreagire

nivTierebaTa

moluri

koncentraciebia, m da n reaqciaSi monawile nivTierebaTa steqiometriuli

koeficientebia.

reaqciis

siCqaris

mudmiva

anu

proporciulobis

koeficientia. mudmiv temperaturaze nebismieri reaqciisaTvis K mudmivia.

Tu

reaqciaSi

monawile

nivTierebaTa

koncentraciebi

erTi

molis

tolia, maSin [A]=1, [B]=1 da V=K, es aris reaqciis siCqaris mudmivas

fizikuri arsi. K ar aris damokidebuli koncentraciaze, icvleba mxolod
temperaturis cvlilebiT.
mag.

2 NO + O2 2 NO2

V2 = K 2 [ NO2 ] 2 .
heterogenuli sistemisaTvis

reaqciis

siCqaris

formulaSi

Sedis

mxolod im naerTebis koncentraciebi, romlebic imyofebian airad da Txevad

fazaSi, radganac myar fazaSi myofi nivTierebebis koncentraciebi mudmivia da
isini reagireben mxolod zedapiriT, romelic praqtikulad ucvleli rCeba.
mag
92

C(myari) + O2 (airadi) CO2 (airadi)

V = K [C ] [O2 ] = K 1 [O2 ] .

temperaturis gavlena reaqciis siCqareze

vant-hofis wesis Tanaxmad reaqciis siCqare udris
Vt 2 = Vt1

t 2 t1
10

sadac Vt 2 aris reaqciis siCqare t 2 temperaturaze, Vt1 aris reaqciis siCqare

t1

temperaturaze,

reaqciis

siCqaris

temperaturuli

koeficientia,

romelic gviCvenebs Tu ramdenjer izrdeba reaqciis siCqare temperaturis

aTi gradusiT gazrdisas. sxvadasxva reaqciisaTvis sxvadasxvaa da icvleba
oridan oTxamde. temperaturis gazrdiT reaqciis siCqare imitom izrdeba,
rom am dros izrdeba aqtiuri molekulebis ricxvi da maTi kinetikuri
energia, rac iwvevs moreagire nivTierebebis erTmaneTTan Sejaxebis ricxvis
gazrdas da reaqcias ki mxolod aqtiuri molekulebis Sejaxeba iwvevs.
energias, romelic saWiroa erTi moli nivTierebis gadasayvanad aqtiur
mdgomareobaSi, ewodeba am nivTierebis aqtivaciis energia. am energiis mqone
molekulebs ki aqtiuri molekulebi.
Tu aqtiuri molekulis reaqciaSi Sesvlisas ufro meti siTbo gamoiyo,
vidre

mis

aqtiur

mdgomareobaSi

gadasayvanad

daixarja,

reaqcia

egzoTermulia, xolo Tu naklebi _ erdoTermulia.

reaqciis siCqaris damokidebuleba katalizatorze

katalizuria

is

reaqciebi,

romlebic

mimdinareoben

katalizatoris

Tanaobisas. katalizatori aris nivTiereba, romelic cvlis reaqciis siCqares

da reaqciis Sedegad raodenobrivad ucvleli rCeba. cnobilia dadebiTi da
uaryofiTi katalizatorebi. dadebiTi katalizatori zrdis reaqciis siCqares,
93

uaryofiTi ki amcirebs. cnobilia homogenuri da heterogenulia katalizi.

homogenuria katalizi, roca katalizatori da sareaqcio are erT da igive
agregatuli mdgomareobaSia, Tu sxvadasxva, maSin heterogenulia katalizi.
katalizatoris

moqmedebis

meqanizmi

ase

SeiZleba

aixsnas:

katalizatori

qimiuri reaqciis procesSi warmoqmnis Sualedur produqts, romelic cvlis

reaqciis siCqares anu sxva siCqariT warmoqmnis saboloo produqts.

mag. 2 KCIO3 t
2 KCI + 3O2 .
MnO2

aq

piroluziti

dadebiTi

katalizatoria.

katalizatorad

xSirad

gamoiyeneba liTonebi, maTi oqsidebi da marilebi.

dadebiTi katalizatoris gamoyeneba saSualebas gvaZlevs SevamcireT
reaqciis mimdinareobis dro, davzogoT eleqtroenergia, gavzardoT warmadoba
da

Tu

gvinda

uaryofiTi

qimiuri

procesis

katalizatori.

transportirebisas,

Seneleba,

mag.

marilmJavas

am

rkinis

davamatebT

dros

unda

balonebiT

urotropins,

gamoviyenoT
marilmJavis

romelic

xels

SeuSlis rkinis qmedebas marilmJavasTan da Tanac marilmJavis xarisxs ar

Secvlis.
zogierTi

nivTiereba

katalizators

ukargavs

aqtivobas,

aseT

nivTierebas ewodeba katalizuri Sxamebi. mag. gogirdmJavas warmoebaSi V2 O5

katalizuri

Sxamia.

nivTierebebi,

romlebic

aZliereben

katalizatoris

aqtovobas promotorebi ewodebaT. mag. amiakis sinTezis dros katalizatoria

rkina, xolo promotoria aluminis oqsidi.

Seqcevadi da Seuqcevadi reaqciebi

reakciebi
Seuqcevadi

iyofa

reaqcia,

disocirebadi

or

jgufad:

romelic

Seqcevad

mimdinareobs

nivTierebis warmoqmniT

mag. AgNO3 + NaCI NaNO3 + AgCI

94

da

Seuqcevad

naleqis,

airis

reaqciebad.
an

mcired

ZnSO 4 + BaCI 2 BaSO4 + ZnCI 2

Na 2 CO3 + H 2 SO4 Na 2 SO4 + CO2 + H 2 O
Ca (OH ) 2 + H 2 SO4 CaSO 4 + 2 H 2 O

Seuqcevadia Zlier egzoTermuli reaqciebic:

2 Mg + O2 2 MgO + Q .

Seqcevad reaqciebSi ki reaqciis dawyebidan garkveuli periodis Semdeg

myardeba qimiuri wonasworoba roca
V1 = V2

mag. reaqciisaTvis: nA + mB = pC + qD,

sadac n, m, p, q aris Sesabamisad A, B, C, D naerTebis steqiometruli
koeficientebi, pirdapiri da Sebrunebuli reaqciis siCqareebi toli iqneba:
V1 = K 1 [ A] n [ B ] m da V2 = K 2 [C ] p [ D ] q

V1 da V2 aris pirdapiri da Sebrunebuli reaqciis siCqareebi, xolo K 1 da

K 2 proporciulobis koeficientebia. roca V1 = V2 , e.i. K aris wonasworobis

mudmiva

da

udris

wonasworobisas

reaqciis

produqtebis

da

sawyisi

nivTierebebis moluri koncentraciebis Tanafardobas mocemul temperaturaze

da wnevaze. igi mudmivi sididea.

qimiuri wonasworobis gadaxris pirobebi,

le-Satelies principi
Seqcevadi reaqciebi wnevis, koncentraciis da temperaturis mudmivobis
gansazRvruli
parametris
mimaTulebiT.

droiT
darRveviT
es

inarCunebs

wonasworobas.

SeiZleba

wonasworobis

procesi

Seiswavla

magram

le-Sateliem

romelime

gadaxra
da

am

sasurveli

daadgina:

Tu

wonasworuli sistemis mdgomareobas arRvevs raime faqtori, maSin sistemaSi

am damrRvevi faqtoris sapirispiro procesi aRiZvreba.
wonasworobis darRvevas da axlis warmoqmnas ewodeba wonasworobidan
gadaxra.
95

qimiuri

wonasworobis

ganmsazRvrel

ZiriTad

pirobad

iTvleba

moreagire nivTierebaTa koncentracia, temperatura da wneva (airebisa da

orTqlisebri

sistemebis

SemTxvevaSi).

komponentis-koncentraciis

gadideba

wonasworuli

iwvevs

sistemis

wonasworobis

erT-erTi

gadaxras

im

reaqciis gaZlierebis mimarTulebiT, romeli mimarTulebiTac am komponentis

qimiuri

gadamuSaveba

koncentraciis

warmoebs,

Semcireba

xolo

sistemis

wonasworobas

erT-erTi

gadaanacvlebs

am

komponentis
komponentis

warmoqmnis mimarTulebiT. e.i. urTierTmoreagire nivTierebis koncentraciis

gadidebis

dros

mimarTulebiT,

wonasworoba

xolo

romelime

gadaixreba

am

nivTierebis

nivTierebis

koncentraciis

xarjvis
Semcirebis

SemTxvevaSi wonasworoba gadaixreba am nivTierebis warmoqmnis mimarTulebiT.

mag. 2SO2 + O2
2SO3 .
Tu
sistemaSi

am

wonasworul

gaZlierdeba

sistemas

iseTi

garedan

procesi,

davumatebT

romelic

Jangbads,

Seamcirebs

maSin

Jangbadis

koncentracias, aseT procesad iTvleba reaqcia SO2-sa da O2-s Soris, ris

Sedegadac

sistemaSi

mimarTulebiT.

e.i.

wonasworoba
romelime

gadaixreba

nivTierebis

SO3-is

koncentraciis

warmoqmnis
Semcirebis

SemTxvevaSi wonasworoba gadaixreba am nivTierebis warmoqmnis mimarTulebiT.

qimiur

wonasworobaze

garemoebasTan,

rom

temperaturis

egzoTermuli

da

gavlena

endoTermuli

dakavSirebulia
reaqciebi

ar

im

arian

erTnairad mgrZnobiare temperaturis mimarT. endoTermuli reaqciis siCqare,

romelic siTbos miwodebas moiTxovs temperaturis gadidebisas izrdeba
ufro metad, vidre egzoTermuli reaqciis siCqare. magaliTad wyalbadisa da
Jangbadis urTierTqmedebiT wylis warmoqmna egzoTermuli procesia
2 H 2 + O2 2 H 2 O + 485 kjl.

bunebrivia, rom wylis daSlis procesi endoTermulia. le-Satelies

principis Tanaxmad, wonasworuli sistemisaTvis siTbos miwodebis dros
wonasworoba unda gadaixaros endoTermuli reaqciis mimarTulebiT, e.i.
wylis

daSlis

egzoTermuli

mimarTulebiT,

procesis

xolo

gaZlierebas,
96

am
e.i.

sistemis

gaciveba

wonasworobis

gamoiwvevs

gadaxras

wylis

warmoqmnis mimarTulebiT. amrigad, wonasworuli sistemebis gaxurebis dros

wonasworoba

gadaixreba

endoTermuli

reaqciis

mimarTulebiT,

xolo

gacivebis SemTxvevaSi _ egzoTermuli reaqciis mimarTulebiT. airebs Soris

mimdinare reaqciebSi arsebiTi mniSvneloba aqvs wnevas. ganvixiloT wnevis
gavlena amiakis sinTezis magaliTze.
N 2 + 3H 2
2 NH 3 .

reaqciis gantolebidan Cans, rom oTxi moli airidan miiReba ori moli
airi. wneva Seucvlel da temperatura

Seucvlel

pirobebSi

avogadros

kanonis Tanaxmad, oTxi moli gazis moculoba orjer aRemateba ori moli
gazis

moculobas.

maSasadame

amiakis

sinTezi

dakavSirebulia

moculobis

SemcirebasTan, e.i. wnevis gadidebiT wonasworoba, gadaixreba marcxnidan

marjvniv, maSasadame amiakis sinTezis mimarTulebiT. wnevis Semcireba ki
Sebrunebul process gamoiwvevs.
magram Tu reaqciis dros gazis molebis ricxvi ar icvleba, mag.
H 2 + CI 2
2 HCI , N 2 + O2
2 NO .

wnevis cvlileba wonasworobis gadaxras ar gamoiwvevs.

katalizatori da qimiuri wonasworoba

katalizatori aCqarebs reaqcias, ris Sedegadac ufro mokle droSi
myardeba

wonasworuli

mdgomareoba,

vidre

katalizatoris

monawileobis

gareSe, magram wonasworobis mudmiva igive rCeba, katalizatori ar cvlis

wonasworobis mudmivas. ganvixiloT magaliTi:
N 2 + 3H 2 2 NH 3 + K ,

sadac

aris

mimdinareobisas

katalizatori,

ucvleli

rCeba,

amitom

romlis
moqmed

raodenoba
masaTa

kanonis

reaqciis
Tanaxmad

katalizuri reaqciis Sedegad damyarebuli wonasworobis mudmiva toli

iqneba:
97

K=

[NH 3 ]2 [ K ]
[ N 2 ][ H 2 ]3 [ K ]

sadac [K]-s Sekvecis Semdeg miviRebT imave saxis wonasworobis mudmivas, rac
katalizatoris gareSe miiReba.
katalizatori amcirebs aqtivaciis energias da amiT aCqarebs reaqciis
mimdinareobs. imis saCveneblad Tu rogor izrdeba reaqciis siCqare aqtivaciis
energiis Semcirebisas ganvixiloT magaliTi:
2 HI H 2 + I 2 .

aqtivaciis

=44000

energia

kal-s.

igive

reaqcia

katalizatoris

zedapirze moiTxovs aqtivaciis energia E=25000 kal-s.

kavSiri aqtivaciis energiisa da reaqciis siCqaris mudmivas Soris
gamoisaxeba Semdegi gantolebiT:
K = Ae EIRT ,

sadac A mudmivi sididea, R 2 kal gazebis mudmivaa, xolo T absoluturi

temperaturaa.
reaqciis

T = 500 ze

maSasadame,

siCqare

ukatalizatorod,
mravalaTasjer

e=

katalizatorze

25000 44000
:e
= e19 = 10 8
2 500
2 50

saidanac

adidebs

sCans,

reaqciis

rom

jer

aqtivaciis

siCqares.

am

mimdinareobisas
metia,

energiis

garemoebam

vidre

Semcireba
ganapiroba

katalizatorebis farTod gamoyeneba praqtikaSi.

Tavi IX
Ddispersiuli sistemebi. xsnarebi

ori an meti nivTierebisagan Sedgenil sistemas, romelSic erTi (an

ramodenime)
dispersiuli

nivTiereba
ewodeba.

dawvrilmanebuli
im

nivTierebas,
98

da

ganawilebulia

romelic

dispersiul

meoreSi

sistemaSi

warmoqmnis uwyvet fazas, sadispersio are ewodeba, xolo masSi ganawilebul

nivTierebas dispersiuli faza. dispersiuli fazis nawilakebis sididis
mixedviT erTmaneTisagan arCeven homogenur (erTgvarovan) da heterogenul
(araerTgvarovan)

dispersiul

sistemebs.

homogenur

dispersiul

sistemebs

uwodeben WeSmarit xsnarebs, romelSic dispersiuli fazis dawvrilmanebis

xarisxi molekuluri an ionuria, sadac nawilakebis zoma 1 milimikronamdea.
heterogenuli dispersiuli sistemebi iyofian msxvildispersiul (nawilakebis
zoma

100

milimikronze

meti)

da

wvrildispersiuli

anu

koloiduri

(nawilakebis zoma 1-dan 100 milimikronamde) sistemebad.(ix.qvemoT)*

sadispersio
sxvadasxva

are

SeiZleba

agregatul

iyos

Txevadi,

mdgomareobaSi

myari

SeiZleba

da

iyos

airadi,

aseve

dispergirebuli

nivTierebac. myar dispersiul sistemebs miekuTvneba Senadnobebi, mina, Txevads

qafebi, emulsiebi, suspenciebi, airads haeri, kvamli, nisli.
homogenuri

dispersiuli

sistemebi

xasiaTdeba

mdgradobiT,

xolo

heterogenuli dispersiuli sistemebi umdgradobiT.

cvladi Sedgenilobis erTfazovan sistemas, romelic Sedgeba ori an
meti

komponentisagan,

xsnari

ewodeba.

nebismieri

xsnari

Sedgeba

gaxsnili

nivTierebis, gamxsnelis da maTi urTierTqmedebis produqtebisagan. gamxsnelad

iTvleba meti raodenobiT aRebuli komponenti. xsnarebs uWiravT Sualeduri
mdgomareoba meqanikur narevebsa da qimiur naerTebs Soris.
koloiduri xsnarebi
koloiduri xsnarebi xsnarTa gansakuTrebuli saxea. bunebasa da
teqnikaSi

farTodaa

gavrcelebuli

dispersiuli

sistemebi.

es

nivTierebaTa iseTi sistemebia, romlebSic erTi nivTiereba Tanabradaa

ganawilebuli nawilakebis saxiT meore nivTierebis SigniT. dispersiul
sistemebSi

asxvaveben

dispersiul

fazas

wvrilad

daqucmacebuli

nivTiereba da dispersiul ares erTgvarovani nivTiereba romelSic

ganawilebulia dispersiuli faza. mag., Tixis Semcvlel mRvrie wyalSi
dispersiul fazad iTvleba Tixis myari nawilakebi, xolo dispersiul
ared wyali; nislSi dispersiuli fazaa siTxis nawilebi, dispersiul
are

haeri;

kvamlSi

dispersiuli

99

fazaa

naxSiris

myari

nawilebi,

dispersiuli are haeri; rZeSi dispersiuli fazaa cximis nawilakebi,

dispersiuli are siTxe da a.S.
dispersiul sistemebs ekuTvnis Cveulebrivi (WeSmariti) xsnarebi,
koloiduri

xsnarebi,

agreTve

suspenziebi

da

gansxvavdebian erTmaneTisagan nawilakebis zomiT, e.i.

emulsiebi..

isini

dispersiulobis

daqucmacebulobis xarisxiT.
1 nm* -ze naklebi zomis nawilakebi warmoqmnian WeSmarit xsnarebs.
isini Sedgebian gaxsnili nivTierebis molekulebisa an ionebisagan. is
unda ganvixiloT rogorc erTfaziani sistema. 100 nm-ze meti zomis
nawilakebisagan

Semdgari

sistemebi

warmoqmnian

uxeS

dispersiul

sistemebs - suspenziebsa da emulsiebs.

suspenziebi es dispersiuli sistemebia, romlebSic dispersiul
fazas warmoadgens myari nivTiereba, xolo dispersiul ares siTxe.
amasTan myari nivTiereba praqtikulad uxsnadia siTxeSi. imisaTvis, rom
movamzadoT suspenzia, nivTiereba unda davaqucmacoT wvril fxvnilad.
CavyaroT

siTxeSi

SevanjRrioT

(mag.,

romelSic
Tixis

nivTiereba

SenjRreva

ar

aixsneba

wyalSi).

nawilakebi gamoiyofa WurWlis fskerze. cxadia,

droTa

da

kargad

ganmavlobaSi

rac mcirea nawilakebi,

miT ufro didxans inaxeba suspenzia.

emulsia es dispersiuli sistemaa, romelSic dispersiuli fazac
da dispersiuli arec warmoadgenen urTierTSeurevel siTxeebs. wylisa
da zeTisagan SeiZleba movamzadoT emulsia narevis xangrZlivi njRreviT.
emulsiis

magaliTs

warmoadgens

rZe,

romelSic

cximis

wvrili

burTulakebi curaven siTxeSi. suspenziebi da emulsiebi orfaziani

sistemebia.
koloiduri xsnarebi es maRaldispersiuli orfaziani sistemebia,
romlebic

Sedgebian

dispersiuli

arisa

da

dispersiuli

fazisagan.

amasTan, ukanasknelis nawilakebis xazovani zomebi Zevs 1-dan 100 nm-mde..

rogorc

Cans,

koloiduri

xsnarebi

nawilakebis

zomis

mixedviT

Sualedurs warmoadgenen WeSmarit xsnarebs, suspenziebsa da emulsiebs

Soris. koloiduri nawilakebi Zveulebriv Sedgebian molekulebis an
ionebis didi ricxvisagan.

nm nanometri (1 nm = 10-9 m).

100

koloiduri xsnarebis sxvanairad zolebs uwodeben. maT Rebuloben

dispersiuli da kondensaciuri meTodebiT. yvelaze xSirad dispergirebas
awarmoeben gansakuTrebuli koloiduri wisqvilebis daxmarebiT.
kondensaciuri meTodis dros koloiduri nawilakebi warmoiqmnebian
atomebis da molekulebis SedarebiT msxvil agregatebad gaerTianebis
xarjze. mag., Tu vercxlis or mavTuls Soris wyalSi movaxdenT rkalur
eleqtrul

ganmuxtvas,

nawilakebad,romelTa
Sedegadac

zoli

metalis

zedapirze
xdeba

wyvili

kondensirdeba

adsorbirdebian

stabiluri.

koloidur

OH- nawilakebi,

mravali

qimiuri

ris

reaqciis

mimdinareobis dros agreTve mimdinareobs kondensacia da warmoiqmneba

maRaldispersiuli

sistemebi

(naleqebis

gamoyofa,

hidrolizis

mimdinareoba, Jangva aRdgeniTi reaqciebi da a.S.

zols gaaCnia rigi specifikuri Tvisebebi, romlebsac dawvrilebiT
Seiswavlos

koloiduri

damokidebulebiT

zolebs

qimia.

ase,

SeiZleba

mag.,

hqondeT

nawilakebis
sxvadasxva

zomisagan
Seferiloba,

xolo WeSmarit xsnarebs igi erTnairi aqvT.mag., oqros zolebi SeiZleba

iyos lurji, iisferi, alublisferi, molalisfro wiTeli.
WeSmariti

xsnarebisagan

damaxasiaTebelia

tindalis

gansxvavebiT,

efeqti,e.i.

sinaTlis

zolebisaTvis
ganbneva

wvrili

nawilakebiT. zolSi sinaTlis konis gatarebisas, Cabnelebul adgilas

Cndeba xiluli naTeli konusi da ase SeiZleba gavigoT, mocemuli xsnari
koloiduria, Tu WeSmariti. tindalis efeqtis safuZvelze agebulia
ultramikroskopi.

radganac koloiduri da WeSmariti xsnarebis nawilakebi sxvadasxva

zomisaa, maTi narevi SeiZleba gavacalkeoT. amisaTvis iyeneben forovan
apks (pergamentis qaRalds, cxovelur buSts da sxva) iseTi wvrili
forebiT, romelTa Sorisac koloidur nawilakebs gasvla ar SeuZliaT,
xolo

gadian

mxolod

molekulebi

101

da

ionebi.

WeSmariti

xsnaris

nawilakebisagan zolis ganTavisuflebis aseT meTods dializi ewodeba,

xolo xelsawyos dializatori.
zolebis erT-erTi mniSvnelovani Tviseba isaa, rom mis nawilakebs
aqvT erTi niSnis eleqtruli muxtebi. amis meoxeobiT isini ar erTdebian
ufro msxvil nawilakebad da ar gamoileqebian. amasTan, zolebis nawils,
mag:, metalebis, sulfidebis, siliciumis da kalis mJavebis nawilakebs
gaaCnia uaryofiTi muxti; meoreebs, mag., hidroqsidebs, metalTa oqsidebs
dadebiTi muxti, muxtis gaCena aixsneba koloiduri nawilakebis mier
xsnaridan ionebis adsorbciiT.
zolis dasaleqad aucilebelia, rom misi nawilakebi SeerTdnen
ufro

msxvil

agregatebad.

nawilakebis

SeerTebas

ufro

msxvil

agregatebad ewodeba koagulacia, xolo maT gamoleqvas simZimis Zalebis

moqmedebiT-sedimentacia.

Cveulebriv

kuagulacias

awarmoeben

zolze

moqmedebiT: 1) eleqtrolitis; 2) sxva zolis, romlis nawilakebs aqvT

sawinaaRmdego muxti; 3) gacxelebiT.
yvelaze

xSirad

zolis

koagulacias

axdenen

eleqtrolitis

mimatebiT. am SemTxvevaSi koloiduri nawilakebis muxti neitraldeba

eleqtrolitis

ionebiT.

amasTan,

dadebiTad

damuxtuli

nawilakebis

Semcvleli zolebis koagulacias axdenen anionebis moqmedebiT, xolo

uaryofiTad damuxtuli nawilakebis Semcveli zolebisas kationebis
moqmedebiT. ase, mag., As2S3-is zolis nawilakebi ileqebian marilmJavas
damatebisas.
adsorbciul
uaryofiT

es

xdeba

SreSi

muxts,

imitom,

da

rac

amcireben

maRalia

H+ ionebi

rom

an

ionis

aRweven

mTlianad
muxti,

miT

nawilakebis

aneitraleben
ufro

didia

maT
misi

makoagulirebuli unari.
gansazRvruli
nawilakebi

SefardebiT

sawinaaRmdego

muxts

ori

zolis

atareben,

Serevisas,

mag.,

Fe(OH)3

romelTa
(nawilakebi

damuxtulia dadebiTad) da As2S3 (damuxtulia uaryofiTad) nawilakebis

muxtebi neitraldeba, mimdinareobs urTierTkoagulacia.
gacxeleba amcirebs koloiduri nawilakebiT ionebis adsorbcias
(amcirebs maT muxts), rac xels uwyobs koagulacias.
gansazRvrul

pirobebSi

zolebis

koagulacias

mivyavarT

labiseburi masis, e.w. gelis warmoqmnamde. am SemTxvevaSi koloiduri

nawilakebis mTeli masa ikavSirebs ra, gamxsnels, gadadis Tavisebur

102

naxevradTxevad
ganvasxvavoT

naxevradmyar

labebi.

mdgomareobaSi.

ukanaskneli

xsnarebia

dabalmolekulur

SeiZleba

miviRoT

myari

gelebisagan

maRalmolekulur

siTxeebSi

(homogenuri

polimerebis

unda

nivTierebaTa

sistemebia).

gajirjvebiT

isini

gansazRvrul

siTxeebSi.
koagulacias

xels

uSlian

e.w.

damcavi

koloidebi

(saxamebeli,

Jelatini da zogierTi sxva maRalmolekuluri organuli naerTi).

koagulaciis Sebrunebul process peptizacia ewodeba. igi SeimCneva
naleqebis wyliT Carecxvisas. am
ionebi

gamoirecxebian,

gadadian

zolis

naleqis

dros eleqtrolit koagualntis

nawilakebi

mdgomareobaSi.

isev

peptizacias

iZenen

muxtebs

advilad

da

ganicdian

sulfidebis naleqebi.
mTeli
naleqebis
xsnars

rigi

miRebis

umateben

laboratoriuli
dros

zolebis

eleqtrolits

samuSaoebis
warmoqmnis

da

Sesrulebisas,

asacileblad

acxeleben.

naleqis

mag.,

samuSao

peptizaciis

asacileblad misi Carecxvisas Camrecx wyals umateben eleqtrolits

Cveulebriv

amoniumis

marils

(aucileblobis

dros

igi

advilad

cildeba). am marilis ionebi Casarecx ionebs Caenacvleba da naleqis

peptizacia praqtikulad wydeba. yvlafer amas didi mniSvneloba aqvs
qimiur analizSi.

xsnadoba
nivTierebis gaxsnis unars ama Tu im gamxsnelSi xsnadoba ewodeba.
xsnadobis mixedviT nivTierebebi iyofian sam jgufad: kargad xsnadi, cudad
xsnadi

da

praqtikulad

uxsnad

nivTierebebad.

gramobiT

gamosaxuli

nivTierebis maqsimaluri raodenoba, romelic 100 gr. gamxsnelSi SeiZleba

gaixsnas mocemul temperaturaze, aris xsnadobis koeficienti.
kargad xsnadia is nivTierebebi, Tu maTi 10 gr ixsneba 100 g. wyalSi
oTaxis temperaturaze. mcired xsnadia is nivTierebebi, romelTa 1 gr ixsneba
100 gr. wyalSi oTaxis temperaturaze da praqtikulad uxsnadia, Tu wyalSi
mxolod 0,01 gramze naklebi nivTiereba gadadis. saukeTeso gamxsnelebia
polaruli gamxsnelebi (wyali, spirti, Txevadi amiaki).
103

SezRuduli xsnadobis mqone nivTierebebis gaxsnisas SeiZleba miviRoTY

sami saxis xsnari najeri, aranajeri, zenajeri.
najeri ewodeba xsnars, romelSic mocemul temperaturaze aRebuli
nivTiereba meti raodenobiT aRar gaixsneba.
aranajeri ewodeba xsnars, romelSic mocemul pirobebSi kidev SeiZleba
gaixsnas aRebul nivTierebis garkveuli raodenoba.
zenajeri ewodeba iseT xsnars, romelic Seicavs ufro met gaxsnil
nivTierebas, vidre es Seesabameba nivTierebis normalur xsnadobis mocemul
temperaturaze.
myari nivTierebis xsnadoba siTxeebSi damokidebulia:
1. gamxsnelisa da gaxsnili nivTierebis bunebaze;
2. myari nivTierebis saerTo zedapirze (Sexebis farTze);
3. temperaturaze, myar nivTierebaTa umetesobas xsnadoba temperaturis
gazrdiT

izrdeba,

xolo

zog

SemTxvevaSi

mcirdeba,

mag.

Ca(OH)2,

CaSO4 2 H 2 O .

wneva
zogierTi

myari
siTxe

novTierebis
erTi

xsnadobaze

meoreSi

umniSvnelo

ganusazRvreli

gavlenas

raodenobiT

axdens,

ixsneba

mag:

gogirdmJava da wyali. sxvebi urTierTSi ixnebian mxolod garkveul zRvramde.

siTxeTa

urTierTxsnadobac

mcired

aris

damokidebuli

wnevaze

da

mniSvnelovnad izrdeba mxolod maRali wnevis dros.

airebis xsnadoba siTxeebSi damokidebulia maT bunebaze, temperaturaze
da wnevaze. airis xsnadoba ewodeba ricxvs, romelic gviCvenebs, mocemuli
airis ra raodenoba ixsneba 100 ml siTxeSi 0C temperaturisa da 760 mm
vercxliswylis svetis wnevis dros. airebis xsnadoba aris egzoTermuli
procesi da amitom maTi xsnadoba temperaturis gadidebisas mcirdeba.
siTxeebSi airTa xsnadobis damokidebuleba wnevaze gamoisaxeba henridaltonis kanoniT:
siTxis garkveul moculobaSi gaxsnil airis masa

mudmivi temperaturis

dros airze moqmedi wnevis pirdapirproporciulia (henris kanoni):

C = KP ,

104

sadac C aris najer xsnarSi airis masuri koncentracia, P _ parcialuri

wneva, K _ proporciulobis koeficienti.
Tu siTxeSi ixsneba ara airi, aramed airTa narevi, TiToeuli maTgani
ixsneba iseTi raodenobiT, rac Seesabameba mis wnevas am narevSi (daltonis
kanoni).
henri-daltonis kanons airebi dabal wnevaze emorCilebian da maRali
wnevis dros adgili aqvs am kanonidan gadaxras.

xsnarTa raodenobrivi Sedgenilobis gamosaxva

gaxsnili nivTierebis dabali Semcvelobis xsnarebs ganzavebuli, xolo
maRali Semcvelobis xsnarebs koncentrirebuli xsnarebi ewodeba, gaxsnili
nivTierebis Semcvelobas xsnaris masis an moculobiT erTeulSi koncentracia
ewodeba. cnobilia masuri da procentuli koncentraciebi.
nivTierebis gramebis raodenobas, romelsac Seicavs 100 grami xsnari,
ewodeba %-uli koncentracia.
C=

A
100% ,
A+ B

sadac C aris procentuli koncentracia, A gaxsnili nivTierebis masaa (g, kg),

B _ gamxsnelis masa (g, kg), A+B xsnaris wona (g, kg).

normaluri, moluri da molali xsnarebi

normaluri anu ekvivalenturi koncentracia (normaloba) N, gviCvenebs
gaxsnili nivTierebis ekvivalentur masaTa molebis ricxvs, romelsac Seicavs
erTi litri xsnari. 1N xsnari Seicavs gaxsnili nivTierebis erT mol
ekvivalentur masas. xsnarebs, romlebic erT litrSi Seicaven ekvivalenturi
masis

molur

wilebs,

magaliTad

0,1;

0,01;

0,001

Sesabamisad

ewodebaT

decinormaluri (0,1N), santinormaluri (0,01N), milinormaluri (0,001N)

xsnarebi, xolo xsnarebi, romlebic erT litrSi Seicaven or, sam da met
ekvivalentur masaTa molebis raodenobas, Sesabamisad ornormaluri (2N),
samnormaluri (3N) da a.S. xsnarebi ewodeba. normaluri koncentracia (moli)
105

gviCvenebs gaxsnili nivTierebis molebis ricxvs, romelsac Seicavs 1 litri

xsnari.
erTmoluri xsnari ewodeba iseT xsnars, romlis erTi litri Seicavs
gaxsnili nivTierebis erT mols. xsnarebs, romlebic erT litrSi Seicaven 0,1;
0,001; 0,001 molis nawilebs Sesabamisad ewodebaT decimoluri (0,1 M)
santimoluri (0,01 M), milimoluri (0,001 M) da a.S., xolo xsnarebs,
romlebic erT litrSi Seicaven gaxsnili nivTierebis 2,3 da met molebs
Sesabamisad ewodebaT ormoluri, sammoluri da a.S.
molali koncentracia (molaloba) gviCvenebs

gaxsnili nivTierebis

molebis ricxvs, romelsac Seicavs 1000 g. gamxsneli.

molali

koncentracia

ar

aris

damokidebuli

temperaturaze

da

ZiriTadad gamoiyeneba zusti fizikuri da qimiuri gazomvebis dros.

xsnarebTan muSaobis dros xSirad saWiroa xsnaris titris (T) codna,
romelic gviCvenebs gaxsnili nivTierebis gramebis ricxvs erT mol (sm3)
xsnarSi
T=

N E
,
1000

sadac N _ xsnaris normalobaa, E _ nivTierebis ekvivalenti, T _ titri.

osmosi, osmosuri wneva, vant-hofis kanoni

ganzavebuli xsnarebis ZiriTadi Tavisebureba aris, is, rom gaxsnili
nivTierebis molekulebi praqtikulad ar urTierTqmedeben erTmaneTTan, maT
Soris didi manZilebis gamo, amiT xsnarebi idealur airebs emsgavsebian.
xsnari da sufTa gamxsneli wonasworobaSi iqnebian mxolod im pirobiT,
Tu xsnarze imoqmedebs wneva xsnarSi movaTavsoT mili da igi gamxsnelisagan
gamovyoT naxevrad SeRwevadi tixriT, romelic atarebs gamxsnelis (magaliTad
wylis) molekulebs, magram ar atarebs gaxsnili nivTierebis molekulebs.
SeRwevadi tixari SeiZleba davamzadoT celofanis an cxovelis buStisagan.
gamxsneli naxevrad SeRwevadi tixaris gavliT gadadis milSi, romelSic
moTavsebulia Saqris xsnari. milSi xsnaris moculoba TandaTanobiT gaizrdeba,
106

xolo Saqris koncentracia Semcirdeba, aseve calmxriv difuzias naxevrad

SeRwevadi tixris gavliT osmosi ewodeba. milSi xsnaris donis awevis
mixedviT

Seiqmneba

garkveul

Warbi

sidides,

hidrostatikuri

osmosi

Sewydeba

wneva,

rodesac

damyardeba

igi

miaRwevs

wonasworoba.

hidrostatikuri wneva gaxdeba xsnaris im osmosuri wnevis toli, romelic

raodenobrovad

axasiaTebs

osmoss,

wonasworobis

damyarebis

dros

hidrostatikuri wnevis gazomviT SeiZleba ganisazRvros osmosuri wnevis

sidide.
amrigad, osmosuri wneva ewodeba im wnevas, romelmac unda daZlios
gare wnevis moqmedeba, rom Seakavos gamxsnelis molekulebis gadasvla xsnarSi
naxevrad SeRwevadi tixris gavliT.
osmometrSi siTxis svetis simaRlis gazomviTa da misi simkvrivis
gansazRvriT SeiZleba vipovoT osmosuri wneva, romelic siTxis svetis wnevis
tolia da xels uSlis gamxsnelis molekulebis Semdgom SeRwevas xsnarSi.
sxvadasxva xsnaris osmosuri wnevis gazomviT dadgenilia, rom osmosuri
wnevis sidide damokidebulia xsnaris koncentraciasa da mis temperaturaze da
ar aris damokidebuli gamxsnelisa da gaxsnili nivTierebis bunebaze. es
damokidebuleba gamoisaxeba gantolebiT (vant-hofis kanoni).

Rosm = CRT ,
sadac

aris

xsnaris

osmosuri

wneva,

C _

moluri

koncentracia

(moluroba), moli/l, R airis universaluri mudmiva, romelic 8,315 tolia, T

xsnaris absoluturi temperatura.
xsnaris

moluri

koncentracia

ganisazRvreba

gaxsnili

raodenobis _ n fardobiT xsnaris moculobasTan V (l), C =

maSin

C=

m
,
MV

Tu

C-s

mniSvnelobas

CavsvamT

miviRebT:
PV =

107

mRT
,
M

nivTierebis

n
m
, xolo n =
,
V
M

vant-hofis

gantolebaSi,

romelic

mendelev-klapeironis

gantolebis

msgavsia.

vant-hofis

kanonis

daxmarebiT SeiZleba gamoviangariSoT gaxsnili nivTierebis molekuluri masa:

M=

mRT
.
PV

aRsaniSnavia, rom xsnarSi osmosuri wneva ar arsebobs, igi Cndeba

mxolod maSin, rodesac xsnari gayofilia gamxsnelisagan naxevrad SeRwevadi
tixriT.
osmosuri wneva did rols asrulebs ujredTa moqmedebaSi, radgan maTi
garsebi mravali nivTierebis xsnarTa mimarT moqmedeben rogorc naxevrad
SeRwevadi tixari. osmosis meSveobiT xdeba mcenareebis mier niadagidan wylisa
da sakvebi nivTierebis SeTviseba da misi ganawileba mTel organizmSi.
xsnaris gayinvisa da duRilis temperaturebi
gamxsnelSi araaqroladi nivTierebis gaxsnis dros siTxis zedapirze
gamxsnelis

orTqlis

wneva

mcirdeba,

rac

iwvevs

xsnaris

duRilis

temperaturis amaRlebas da misi gayinvis temperaturis dawevas.

raulis kanonis Tanaxmad xsnaris orTqlis wnevis Semcireba, duRilis
temperaturis

gadideba

da

gayinvis

temperaturis

daweva

ganpirobebulia

mocemuli gamxsnelis garkveul raodenobaSi mxolod gaxsnili nawilakebis

ricxviT da ar aris damokidebuli gaxsnili nivTierebis bunebaze. raulis
kanonis

Termodinamikuri

dasabuTeba

imaSi

mdgomareobs,

rom

gaxsnili

nivTierebis molekulebi amcireben gamxsnelis koncentracias, amitom mcirdeba

misi aorTqlebis siCqare da Sesabamisad wnevac, es ukanaskneli ki iwvevs
duRilis temperaturis awevas da gayinvis temperaturis dawevas.
xsnarebis

duRilis

da

gayinvis

temperaturebis

eqsperimentul

monacemebzea dafuZnebuli gaxsnil nivTierebaTa moluri masebis gansazRvris

ebulioskopiuli da krioskopiuli meTodebi:
M=

K eb m
t duR

M=

108

K kr
t gay

K eb ebulioskopiuli

sididea,

romelic

mudmiva anu duRilis temperaturis moluri aweva

gviCvenebs

sufTa

gamxsnelTan

SedarebiT

Tu

ramdeni

gradusiT aiwevs duRilis temperatura xsnarisa, romelic miRebulia 1000 gr

gamxsnelSi erTi moli araeleqtrolitis gaxsniT
K eb =

t Rud N G
g 1000

grad

sadac t duRilisa aris cdiT gansazRvruli duRilis temperaturis aweva,

M gaxsnili nivTierebebis molekuluri masaa, G _ gamxsnelis wonaa, g _

gaxsnili

nivTierebis

K kr krioskopiuli

wona;

mudmiva

anu

gayinvis

temperaturis moluri daweva sididea. romelic gviCvenebs sufTa gamxsnelTan

SedarebiT Tu ramdeni gradusiT ufro dabla gaiyineba xsnari miRebuli erTi
moli araeleqtrolitis gaxsniT 1000 g gamxsnelSi
K kr =

t gay M G grad
g 1000

sadac t gay cdiT gansazRvruli gayinvis wertilis dawevaa, M _ gaxsnili

nivTierebis

molekuluri

masaa,

gamxsnelis

wonaa,

gaxsnili

nivTierebis wona.

Tavi X
eleqtrolituri disociaciis Teoria

1887

wels

Svedma

mecnierma

svante

areniusma

Camoayaliba

eleqtrolituri disiciaciis Teoria.

wyalSi gaxsnisas an galRobisas eleqtrolitis daSlas ionebad ewodeba
eleqtrolituri disociacia. eleqtroliti aris nivTiereba, romelic gaxsnil
an gamRval mdgomareobaSi eleqtrul dens atarebs.

109

eleqtrolitebia marilebi, mJavebi da tuteebi. ara eleqtrolitebia

nivTierebebi, romelTa xsnarebi ar Seicaven ionebs, ris gamo ar atareben
eleqtrul dens, aseTebia: spirtebi, aldehidebi, eTerebi, naxSirwylebi, uwylo
marilebi, fuZeebi da mJavebi ar atareben eleqtrul dens, arc gamoxdili
wyali atarebs dens, magram mJavisa da fuZis wyalxsnari eleqtrolitia.
eleqtrolitebis eleqtrogamtarobas ganapirobebs ionebis gadanacvleba
eleqtrul velSi. aseT eleqtrogamtarobas eleqtrolituri anu ionuri
eleqtrogamtaroba ewodeba. eleqtrolituri disociaciis Teoria SeiZleba
CamovayaliboT Semdegi debulebebis saxiT:
1. eleqtrolitebi wyalSi gaxsnisas dadebiT da uaryofiT ionebad iSlebian.
dadebiTi da uaryofiTi ionebi ekvivalenturi raodenobebiT warmoiqmneba,
ris gamoc xsnarSi dadebiTi ionebis muxtebis jami udris uaryofiTi
ionebis muxtebis jams da eleqtrolitis xsnari eleqtroneitraluria.
2. eleqtrolitis xsnarSi eldenis gatarebisas dadebiTi ionebi miemarTebian
uaryofiTi eleqtrodisaken, kaTodisaken da maT kaTionebi ewodebaT, xolo
uaryofiTi ionebi miemarTebian dadebiTi ionebisaken anodisaken da maT
anionebi ewodebaT.
3. eleqtrolituri disociacia urTierT Seqcevadi procesia da gamoisaxeba
urTierTSeqcebadi isriT ().
eleqtrolitTa

xsnarebSi

adgili

aqvs

raulisa

kanonebisagan gadaxras. eleqtrolitTa xsnarebisaTvis gayinvis

da

vant-hofis
temperaturis

daweva da duRilis temperaturis aweva yovelTvis metia Teoriuli gaTvlebiT

miRebul Sedegebze.
ionebis hidratacia
eleqtrolituri

disociacia

aris

eleqtrolitisa

da

gamxsnelis

molekulebis urTierTqmedebis Sedegi.

nivTierebis disociaciis procesi arsebiTad aris damokidebuli gaxsnili
nivTierebis aRnagobaze. aq ganixileba ori SemTxveva: erTi ionuri naerTebis
disociacia, romlis magaliTia NaCI da misi msgavsi naerTebi da meore
polaruli

molekulebisagan

Semdgari
110

naerTebis

disociacia,

romlis

magaliTebia mJavebi. roca wyalSi SevitanT NaCI-s, mis zedapirze ganlagebuli

ionebi

miizidaven

urTierTqmedebis

wylis

Sedegad

polarul

natriumis

ionis

molekulebs.
irgvliv

ion-dipoluri

Tavs

moiyris

wylis

molekulebi, romlebic Tavis uaryofiTi polusebiT orientirdebian natriumis

ionTan, xolo wylis sxva molekulebi Tavs moiyrian qlorid-ionTan, dadebiTi
polusebiT orientirebulni am uaryofiTi ionisaken. wylis molekulebis iondipoluri urTierTqmedeba, e.i. wylis molekulebis orientacia sxvadasxva
polusiT ionebis mimarT am ionebis hidratacias warmoadgens. hidrataciis
dros siTbo gamoiyofa. makavSirebeli wylis molekulebi siTburi moZraobis
gamo irxevian. gamoyofili siTbo an rxevis energia sakmarisia imisaTvis, rom
hidratirebuli ionebi moscildes kristals da gadavides xsnarSi, e.i. xsnarSi
gadadian hidratirebuli ionebi. ionebis hidrataciis xarisxi damokidebulia
ionis

muxtze, mis radiussa da aRnagobaze, rac ufro naklebia ionis

radiusi, miT metia ionis hidratacia, mag. Li+-is hidrataciis xarisxi metia,
Cs+-isa.

vidre

ionis

muxtis

gadidebisas

hidrataciis

xarisxi

izrdeba.

wyalbadionis hidrataciis xarisxi ki mcirea. is ierTebs erT molekula

wyals:
H + + H 2 O H 3O +

hidratirebul wyalbad ions ewodeba hidroqsoniumis ioni, sadac bma

donor-aqceptorulia:
H \

O : +H

O H
H / aqcept ori H /

donori
H\

polaruli
gansxvavebulad

naerTis
mimdinareobs.

eleqtrolituri

disociacia

ionurisagan

wylis

orientirdeba

polaruli

dipolebi

molekulebis mimarT da dipol-dipoluri urTierTqmedebis gamo polaruli

molekula polarizacias ganicdis. polaruli molekulis protoni mWidrod
ukavSirdeba wylis molekulas da miiReba hidroqsoniumis ioni. polarizaciis
Sedegad polaruli molekulidan miiReba ionuri molekula, romelic amis
Semdeg iSleba ionebad. amgvarad iSleba Semdegi polaruli naerTebi: HCI, HI,
111

HBr, HNO3, CH3COOH da sxva. magaliTad HCI hidrataciis Sedegad warmoqmnis

ionebs:

..
..

H : CI : + H 2 O H 3 O + + CI
HNO3 + H 2 O H 3 O + + NO3 .

xsnarSi

gadasuli

ionebi

inarCuneben

TavianT

hidratul

Sres.

arawyalxsnarebSi aseT warmonaqmnebs ionebis solvatebs uwodeben. aRsaniSnavia,

rom ionur gantolebebSi arc hidratebi da arc solvatebi ar pouloben
Tavis gamosaxulebas.
disociaciis xarisxi
eleqtrolituri

disociaciis

raodenobrivi

daxasiaTebisaTvis

SemoRebulia disociaciis xarisxi

ionebad disocirebuli molekulaTa ricxvi n

= 100% .
molekulaTa saerTo ricxvTan
N

= 30-100%-mde Zlieri eleqtrolitebisaTvis -=0-3%-mde susti

eleqtrolitebisaTvis, xolo =3-30%-mde saSualo eleqtrolitebisTvis.
Zlieri eleqtrolitebia NaCI da misi msgavsi naerTebi, e.i.
1. TiTqmis yvela marili;
2. Zlieri mJavebi;
3. Zlieri tuteebi
susti eleqtrolitebia:
1. organuli mJavebi da zogierTi araorganuli mJava: CH3COOH, H2CO3, H2S,
HCIO, H2SiO3 da sxv.

2. organuli fuZeebi da zogierTi araorganuli susti fuZe (aminebi, NH4OH

da mravali metalis hidroqsidi garda tute da tutemiwaTa metalebisa);
eleqtrolitis disociaciis xarisxze arsebiT gavlenas axdens Semdegi
faqtorebi:
1. gamxsnelis buneba. es dakavSirebulia D-dieleqtrikul mudmivasTan.
wylis dieleqtrikuli mudmiva D=80, benzolis D=2,3.
112

kulonis kanonis Tanaxmad

f =

e1e 2
r2D

damuxtuli nawilakebis urTierTqmedebis Zala f damokidebulia ara

marto maTi muxtebis sidideze (e da e 2 ) da r manZilze maT Soris, aramed
garemos

dieleqtrikul

urTierTmizidva

80-jer

SeRwevadobazec.
sustia,

vidre

wyalSi

sapirispiro

vakuumSi.

am

ionebis

mizezis

gamo

eleqtrolitebi advilad iSleba ionebad wyalSi da TiTqmis dauSleli rCeba

benzolSi.
2.

gaxsnili

nivTierebis

buneba.

sxvadasxva

eleqtroliti

sxvadasxvagvarad iSleba ionebad. magaliTad NaCI, HCI, HNO3 da sxva bevrad

ukeT disocirebs wyalSi, vidre amoniaki _ NH4OH, ZmarmJava _ CH3COOH da
sxva.

eleqtrolitis

disociaciis

xarisxi

damokidebulia

molekulis

aRnagonaze (centraluri ionis radiusze), saxeldobr centraluri ionis

radiusis gadidebisas disociaciis xarisxi matulobs.
3.

xsnaris

ganzavebisas

(e.i.

koncentracia
misi

Cveulebrivi

koncentraciis

eleqtrolitis

Semcirebisas)

disociaciis

xsnaris
xarisxi

izrdeba.
4. Tanamosaxele ionebi amcireben eleqtrolitis disociaciis xarisxs.
magaliTad natriumis acetati CH3COONa amcirebs ZmarmJavis disociaciis
xarisxs.
disociaciis xarisxi sxvadasxva xerxiT izomeba, romelTagan yvelaze
mniSvnelovania

eleqtrolitis

eleqtrolitebi,

romlebic

eleqtrogamtarobis

TiTqmis

srulad

iSleba

gazomva.
ionebad,

is
kargi

eleqtrogamtarebia, xolo is eleqtrolitebi, romlebic umniSvnelod iSleba

ionebad, cudi eleqtogamtari.
reaqciis ionuri gantolebebi
ori eleqtrolitis Serevisas reaqciebi mimdinareobs sapirispiro niSnis
ionebs Soris, isic im SemTxvevaSi Tu maTi urTierTqmedebiT warmoiqmneba
113

aqroladi

an

uxsnadi,

anda

naklebad

disocirebadi

nivTiereba.

aseT

SemTxvevaSi reaqcia Seuqcevad warimarTeba da bolomde miva. winaaRmdeg

SemTxvevaSi

ki

reaqcia

Seqcevadi

iqneba

da

damyardeba

wonasworoba.

magaliTad, Tu natriumis qlorids da kaliumis nitratis xsnarebs avurevT

erTmaneTSi, damyardeba wonasworoba:
NaCI + KNO3
NaNO3 + KCI

ris

Sedegadac

gamokristalebis

dros

miiReba

oTxive

marili.

aRsaniSnavia, rom ToToeul ions aqvs misTvis damaxasiaTebeli Tvisebebi

romliTac is gansxvavdeba sxva ionebisagan. magaliTad yvela xsnadi sulfati
erTnair

reaqciaSi

Sedis

bariumis

qloridis

xsnarTan,

romlis

Sedegad

gamoiyofa bariumis sulfatis TeTri naleqi:

Na 2 SO4 + BaCI 2 BaSO4 +2 NaCI
K 2 SO4 + BaCI 2 BaSO4 +2 KCI
Al 2 ( SO4 ) 3 + 3BaCI 2 3BaSO4 +2 AlCI 3

moreagire marilebi Zlieri eleqtrolitebia, isini mTlianad arian

daSlili ionebad, amitom aRniSnuli molekuluri reaqciebi SeiZleba ionmolekuluri saxiT CavweroT
2 Na + + SO42 + Ba +2 + 2CI BaSO4 2 Na + + 2Cl

2 K + + SO42 + Ba +2 + 2CI BaSO4 2 K + + 2Cl

2 Al +3 + 3SO42 + 3Ba +2 + 6CI 3BaSO4 2 Al +3 + 6Cl .

samive reaqcia erTi ionuri gantolebiT gamoisaxeba,

Ba +2 + SO22 BaSO4 .

e.i.

sulfatisaTvis

damaxasiaTebeli

reaqciaa

bariumis

sulfatis

warmoqmna. aseve qlorionis damaxasiaTebeli reaqciaa vercxlis qloridis

warmoqmna.
NaCI + AgNO3 AgCI + NaNO3
CaCI 2 + 2 AgNO3 2 AgCI +Ca ( NO3 ) 2

aRniSnuli reaqciebis sruli ionuri tolobebia:

114

Na + + CI + 2 Ag + + 2 NO32 2 AgCI + Na + + 2 NO3

Ca +2 + 2CI + 2 Ag + + 2 NO3 2 AgCI +Ca +2 + 2 NO3 .

Semoklebuli ionuri toloba iqneba:

Ag + + CI AgCI .

natriumis karbonatze marilmJavas moqmedebisas reaqcia airis gamoyofiT

mimdinareobs:
Na 2 CO32 + 2 H + + 2CI 2 Na + + 2CI + H 2 O + CO2

es reaqcia ionuri saxiT ase Caiwereba:

2 Na + + CO32 + 2 H + + 2CI 2 Na + + 2CI + H 2 O + CO2 .

Semoklebulad:
2 H + + CO32 H 2 O + CO2 .

Tu neitralizaciis reaqcias
HCI + NaOH NaCI + H 2 O .

ionurad davwerT, miviRebT:

H + + OH H 2 O .

es reaqciac Seuqcevadia da bolomde mimdinareobs

PH _wyalbadis maCvenebeli

pH-wyalbadis maCvenebeli gamoiTvleba formuliT:

pH = lg[H + ]

gioni

(1)

litrSi

wylis ionuri namravli=: [H + ] = OH = 10 7

gioni

neitralur garemoSi [H + ] = OH = 10 7
2-is CasmiT 1-Si miviRebT
115

litrSi

gioni

litrSi

(2)

pH=7 neitralur garemoSi.

H + = 10 5

vTqvaT

gioni

OH = 10 9

litrSi

gioni

, maSin (3)

litrSi

3-is CasmiT 1-Si miviRebT pH=5 mJava garemoSi. pH<7

H + = 10 8

vTqvaT

OH = 10 6

gioni

litrSi

gioni

, maSin

(4)

litrSi

4-is CasmiT (1)-Si miviRebT pH=8 tute garemoSi pH>7.

wyalbadis maCveneblis cneba Semoitana danielma mecnielma sorensenma 1909
wels.

marilTa hidrolizi
marilis

daSlas

wyalxsnarSi

ionebad

da

warmoqmnili

urTierTqmedebas wylis ionebTan ewodeba hidrolizi.

hidrolizs ganicdian:
I. marilebi, warmoqmnilni susti mJavisa da Zlieri fuZisagan

+
CH 3 COONa
CH 3 COO + Na

+
_
H2O
H + OH

CH3COOH NaOH

xsnarSi OH_ ionebis dagrovebis gamo xsnars eqneba tute garemo pH>7.
II. marilebi warmoqmnilni Zlieri mJavisa da susti fuZisagan
+

NH4Cl
NH 4 + Cl

+
H2O
OH + H

NH4OH HCl

xsnarSi H+ ionebis dagrovebis gamo xsnars eqneba mJava garemo pH<7.

116

ionebis

III. marilebi, warmoqmnilni susti fuZisa da susti mJavisagan

+
CH 3 COONH 4
CH 3 COO + N H 4

+
_
H2O
H + OH

CH3COOH NH4OH

aseTi marilis xsnaris pH axloa neitralurTan pH7 neitraluri

garemo.
or

da

samfuZiani

mJavas

naSTis

Semcveli

marilis

hidrolizi

safexurebrivad mimdinareobs:
1) Na2CO3+H2O
NaHCO3+NaOH
+

+
_
2Na++CO 32 +H2O
Na +HCO 3 + Na +OH

CO 32 +H2O
HCO 3 + OH

2) NaHCO3+H2O
H2CO3+NaOH
+

Na++HCO 3 +H2O
H2CO3+Na +OH

CO 32 +2H2O
H2CO3+2OH

IV. marilebi, warmoqmnilni Zlieri mJavisa da Zlieri fuZisagan, ar ganicdian

hidrolizs
+
_
NaCl
Na +Cl
+
_
H2O
H + OH pH=7 neitraluri are

NaOH HCl
NaOH-ic da HCl-c arian Zlieri eleqtrolitebi, isini xsnarSi ionebad arian

disocirebuli, ar xdeba NaCl wyalxsnarSi susti eleqtrolitis warmoqmna,

e.i.

ar ganicdis hidrolizs.
Hhidrolizi farTo gagebiT aris sxvadasxva nivTierebasa da wyals

Soris mimocvlis reaqcia. AaseTi ganmarteba moicavs organul naerTTa_rTuli

eTerebis, cximebis, naxSirwylebis, cilebis hidrolizzsa da araorganuli
naerTebis_marilebis,

arametalTa

halogenidebis
117

da

sxvaTa

hidrolizs.

cocxal organizmSi mimdinareobs polisaqaridebis, cilebisa da sxva organuli

naerTebis hidrolizi.

Tavi XI
marilTa wyalxsnarebis da nalRobebis
eleqtrolizi
marilis nalRobSi an wyalxsnarSi eldenis gatarebisas eleqtrodebze
nivTierevis gamoyofis movlenas eleqtrolizi ewodeba. eleqtrolizi aris
Jangva-aRdgeniTi procesi. anodze mimdinareobs Jangva, xolo kaTodze aRdgena.
ganvixiloT
eleqtrodebis

eleqtrolitTa

Tanaobisas.

wyalxsnarebis

liTonebis

eleqtrolizi

aqtiurobis

mwkrivis

uxsnadi
SeswavliT

dadgenilia, rom rac ufro aqtiuria liToni, anu rac ufro advilad kargavs
is eleqtrons, miT ufro meti energiaa saWiro misi ionis aRsadgenad da
piriqiT.

amitom,

roca

marilis

kaTioni

aqtivobis

mwkrivSi

wyalbadis

marcxnivaa, kaTodze upiratesad gamoiyofa wyalbadi, xolo Tu marilis

kaTionebi wyalbadis marjvniv arian maSin kaTodze liToni

aRdgeba, xolo

roca xsnarSi gvaqvs eleqtrolitebis narevi, pirvelad ganimuxteba metalTa

aqtivobis mwkrivSi wyalbadis marjvniv moTavsebuli liTonis ionebi. mag. Tu
xsnari Seicavs spilenZis, vercxlis da wyalbadis ionebs, kaTodze pirvelad
vercxli gamoiyofa, Semdeg spilenZi da bolos wyalbadi. eleqtrolizi
praqtikulad ufro rTulad mimdinareobs aqtivobis mwkrivSi aluminis Semdeg
moTavsebuli elementebis ionebis Semcveli wyalxsnarebis eleqtrolizisas
xsnaris koncentraciaze da denis Zalaze
erTdroulad

wyalbadTan

proporciebiT.

uJangbado

erTad

liTonic

mJavebis

da

damokidebulebiT, kaTodze
SeiZleba
maTi

gamoiyos

marilebis

sxvadasxva

wyalxsnarebis

eleqtrolizis dros anodze iJangeba mJavuri naSTis ionebi, xolo Jangbadiani

mJavebis

da

maTi

marilebis

wyalxsnarebis

hidroqsilionebi.
mag. CuSO4-is wyalxsnaris eleqtrolizi
118

eleqtrolizis

dros

K ze: Cu +2 , H +

e Cu 0
Cu + 2 +
2

kaToduri aRdgena
+

A ze: SO42 , OH
4OH 4e 2 H 2 O + O2

anoduri Jangva
CuCl2-is wyalxsnaris eleqtrolizi
-

K ze: Cu +2 , H +
e Cu 0
Cu + 2 +
2
+

A ze: Cl 2 , OH
e Cl
2Cl
2
2

uJangbado mJavebis marilebis nalRobebis eleqtrolizis dros kaTodze

aRdgeba liToni, xolo anodze iJangeba mJavas naSTi.
CuCl2-is nalRobis eleqtrolizi
-

e Cu 0
Cu + 2 +
2

K ze:
+

A ze:

2Cl 2e Cl 2

aqtiuri liTonisa da Jangbadiani mJavis naSTis Semcveli marilebis

wyalxsnarebis eleqtrolizis dros xdeba faqtiurad wylis eleqtrolizi da
gaxsnili

marilis

raodenoba

ucvleli

rCeba.

mag.

eleqtrolizi
KNO3
K + + NO3
H 2O
H + + OH
-

K ze: K + , H +
2 H 2 O + 2e H 2 + 2OH
+

A ze: NO3 , OH
4OH 4e 2 H 2 O + O2
119

KNO3-is

wyalxsnaris

NaCl-is wyalxsnaris eleqtrolizi:

NaCl
Na + + Cl
H 2O
+OH + H +
-

K ze: Na + , H +
2 H + + 2e H 2
+

A ze: Cl 2 , OH
2Cl 2e Cl 2
xsnarSi rCeba NaOH

NaCl-is nalRobis eleqtrolizi

NaCl
Na + + Cl

K ze:

Na + + e Na 0

Cl 0 + Cl 0 Cl 2 .
A ze: Cl e Cl 0
miuxedavad imisa, rom eleqtrolizis Catareba nalRobis mdgomareobaSi

eleqtroenergiis
tute,

did

tutemiwaTa

liTonebs.

xarjs

liTonebs,

eleqtroliziT

moiTxovs,
alumins,

iReben

eleqtrolizuri
lanTanoidebs

agreTve

halogenebs,

meTodiT

da

iReben

zogierT

mwvave

natrs.

sxva
am

meTodiT faraven erT liTons meoreTi, liTonebs asufTaveben minarevebisagan

da sxva.
faradem daadgina, rom nebismieri eleqtrolitis erTi gram-ekvivalentis
gamosayofad saWiroa 96500 kuloni eleqtroba anu 1 faradi, rac udris
6,021023 eleqtronis muxts.
9 g. aluminis (1 gr. ekv.) misaRebad xsnarSi unda gavataroT erTi moli
6,021023 anu 96500 kuloni anu 1 faradi, xolo 1 mol. aluminis misaRebad
samjer meti.
muxtis raodenoba kulonebiT denis ZalasTan damokidebulia Semdegi
formuliT: Q = I t , sadac Q aris muxtis raodenoba kulonebSi
I denis Zalaa amperebSi,
t droa wamebSi.
120

Tavi XII
liTonebis miRebis xerxebi da
qimiuri Tvisebebi
bunebaSi Tavisufali saxiT mxolod keTilSobili liTonebi oqro,
vercxli da platina gvxvdeba, danarCeni liTonebi madnebis saxiT gvxvdeba
madnebisagan liTonebis miRebas metalurgia ewodeba. cnobilia piro, hidro da
eleqtrometalurgia.
1. pirometalurgia aris liTonis miReba maRal temperaturaze oqsididan
sxvadasxva

aRmdgenis

meSveobiT:

(aRmdgenelebidan

gansakuTrebiT

iafi

koqsia).
FeO+CFe+CO

CuO+CCu+CO

PbO+CPb+CO

2. liTonis aRdgenas madnebidan aqtiuri liTonebis meSveobiT metalTermia

ewodebas (kerZo SemTxvevaSi aluminoTermia)
Cr2O3+2AlAl2O3+2Cr

3. zogierT liTons (volframs, molibdens, spilenZs da sxvas) aRadgenen

CuO+H2Cu+H2O

wyalbadiT maTi oqsidebidan:

4. hidrometalurgia aris liTonis miRebis xerxi misi marilis wyalxsnarze

aqtiuri liTonis moqmedebiT:
Fe+CuSO4FeSO4+Cu
Zn+2AgNO3Zn(NO3)2+2Ag

5. liTonTa

miRebas

misi

naerTebis

eleqtroliziT

eleqtrometalurgia

ewodeba.
nalRobis
2 NaCl eleqtroliz

i 2 Na + Cl 2

Tu madani aris sulfidi, jer mas gamowviT oqsidad gardaqmnian, Semdeg

ki oqsididan koqsiT aRadgenen liTons:
2ZnS+3O22ZnO+2SO2
ZnO+CZn+CO
121

liTonebis qimiuri Tvisebebi

1. liTonebi urTierTqmedeben halogenebTan:
Cu+Cl2CuCl2

2Fe+3Cl22FeCl3

2. liTonebi (garda oqrosi) urTierTqmedeben gogirdTan:

Fe+SFeS

Zn+SZnS

3. liTonebi (garda platina da oqrosi) urTierTqmedeben JangbadTan

4Al+3O22Al2O3

2Na+O22Na2O

4. aqtiuri liTonebi ixsnebian wyalSi

2Na+2H2O2NaOH+H2

Ca+2H2OCa(OH)2+H2

5. aqtiuri liTonebi 400C-ze wyalbadTan warmoqmnnian ionur naerTebshidridebs, romlebic wyalSi ixsnebian:
Ca+H2CaH2

NaH+H2ONaOH+H2

6. aqtiuri liTonebi (romelic wyalSi uxsnadia) aZevebs pasiur liTonebs

misi marilTa wyalxsnarebidan:
Fe+CuSO4FeSO4 +Cu

Zn+CuCl2ZnCl2+Cu

7. liTonebi ixsnebian ganzavebul da koncentrirebul mJavebSi:

3Cu 0 + 8 HN +5 O3 3Cu +2 ( NO3 ) 2 + 2 N +2 O + 4 H 2 O
ganz.

3
e Cu + 2
Cu 0
2
6
2
e N + 2
3
N + 5 +
Cu 0 + 4 HN +5 O3 Cu +2 ( NO3 ) + 2 N +4 O2 + 2 H 2 O
konc.

e Cu + 2
1
Cu 0
2
2
e N +4
2

N + 5 +
4 Zn 0 + 10 HN +5 O3 4 Zn +2 ( NO3 ) 2 + N 2+ O + 5 H 2 O
ganz.

e Zn + 2
4
Zn 0
2
8
e 2 N + 1
2 N + 5 +
8
4 Zn + 10 HN +5 O3 4 Zn +2 ( NO3 ) 2 + N 3 H 4 N +5 O3 + 3H 2 O
ganz.

122

e Zn +2
Zn
2
e N 3
N +5 +
8

Tavi XIII
liTonebis da misi Senadnobebis korozia da masTan
brZolis saSualebani

Senadnobebi.

gamdnar

mdgomareobaSi

liTonebi

an

liToni

da

araliToni Seerevian erTmaneTs da warmoqmnian Senadnobs. aseTebia: brinjao,

melqiori, TiTberi, duralumini, uJangavi foladi, Tuji, babiti, pobediti da
sxva.saxalxo meurneobaSi dReisaTvis 5000-mde Senadnobi gamoiyeneba.
maTi %-uli Sedgeniloba daaxloebiT aseTia:
brinjao _ 90% Cu+10% Sn
TiTberi _ 60% Cu+40% Zn
melqiori _ 50% Al+50% Ni
duralumini _ 94% Al +4% Cu +1% Mg+1%M Mn
uJangavi foladi _ 82%

Fe, 1,6 % C, 16,4% Cr.

Tuji_93% rkina, 4% naxSirbadi, 2% siliciumi, 1-3% manganumi, 0,02%

fosfori,0,08% gogirdi.
niqromi_67,5% nikeli, 15% qromi, 16% rkina, 1,5%manganumi,
sarCilinasamala_37% tyvia, 63% kala,
popedoti_naxSirbadis

volpramis

da

kobaltis

Senadnobi

sisaliT

almass uaxlovdeba
kalis(50%)

da

indiumis(50%)Senadnobi

minisa

da

metalebis

darCilvisaTvis gamoiyeneba.
Senadnobebis Tvisebebi sul sxvadasxva gvaria Senadnobebi warmoiqmneba
ori an meti gamdnari metalis, agreTve metalebis zogierT ara metalTan
SereviT da maTi Semdgomi gamyarebiT. Senadnobebis Tvisebebi damokidebulia
123

maT Sedgenilobasa da Sinagan struqturaze. Senadnobis dnobis tebperatura

Cveulebriv dabalia,xolo simtkice dasimagre maRali, vidre misi warmomqneli
komponentebisa. mag:40%kadniumis(dn.t-ra 321 grad.) da 60%bismutis(dn.tra271grad) Senadnobi dneba 144 gradusze. Ooqros Senadnobi vercxlTan
xaciaTdeba Zalian didi simagriT, im dris rodesac TviT es metalibi
SedarebiT rbili metalebia.A
Senadnobebis SeswavlaSi udidesi wvlili Seitana rusma akademikosma
kurnakovma da misma mowafeebma. MmaTi Sromebis wyalobiT gaxda SesaZlebeli
winaswar dasaxuli Tvisebebis(Termomdgradi, mJava gamZli, magari da a.S.)mqone
Senadnobebis miReba.
liTonebis
urTierTqmedebis

da

misi

Sedegad

Senadnobebis
korozia

daSlis

garemosTan

ewodeba.

cnobilia

maTi

qimiuri

qimiuri

da

eleqtroqimiuri korozia.
qimiuri koroziis dros liTonis zedapiri iJangeba qimiurad aqtiuri
nivTierebebis (Jangbadis, halogenebis, gogirdis oqsidebisas da sxvaTa) mier.
Tu koroziiT warmoqmnili naerTi mWidrod ekvris liTons, is maSin aCerebs
liTonis Semdgom korozias, ase xdeba aluminisa da qromis daJangvisas. Tu
koroziis Sedegad warmoqmnili naerTi fxvieri da forovania, maSin korozia
grZeldeba, mag. ase mimdinareobs rkinis korozia.
eleqtroqimiur korozias ganicdian minarevebis Semcveli liTonebi. am
dros liToni da misi minarevi eleqtrodebia, romlebzedac mimdinareobs
Jangva-aRdgena, eleqtroliti ki SeiZleba iyos naxSirorJangis an Jangbadis
Semcveli teni.
4Fe+3O2+6H2O4Fe(OH) 2

Fe(OH)3 HFeO2+H2O
rkinovani
mJava

mJava garemoSi rkinis korozia aris misi moqmedeba mJavasTan:

Fe+2HClFeCl2+H2

yovelwliurad rkinisa da misi Senadnobebis 10% ganicdis korozias da

ziani adgeba saxalxo meurneobas.
koroziisagan dacvis Semdegi saSualebebia cnobili:
124

1. liTonebis monikeleba, moqromva, laqis an saRebavis wasma (e.i. liTonis

zedapiris izolacia garemosTan).
2. koroziisadmi mdgradi Senadnobebis miReba.
3. eleqtrolitis xsnarSi iseTi naerTebis (inhibitoris) damateba, romelic
Seamcirebs

liTonze

eleqtrolitis

moqmedebas.

mag.

Tu

marilmJavas

davamatebT 1% urotropins. is Seamcirebs 100-jer marilmJavas moqmedebas

rkinasTan.
4. proteqtoruli

dacva,

rac

niSnavs

aqtiuri

liTonis

dacvas

pasiuri

liToniT.

Tavi XIV
sakontrolo kiTxvebi I reitinguli
SefasebisaTvis
1. ras ewodeba atomi? molekula? moli?
2. ras ewodeba fardobiTi atomuri da fardobiTi molekuluri masa?
3. ras ewodeba elementi? ras ewodeba alotropia.
4. ra aris elementis qimiuri ekvivalenti?
5. raSi

mdgomareobs

masis

mudmivobis,

Sedgenilobis

mudmivobis,

ekvivalentTa, jerad fardobaTa da avogadros kanonebi;

6. rogor fizikur pirobebs ewodeba normaluri?
7. ganmarteT d.i. mendeleevis periodulobis kanoni;
8. ganmarteT periodulobis kanoni mozlis mixedviT;
9. ras ewodeba periodi? jgufi?
10. ras gviCvenebs elementis atomuri nomeri periodul sistemaSi;
11. rogor icvleba periodul sistemaSi metal-metaloiduri Tvisebebi
periodSi da jgufSi.
12. ras ewodeba izotopebi? protoni? neitroni? eletroni? pozitroni?
13. ras ewodeba radioaqtivoba? daaxasiaTeT , da sxivebi.
125

14. ra elementad gardaiqmneba poloniumi gamosxivebis Sedegad?

15. ra elementad gardaiqmneba tyvia misi atomgulidan gamosxivebis
Sedegad?
16. daasaxeleT

oTxive

qvanturi

ricxvi,

romliTac

xasiaTdeba

eleqtronis mdgomareoba atomSi;

17. ras gviCvenebs da ra ricxviT mniSvnelobebs iRebs mTavari qvanturi
ricxvi _ n;
18. ras gviCvenebs da ra ricxviT mniSvnelobebs iRebs Tanauri qvanturi
ricxvi _ l ;
19. ras

gviCvenebs

da

ra

ricxviT

mniSvnelobebs

iRebs

magnituri

qvanturi ricxvi _ m;
20. ras gviCvenebs da ra ricxviT mniSvnelobebs iRebs spinuri qvanturi
ricxvi _s;
21. ganmarteT hundis wesi;
22. ganmarteT paulis akrZalvis principi;
23. ganmarteT umcires energiaTa principi (kleCkovskis ori wesi);
24. ra aris orbitali?
25. rogori bunebisaa eleqtroni?
26. gamosaxeT Na, S16 da Cu29 eleqtronuli da eleqtronul-grafikuli
formulebi;
27. gamosaxeT Mg12, Al13, Cr24 da Zn30 eleqtronuli da eleqtronulgrafikuli formulebi;
28. rogori forma aqvs s, p da d eleqtronul Rrublebs?
29.gamosaxeT

gogirdis

(IV)

da

gogirdis

(VI)

eleqtronuli

da

eleqtronul-grafikuli formulebi;
30. ras ewodeba hibridizacia (axseniT Sp, Sp2 da Sp3 hibridizacia).
31. daasaxeleT qimiuri bmis tipebi.
32. axseniT ionuri qimiuri bma NaCl-is magaliTze, romeli parametrebiT
xasiaTdeba ionuri bma?
33. ras ewodeba eleqtrouaryofiToba?
126

34. ras ewodeba ioni?

35. romeli ZiriTadi parametrebiT xasiaTdeba kovalentebi bma?
36. romeli

meTodebi

gamoiyeneboda

molekulaSi

qimiuri

bmebis

aRwerisaTvis? daasaxeleT es meTodebi.

37. axseniT polarul-kovalenturi bma HCl-is molekulis magaliTze;
38. axseniT (sigma) da (pi) bmebi N2-is molekulis magaliTze;
39. axseniT donor-aqceptoruli bma CO-s da [NH4]+ magaliTze;
40. rogoria wyalbaduri kavSiri?
41. daaxasiaTeT liTonuri bma;
42. ratom aris Jangbadi mxolod orvalentiani da gogirdi or, oTx da
eqvsvalentiani?
43. ratom ar aris azoti xuTvalentiani;
44. ras ewodeba qimiuri reaqciis siCqare?
45. ra faqtorebi axdenen gavlenas reaqciis siCqareze;
46. ras ewodeba katalizatori?
47. rogori saxis katalizatorebi cnobili?
48. daasaxeleT

homogenuri

da

heterogenuli

katalizuri

reaqciis

magaliTebi.
49.daasaxeleY Seuqcevadi reaqciis magaliTebi;
50. ras ewodeba Seqcevadi reaqcia.
51. saiT

gadaixreba

Seqcevadi

reaqciis

wonasworoba

temperaturis

gazrdiT?
52. ras ewodeba aqtivaciis energia;
53. ganmarteT le-Satelies principi;
54. ras ewodeba oqsidi da rogori tipis oqsidebs icnobT;
55. miiReT fuZe oqsidebi da uCveneT maTi qimiuri Tvisebebi. miiReT mJava
oqsidebi da uCveneT maTi Tvisebebi. miiReT amfoteruli oqsidebi da
uCveneT maTi Tvisebebi.
56. ras ewodeba hidroqsidi da rogori tipis hidroqsidebs icnobT?
57. uCveneT hidroqsidebis miRebis xerxebi da qimiuri Tvisebebi;
127

58. miiReT amfoteruli hidroqsidebi da uCveneT misi amfoteroba;

59. ras ewodeba mJava da ra tipis mJaveebs icnobT?
60. ra aris mJavis fuZianoba?
61. ramden fuZiania H3PO3 da ratom?
62. uCveneT mJavebis miRebis xerxebi da maTi qimiuri Tvisebebi?
63. riT ganisazRvreba fuZis mJavuroba?
64. qvemoT CamoTvlili oqsidebidan romelia mJavuri oqsidi? CrO, CrO3,
MnO2, Mn2O7, SO2, P2O5, Na2O, CO2, SiO2;

65. qvemoT

CamoTvlili

hidroqsidebidan

romelia

wyalSi

uxsnadi:

Ca(OH)2, KOH, NaOH, NH4OH, Cu(OH)2, FeOH) 2.

66. rogor ganvaxorcieloT Semdegi gardaqmnebi:

NaNa2ONaOHZn(OH)2 Na 2 [Zn(OH) 4 ]
Fe(OH)2FeOFeCl2Fe(OH)2FeOHPO3
AlCI3Al(OH)2Al2(SO4)3Al(OH)3 Na[Al(OH)42H2O]
Cu(NO3)2NO2HNO3Cu(NO3)2
FeFeClFe(NO3)2Fe(OH)2 Fe(OH)3Fe2O3

67. miiReT Ca(H2PO4)3 da gadaiyvaneT srul marilSi.

68. miiReT AlOHSO4 da gadaiyvaneT srul marilSi.
69.gaaneitraleT 1 moli H3PO4 1 moli NaOH-iT; 2 moli NaOH-iY.
70. gaaneitraleT 1 moli Fe(OH)3 1 moli HPO3-iT; 2 moli HPO3-iT.
71. miiReT sruli anu saSualo anu normaluri marilebi yvela SesaZlo
xerxiT.
72. uCveneT sruli marilebis qimiuri Tvisebebi;
73. CawereT

sruli

da

Semoklebuli

reaqciebisaTvis:
a) BaCl2+Na2SO4BaSO4 +2NaCl
b) AgNO3+NaClAgCl+NaNO3
g) Pb(NO3)2+H2S PbS+2HNO3.
d) Ca(OH)2+CO2 CaCO3+H2O.
74. marilTa romel tipebs miekuTvneba:
128

ionuri

tolobebi

Semdegi

(NH 4 ) 2 Fe(SO 4 ) 2 ;

NH 4 Fe(SO 4 ) 2 ; KAl(SO 4 ) 2 ;

75. marilTa romel tipebs miekuTvneba:

K 3 [Fe(CN) 6 ];

[Co(NH ) ]Cl
3

Tavi XV
sakontrolo kiTxvebi II reitinguli SefasebisTvis

1. romeli reaqciebia Jangva-aRdgeniTi?

2. ra aris Jangva? aRdgena?
3. daasaxeleT damJangvelebi da aRmdgenelebi.
4. uCveneT

molekulaTaSorisi

Jangva-aRdgeniTi

reaqcia

da

gaatoleT

is

da

gaatoleT

is

eleqtronuli balansis meTodiT;

5. uCveneT

Siga-molekuluri

Jangva-aRdgeniTi

reaqcia

eleqtronuli balansis meTodiT:

6. uCveneT

TviT-Jangva,

TviT-aRdeniTi

(dispropotcionorebis

dismutaciis) reaqcia da gaatoleT is eleqtronuli balansis meTodiT;

7. daasruleT da gaatoleT:
a) KMnO4+H2S+H2SO4MnSO4+S ++
b) FeSO4+HNO3+H2SO4 Fe2(SO4)+NO+
g) FeSO4+HClMgCl2+Cl2+KCl +
d) KMnO4+H2SO4+H2O2MnSO4+ O2+K2SO4+
e) KMnO4+NaNO3+KOHK2MnO4+NaNO3+
d) K2Cr2O7+Na2SO4+H2SO4 Cr2(SO4)3+Na2SO4+K2SO4+
z) (NH4)2Cr2O7 Cr2O3+N2+
MnO
T) KCO 3 2 KCl + O 2
129

anu

i) C+HNO3CO2+NO +
k) Cl2+NaOH NaCl+NaClO+
8. ras ewodeba xsnari?
9. rogori

xsnaria

suspenzia?

emulsia?

koloiduri

xsnari?

WeSmariti

xsnari?
10. rogor xsnarebs icnobT agregatuli mdgomareobis mixedviT? moiyvaneT maTi
magaliTebi.
11. ras ewodeba %-uli koncentracia?
12. ras ewodeba normaluri, moluri da molali xsnarebi?
13. ras ewodeba najeri, ujeri da zenajeri xsnarebi?
14. ra aris xsnadoba?
15. ra aris sadispersio are da dispersiuli faza?
16. ras ewodeba titri?
17. ras ewodeba eleqtrolitebi?
18. ra aris disociaciis xarisxi .
19. daasaxeleT susti, saSualo da Zlieri eleqtrolitebi.
20. rogori procesia eleqtrolituri disociacia?
21. amfoteruli hidroqsidebis eleqtrolituri disociacia.
22. ras ewodeba eleqtrolizi.
23. uCveneT: a) NaCl-is nalRobis eleqtrolizi,
b) NaCl-is wyalxsnaris eleqtrolizi;
g) CuSO4-is wyalxsnaris eleqtrolizi;
d) CuCl2-is nalRobis eleqtrolizi;
e) CuCl2-is wyalxsnaris eleqtrolizi;
v) KNO3-is wyalxsnaris eleqtrolizi;
z) NaCl-is nalRobis da wyalxsnaris eleqtrolizi;
24. ras ewodeba kaTioni?
25. ras ewodeba arioni?
26. daasaxeleT xsnadi da uxsnadi eleqtrodebi.
27. ras udris wylis ionuri namravli?
130

28. ra aris wyalbadis maCvenebeli da romeli formuliT gamoiTvleba is.

29.ras udris pH tute garemoSi?
30. ras udris pH mJava garemoSi?
31. rogor garemoSi udris pH 7-s.
32. ras ewodeba marilTa hidrolozi?
uCveneT: a) NH4Cl-is hidrolizi;
b) (NH4)2CO3-is hidrolizi;
g) Na2CO3-is hidrolizi.
33. ganicdis Tu ara NaCl hidrolizs?
34. uCveneT liTonebis miRebis xerxebi.
35. ras ewodeba metalurgia da pirometalurgia;
36. uCveneT liTonebis qimiuri Tvisebebi;
37. ras ewodeba korozia?
38. ganmarteT qimiuri da eleqtroqimiuri korozia.
39. romeli saSualebebiT SeiZleba davicvaT liTonebi da maTi Senadnobebi
koroziisagan?

Tavi XVI
testuri kiTxvarebi I da II reitinguli
SefasebisaTvis
1. ras udris gogirdis ekvivalenti SO2-Si?
a) 16;

b) 32;

g) 64;

d) 8;

2. ras udris Na2SO4-is ekvivalenti?

a) 35,5;

b) 71;

g) 144;

d) 284;

3. gamoTvaleT Al2(SO4)3-is ekvivalenti.

a)

342
;
2

b)

342
;
3

g) 342;

4. rogori Sedgeniloba aqvs Kr3680 atombirTvs?

131

d)

342
;
23

a) 80p da 36n;

b) 36p da 80n;

g) 36p da 44 e ;

d) 36p da 44n;
+3 52

5. ramden protons Seicavs Cr 24 ?

a) 21;

b) 24;

g) 28;

d) 52;

6. romeli nawilaki Seicavs eleqtronebs ufro meti raodenobiT, vidre

protonebs?
a) Ca;

b) Ca +2 ;

g) Cl;

d) Cl ;

7. elementis atomi masuri ricxvia 27, Seicavs 14 neitrons, ras udris masSi
eleqtronebis ricxvi?
a) 14;

b) 27;

g) 13;

d) 41;

8. rogori muxti eqneba ions, romelic Seicavs 18 eleqtrons da 16 protons?

a) +18;

b) _18;

g) +2;

d) _2;

9. rogoria ionis atombirTvis muxti Tu igi Seicavs 36 eleqtrons da 33

protons?
a) +36;

b) +33;

g) +3;

d) _3;

10. spilenZis Cu 2963 atombirTvi Seicavs:

a) 29p da 34n;

b) 63p da 29n;

g) 34p da 29n;

d) 36p da 29e

11. radioaqtiuri gardaqmnis rogor tips hqonda adgili birTvis gadasvlisas

185

Os 185 Ir ?

a) daSla;

b) daSla;

g) -daSla;

d) E_Cataceba

12. rogori tipis gadasvlas aqvs adgili Semdegi gardaqmnisas?

Rn222 P0218

a) daSla;

b) _daSla;

13. ramdeni savalento eleqtroni aqvs im elementis atoms, romlis rigiTi

nomeria 13, xolo masuri ricxvi 27?
a) 5;

b) 2;

g) 3;

d) 4;

14. qvemoT moyvanili ionebidan romels aqvs keTilSobili airis konfiguracia?

132

a)

Te 2 ;

b) Ga + ;

52

g) Fe +2 ;

d) Cr +3 ;

15. qvemoT moyvanili ionebidan romels aqvs argonis msgavsi eleqtronuli

konfiguracia?
a) Ca+2;

b) K0;

g) Ca+2;

d) Na+;

16. ras udris eleqtronTa maqsimaluri ricxvi, romelic SeiZleba daitios 3s

orbitalma?
a) 1;

b) 2;

g) 6;

d) 8;

17. 2p qvedoneze eleqtronTa maqsimaluri ricxvi SeiZleba iyos:

a) 1;

b) 2;

g) 6;

d) 8;

18. 4d qvedoneze eleqtronebis maqsimaluri ricxvi SeiZleba iyos:

a) 10;

b) 5;

g) 2;

d) 6;

19. qvemoT CamoTvlili orbitalebis aRniSvnebidan romelia araswori?

a) 2s, 4f;

b) 2p, 3d;

g) 1p, 2d;

d) 1s, 2p;

20. ramden mTavar energetikul doneze xdeba eleqtronebis ganawileba?

a) 5;

b) 6;

g) 8;

d) 7;

21. ramdeni qvedonisagan Sedgeba Sre, romlis n=3-s?

a) 2;

b) 3;

g) 9;

d) 6;

22. ramden qvedones Seicavs meoTxe Sre volframis atomSi?

a) 1;

b) 4;

g) 2;

d) 5;

23. ramdeni orbitalisagan Sedgeba Sre, romlis n=3-s.

a) 9;
24. romeli

b) 3;
elementis

g) 4;
atoms

d) 6;
aqvs

1s22s62p63s23p64s1

konfiguracia?
a) Ca;

b) Ba;

g) Na;

d) K;

25. Zn+2-ionis eleqtronul konfiguracias Seesabameba formula.

a) 1s22s22p4;
b) 1s22s22p63s25p6;
g) 1s22s22p63s23p63d10;
d) 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6.

133

eleqtronuli

26. elementis atomis gare da gareswina eleqtronuli Sreebis struqturaa

3s23p63d54s2. daasaxeleT elementi da aRniSneT romel eleqtronul ojaxs

miekuTvneba igi?
a) Mn-d-elementi;

b) Ca, S-elementi;

g) Zn, d-elementi;

d) Cl, p-elementi;

27. spilenZis atomSi ramdeni eleqtroni aris d qvedoneze?

a) 10;

b) 9;

g) 8

d) 2;

28. gansazRvreT NH +4 da SO 42 warmoqmnili naerTis formula:

a)NH4SO4;

b) NH4(SO4)2;

g) (NH4)2SO4;

d) (NH4)2(SO4)3;

29.Cs+;-s Tu Ba+2-s aqvs meti radiusi?

a) Ba+2;

b) Cs+;

g) Tanabaria;

30. romlis radiusia meti Cl-isa Tu Cl?

a) Cl;

b) Cl;

g) Tanabaria;

31. bmis romeli saxeoba ganapirobebs spilenZis maRal eleqtrogamtarobas?

a) kovalenturi;

b) ionuri;

g) liTonuri;

d) donorul-aqceptoruli;
32. qvemoT CamoTvlili nivTierebebidan romelSi xorcieldeba liTonuri bma?
a) O2;

b) NO2;

g) CaF2;

d) Sn;

33. riT aris gamowveuli metalTa plastikuroba?

a) kovalenturi;
b) ionuri bmiT;
g) delokalizebuli metaluri bma;
d) mcire atomTaSorisi manZilebiT;
34. qvemoT moyvanili oqsidebidan, romelTan Seva urTierTqmedebaSi marilmJava?
a) CuO;

b) SO2;

g) Fe2O3;

d) CdO;

e) P2O5;

v) CO2;

z) ZnO;

T) NO;

35. dawereT qvemoT CamoTvlil mJavaTa anhidridebis formulebi:

a) H2SO4;

b) HCIO2;

g) HMnO4;

e) H2SO3;
134

d) HNO2;

36. romeli nivTiereba SeiZleba gamoviyenoT gogirdmJavas gasaneitraleblad?

a) HNO3;

b) Cd(OH)2;

g) BaSO4;

d) NaHSO4;

37. qvemoT CamoTvlili marilebidan romeli Seicavs _2 muxtis mqone mJavur

naSTs?
b) Al2(SO4) 32 ;

a) NH4MgPO4;

g) Ba(H2PO4)2;

d) CaHSO4;
38. SesaZlebelia Tu ara ori fuZisagan miviRoT marili?
a) diax;

b) ara;

39. SesaZlebelia Tu ara erTi marilidan ori fuZis miReba?

a) diax;

b) ara;

40. romeli reaqciebis siCqare izrdeba temperaturis gazrdisas?

a) energiis gamoyofiT mimdinare;
b) energiis STanTqmiT mimdinare;
g) nebismieri;
41. umTavresad

ra

ganapirobebs

reaqciis

siCqaris

gazrdas

temperaturis

momatebisas?
a) molekulaTa saSualo kinetikuri energiis gazrda;
b) aqtiur molekulaTa ricxvis mateba;
g) SejaxebaTa ricxvis gazrda.
42. amonasunTq airs minis milis saSualebiT atareben qvemoT CamoTvlil
naerTTa xsnarebSi, romelSic moxdeba cvlileba?
a) KOH;
43. daadgineT

b) H2SO4;
wyalxsnaris

g) Ca(OH)2;
pH-is

d) HCl;

mniSvneloba

Tu

hidroqsidionebis

Tu

hidroqsilionebis

koncentracia tolia OH = 10 11 moli/l-s?

a) 3;
44. daadgineT

b) 2;
wyalxsnaris

g) 5;
pH-is

d) 11;
mniSvneloba

koncentracia 10_2 moli/l-is tolia?

a) 2;

b) 12;

g) 5;

d) 9;

45. aRniSneT CamoTvlili marilebidan romeli ganicdis srul hidrolizs?

a) MgSO4;

b) AlCl3;

g) (NH4)2S;
135

d) BaCl2;

46. romeli marilis hidrolizis Sedegad aqvs wyalxsnars pH<8.

a) BeSO4;

b) KClO4;

g) Li2CO3;

d) ((H2SO4+;

47. romeli marilis hidrolizis Sedegad aqvs wyalxsnars pH>7?

a) Al2(SO4)3;

b) CuSO4;

g) Ba(NO3)2;

d) NH4NO3;

48. romeli marilis wyalxsnarSi Seifereba lurjad lakmusi?

a) Na3PO4;

b) NiSO4;

g) NaI;

d) Co(NO3)2;

49.ras udris azotis atomebis daJangulobis xarisxebis algebruli jami

NH4NO3 naerTSi?

a) +2;
50. qvemoT

b) _3;
moyvanili

g) +8;

ionebidan

d) 0;

romlebs

SeuZliaT

gamoamJRavnon

mxolod

aRdgeniTi Tvisebebi?
a) I ;

b) Cr+3;

d) S 2 ;

g) Cr2(SO4)3;

51. qvemoT moyvanili ionebidan romels SuZlia gamoamJRavnos mxolod mJangavis

Tvisebebi?
a) H+;

b) SO 42 ;

g) MnO 42 ;

d) NO 3 ;

52. aCveneT qvemoT moyvanili procesebidan romelSi xdeba azotis daJangva?

a) NH +4 N 2 ;

b) NO 3 NO ;

g) NO 2 NO 3

d) NO 2 NO 2 ;

53. qvemoT moyvanili procesebisan romeli Seesabameba aRdgenas?

a) Cr(OH)3K2CrO4;

b) H2SH2SO4;

g) K2Cr2O3Cr2(SO4)3;

d) MnOMnSO4.

54. qvemoT moyvanili reaqciebidan romeli miekuTvneba disproporciulobis

reaqcias?
a) 4HNO3K2CrO4+;

b) 2KClO32KCl+3O2;

g) 4KClO33KClO4+KCl; d) 2HClO2HCl+2O2;
55. Sb2O5+HClH3SbCl6+Cl2+H2O

Jangva-aRdgeniTi

reaqciebisaTvis

ipoveT

koeficientebi da gamoTvaleT yvela koeficientis jami.

a) 9;

b) 17;

g) 26;

56. KMnO4+H2SMnO2+S+K2S+H2O

d) 36;
reaqciisaTvis

gamoiangariSeT maTi jami.

136

ipoveT

koeficientebi

da

a) 6;

b) 10;

g) 16;

d) 20;

57. KCrO2+H2O2+KOHK2CrO4+H2O reaqciisaTvis ipoveT koeficientebi da

aRniSneT mJangavis win mdgomi koeficientis mniSvneloba.
a) 3;

b) 2;

g) 4;

d) 5;

58. K2Cr2O7+C12H22O11+H2SO4Cr2(SO4)3+CO2+K2SO4+H2O

reaqciisaTvis

SearCieT koeficientebi da aRniSneT mJangavis win mdgomi koeficientis

mniSvneloba.
a) 1;

b) 32;

g) 8;

d) 12;

59. FeCl2+KMnO4+HClFeCl3+Cl2+MnCl2+KCl+H2O

reaqciisaTvis

SerCieT

koeficientebi da uCveneT aRmdgenis win mdgomi koeficienti.

a) 3;

b) 5;

60. HNO2HNO3+NO+H2O

g) 12;

d) 5;

disproporcionirebis

reaqciisaTvis

SearCieT

koeficientebi da gamoTvaleT maTi jami.

a) 4;

b) 3;

g) 7;

d) 6.

61. sistema ar awarmoebs garemosTan siTbosa da muSaobis gacvlas da misi

moculoba ucvlelia, amitom igi warmoadgens:
a) izolirebul sistemas;
b) Ria sistemas;
g) daxurul sistemas.
62. Siga energia warmoadgens:
a) mdgomareobis funqcias;
b) procesis funqcias;
g) procesis parametrs.
63. katalizatorebs, romlebic zrdian qimiuri reaqciis siCqares, ewodebaT:
a) inhibitorebi;
b) aqtivatorebi;
g) paralizatorebi.
64. xsnars, romelic Seicavs 1 mol gaxsnil nivTierebas da 1000 gr. gamxsnels
ewodeba.
a) moluri xsnari;
137

b) molaruli anu molali xsnari;

g) normaluri xsnari.
65. eleqtroni SeiZleba ganvixiloT rogorc:
a) nawilaki;
66. romeli

b) talRa;

gantolebiT

g) nawilaki da talRa.

gamoisaxeba

einSteinis

masisa

da

energiis

urTierTdamokidebulebis kanoni:
a) V =

R
R
2;
2
m
n2

b) L =

h
;
mv

g) E = mc 2 ;

67. ra raodenobiT marili da wyalia sufris marilis 20%-ian xsnarSi:

a) 20 gr. wyali da 80 gr marili;
b) 20 gr marili da 80 gr wyali;
g) 20 gr marili da 100 gr. wyali.
68. eleqtrolituri

disociacia

mimdinareobs

wyalSi

da

ara

navTSi

im

mizeziT, rom
a) wyali individualuri nivTierebaa, navTobi ki naxSirwyalbadebis narevia;
b) wylis molekula da asusteben ionTa urTierTmizidvas kristalSi;
g) wylis molekulebi warmoqmnian wyalbadur bmebs ionebTan.
69.fiziologiur xsnars warmoadgens:
a) KCl-is 0,3 %-iani xsnari;
b) NaCl-is 0,9 %-iani xsnari;
g) CaCl2-is 0,7 %-iani xsnari.
70. romeli

elementis

naklebobiTaa

gamowveuli

organizmSi

daavadeba

hipokalemia:
a) kaliumis;

b) Na-is;

g) fosforis.

71. sisxlis Semadedebel saSualebad medicinaSi gamoyeneba:

a) kalciumis qloridi, kalciumis glukonati, kalciumis laqtati;
b) bariumis sulfati, bariumis karbonati;
g) natriumis sulfati, natriumis karbonati.
72. ra

saxelwodebiT

aris

cnobili

oqros

farmakologiuri

preparati

Na 2 [Au(S2 O 3 ) 2 ] , romelic tuberkulozis mkurnalobisaTvis gamoiyeneba:

138

a) krizanoli;
b) sinokrizini;
g) miokrizini.
73. vitamin B12-is SemadgenlobaSi Semavali ZiriTadi elementia:
a) rkina;
74. sistemam

b) kobalti;
ganicada

ra

g) nikeli.

cvlilebebia,

igi

isev

ubrundeba

Tavis

sawyis

mdgomareobas. sistemaSi mimdinare aseT process ewodeba:

a) Seuqcevadi procesi;
b) wriuli;
g) Seuqcevadi.
75. Siga energia warmoadgens:
a) gare da Siga energiebis jams;
b) kinetikuri da potenciuri energiebis jams;
g) siTburi da meqanimuri energiebis jams.

76. iseT katalizur process, romelSic katalizatori amcirebs reaqciis

siCqares, ewodeba:
a) uaryofiTi katalizi;
b) dadebiTi katalizi;
g) avtokatalizi.
77. xsnaris gayinvis temperaturis molekulur dawevas gamosaxavs:
a) krioskopuli mudmiva (gayinvis temperaturis daweva);
b) emulioskopuri mudmiva (duRilis t -is gadideba);
g) gazuri mudmiva.
78. romeli maxasiaTeblis mudmivobis SenarCuneba xdeba buferuli sistemebis
saSualebiT:
a) temperaturis;
b) osmosuri wnevis;
g) garemos pH-is.
79. eleqtronebi orbitalebze Semogvaqvs:
139

a) cal-calke da Semdeg gawyvilebiT (hundis wesi);

b) iqve vaxdenT maT gawyvilebas;
g) saerTod ar vaxdenT gawyvilebas.
80. wyalbadis speqtris gamosaxvis zogadi formula:
a) mc 2 =

hc

b) v =

R
R
2;
2
n1 n 2

g) xv

h
m

81. eleqtrolituri disociacia aris nivTierebis:

a) wyalSi gaxsna;
b) ionebad daSla eleqtruli denis moqmedebiT;
g) ionebad daSla gaxsnisas an galRobisas.
82. Zlieri eleqtrolitebi xsnarebSi:
a) mTlianadaa daSlili ionebad;
b) xsnarSi ionebTan erTad arian molekulebi;
g) xsnarSi arian mxolod dauSleli molekulebi.
83. liTiumis karbonati gamoiyeneba:
a) fsiqozis mZime formebis mkurnalobisaTvis;
b) padagris samkurnalod;
g) anemiuri daavadebebis mkurnalobisaTvis.
84. romeli formula upasuxebs bunebriv TabaSiris Sedgenilobas:
1
a) CuSO 3 H 2 O
2

b) CuSO 4 2H 2 O
g) CaSO4.
85. oqros

romeli

farmakologiuri

preparatia

gamoyenebuli

revmatiuli

arTritis sawinaaRmdegod?
a) miokrizini;
b) sinokrizini;
g) krizanoli.
86. organizmSi mavne gazebisa da toqsikur nivTierebaTa STanTqmisaTvis iyeneben:
a) naxSirbadis oqsids (CO 2 ) ;
140

b) naxSirbadis monoqsids (CO);

g) gaaqtivebul naxSirs.
87. idealuri airis gantolebis gamoyvanisas mxedvelobaSi ar miiReba:
a) molekulis geometria;
b) molekulis zoma;
g) molekulaTa Soris urTierTqmedebis Zalebi.
88. siTbos ciklis gareSe mimdinare process ewodeba:
a) izoqoruli procesi;
b) adiabaturi procesi;
g) izoTermuli procesi.
89. Termodinamikis pirveli kanoni erTmaneTTan akavSirebs:
a) wneva, temperaturas da moculobas;
b) wnevasa da moculobas;
g) Siga energias, siTbos da muSaobas.
90.

iseT

katalizur

process,

romelSic

reaqciis

erT-erTi

produqti

asrulebs katalizatoris rols ewodeba:L

a) dadebiTi katalizi;
b) avtokatalizi;
g) uaryofiTi katalizi.
91. xsnaris duRilis temperaturis molekulur awevas gamosaxavs:
a) krioskopuli mudmiva;
b) emulioskopuri mudmiva (duRilis temperaturis gadideba);
g) R-gazuri mudmiva.
92.risgan Sedgeba buferuli sistema:
a) susti mJavisa da Zlier fuZesTan misi marilisagan;
b) susti mJavisa da sust fuZesTan misi marilisagan;
g) susti fuZisa da mJavasTan misi marilisagan.
93. romeli

qvanturi

ricxvi

gviCvenebs

atomSi

eleqtronis

mimarTulebas sakuTari warmosaxviTi RerZis garSemo.

a) magnituri qvanturi ricxvi;
141

moZraobis

b) spinuri qvanturi ricxvi;

g) mTavari qvanturi ricxvi.
94.airad fazaSi mimdinare reaqciis A+B=C siCqare im pirobiT, rom es
reaqcia mimdinareobs erT stadiad gamoisaxeba gantolebiT:
a) V = K [ A] ;

b) V = K [B];

g) V = K [ A] [ B] 2 .

95. CamoTvlil nivTierebebs Soris: NaCl, Saqari, CaCl2, natriumis nitrati,

spirti, natriumis sulfati HCl aris.
a) xuTi eleqtroliti;
b) oTxi eleqtroliti;
g) eqvsi eleqtroliti.
96.Ca-is romeli naerTi Sedis stomatologiaSi gamoyenebuli silikaturi
cementis `silicinis~ SemadgenlobaSi:
a) CaO;

b) CaCl2;

g) CaSO4;

97. bariumis sulfati gamoiyeneba:

a) kuWisa da Tormetgoja nawlavis wylulovani daavadebebis rentgenuli
diagnostikisaTvis.
b) nervuli sistemis darRvevebis diagnostikaSi;
g) organizmis Termoregulaciis darRvevis diagnostikaSi.
98. hemoglobinSi Semavali rkina miekuTvneba:
a) mafunqcionirebel rkinas;
b) transportul rkinas;
g) akumulirebul rkinas.
99. fosformJava kodeinis rogorc narkotikul da analgeziur saSualebebs
iyeneben:
a) xvelebis sawinaaRmdegod;
b) malariis sawinaaRmdegod;
g) antidepresiul saSualebad.
100.

sistema

garemosTan

dakavSirebulia

mimocvliT, amitom igi warmoadgens:

a) izolirebul sistemas;
142

nivTierebebisa

da

energiis

b) daxurul sistemas;
g) Ria sistemas.
101.

romelia rTuli faza:

a) haeri;
b) carci;
g) zeTi.
102.

V =

dc
gamosaxulebaSi ram ganapiroba `_~ niSani.
dt

a) nivTierebis koncentraciis gazrdam;

b) nivTierebis koncentraciis ucvlelobam;
g) nivTierebis koncentraciis Semcirebam.
103.

1 ml xsnarSi gaxsnili nivTierebis raodenoba gamosaxavs:

a) moluri xsnari;
b) normaluri xsnari;
g) titri.

104.

xsnarSi gaxsnili gazis raodenoba damokidebulia:

a) gazis molekulur masaze;
b) xsnarSi gaxsnili nivTierebis koncentraciaze;
g) erTad orive faqtorze.

105. romeli

formula

pasuxobs

swored

gogirdis

atomis

eleqtronuli

garsebis aRnagobas:
a) 1s22s22p63s23px23py13pz1
b) 1s22s22p63s23p
g) 1s22s22p63s23px13py13pz1
106. speqtrebs, romlebic miiRebian sxeulebis mier gamosxivebuli sinaTlis
daSlis Sedegad ewodebaT:
a) atomuri speqtri;
b) molekuluri speqtri;
g) emisiuri (emisiuri)
107. xsnari aris:
143

a) ori an meti komponentis nebismieri erToblioba;

b)

ori

an

erTgvarovani

meti

komponentisgan

Semdgari

cvladi

Sedgenilobis

sistema;

g) myari Txevadi an airadi erTfaziani sistema.

108. nivTierebis eleqtrolituri disociaciis Sedegad xsnarSi warmoiqmneba
Na+

ionebi. aqedan gamomdinare SeiZleba calsaxad iTqvas, rom:

a) nivTiereba miekuTvneba marilebs;

b) nivTiereba miekuTvneba fuZeebs;
g) pasuxis gasacemad saWiroa vicodeT, romel anions Seicavs xsnari.

109. munis winaaRmdeg sabrZolvelad gamoiyeneba.

a) Na2S2O3,

b) Na2SO410H2O,

g) NaHCO3.

110. ramden %-iani xsnaris saxiT iyeneben medicinaSi KCl-s?

a) 5%-iani xsnaris saxiT;
b) 10%-iani xsnaris saxiT;
g) 20%-iani xsnaris saxiT.
111. vercxlis farmakologiuri preparati kolargoli warmoadgens:
a) koloidur vercxls;
b) vercxlis kompleqsur naerTs;
g) vercxlis kompleqsur naerTs nukleoproteidTan.
112. fermitinis da hemosideronis SemadgenlobaSi Semavali rkina warmoadgens:
a) mafunqcionirebel rkinas;
b) sarezervo rkinas;
g) transportul rkinas.
113. malariis sawinaaRmdego saSualebad iyeneben:
a) hiperzinfosfats (C4H10N2H3PO4);
b) histaminfosfats (C15H10N3H3PO4);
g) qloroginfosfats (C18H26N3Cl2H3PO4).
114. qimiuri Termodinamika Seiswavlis:
a) qimiuri procesebis energetikul balansebs;
144

b) Termodinamikis Teoriul safuZvlebs;

g) Termodinamikis kanonebis misadagebas siTburi Zravebis Seqmnis da
rekonstruqciis mizniT.
115. faza martivia Tu igi Sedgeba:
a) erTi individualuri nivTierebisagan;
b) ramodenime nivTierebebisagan;
g) sxvadasxva agregatul mdgomareobaSi myofi nivTierebebisagan.
116. romel kanons gamosaxavs gantoleba dw = q

dT
:
T

a) moqmed masaTa kanons;

b) Termodinamikis pirvel kanons;
g) Termodinamikis meore kanons.
117. 100 gr. xsnarSi gaxsnili nivTierebis raodenobas gamosaxuls gramebSi
ewodeba:
a) %-uli koncentracia;
b) moculobiTi koncentracia;
g) titri.
118. temperaturis gadidebiT gazis xsnadoba wyalSi:
a) izrdeba;
b) mcirdeba;
g) ar icvleba.
119. vis ekuTvnis akrZalva `ar arsebobs atomSi ori eleqtronic ki,
romelsac erTnairi eqneba oTxive qvanturi ricxvi~.
a) hunds;
b) pauls;
g) haizenbergs.
120. molekulebis gamosxivebiT miRebuli (anu emisiuri) speqtri aris:
a) uwyveti;
b) xazovani;
g) zolovani.
145

121. reaqciaSi H 2 + Cl 2
2HCl wnevis gadidebisas wonasworoba gadainacvlebs:
a) marcxnidan marjvniv;
b) marjvnidan marcxniv;
g) ar Seicvleba.
122. wyalSi gaxsnes 0,5 moli K3PO4, am dros warmoqmnili K+ ionebis masaa:
a) 39 g.
b) 19,5 g;
g) 58,5 g.
123. Na2S2O3 gamoiyeneba rogorc:
a) qavilis sawinaaRmdego saSualeba;
b) sxvadasxva qimiuri nivTierebebiT (dariSxaniT, vercxlis wyliT da
sxva)

mowamvlis dros Sxamis sawinaaRmdego saSualebaa;

g) nervuli sistemis damamSvidebeli saSualeba.

124. magniumis romel marils ewodeba `inglisuri marili~.
a)

MgCO3

g) MgSO37H2O.

b) MgCl2

125. mendeleev klapeironis gantolebas gamosaxavs

a)

v = nRT ;

b)

p1 v1 p 2 v 2
=
;
T2
T2

g) p + 2
V

(V b ) = RT .

126. sistemas ewodeba homogenuri.

a) Tu mis SigniT ar arsebobs TvisebebiT gansxvavebuli nawilakebis gamyofi
zedapiri;
b) Tu mis SigniT arsebobs TvisebebiT gaxsnili nawilakebis gamyofi
zedapiri;
g) Tu igi ramodenime nivTierebisagan Sedgeba.
127. qimiuri reaqciis siCqaris ganzomilebaa:
a) moli/l-wT; moli/l-wm;

b) j/moli K, kal/moli K;

g) j/kg K, kkal/kg K.
128. xsnars, romelic Seicavs 1 mol gaxsnil nivTierebas ewodeba.
a) %-uli xsnari; b) normaluri xsnari;
g) moluri xsnari;
146

129. razea damokidebuli siTxeSi gaxsnili gazis wona.

a) gazis moculobaze;
b) siTxis zedapirze moqmedi wnevis sidideze;
g) gazis molekulur masaze.
130. romeli

qvanturi

ricxvi

gviCvenebs

atomSi

eleqtronuli

Sreebis

raodenobas:
a) magnituri qvanturi ricxvi;
b) mTavari qvanturi ricxvi;
g) spinuri qvanturi ricxvi.
131. atomebis gamosxivebiT miRebuli speqtri aris.

a) zolovani;
b) xazovani;
z) uwyveti.
132. katalizatori aCqarebs 2SO 2 + O 2
2SO 3 reaqciis im mizeziT, rom:

a) wonasworoba gadainacvleba marcxnidan marjvniv;

b) amcirebs aqtivaciis energias;
g) amcirebs reaqciis siTbur efeqts.
133. nivTierebis disociaciis xarisxi izrdeba:

a) xsnaris ganzavebiT;
b) xsnarSi Tanamosaxele ionis SetaniT;
g) garkveul zRvramde wnevis gazrdiT.

147

148

d a n a r T i

marilebis, mJaveebis da fuZeebis xsnadoba wyalSi

ionebi

H+ NH+4 K+ Na+ Ag- Ba2+ Ca2+ Mg2- Zn2+ Cu2+ Hg2+ Pb2+ Fe2+ Fe3+ AI3-

OH-

xs

xs

xs

--

xs

xs

xs

mx

--

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

mx

xs

xs

xs

-----

-----

---

mx

mx

mx

---

---

nx

----

----

xs

xs

xs

NO-3

xs xs

xs xs

CI

xs xs

xs

xs

xs

S2-

xs xs

xs xs

---

SO2-3

xs xs

xs xs

mx

mx

SO2-4

xs xs

xs xs

mx

mx

xs

xs

xs

CO2-3

xs xs

xs xs

---

----

---

---

Si2-3

xs

----

-----

---

----

PO3-4

xs xs

xs xs

CH3COO-

xs xs

xs xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

xs

---

xs

xs

pirobiTi aRniSvnebi: xs xsnadi (10 g-ze meti 1000 g. wyalSi), mx mciredi xsnadi (0.01
g-dan 10 g-mde 1000 g. wyalSi), u uxsnadi (0.01 g-ze naklebi 1000 g wyalSi), xazi
iSleba wyliT an ar arsebobs.

eleqtroqimiuri Zabvis mwkrivi

Li

Ba

Ca

Na

Mg

AI

Ni

Sn

Pb

H2

Bi

Cu

Ag

149

Mn

Hg

Zn

Pd

Fe

Pt

Cd

Au

Co

danarTi

II

elementTa eleqtrouaryofiTobis mwkrivi

4,1

3.5

3.1

Zn

Sn

Fe

CI
2.9

Pb

1,7

Br

2.8

2.5

2.4

2.2

Cr

Hg

Be

1,6

1,5

Si

Cu

2.1

1.8

Mg

Ca

Na

Ba

1,3

1,1

1,0

wyalSi xsnadi metalebi

Li

Na

Pb

Ba

Cs

Ra

Fr

Tl

150

Ca

Sr

K
0,9

Sesavali
1. qimiis ZiriTadi cnebebi da steqiometriuli kanonebi; ....................................... 4

2. d. i. mendeleevis periodulobis kanoni da perioduli sistema; ........... 23

3. atomis aRnagoba; ..................................................................................................................................... 50
4. qimiuri bmebi, molekulis aRnagoba;.................................................................................... 56
5. araorganul nivTierebaTa klasebi; ...................................................................................... 67
6. Jangva _ aRdgena; ....................................................................................................................................... 76
7. qimiuri procecebis energetika; ................................................................................................ 78
8. qimiuri kinetika da wonasworoba;.......................................................................................... 84
9. dispersiuli sitemebi. xsnarebi; .............................................................................................. 92
10. eleqtrolituri disociaciis Teoria.; ........................................................................... 103
11. eleqtrolizi; ............................................................................................................................................. 111
12. liTonebis miRebis xerxebi da qimiuri Tvisebebi; ............................................... 114
13. liTonebis da misi Senadnobebis korozia da masTan brZolis
saSualebani; ................................................................................................................................................... 117
14. sakontrolo kiTxvebi I reitinguli SefacebisaTvis; ........................................ 119
15. sakontrolo kiTxvebi II reitinguli SefasebusaTvis; ...................................... 123
16. testuri kiTxvari I da II reitinguli SefasebisaTvis; .................................... 125

danarTebi:
I.

1) marilebis, mJavebis da fuZeebis xsnadoba wyalSi;

2) eleqtroqimiuri Zabvis mwkrivi;

151

II.

1) elementTa eleqtrouaryofiTobis mwkrivi;

2) wyalSi xsnadi metalebi;

III.

elementTa perioduli sistemis Zveli variantebi;

IV.

elementTa perioduli sistemis axali variantebi;

V.

VI.
VII.

cxrili 3. elementTa Jangvis xarisxebis ZiriTadi mniSvnelobebi;

cxrili 7. umniSvnelovanesi mJavebi da maTi marilebi;

kationebi da anionebi;

G
152

gamoyenebuli literatura

1.. cincaZe g., kokoCaSvili v., cecxlaZe T., zogadi da araorganuli qimiis
kursi. I-II nawili. Ggamomcemloba @ganaTleba , Tbilisi. 1988 .
2. wivwibaZe T. zZogadi qimia. Ggamomcemloba ganaTleba, Tbilisi.1995 .
3. axmetovi n. Aaraorganuli qimia. Mmoskovi. umaRlesi skola. 1975 .
4. qarTuli enciklopedia I-XI tomi Tbilisi 1995-1987.
5. . , , 1999.

6 . . . 1995.
7 . ., . . . .:

, 1980.
8 . . . - .: 1987,.

153