Chemistry Full v1.5

RAYNOTES 2009
OLevelSc(Chemistry)v1.5
EasynotessummarizedforOLevels
Hong Ray Corporations
09
Science(Chemistry)Summarizedversion1.5RAYNotes2009(Hardcopy)
Chapter1Summary
1) Matterismadeupofparticles.
Solid(Fixedshape,HighDensity)
Particlesclosetogether,
OrderlyArranged,
Heldbystrongforcesinfixedpositions
Liquid(Nofixedshape,HighDensity)
Particlesclosetogether,
NOTinorder,
Strongforces,(betweenparticles)
Vibrate&Freetomove
Gas(Nofixedshape,Lowdensity)
ParticlesFarapart
Weakforces(Betweenparticles)
Freetomovearound
Pressureisduetotheparticlesbouncingoffwallsofcontainer.
ApparatusTomeasure:
Mass ofchemical,useElectronicBalance
Temperature,useThermometer
Vol.ofgas,useMeasuringCylinderORBuretteORPipette.
ChangesofState
1) Melting(SolidLiquid)
Particlesgainenergy
Vibratemore
Occursatmeltingpoint
Endothermic*Reaction(Becauseparticlesgainenergytobreakbonds)
2) Freezing(LiquidSolid)
Occursatfreezingpoint(Alsothem.p.ofpuresubstance)
Exthothermic*Reaction(Becauseparticlesgiveoutenergytoformbonds)
*ENdothermicreactionmeansheatorenergyENTER(absorbed/gained)tobreakbond!
*EXothermicmeansheat,energyEXIT(giveout/lose)toformbonds!
NotethatforbothFreezing&Melting,temp.remainsconstantduringtheprocess!
Chapter2Summary
SEPERATIONOFMIXTURES
2.1MixTURES&Compounds
1) Compound
2ormoreelementschemicallyjoinedtogether
Eg.SodiumChloride
ContainsCovalentorIonicBonds
2) Mixtures
2ormoresubstanceswhicharenotchemicallyjoinedtogether
Eg.IroninSulphurpowder.
Canconsistof:
Elements(Iron&Sulphurpowder)
Compounds(Saltinwatersalt&waterarebothcompounds)
Elements+Compounds(Air)
#PureSubstances
1)
2)
3)
4)
Fixedcomposition
FixedMp/Bp
Producesonly1spotonchromatogram
Allmoleculessame(equal)
#Mixture
1)
2)
3)
4)
VariableComposition
VariableBp/Mp
2ormorespotsonChromatogram
2ormorediff.molecules
Personal Tips: Man Becomes what he thinks about Mooris Goodman

- Visualize yourself being able to understand this set of notes perfectly. By truly believing, it must be Fact.
PerformanceimprovementTips:Listentoinstrumentalmusics;(BoroqueisNOTrecommended)asitcan
makeyoutired
TryidealmusicssuchasFreeasabirdandAdaywithyoubyOmar.Alsomakesureyoulistenusing
earpiece,NOTspeakers!
2.2Purification
(NotethatmixturesareImpuresubstances)
*Solublemeanscandissolveinwater(eg.Salt)
*Insolublemeanscannotdissolveinwater(eg.Sand)
1) Insolublesolid&LiquidFiltration
2) Solid&LiquidsolutionCrystallization
(Obtainingsolid)Solute
3) Solid&LiquidsolutionDistillation
(ObtainingLiquid)Solvent
4) 2Liquidsmixed(Miscible)FractionalDistillation
5) MixtureofOrganicCompoundsChromatography
(Eg.ColourDyes)
SAND&WATER
CopperSulphatecrystalsfrom
CopperSulphatesolution
Waterfromseawater
Petroleumtopetrol/diesel
Separatingdyesininks
NotethatMisciblemeansmixable(Abletobemixed)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
#FiltrationSeparatingsolidfromliquid
Possiblebecoz:
Liquidparticlessmallenoughtogothrufilterpaperpores
Solidparticlestoolarge.
SolidobtainedResidue
LiquidobtainedFiltrate
#CrystalisationObtainingsolidfromSolid&LiquidsolutionOR
Formationofcrystalsfromacoolingliquid/Saturatedsolution
Process:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Dissolvesolidinsolventtogivesolution.
Solutionheatedtoevaporatesolvent.
>>Producesahotsaturatedsolution.
Crystalsofpuresolidformedoncooling.
Generalnotes:
ASATURATEDsolutionmeansnomoresolidcandissolveinit
Anyquestionthatwantsthemethodtoobtain(make)~crystals,theprocesswillbeCrystalisation!
Eg.WhatmethodisusedtomakeCopperSulphateCrystals?Ans:Crystalisation.
#DistillationObtainingpureliquidfromsolution(Eg.Toobtainpurewaterfromseawater)
Process:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Heatsolutioninflask.
Thesolutionboils
Pureliquidturnstovapour,leavetheflask.
Vapourcooledbycondenser,changesbacktoliquid
>>LiquidobtainediscalledDistillate(Collectedinconicalflask)
Possiblebecause:
PureliquidchangetogaseasilyLowBP
Soliddoesnotboil(soremainsinflask)HighBP
GeneralNote:Theconstanttemperatureofprocess=BoilingPointofpureliquid
#FractionalDistillationSeperating2liquidswhicharemixed(Miscible)
Process:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mixtureheated
LiquidwithlowestBPcomesout1st,(attopoffractionatingcolomn)
Cooledbycondenser,Changesbacktoliquid
>>LiquidobtainediscalledDistillate(Collectedinconicalflask)
#ChromatographyForSeperating/IdentifyingmixturesofOrganiccompounds.
ForSeperatingmixturesofmetalions.
Personal Tips: Chemistry is actually very easy! I used to get D7 for my Chemistry, but with perseverance for 3 months, I scored A1 in
my O-Levels 2008!
- If you cant do a question, use a red-pen to circle it, fold the page! Arrive school earlier, clear doubts with teachers outside the
staffroom.
- You CAN ask ANY of the Science Teachers in your school!
- Be Brave to take the 1st step, and everything will be smooth after that.
Take the first step in faith. You dont have to see the whole staircase, Just take the first step Martin Luther King
Chapter3Summary
STRUCTUREOFATOMS
3.1Particlesinatoms
Atomsaremadeupof3particles:
1) Protons
Mass:1
Charge:+1
Location:Nucleus
2) Neutron
Mass:1
Charge:0
Location:Nucleus
3) Electron
Mass:1
Charge:1
Location:ontheshells(aroundnucleus)
GeneralNotes:
Ifanatomiselectricallyneutral,No.ofproton=No.ofneutrons
No.ofprotons=No.ofelectron
Nucleonnumbersumofproton&neutron.(Alsocalledmassno.)
3.2Isotopes
IsotopesAtomsofsameelement,butwithdiffno.ofneutron.
(Sameprotonno.,diffneutronno.)
Note:
AllelementsformIsotopes
IsotopeshaveSAMEchemicalproperties(becozhavesameno.ofoutershellelectrons)
*NotethatthechemicalpropertiesaredeterminedbythenumberofOutershellelectrons.
If2~havesameno.ofoutershellelectrons,theywillhavesamechemicalproperties.
3.3Electronsarrangementinatoms
Anatomwithstableelectronicstructurewillhave2OR8valenceelectrons*
Eg:
2.8.88electroninoutermostshell(or2valenceelectron)
2.88electroninoutermostshell
22electroninoutermostshell
Valenceelectronselectronsontheoutermostshell.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3.4Ions
IonsParticleswithapositiveornegativeelectriccharge.
Ifanatomdoesnothas2or8valenceelectrons,itisNOTSTABLE!
Notstablemeansitwillreactbygainingorlosingelectrons,justtomakesuretheygeteither
an2or8intheirno.ofvalenceelectrons.
So,whentheygainorloseelectrons,theywillformIons
Eg.Anatomwithelectronicstructure2.8.8.7willneedtogain1electrontoform2.8.8.8(STABLE)
2.8.3willhavetolose3electronstoform2.8(STABLE)
Whenanatom:
Gainelectron,itformsNEGATIVEions
Loseelectron,itformsPOSITIVEions
Generalnotes:
NegativeIon
Formedwhenanatomgainelectron
Formedbynonmetals
PositiveIon
Formedwhenatomloseelectron
Formedbymetals
Atomsformionstoobtainelectronicstructureofnoblegas(NoblegasareSTABLE)
*ImportantFact:Metalsloseelectrons,nonmetalsgainelectrons
Chapter4Summary
CHEMICALBONDS
4.1CovalentBonding
CovalentBondsFormedbetweenatomsofnonmetals&nonmetals
ADoublebondmeanseachatomprovides2electron
Total=4electronsbeingshared
4.2IonicBonding
IonicBondingFormedbytransferofelectronsbetweenmetals&nonmetals,
formingpositive&negativeions.
IonicBondistheforceofattractionbetween+ve&veions.
Eg.2atomsareionicallybonded;Sodium&Chloride.
Sodium:2.8.1(Needstolose1)afterlosing1toChloride,itbecomesPOSITIVEionwith2.8
Chloride:2.8.7(Needstogain1)aftergaining1fromSodium,becomeNEGATIVEionwith2.8.8
>>Then,theyllbecalledSodiumChloride(Acompound)Becozitschemicallyjoinedtogether..
GeneralExamples:
SodiumChlorideIonicBond;becozSodiumisametal,Chlorineisnonmetal.
MagnesiumSulphateIonicBond;becozMagnesiumisametal,Sulphurisanonmetal
*RemembertonametheMETAL1stthentheNONMETAL!
Eg.WedonotnameChlorideSodium,WeonlynameSodiumChloride!
SowhyisntitcalledSodiumChlorine?AllelementsinGroupVIIchangestheirtailnamewithide
i.e.FluorinebecomesFluoridewhenitformsacompound(eg.LithiumFluoride)
IodinebecomesIodidewhenitformsPotassiumIodideCompound
CarbonDioxide(CO2)CovalentBond;becozCarbonisanonmetal,Oxygenisalsononmetal
Methane(CH4)CovalentBond;becozMethaneconsistofCarbon&Hydrogen
Bothisnonmetal
*MustrememberthatHydrogenisconsideredaNONMETAL!
4.3FormularofIonicCompounds
Theformularcanbeexplainedinastorymode..
FindingformularofBariumChloride,ItisNOTassimpleasBaCl!!
*RememberthatIonicCompoundsTransferofelectrons!
*Metalsloseelectrons,nonmetalsgainelectrons
*Gainelectron+veions/Loseelectronsveions
Readstorymode:
(Forweakerstudents)
Bariumisfromgroup2,henceithas2valence(outershell)electrons
ItisametalSoithastoLOSE2electronstobecomestable!
Sowhenitloses2electrons,itformspositiveionswiththecharge+2
SoBariumisBa2+
Chlorineisfromgroup7,ithas7valenceelectrons
ItisanonmetalsoIthastoGAIN1electrontobecomestable!
Whenitgains1electron,itformsnegativeionswiththecharge1
2+ 1
Thuswhenyouput2together,itwillbeBa Cl
Becausetheruleisthatthe+vechargemustbalancethevecharge,
Sotomakeisbalance,justwriteisasBaCl2//Answer
Personal Tips: Feel grateful for receiving this set of notes, and you will experience more great things coming..
TheShortcutmethodbelowwillworkeverytime!
Itsthebestmethodtodeterminetheformularofioniccompound!
Question:FindtheformularofMagnesiumSulphate(MgS)
1. Writesymbolsofelementssidebyside(Metaldennonmetal)
MgS
2.
Writetheionformedwhentheybecomestable
2+
1
Mg
MgbecomesMg2+becauseitisfromgroup2,has2valencesoitlose2toformMg2+ion.
1
1
SbecomesS becauseitisfromGroup7,has1valence,sohastogain1toformS ion
3. Crossthecharges(Ignoringthe+andsigns)
Mg2+S1
Mg1S2MgS2(Ans)
Practice makes perfect!
Do not give up on your chemistry Clear doubts as often as possible
If you are not interested in this subject, continue to clear doubt, and when you get good results,
youll love chemistry! - Hong Ray (Former Student)
10
4.4
PropertiesofCovalent&IonicCompounds
Notethatisthistopichasalwaysbeentestedeveryyear,andwillcontinuetobetestedinGCEOLevelexams!!
Justmemorisetheproperties:
#Covalent
1. Doesnotconductelectricityinanystate(Becozdoesnotcontainions)
2. Lowmeltingpointlessthan200oC(Becozweakforcesofattractionbetweenmolecules)
3. Insolubleinwater,Solubleinorganicsolvents!
#IonicCompound
1. Conductelectricityismolten,Aqueousstate
Becauseitcontainmovingions
Doesnotconductonsolidasionscannotmove
2. HighMeltingpointMorethan1000oChenceioniccompoundsaregenerallysolidsatroomtemp.
Becauseofstrongforcesofattractionbetweenions
3. Solubleinwater
Ifaquestion(>5m)asksyoutoexplainwhyIoniccompoundshavehighBP,CovalenthasLow
BP,answerinthisformat:
1) Ioniccompoundsconsistentirelyofions.
2) Theoppositechargedionsareheldclosetooneanotherbyverystrongelectrostatic
attraction,knownasionicbonds.
3) Hencelargeamountofenergyneededtobreakionicbonds.thereforehighB.P
4) Covalentcompoundsconsistentirelyofmoleculesastheyareformedbysharingof
electrons.
5) Forcesbetweenmoleculesareveryweak.
6) Onlysmallamountofenergyneededtobreakbinds.thereforelowB.P
Generalnotes:
Electricityconductivitylinkedtopresenceofmovingions
Boilingpointlinkedtoforcesofattractionbetweenmolecules/ions.
11
Chapter5Summary
METALS
5.1PhysicalPropertiesofMetals
#Metals
1. Goodconductorsofheat/electricity
Containelectronsthatarefreetomovethroughthemetal.
Formakingcookingutensils/wires
2. HighMp,Bp
Havestrongbondsbetweenatoms,alotofenergyisneededtoweaken&breakbonds.
3. Malleable(Canbepressedintodiff.shapes)
Layersofmetalscanslideovereachothereasily
#AlloysMixtureofmetal+otherelement
Brass=Zinc+Copper
Steel=Iron+Carbon
Note:Alloysareusedbecausetheyarestronger&harderthanpuremetals.
Atomshavedifferentsizes,whichpreventsthemfromslidingovereachother
Personal Tips: Always remember that if you experience doubts, NEVER HESITATE TO ASK!
Asking the teachers is far better than discussing with your classmates!
- If one teacher cant make you understand, try another teacher. Youll surely get one that suits you!
12
#5.2ReactivitySeries
1)
MoreReactive
Potassium
Explosionwithcoldwater
ExplosionwithDilutehydrochloricacid
2) Sodium
Veryfastreactionwithcoldwater
ExplosionwithHCl
3) Calcium
Fastreactionwithwater
FastreactionwithHCl
4) Magnesium
Veryslowreactionincoldwater
FastreactionwithHCl
5) Zinc
Noreactionwithcoldwater,Burnsinsteam
FastreactioninHCL(heated)
6) Lead
Noreactioninwater
VeryslowreactioninHCl
7) Copper
NRinwater
NRinHCl
8) Silver
NRinwater
NRinHCl
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Hydrogen
Copper
Silver
Gold
LeastReactive
13
#5.3ExtractionofMetalsfromOres
Orearockwhichusefulmetalscanbeobtained.
Metalisobtainedfromitsorebychemicalreaction:Extraction
Extractionisdoneinsideafurnace.
*Methodsofextraction
Themethoduseddependsonhowreactiveisthemetals!
VeryReactiveMetals
Electrolysis
(Decomposingmetalcompoundwithelectricity)
For:
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
_________________________________________________
ModeratelyReactiveMetals
Heatingmetaloxidewithcoke
For:
Zinc
Iron
Lead
_________________________________________________
LowReactivityMetals
Heatingmetalcompoundsinair
For:
Copper
Silver
Note:Electrolysisisexpensive,hencealuminumisexpensive.
14
#ExtractionofIron
IronExtractedfromoreHaematite(Impureiron(III)oxide)intheblastfurnace
Blastfurnacecontains:
1. Ironore
2. Coke
3. Limestone
Blastsofhotair(containingoxygen)areblownintothefurnacenearthebottom.
WasteGases
Ironore,coke,
limestone
WasteGases
Hotair
Hotair
MoltenSlag
MoltenIron
ChemicalReactionsinBlastFurnace
1. Cokeburnsinairtoproducecarbondioxideandlotsofheat.
C+O2CO2
2. CarbonDioxidereactswithmorecoketoproduceCarbonMonoxide.
C+CO22CO
3. CarbonMonoxidereactwithiron(III)Oxidetoproducemolteniron&carbondioxide.
3CO+Fe2O33CO2+2Fe
4. Impuritiesinmoltenironareremovedbylimestone.
CaCO3CaO+CO2
5. CalciumOxideformedcombineswithSilicapresentintheoretoformslag,whichistappedout.
CaO+SiO2CaSiO3
15
#5.4Recycling
RecyclingmetalsCollecting,meltingdownstrapmetalstomakeblocksoffreshmetals
(Formakingnewmetalobjects)
AdvantagesofRecycling:
1. Metaloresinthegroundcanlastlonger.
2. Moneysavedinenergyneededtoextractnewmetalsfromore.
3. Scrapmetalisremovedfromtheenvironment,
preventsland&waterpollutionduetocorrosion.
DisadvantagesofRecycling:
1. Expensivetocollectstrapmetalsfrommanysources
2. Metalfumesproducedinmeltingofscrapmetalscancausepollution.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
#5.5Aluminium
1) Quiteareactivemetal(Higherinreactivityseries)
CorrosionResistant
ThinlayerofAluminiumOxidepreventscorrosion.
(Preventsair,waterfromreachingthemetalunderneath)
Uses:
Food/drinkcontainerCorrosionResistant.
AircraftbodiesLowdensitysothataircraftbodyislight.
OverheadpowercablesGoodelectricalconductor,lessdense
comparedtocopper(Cablecanbelighter)
16
#5.6Iron&Steel
RustingDuetoairandwaterreactingwithiron.
Afterreaction,ironbecomesIron(III)Oxide,FeO3
#RustingPrevention
I.
BarrierMethod
Useofpaint,grease,oiloranothermetal.eg.tin
SacrificialProtection
Coatingironorsteelwithamorereactivemetal.
II.
Eg.
GalvanisingCoatingiron/steelwithzinc.(Ironcorrodesinsteadofzinc)
Magnesiumattachedtoironpipelinestoprotectfromrusting.
Iron
Pipeline
InsulatedCoppercable
Magnesium
Personal Tips: To remember Chemistry Facts, write out in a piece of plain paper (NOT FOOLSCAP).. Just repeat writing them out..
17
Chapter6Summary
THEPERIODICTABLE
6.1TheStructureofthePeriodicTable
1) Elementsarrangedinorderofprotonnumbers.
2) VerticlesColomnsGroups
AllelementsinGroup2have2valenceelectrons
AllelementsinGroup3have3valenceelectrons..etc
3) HorizontalrowPeriod
LeftRight=MetalsNonmetals
AllelementsinPeriod1have1outershellofelectrons
(Eg.Hydrogen:1.Helium:2.)
AllelementsinPeriod2have2outershellsofelectronseg
(Eg.Lithium:2.1Oxygen:2.6)
AllelementsinPeriod3have3outershellof...~
(Eg.Magnesium:2.8.2Chlorine:2.8.7)
*NotethatHydrogenisconsideredanonmetal(ForansweringOLevelexaminations)
Elementsinsamegroup:
Samechemicalproperties
Sameno.ofvalenceelectrons
Diffphysicalproperties
Differentempiricalformula
Notethatthechemicalpropertiesofanelementislinkedtotheno.ofvalenceelectrons.
Sobecozelementsinsamegrouphavesameno.ofvalenceelectrons,theywillhavesamechemical
properties.
18
#6.2Group1Elements
Group1elementsarecalledAlkalimetals
Becauseitsfromgroup1,ithas1valenceelectron
Andbecauseitsametal,itcanlose1electronandformapositivechargedion:+1
(whichismorestable)
Eg.Potassium:2.8.8.1Lithium:2.1Sodium:2.8.1
Group1elementsareveryreactive!!!(BottomMOREREACTIVEthanTOP)
TheyreactwithcoldwatertoformAlkalinesolutionofMetalhydroxide&Hydrogen
gas.
Soft,Silverymetalswithlowdensityandmeltingpoint(BottomLOWERm.pthanTOP)!!
Examplereactions:
1) Lithium+WaterLithiumHydroxide+HydrogenGas
2Li+2H2O2LiOH+H2
2) Sodium+WaterSodiumHydroxide+HydrogenGas
2Na+2H2O2NaOH+H2
3) Potassium+WaterPotassiumHydroxide+HydrogenGas
2K+H2OKOH+H
19
#6.3Group7Elements
Group7elementsarecalledHalogens
Becauseitsfromgroup7,ithas7valenceelectrons
Andbecauseitsanonmetal,itcangain1electronandformanegativechargedion:1
(whichismorestable)
Eg.Fluorine:2.7Chlorine:2.8.7
Group1elementsareveryreactive!!!(BottomLESSREACTIVEthanTOP)
Theyformacidicsolutions
Colouredsubstanceswithlowmeltingpoint(BottomHigherm.pthanTOP)!!
Theyarediatomicmolecules(Eachmoleculecontains2atoms)
Eg.Cl2,Br2,I2,etc
Coloursofelementsbecomedarkerdownthegroup,LiquidSoliddownthegroup
Fluorine:PaleYellow(Gas)
Chlorine:YellowishGreen(Gas)
Bromine:ReddishBrown(Liquid)
Iodine:Black(Solid)
Astatine:Black(Solid)
Morereactiveelementsdisplacelessreactiveelements
(Displacemeansreplaceotherlessreactiveelements)
Eg.WhenChlorinereactswithPotassiumIodide,:(DisplacementReaction)
ChlorineismorereactivethanIodide
WhichmeansChlorinehavethepowertokickoffIodide,andreplaceitsposition!
Soafterthereaction,itllbeleftwithPotassiumChlorineANDIodide.
ChemicalEquation:
Cl2+2KII2+2KCl
20
#6.4TransitionMetals(ForstudentstakingPureChem)
TransitionElementsareallmetals,theydonotbelongtoanygroup
Theyhavehighdensityandmeltingpoint(1500oC)
Actsasgoodcatalysts
Formcolouredcompounds
Theyhavevariablevalencies(donothavefixedno.ofvalenceelectrons)
*AlsonotethatGroup2elementsarecalledAlkalineMetals
*RAYResource2009:Refertotheattachedmodifiedperiodictabletogetamoredetailedviewoftheentirechapter.Thiswillhelpyou
rememberthefactsbetter!
Alternatively,thisresourceisavailableforfreedownloadatrayrevision.webs.com
Below:PreviewofPeriodicTable
21
Chapter7Summary
THEENVIRONMENT
7.1CompositionofAir
Airisamixtureofgases.
79%Nitrogen
20%Oxygen
1%Othergases(mainlyargon)
AlsocontainsmallamountofCarbonDioxide&watervapour.
7.2UsesofOxygen
1) Oxygenisusedforcombustion.
Combustionmeansburning
Eg.CombustionofCarboninblastfurnacetoproduceCO2
2)
3)
4)
5)
Otherinfo:
Oxygententshelpspeopletobreathe
Makingsteelbyburningimpuritiestooxidesthenremoved.
OxyacetyleneAcetylenegasburninO2,hightemp.meltsteel
LimestonerockaformofCalciumCarbonate
22
7.3AirPollution
Aircontainslargenumberofharmfulsubstances(Pollutants):
1) CarbonMonoxide
DuetoincompletecombustionofCarbonFuels
Causebreathingdifficulties/headaches!!
Solution:Supplyexcessairtoensurecompletecombustion
Eg.Fitvehicleswithcatalyticconverters.
MoreFACTS:
Incompletecombustionmeanslackofoxygentoburn.
CarbonMonoxideisabsorbedbyhaemoglobininourblood,
Preventsourbloodfromabsorbingoxygen
Breathingdifficulties,etc.
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Methane
DuetoBacteriaDecayofvegetation(Farmanimalsdung)
CauseGlobalwarming
Noeasysolutions
OxidesofNitrogen
Lightning&Vehicleengines
Breathingdifficulty/Acidrain/Produceozone!!
FitvehicleswithCatalyticconverters
Ozone
Sunlightactingonunburnedhydrocarbons&Nitrogendioxide
Irritateseyes&lungs!!
Reducevehicleemissionsofpollutants.
Sulphurdioxide
Combustionoffossilfuelslikecoal
Breathingdifficulty/Acidrain
Burnlesssulphurcontainingfuels
Unburnedhydrocarbons
Vehicleengines
ProducesOzone
Fitvehicleswithcatalyticconverters.
23
AcidRain
SulphurDioxideandNitrogenDioxidearemaincausesofacidrain.
Killsfishinfreshwaterlakes
PreventedbyFittingmotorvehicleswithcatalyticconverterstoreduceemissionsof
nitrogenoxides.
GeneralNote:Metalsformbasicoxides,Nonmetalsformacidicoxides.
ThusBothSulphur&NitrogenformAcidicoxidesbecoztheyarebothnonmetals.
24
Chapter8Summary
ACID&BASES
8.1PropertiesofAcids
CommonAcids:
1. HydrochloricAcidHCl
2. NitricAcidHNO3
3. SulphuricAcidH2SO4
4. EthanoicAcidCH3COOH
Whenanaciddissolveinwater,itproducesHydrogenIons,H+.
Acidturnsbluelitmuspaperred
Acidturnsuniversalindicatorred
pHvaluelessthan7
Rules:(MUSTREMEMBER!)
1) ACID+METALSALT+HYDROGENGAS
(Pleasenotethataciddonotreactwithanymetalsbelowhydrogeninthereactivityseries!!!)
SOwhatImeanbysalt?
YoujustneedtoknowthatNitrate,Sulfate,Chloride,CarbonateARESalts!
Thenameofsaltproducedsimplydependsonwhatacidisused.
SoifyouuseHydrochloricacidtoreactwithametal,itwillformmetalChloride&HydrogenGas.
Eg.IfyouputHydrochloricAcidandSodium,ItformsSodiumChloride&HydrogenGas
Eg.IfyouputSulphuricAcidandZinc,ItformsZincSulfate&HydrogenGas
2) ACID+BASESALT+WATER
*Mustremember:AbaseisMetalOxideorHydroxide
(OxidecontainsO,HydroxidecontainsOH)
WhichmeansanymetalthatcontainsanoxideorhydroxideinitsnameisaBASE!!
Eg.H2SO4+CuOCuSO4+H2O
ACIDBASESALTWATER
Eg.HCl+NaOHNaCl+H2O
ACIDBASESALTWATER
25
3) ACID+CARBONATESALT+WATER+CARBONDIOXIDEGAS
Note:AnythingthatcontainsaCO3initsnameisacarbonate.
i.e.MgCO3,CuCO3,etcarecarbonates
Eg.2HCl+CuCO3CuCl2+H2O+CO2
ACIDCARBONATESALTWATERCARBONDIOXIDE
Eg.H2SO4+MgCO3MgSO4+H2O+CO2
ACIDCARBONATESALTWATERCARBONDIOXIDE
*Extranotes:Beforeyoubalancetheequation,alwayscheckifyouhavewrittenthecorrectformulas.
Eg.CuCl2notCuCl.Ifyouareunabletobalance,itmustbeduetoincorrectformulas.
Approachteachersforhelponbalancingequationsasthistypeoftopicisbettertaughtverbally.
Again, BE BRAVE! Take the 1st step in faith..
8.2PropertiesofBases
Remember?BasesareMetalOxidesorHydroxides,soanythingthatcontainsthis2wordsareBases!
Thereare2typesofBases;SolubleBase&InsolubleBase
AlkaliareSolubleBases
Youonlyneedtoremember4alkalis:
1. PotassiumHydroxide
2. SodiumHydroxideNaOH
3. CalciumHydroxideCa(OH)2
4. AmmoniaNH3
Justrememberthe4solubleBasesbyPO,CA,SO,NH4
WhenanAlkali(SolubleBase)dissolvesinwater,itproducesHydroxideIons,OH.
AlkaliturnsRedlitmuspaperBlue
Alkaliturnsuniversalindicatorblue
pHvaluemorethan7
*ExtraInfo:Farmersputalkali,CalciumHydroxide,ontothefieldstoneutralizeexcessacids.
26
8.3ThepHScale
ThesmallerthepH,themoreacidicisthesolution.
(MeanshigherconcentrationofHydrogenIons,H+)
TheLargerthepH,themorealkalineisthesolution.
(Meanshigherconcentrationofhydroxideions,OH )
Eg.SomethingwithpHvalueof3ismoreacidicthansomethingwithpHvalue9.
pHvalues:
16=Acidic
7=Neutral
814=Alkaline
ThepHofasolutioncanbemeasureusing:
1. UniversalIndicator
2. pHmeter
8.4Oxides
OxidesAreCompoundsofoxygenwithotherelements
3TypesofOxides:
1. Acidic
2. Basic
3. Amphoteric
Remember?Metalsformbasicoxides,Nonmetalsformacidicoxides.
HenceAcidicOxidesOxidesofNonmetals
BasicOxidesOxidesofmetals
Eg.SO3,CO2,SO2,NO2areAcidicOxidesbecozS,C,Narenonmetals.
Eg.MgO,CuO,CaOareallBasicOxidesbecozMg,Cu,Caaremetals.
27
AcidicOxide+WaterAcid
Eg.SO3+H2OH2SO4
Acid+BaseSalt+Water
Rememberthatabasereferstometaloxidesorhydroxides.
ThusBasicOxide(Base)+AcidSalt+Water
Eg.CaO+2HNO3Ca(NO3)2+H2O
AmphotericoxidesMetalOxidesthatreactwithbothacid&alkalistoformsalts
ForOLevels,youonlyneedto
memorisethe3AmphotericOxides:
1.
2.
3.
AluminiumOxideA2O3
ZincOxideZnO
LeadOxidePbO
Personal Tips: You must memorize the Acid+MetalSalt+Hydrogen Gas etc.. A full list of equations summarized from all chapters
is attached with this .zip package. To remember better, photocopy that list, paste it on the wall of your room or restroom - It works!
28
8.5SaltPreparation
Personal Tips: This might seem the hardest chapter to you now. But in truth, it interesting and simple to do!
- You MUST Clear Doubts with your teachers regularly, and youll see miracles in your next test results.
First,Youmustmemorisethesecretmethodtoseeifasaltissoluble.
(Solubilitytablesfromyourtextbooksarehardertomemorise)
Soluble
Insoluble
Nitrate
All
Sulfate
Rest
Ba, Ca, Pb
Chloride
Rest
Ag, Pb
Carbonate
Group1
Rest
Remembervia:
BakedChickenPasta
AtPastamania
SecretTablecontributedbyMsAida(BtVSS,MOESingapore)
Thistablehelpsyouknowwhetherasaltissolubleornot
Howtouse?
Factsoftable:
AllNitratesaresoluble
AllCarbonatesthatarefromgroup1intheperiodictablearesoluble;therestare
insoluble.Eg.PotassiumCarbonateissoluble,BariumCarbonateisinsoluble
AllsulfatesaresolubleexceptBariumSulfate,Cacium~,Lead~.
Eg.ZincsulfateissolublewhileCalciumsulfateisinsoluble
AllChloridesaresolubleexceptSilverChloride,LeadChloride..
Eg.CalciumChlorideissoluble,LeadChlorideisinsoluble
SoisMagnesiumSulfatesoluble?YES
IsSodiumCarbonatesoluble?YES
Youstillneedtoknow1fact:Allgroup1saltsareSOLUBLE!
WhichmeansLithiumCarbonate,PotassiumChloride,etcareconfirmedsolublesincetheyre
fromgroup1ofperiodictable.
Youcanprepare(make)saltsinmanyways,dependingonwhattypeofsaltitis.
29
*ImportantNotes:
TitrationMethod(SolubleBase+Acid)
ToprepareanysaltthatisfromGroup1.(Eg.PreparingSodiumSulfate)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Add25cmofacidtoaconicalflask
Addafewdropsofindicator.(eg.PhenolPhthalein)
AddSodiumHydroxideusingaburetteuntilindicatorchangescolour.
Repeatexperimentwith25cm3ofSulphuricAcidbutNOindicator!
AddsamevolumeofSodiumHydroxide.
SodiumSulfateisobtainedbyevaporating&crystalisingthesalt.
______________________________________________________________________________
PrecipitationMethod(Soluble+Soluble)
ToprepareanyInsolublesalt.(Eg.PreparingSilverChloride)
1)
2)
3)
4)
AddSilverNitratewithSodiumChloride.
Filterouttheprecipitate.
Washtheresiduewithdistilledwater.
Leavetheresiduetodry.
Touseprecipitation,justmakesurethesaltyouwanttomakeisinsoluble.
ThemethodrequiresyoutouseSolublesalt+Solublesaltsousingthetable,justfind2salts
thataresolubleandcontainpartofthename.
______________________________________________________________________________
Forexample,IwanttomakeaninsolublesaltcalledCalciumSulfate.
1st,IneedtofindCalcium~thatissoluble.AndIalsoknowthatAllnitratesaresoluble
Sothe1stsaltIuseisCalciumNitrate.
Next,Ineedtofindsomethingsulfatethatissoluble.IalsoknowthatallGroup1saltsaresoluble..
SoIcanuseLithiumSulfateasmy2ndsalt.
Byreacting2salts,IllgetwhatIwant,whichisCalciumSulphate!!
Ca(NO3)2+Li2SO4CaSO4+2LiNO3
Whentheyreact,theysimplyjustchangepartners..
30
ToprepareSolublesalt,butNOTfromGroup1:
Thereare2ways:
1) Solublesalt+solublesalt
2) SolubleSalt+InsolubleSalt
Eg.ToprepareMagnesiumSulfate:
IuseMagnesiumNitrate&SodiumSulfate(Botharesoluble)
Mg(NO3)2+Na2SO4MgSO4+2NaNO3
Alternatively,IcanalsouseSoluble+Insolubleway.
IuseMagnesiumNitrate&BariumSulfate(1issoluble,otherisnot)
Mg(NO3)2+BaSO4MgSO4+Ba(NO3)2
Soluble
Insoluble
-
Nitrate
All
Sulfate
Rest
Ba, Ca, Pb
Chloride
Rest
Ag, Pb
Carbonate
Group1
Rest
Rememberingthetable
3rdrow:BakedChickenPastaAtPastamania
1strow:NoSuperChildishChildren
31
Chapter9Summary
ChemicalAnalysis
ChemicalAnalysisisaboutfindingthenameofanunknownsaltbycarryingoutseveral
experiments/tests..
Allsaltscontains2parts:Cation(+vechargesions)&Anion(vechargedions)
Thequestionusuallyshowstheobservationsoftests,andyouwillhavetofindoutwhatisthesalt
accordingtotheobservation.
TestingforCATIONS:
Withthistable,youdontneedtomemorisethecoloursofdifferentsalts!
JustdrawoutthistableduringyourOLevels
CATION
NaOH
NH3
Colour
Soluble or
Insoluble
Colour
Soluble or
Insoluble
Cu2+
Fe2+
Fe3+
Ca2+
NH4+
Zn2+
Al3+
Pb2+
ColourofObservation
Solubleor
Insolubleinexcess
Alkali
TheCATIONStableshowsthecolourchangesobservedwhenthesaltisaddedto
SodiumHydroxide,NaOH,orAqueousAmmonia,NH3.
Italsoshowswhetherthesaltissolubleinexcessalkali(NaOH,NH3)
Forexample,Icarryoutanexperimenttofindoutwhatanunknownsaltcontain.
WhenIaddNaOHtothesalt,colourchangestowhite,andwhenIaddexcessofNaOH,
itdissolved(Soluble).
Next,ItriedaddingNH3tothesalt.Thecolouralsochangestowhite,anditisalso
solubleinexcessNH3.
Then,Imatchthetestresultswiththetable.TheunknownsaltcontainsZinc,Zn2+
32
TestingforANIONS:
ANION
Chlorine
Tested
with
AgNO3
Observations
AgCl
White
Carbonate Acid
CO2
Sulphate
Ba(NO3)
BaSO4
CarbonDioxide
(TurnLimewaterchalky)
White
Nitrate
Al,NaOH
NH3
Iodide
Pb(NO3)2
PbI2
Ammonia
(Turnredlitmusblue)
Yellow
Eg.ItestedsaltxwithSilverNitrateAgNO3,awhiteprecipitateisformed.This
meansthatsaltxcontainsChlorine..(ThewhiteprecipitateisAgCl)
TestforGASES:
AmmoniaUsedamplitmusPaperTurnsfromredtoblue
CarbonDioxideUseLimewaterWhitepptformed(TurnsChalky)
ChlorineUseDampbluelitmuspaperBleachesLitmuspaper(LitmusTurnscolourless)
HydrogenUseBurningSplint'Pop'SoundHeard
OxygenUseGlowingSplintGlowsBrighterorBurstintoflames
SulphurDioxidePlaceadropofPotassiumDichromate(VI)onFilterpaper
OrangeDichromateturnsgreen.
ImportantTips:YouMUSTmemorisethe3powerfultablesabove!Theyregoingtohelpyoumemorisethingssoeasily.Youwontbeableto
findanyeasystuffslikethatinyourtextbook!Soitsyourchoicetouseitorleaveit.Whateveryouchooseisright.
33
Chapter10Summary
MOLECONCEPT
10.1CountingAtoms:TheMole
*This chapter is better to be taught verbally by your teachers as its not easy to explain in words.
Thus, approach teachers when in any doubt!
Memorise this 4 IMPORTANT Formulas:
Massof
Sample
Mole
No.of
Molar
Mass
No.of
Volumeof
Particles
Gas
No.of
No.of
23
Mole 6x10
Mole
24dm3
Mole
Volume
Concentration
Somefacts:
1. 1Mole=6x1023particles
2. MolarMassMassof1moleofanysubstance
3. RelativeAtomicmass=Molarmass,thediff.isthatMolarmasshasagramsonit.
32
4. Eg.Sulfur: 16hasamolarmassof32g.Whichalsomeansitcontain32gpermole.
#10.2MolarVolumeofGases
1Moleofanygas,hasthesamevolumeof24dm3atroomconditions(25oC,1Atmosphere)
Eg.AmmoniaNH3MolarMass=17g
CarbonDioxideCO2MolarMass=44g
1dm3=1000cm3
24dm
3
34
#10.3Concentrationofsolutions
Solute
Solvent
Solution
SOLIDLIQUID
DissolveinToForm
Concentrationismeasuredinmol/dm3
#10.4MolecularFormula
The Molecular formula shows the actual number of each type of atoms present
in a compound
Tofindthemolecularformulaofacompound,youneed:
1. EmpiricalFormulaofcompound
2. Relativemolecularmass
Forexample:
Therelativemolecularmassofacompoundis62
Theempiricalformulaofthecompoundis(COH3)
1) Calculate:(COH3)=12+16+3=31
2) Writethestatement:62=n(31)
3) Findn:n=62/31=2
4) n=2
C O2H6(ans.)
5) Add2intotheformula:(COH3)2= 2
#10.5EmpiricalFormula
Empirical Formula the simplest formula of a compound which shows the ratio
between the atoms of each element.
Findingtheempiricalformulaisaboutfindingtheno.ofmolesofbothitems,dendevidetheir
valueswiththesmallervalue.
35
Eg.Asubstancecontain80%Copper,20%Sulfur
Findtheempiricalformula.
1) Findtheno.ofmoleofbothitems!
no.ofmoleofCopper:80/64=1.25mol
no.ofmoleofSulfur:20/32=0.625mol
2) Youcompare2values;0.625isasmallervalueright?
3) So,devidebothvalueswith0.625:
1.25
/0.625=2
0.625
/0.625=1
4) Den,youputthenumbersinthisform:Cu2S(ans)
36
Chapter12Summary
OXIDATION&REDUCTION
Mustmemorise:
Oxidation
1.
2.
3.
4.
GainOxygen
LossHydrogen
Losselectrons
Increaseinoxidationstate
Reduction
1.
2.
3.
4.
Gainhydrogen
Gainelectron
LossOxygen
Decreaseinoxidationstate
Eg.PbO+MgPb+MgO
OxidisingAgent
(CausesMgtobe
oxidised)
Oxidisedbecause
itgainsoxygento
becomeMgO
Reducingagent(Causes
Pbotobereduced)
Reduced(Itloses
oxygento
becomePb)
Generalnotes:
Asubstancethatcausessomethingtobeoxidisedisanoxidisingagent.
Asubstancethatcausessomethingtobereducedisanreducingagent.
Anoxidisingagentitselfisbeingreducedinthereaction
Anreducingagentitselfisbeingoxidisedinthereaction
*RedoxreactionAreactioninwhichOxidationandreductiontakesplace.
37
#Loss/Gainofelectrons
+Cl202Na+Cl
Eg.2Na
Sodiumloseselectronitisoxidised
ChlorineGainselectronReduced
#OxidationState
*Allelementsonlyhavechargeswhentheyformcompounds.
Eg.MgNOCHARGE
Mg+OGotcharge
Oxidationstateisthechargeonaniondependsonwhichgroupoftheperiodictablethe
elementsarein.
H2SO4?
Eg.WhatistheoxidationstateofSulfurin
H2+
(H+ each)
Oxidation
stateof8
(Each2)
Note:Thenumberofpositivechargesmustbalanceno.ofnegativecharges.
HenceOxidationstateofSulfuris82=+6
Personal Tips: You must ASK YOUR TEACHERS if you dont understand any question or topic! Do Not Delay or you might regret soon
If you still dont understand after his/her explanations, DO NOT pretend to have understood! Just ask him/her to explain again.
38
#Oxidation&ReductionaschangesinOxidationstate
Remember:
IncreaseinOxidationstateOxidation
Eg.MgMg2+(Oxidationstategainsfrom0to+2)Mgisoxidised.
DecreaseinOxidationstateReduction
Eg.ClCl(Oxidationstatedecreasesfrom0to1)Clisreduced.
39
Chapter13Summary
RATEOFREACTIONS
Slowreactions:
Rottingapieceofwoodintheground
Rustingofasteelfence
Fastreactions:
Dynamiteexploding
Burningapieceofmagnesiuminair
<PICOFGRAPH>
Notes:
1. Reactionstakesplacewhenparticlescollide.
2. Mostcollisionsdonotproduceareactionbecausecollidingparticlesneedaminimum
energytoreactwhentheycollide.
ThisiscalledActivationEnergy
#Factorsaffectingspeedofreaction
(ParticlesTheory)
1) Concentrationofsolution
Thehighertheconcentrationofsolution,thefastertherateofreaction.
Becausetheparticlesareclosertogethersotheycollidemorefrequentlyandsothere
weremorefrequentreactions.
Note:Onlyappliestoreactionsofsolutions.
2) Pressure
Thehigherthepressure,thhigheristherateofreaction.
Becausetheparticlesaresqueezedclosertogether,sotheycollidemorefrequently
andsothereweremorefrequentreactions.
Note:Onlyappliestoreactionsofgases.
3) Particlesizeofsolid
Thesmallertheparticlesize,thehighertherateofreaction.
Becausethetotalsurfaceareaofthesolidincreasessoreactingparticlesofliquidand
gasescollidemorefrequentlywiththesurfaceandsotherearemorefrequentreactions.
Note:Onlyappliestoreactionsofsolids.
40
4) Temperature
Thehigherthetemperature,thefastertherateofreaction.
Becauseathighertemperature,theparticleshavegreaterkineticenergy,sotheyreact
moreoftenwhentheycollide.
#Chapter14Heatchangesinreactions
1) Exothermicve
Energy/HeatReleased
Solution/TesttubeBecomeshot
BondForming
H=ve(NegativeValue)
Eg.AllcombustionreactionlikeburningMagnesiuminair/Reactionofacidwithalkalis
Why solution turns hot when heat is given out?
Heatisreleasedfromthesolutiontoyourhandssoyoufeelthetesttubeishot.
ReactionDiagram:
TemperatureDiagram:
41
2) Endothermic+ve
Energy/HeatAbsorbed
Solutionturnscold
BondBreaking
Eg.Freezingofice
H=+ve(PositiveValue)
Why solution turns cold when heat is taken in?
Theheatinyourhandsisabsorbedsoyou'llfeeltesttubebecomingcold.
ReactionDiagram:
TemperatureDiagram:
*Mostreactionsareexothermicastheymakethetesttubeturnhot.
Info:
Energyistakenintobreakbonds.
Energyisgivenoutforbondforming.
HreferstoDeltaH
Histheamountofheatenergytakenin/givenoutduringachemicalreaction.
42
Chapter15Summary
FUELS
#15.1FossilFuels
1) Petroleum&NaturalGasarethe2mainfossilfuels.
Fossilfuelswereproducedfromplantandanimalremains(Longago)
2) PetroleumAstickyblackliquidandamixtureofhydrocarbons.
3) NaturalGasconsistmainlyofmethane
#15.2FractionalDistillationofPetroleum
Petroleumisseparatedtodifferentfractionsbyfractionaldistillation.
Seperationcantakeplacebecausepetroleumisamixtureofsubstanceswith
differentboilingpoints.
ImportantProcess:
1. Thepetroleumisheatedinafurnacetovapouriseit.
2. Thevapourcondensestoliquidatdifferentheightsupthefractionatingcolomn,where
itcomesoutasdifferentfractions.
3. Afractionismixtureofhydrocarbonwitharangeofboilingpoints.
Thehydrocarbonsarealkanes.
43
#15.2(b)FractionatingColomn
PetroleumGases
(Propane,Butane,etc)TomakeCylinderGasforcooking
Lower
Boilingpoint
(Below25oC)
Smaller
molecules
3575oC
Petrol(Gasoline)Fuelsforcars
o
70170 C
Naptha(MakingChemicals)
170250oC
250340oC
Kerosene(Paraffin)Fuelforjet
aircraft
Diesel Fuelfordieselenginesin
buses
Petroleum
350500OC
HigherBoilingpoint
(Above500oC)
Largermolecules
LubricatingOils making
Lubricants,Polishes,wax
BitumenSurfacingRoads
44
Youmustremembertheorderoffractionsandtheiruses!
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Petroleum
Petrol
Naptha
Kerosene(Paraffin)
Diesel
LubricatingOil
Bitumen
#CombustionofFossilFuels
1) Hydrocarbonburnsinairproducewaterandcarbondioxide(Completecombustion)
CH4+CO2CO2+2H2O
Alkane
(Hydrocarbon)
Air(Oxygen)
Mainlycarbon
2) *Carbonmonoxideandsootwillalsobeproducedifnotenoughair
(Incompletecombustion)
#15.2(c)
Petrolanddieselareneededasfuelsforvehicles
Petroleumdoesnothaveenoughofthem.
HenceCrackingisdone
Areactioninwhichbighydrocarbonmoleculesarebrokendownintosmaller
moleculesbyheat.
45
Chapter16Summary
HYDROCARBONS
16.1Alkanes
1) Alkanesaresaturatedhydrocarbons(Nomoreatomscanbeaddedtotheirstructure)
2) Generalformula:CnH2n+2
SmallerMolecules(LessCarbonAtoms)
LowerB.p
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
MethaneCH4
EthaneC2H6
PropaneC3H8
ButaneC4H10
PentaneC5H12
HexaneC6H14
GAS
Liquid
LargerMolecules
HigherB.p(MoreCarbonatoms)
Eachcarbonatomforms4bonds.
Boilingpointincreasesasmoleculesgetlarger
Whyhigherb.p?
Intermolecularforcesofattractionbetween
moleculesincreasesasmoleculesbecomelarger.
Homologousseriesof
Alkanes
HomologousseriesA set of organic compounds in which the formula of each one differs
from the previous one by an extra CH2- group of atoms.
MembersinaHomologousSerieshave:
Samechemicalreactions
Samefunctionalgroup(Eg.OH,COOH)
Samegeneralformula
DifferentPhysicalProperties!
#ReactionsofAlkanes
AlkanesreactwithChlorineinsubstitutionreaction(Slowreaction,requireslight)
Note:AlkanescanonlyundergocombustionreactionsandSubstitutionreactionwithchlorine!
Otherwise,Alkanesisunreactive.
46
16.2Alkenes
1) Alkenesareunsaturatedhydrocarbons(Theycanreactwithmanysubstancesinadditionreactions)
2) Generalforular:CnH2n
3) AllalkenescontainC=Cdoublebonds
SmallerMolecules(LessCarbonAtoms)
LowerB.p
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
MetheneCH2
EtheneC2H4
PropeneC3H6
ButeneC4H8
PenteneC5H10
HexeneC6H12
GAS
Homologousseries
ofAlkenes
LargerMolecules
HigherB.p(MoreCarbonatoms)
#ReactionsofAlkenes
1) Alkenesburninair(Combustion)ProduceCarbonDioxide&Water
C2H4+3O22CO2+2H2O
Ifincompletecombustion,Carbon(Soot)andcarbonmonoxidewillbeproduced!
*Additionreaction
C=Cdoublebondsarebroken,extraatomsareadded
2) AdditionofBromine
C2H4+Br2C2H4Br2
ThisreactionisusedtotestforAlkenes
(OrangebrominesolutiondecolourisesifAlkeneispresent)
Info:BromineisfromGroup7,soithascolour.Notethatthecolourcanonlybepresentif
Bromineremainssingle(Notreacted).
Ifitformsacompound,thecolourwilldisappear.Henceafterthereaction,orangebromine
turnscolourless.
47
3) AdditionofWater
Alkene+SteamAlcohol(RequirePhosporicAcidascatalyst,hightemperature&pressure)
4) AdditionofHydrogen(NickelCatalystisneeded)
Alkene+HydrogenAlkane
Thisreactionisusedtochangevegetableoiltomagarine.
16.3CrackingofAlkanes
CrackingA reaction in which big hydrogen molecules are broken into smaller molecules
by heat.
Donebypressingbigalkanemoleculesoverasolidcatalystathightemperature
Products:1smallalkanemolecule
1alkenemolecule
*Crackingofalkanesisusedtoproduce:
1) Alkanes
2) Morepetrolforvehicles
3) Hydrogen
48
Chapter17Summary
ALCOHOLSANDORGANICACIDS
17.1Alcohols
1. AlcoholsareorganiccompoundscontainingOHgroupofatoms.
2. GeneralFormula:CnH2n+1OH
HomologousseriesofAlcohol
SmallerMolecules
LowerB.p
1.
2.
3.
4.
MethanolCH3OH
EthanolC2H5OH
PropanolC3H7OH
ButanolC4H9OH
Allalcoholsareliquids!
LargerMolecules
HigherB.p
#MethodsofMakingEthanol:
Method1:
Ethene+SteamEthanol
(Alkene)(Alcohol)
Cottonwooltopreventlossof
liquid,allowsescapeofgas(CO2)
ConicalFlask
Warmwater
(37oC)
AqueousGlucose
& Yeast
49
Method2
Fermentationofglucosewithyeast.
TheenzymesinyeastchangeglucoseintoethanolandCarbonDioxide
ConditionsforFermentation:
Reactionisbestat37oC
o
(Ifhighertemp,enzymestructurewillbedamaged,nolongeractsascatalyst!)
37 C
Enzymesinyeast
NoOxygenpresent
Productsoffermentation:
DilutesolutionofethanolPureethanolisobtainedbyfractionaldistillation.
#UsesofEthanol:
1. Solvents(Eg.Perfumes)
2. Alcoholicdrinks(Beer/wine)
3. Fuel(Petrolforcars)
#ReactionsofAlcohol
1) AlcoholburninairCarbonDioxide+Water
toProduce
Eg.Ethanol+OxygenCarbonDioxide+Water
2) Alcoholsareoxidisedtoorganicacids
Eg.Ethanol+OxygenEthanoicAcid+Water
C2H5OH+O2CH3COOH+H2O
(Lose2hydrogen,Gain1Oxygen=Oxidation!)
Bacteriainairactsascatalysttothereaction.
50
#17.2CarboxylicAcids
1. CarboxylicAcidsOrganiccompoundscontainingCO2Hgroupofatoms.
2.
GeneralFormula:CnH2n+1CO2H
CnH2nO2
*Tip:Youshouldusethisalternateworkingformula:
(TheoriginalformulaCnH2n+1CO2Hmakesitveryconfusingformoststudents!Thenewformulais
proventoworkonallOlevelquestions!NoProbs!)
SmallerMolecules
LowerB.p
Formulasgeneratedusing
thisnewformula:
13.
14.
15.
16.
CnH2nO2
MethanoicAcidC1H2O2
EthanoicAcidC2H4O2
PropanoicAcidC3H6O2
ButanoicAcidC4H8O2
Liquid
LargerMolecules
HigherB.p
HomologousseriesofOrganicAcids
#ReactionsofCarboxylicAcids
Acid+AlcoholEster+Water
Boilthemixture
AlittleconcentratedSulphuricAcidactsascatalyst.
Reactionofmaking
Estersiscalled
Esterification
Eg.EthanoicAcid+EthanolEthylEthanoate.(Ester)
Estershave
sweetsmell
#UsesofEsters:
1. Solvents
2. Flavouringinfood
51
Chapter18Summary
MACROMOLECULES
(Topic is skipped as it is no longer tested in Science (Chemistry) new 2008 syllabus)
Ifyouretakingpurescienceandthistopicisinyoursyllabus,sendmeanemailtorequest
forsummarizednotesonthistopic.Theupdatednoteswillthenbemadeavailableinthe
nextversionofthisnotesseries.
ThePeriodicTableandFullChemistryequationsisattachedwiththis.zippackage.
Itisrecommendedthatyouphotocopyextrasandpastethemontowallsofyourroomorevenwashrooms!Itllhelpyouto
remember!
Foundmistakesonnotes?Sendmeanemail.Correctionswillbemadewithin2days.
*Hardcopynotesforothersubjectsarealsoavailableathttp://www.rayrevision.webs.com
52

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RAYNOTES 2009

Personal Tips: Man Becomes what he thinks about Mooris Goodman

Do not give up on your chemistry Clear doubts as often as possible

Why solution turns hot when heat is given out?

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