‘Aenal surveys oF tauna popuraons o> Aeronautical aspects G. C. Grigg of biological Zootny ig, aerial surveys NSW. 2006 AnSTRACT Aspects of aircraft operation relevant to planning and execution of aerial surveys arc discussed, Regulations governing the operation of light aircraft in Australia and the aeronautical limitations of such aircraft operating at low altitude and at low speed are discussed as constraints within which aerial surveys must be designed and carried out. For surveys to be elfective i is essential that both pilot and biologist know a little of each other's profession Preamble From an aeronautical point of view, Australia has many features which facilitate the use of acrial survey techniques in assessment of natural resources. The weather is mostly good, the terrain is mostly lat, and chartering or hiring an aircraft from any one of a large number of aero clubs or other organisations is fairly easy. There are lots of aerodromes (both licensed and unlicensed), good maintenance organisations, a reasonable number of radionavigation aids and adequate refuelling facilities dotted throughout most of the country. The ‘government agency responsible for aircraft operations sets a high standard of safety and information distribution and is responsive to the changing needs of the general aviation industry. If there were to be any shortfall in what sounds like a very rosy picture, the ‘dedicated aerobiologist might wish for a few more species of animals large enough to count from an aeroplane. The biologist can plan a more effective survey if he is aware of the logistics of aircraft operation and any restrictions and limitations. My aim in this paper is to guide biologists in these aspects of planning an acrial survey. Thope that the paper will be useful also to a pilot undertaking biological survey work for the first time. The requirements of most types of biological aerial survey are different from the types of flying usually encountered, and a pilot may find this review a useful orientation to the expectation that a biologist will have of him in the air. The paper is not intended as a comprehensive review of the rules and regulations of aircraft operation, nor as a textbook of low level operations. Based largely on my own experience, I have tried to summarise those aspects of aircraft operation which are relevant to planning and executing an aerial survey. The paper is written with reference to Australian Air Navigation Orders. Introduction Ina biological aerial survey the aircraft is a tool which enables the observer(s) to have a particular vantage point and, in many cases, to traverse a particular predetermined line/eurve in space at the right height, speed and geographic location. The biologist will predetermine the location ofthis imaginary line and the pilot is responsible for getting the observer tothe vantage point. The accuracy with which this occurs varies with the skill of the64 Aerial surveys of fauna populations pilot and depends to a large extent on the communication and rapport between biologist and pilot. As we shall see, an acrial survey pilot is much more than just a taxi-driver. The most effective surveys are undoubtedly those in which the pilot is a continuing member of the survey team and has an understanding of the reasons behind the type of flying required and an involvement with it. It is essential that pilot and biologist know a little of each other's trade, Relevant regulations All aircraft operations in Australia are under the control of the Air Transport Group within the Department of Transport and are subject to the regulations of that body. ‘The operation of the aircraft within the regulations is the responsibility of the pilot but, as the pilot may not be available for consultation during the planning stages of a survey, it advantageous for the biologist to have a degree of familiarity with them. Minimum height above ground Regulations governing the minimum height above ground at which aircraft may be operated are the most restrictive on aerial survey. To quote the regulation (ANR 133): Except when landing and taking off, or in stress of weather, an aircraft may not be flown (@) over a populated area (city or town) lower than a height from which one could safely ide clear if an engine were to fil, and at any rate not lower than 1500” (450 m); and (8) over any other area, lower than 500 (1.50 m) above ground level. The requirements of most biological survey operations are heights of 60-100 m above ground level (AGL). The department takes a very dim view of any operations in contravention of this regulation and has a number of successful prosecutions to its credit Convictions are handled in civil courts and heavy fines and other severe penalties have been imposed. In asking a pilot to fly below the legal limit one is asking him to place his licence on the line. Not only that, but in the event of an accident where illegal low flying was even suspected it would probably be much more difficult to make an insurance company award compensation. Admittedly itis usually very difficult to establish that an aircraft was being flown below 150m, Nevertheless, fan observer is able to read the registration letters clearly, a successful prosecution can often be made. Permission must be obtained from the Department of Transport before any operation below 150 m can be undertaken, With extensive biological survey work only in its infancy i Australia I am told that no specific blanket approval for this type of work has previously been given. Rather, where approval has been required for survey fights at low level, specific authority has been given (0 a particular pilot for a particular operation, bearing in mind the skill and experience of that pilot and the requirements of that operation. In other low-level ‘operations, specifically agricultural spraying and so forth, blanket approval has been given to pilotsin the form ofa “rating” for that type of work and only after extensive training in the special skills required. Earlier I said that the department is responsive to the changing demands of the industry. Under consideration at the moment is a scheme for a similar “rating’ system for sciemlfic survey work based on training ina flying school and subsequent recommendation from the chief instructor. In the meantime a pilot may seck from the Department of Transport an authority to operate an aircraft below 150 m AGL. The department may or may not grant approval, depending on the nature of the operation under consideration and the pilot's overall aeronautical experience. In all likelihood some low-flying training will be required and a favourable recommendation from a suitably qualified instructor. An extract from a letter of approval follows‘Aeronautical aspect of biological toconduct flying operations down to a minimum height of 150 feet (45 m) above terrain du e fights conducted for the purpose of scienifc observation. The approval is subject to the following conditions: 1. Observations and work relating thereto must be performed by a person other than the pilot. 2. Only persons essential to the conduct of the operation shall be carried. 3, Only single engined high wing airerat shall be used. Persons on board shall be limited to wo in C172 aircraft, hres in C182 airraft and four in C205/206/207 aircraft 4. A minimum of 10 hours pilot experience on the type of aircraft is required before itis ‘operated below $00 feet (150 m). 5. Theaireraft shall not be loin below $00 feet (150 m) above terrain within 2000 fet (600 m) of an occupied building except with the consent ofthe occupier. 6, Theaircraft shall not flyover any city, town or populousarea ata height below 1500 feet (480 mm) above terrain, ‘This permission does not confer on the operator any rights, a against the owner of any land ovee which the operations may be conducted, o prejudice in any way the rights and remedies which any person may have in common law in respect of any injury to persons or damage to property caused directly or indirectly by the operator. Duration of approval would be unlikely to extend beyond a year and renewal would be conditional on the completion of at least 10 hours of low-level operation during the preceding twelve months. Operations in restricted areas Certain areas of the country, particularly in the vicinity of military bases, are set aside as prohibited and restricted areas. These are shown on appropriate charts available from the Department of Transport. To enter restricted areas, permission may sometimes be available from the controlling authority, as indicated on the chart. Illegal entry to such areas is likely to result in heavy penalties. Fuel requirements Regulations demand the carriage of reserve fuel sufficient to last for 45 minutes flight in addition to the planned flight time. Ifthe fight is a charter flight, an additional 15% on top of that required for the flight time must also be carried. Ifnight operations are planned (see next section) or if for any other reason an alternate landing point must be nominated, sufficient fuel for the flight time to the alternate aerodrome must also be carried. For planning aerial survey work, the desired duration of individual flights must be compared with the total endurance of the aircraft Operations at night or in bad weather Flights may be made under one of a number of separate sets of rules, of which the major ones ) VER (Visual Flight Rules); i) LER (Instrument Flight Rules); (ii) NGT VMC (at night, in visual meteorological conditions). An TFR flight can proceed in bad weather, in cloud and without visual reference to the ground except at take-off and landing. Navigation could be entirely by reference to radio- ‘navigation aids right up toa final approach for landing, Such a fight would be of ttle use for aerial survey, but may be necessary to get from, say, Sydney to Walgett in order tocommence survey on the required day. To engage in such a flight, a pilot must hold a First Class Instrument Rating, renewed six-monthly by passing a flight test with a departmental(Rena surveys of tauna populations examiner. An IFR flight can be undertaken only in an aircraft certified for such flights—the major determinant of this certification is the carriage of radio-navigation and com- munication facilities meeting a suitably high standard of manufacture and subject to regular maintenance and recertification. ‘On a VER flight, the pilot must be able to navigate by visual reference to the ground or water (not considered possible above more than 4/8 cloud cover) and must keep well clear of cloud (for complete details of the rules of VER, see the Visual Flight Guide), Flights engaged in biological aerial surveys would normally be under VFR, although certain sectors could be flown IFR if the pilot is rated appropriately. The third category, NGT VMG, isa sort of low grade instrument rating which enables a pilot to fly at night but only if meteorological conditions permit navigation by visual reference to the ground or water. A pilot with a NGT VMC rating (or better still a First Class Instrument Rating) may be very valuable where it is desirable for the survey to continue as long as possible towards last light (c.g. eepuscular animals). With a night or instrument rating, the fight back to base can then be effected after last light (as long as acrodrome lighting is available). Likewise, pre- dawn departures may be desirable in the particular operation being planned. (Ona VFR flight, a landing must be effected at least 10 minutes before official last light, as given in combined graphic and tabular form in the Visual Flight Guide. If the pilot is not night-rated, or the aircraft not carrying suitable equipment to allow night-flying, the actual survey may have to be discontinued long before sunset. Arrangements for aerodrome lighting (also at any alternates as required) must be made by the pilot in advance. Circumstances which require the nomination of an alternative aerodrome are given in the Visual Flight Guide (VF). Submission of flight plan details For a VER fight, the Department of Transport requires that a fight plan be given either directly, by phone or by radio to the nearest Flight Information Service when that flight —isa charter light; or —will operate within controlled airspace; or —will go more than $0 nautical miles from the departure aerodrome; or —is one for which a SARWATCH (Search and Rescue Watch) is desired; o —is in a remote area This will be the pilot's responsibility but | include it here because it makes an impact on planning a survey. Submission of flight details takes time before departure and biologists have been known to become impatient. Among other details the pilot will normally nominate a SARTIME (Search and Rescue Time) for the flight, and i he does not remember to cancel the SAR on successful completion of the flight a search will be instigated. I the aircraft is operating away from telephones and has no radio, no flight plan need be submitted, In this case details of the flight should be given to a responsible person on the ground who can initiate rescue procedures should this be necessary. It is very desirable to choose an aircraft with HF radio because this will allow communication with Flight Information Service anywhere in the country (though not at all times due to vagaries of the ionosphere. Operation in “remote areas’ and over water Some areas are designated as ‘remote’ (see VFG) and operation in these areas is allowed only if one carries a survival beacon operating on 121.5 MHz or HF radio. The carriage of both is.‘Acronatical agpoets of biological aerial surveys 67 desirable, One must also carry (and should on all fights) survival gear—food, water, first aid. Flights over water in single-engined aircraft are, in normal circumstances, restricted to within gliding distance of land. Some flights over water are permitted if life-raft and life- jackets are carried, as well as a survival beacon operating on both 121.5 and 243 MHz. Aircraft maintenance Regulations require that an extensive maintenance check is made on an aircraft every 100 hours. All aircraft must carry a ‘Maintenance Release’ which is signed by a licensed Aircraft ‘Maintenance Engineer and which indicates the duration of currency of that release. When hiring an aircraft be certain that sufficient hours remain for completion af your planned ‘operation before another 100-hourly maintenance is due. Operations at low level The regulations concerning the operation of aircraft at low level have already been discussed. “There is no doubt that flying at low level is potentially more dangerous and requires a higher degree of skill than flying at higher altitudes and there are several reasons for this. Engine failure In the event of an engine failure in a single-engined aircraft, the glide distance and time to impact are considerably reduced. A Cessna 206, 1500m AGL will glide for 12 km (iil wind) and remain airborne for a fittle longer than 5 minutes. At 30 m AGL on the other hand contact with the ground will follow a complete engine failure in approximately 240 m and only 12 seconds, Atlow levels therefore one hasa much smaller choice of emergency landing grounds. A marginal improvement may be gained if the pilot trades height for speed immediately the engine fails. Note that proper fuel management is important; running one tank dry during a low-level run could be dangerous. Object At low level there are very many more objective dangers such as wires, transmission lines, power lines across valleys, radio masts, microwave repeater stations and so on. Some of these are almost impossible to sce from the air. These hazards are not as numerous in survey flying as they are in agricultural work, but require constant vigilance. Birds are more frequently scen at low levels and the pilot may occasionally have to climb swifily to get over a whecling hawk. Ifa strike occurs, a careful watch on engine instruments should be maintained to confirm normal operations. Downdrafis in mountainous areas can exceed the rate at which an aircraft can climb, and pilots in aerial surveys should learn to predict the areas where updrafts or downdrafts are likely in any given wind conditions. Publications available for training agricultural pilots are valuable here. Rising terrain can be a trap in low-level surveys, particularly if fying up a river valley. ‘Most small aircraft can be relied upon to climb only a1 in 10 gradient (240 metres per minute aC 90 knots), depending on air temperature, loading and aircraft type. Plan surveys down rather than up valleys (unless the terrain is known) and encourage the pilot to receive instruction in performing extremely tight (split-arse) turns. If fying in valleys cannot be avoided, iis safer to fly up or down one side. This leaves maximum room for a turn out of trouble and no room for delays caused by indecision about which way to turn. Fly on the side (of the valley likely to be subject to conditions of updraft rather than downdraft. fe dangers(68 Aerial surveys of fauna populations Turning near the ground requires a higher level of skill than performing turns at altitude, especially when there isa wind and/or heat turbulence as the day warms up. Wind may givea pilot turning illusions near the ground, The same wind may, however, be used to advantage in a turn, as when in quadrat sampling itis desired to bring the aircraft back onto the same (or very similar) line for a second pass (see Total Counts/Quadrats). Stalling—At the low speeds required by some surveys, an aircraft is much closer to its stalling speed than in operations at cruise speed. In gusty conditions, a sudden gust of tailwind can stall the aeroplane. Following a stall, height loss is inevitable while the pilot recovers the aircraft's forward airspeed and lif. Stalls near the ground are often fatal. Low speeds near the ground are therefore a dangerous combination and in some types of survey they are combined with tight turns as well. Table I shows how much the stalling speed of an aircraft (a Cessna 206) increases with increased angle of bank ‘Table 1. Relationships between stalin sped (in knots) and angle of bank fr Cessna 206 “Angle of bank Configuration 20 wo oo" Flaps op 6 6 0 86 Flaps 20° 85 st 6 B Flaps 40" 3 38 6 % Onecan see that at, say, 70 knots (which also means low power settings with, usually, some fap extended) a high angle of bank turn can find the aircraft suddenly below the stalling speed. It is for this reason that power is applied strongly during tight turns at slow speeds. Transect-type survey, with its emphasis on straight and level flying, is therefore safer than quadrat surveying. Transect lying is also much less tiring and much less likely to induce air- sickness ‘The hazards of low-level survey underline the necd for a pilot who is aware of the dangers and his own limitations, and is trained to a higher standard than required for normal operations. The pilot's role during a survey The first sections have dealt with those aeronautical aspects of the survey for which the pilot has the primary responsibility but about which the aerobiologist should know. During a survey the pilot has additional responsibilities to the survey team of which he is an integral part In transect surveys, these responsibilities are navigation and the maintenance of height and speed. (Note that an authority for low flying issued by the Department of Transport will specifically prohibit the pilot from being an active observer as well.) Speed After a little practice in a particular aircraft a pilot will find the particular combination of fap and power at which the aircraft will cruise at the required speed. In transect flying, speed over the ground must be accurately maintained and the reasons for this should be explained to the pilot. The airspeed indicator gives speed in knots. The indicated value must be corrected (for temperature and altitude) to a true airspeed value. Note that ground speed depends on air speed and a wind component (which may vary during a transect). A good Pilot will become skilful at adjusting air speed to account for wind—especially if givenAcronauteal aspects of biological aerial surveys 69 enough encouragement. Ground speed checks can be made by noting times at a series of definite navigational fixes and real groundspeed determined subsequently. Height maintenance Keeping a constant and correct height above ground is undoubtedly the most difficult task for the pilot, confounded as it is by navigation which involves some bookwork. Height ‘maintenance in normal flying is by reference to the altimeter which is merely an anaeroid barometer calibrated in feet or metres rather than in pressure units; flight at a constant indicated altitude is really flight at a constant pressure level. On the sub-scale of the altimeter lone sets a pressure reading appropriate to an average value which will give a reading for height above mean sea level in a particular area. All aircraft in the same area (at 3000 m or below) set the same value called QNH to calibrate the interpretation of air pressure as height by all aircraft in that area. QNH varies with daily fluctuations in atmospheric pressure and with the passage of high and low pressure systems in the atmosphere. For height keeping in an acrial transect an altimeter is of limited use as one seldom knows the exact height of the terrain—one would need to know at all times what the altimeter would read if the aircraft were on the ground directly below. The use of a radar altimeter is undoubtedly the best method of height maintenance. The gears expensive, but gives continuous and direct read-out ofthe height above the terrain. In the aviation industry a major usage of this equipment is to trigger a warning horn at a set height if, on approach to landing, the wheels have not been lowered. As most aircraft with retractable gear have a 24V (or higher voltage) electrical system, most radar altimeters are unsuitable for single engined aircraft which typically have a 12V system. An American brand, BONZA, operates on 12V. One problem with radar altimeters arises if one wishes to shift the unit from aircraft to aircraft. They should be installed with the sensor under the floor so the outer skin of the aircraft makes a good groundplane for signal generation. This means that as well as taking your pilot with you from survey to survey, use of the same aircraft may often be desirable. Note that a radar altimeter gives a valid reading only when the wings of the aircraft are level. Once one gains a good subjective feeling for the ‘correct’ height, practice will quickly establish an ability to fly at that height without a continuous watch on instruments. The pilot ‘can be assisted in this by the test of the crew. One gains a good idea of the size that objects on the ground should look from the correct height. The animals being counted may bea suitable reference point. Trees are not so good. In hilly country itis very difficult to maintain a constant height above terrain, In fact itis often impossible. The best that can be expected of a pilot is that he does his best, beginning the climb sufficiently early to ensure safe crossing of the high ground and keeping as closely as possible to the slope as it falls away on the other side (and, of course, all at constant speed!) Navigation ‘The standard of navigation required in aerial survey is usually considerably higher than that which most pilots are normally called upon to achieve. More rigorous track-keeping may be Fequired, as on transects, for the biologist is not so much interested in making good a track from A to Bas in being on the correct line all the way. This is much more difficult at low level because one's view is considerably reduced. From 45 m one may not see a main road, a railway or even a river that would look as though it were practically under a wingtip from 450 mor even 150 m,10 Aes surveys of fauna populations World Aeronautical Charts (WAC) on a scale of I:1 000 000 are normally used by pilots. For low-level surveys these may have insuficient detail in the area which will be visible from a low level and the WAC should be used in conjunction with, say, maps in the 1:100 000 series, Flight planning must still be done using a WAC because details should be given with respect to features marked on a WAC which may very well not show "Back tank’ or “Finnegan's Well (although they are incredibly good for normal navigation purposes). The nomination of grid references is acceptable. In some cases it may be useful to use aerial photos where micro-navigation is required, though in several trials I have found them no better than a good map. For one thing they are all shades of grey and one’s eyes spend most time adjusted for the bright outside. A map on the knee is bright also, but use of an aerial photo demands a few seconds while the iris adjusts. Radio-navigation aids are, rarely placed in a convenient position for use on an aerial transect although it does happen occasionally. Bleazard (1974) described the use of VOR (VHF Omni Range) equipment where transects were within range of a station. In the U.S.. VOR stations are more frequent than in Australia where non-directional beacons are the most widespread aid. In fyinga straight course along a predetermined line, the pilot must be very sensitive to the wind, its strength and direction. Close to the ground one gets a reasonable assessment of the extent of drift being experienced, while smoke, windmills, ripples on farm dams, dust from ears or tractors all tell thei story. The pilot is always calculating... “required track is 270° ‘True which is 263° Magnetic out here, the wind from south, maybe giving me about 5° drift to starboard, so I'll ry a heading of 258” Magnetic’ (which may be, say, 256° or 260° on the particular aircraft compass, as indicated by its card). The initial heading chosen for a transect is then revised as one observes one's progess over the map, 1 sometimes happens that a pilot does in fact become ‘ost’ especially on a long transect. ‘A own or other feature he expects to see does not appear on time, or even at all, oreven more embarrassing is a town that turns up unexpectedly. The best thing to do is usually to interrupt the transect and climb to.a couple of thousand feet, re-establish the exact location, descend and continue. Descent to read signposts, or names on letter-boxes is generally frowned on, bul many homesteads (alas too few) have their names painted on the roof. It is often useful to carry a pair of binoculars of low magnification (not above 7 x 50.). Another important aspect of navigation is that of finding the beginning of a transect, or locating and establishing the limits of an area in which total counts are to be made. Whercas navigation of aircraft is mostly from one aerodrome to another via recognisable points on route, transccts often start at points marked by no feature at all. View from a higher altitude {s usually required to pinpoint an area ora starting point in relation to recognisable features round about. Total counts quadrats ‘When counting in a block or a quadrat the aircraft can spend as long as is necessary in the aarca and the pilot must fly so as to enable the observers to have a useful vantage point within thearea for the highest proportion of time. He must also ensure that all of the area is covered. This usually involves circling or a series of low passes and it puts more strain on pilot and ‘observers than does transect flying. The pilot must take care to have a good sense of area covered and yet-to-be-covered. In some cases, artificial markers may be used but in most cases a pilot will be able to make use of natural features. Where 180° turns are required, any wind can be used to advantage to minimise the angles of bank necessary for the turn. This is illustrated in Figure 1, which shows the importance of initiating the procedure turn with @‘Aeronautical aspects of biologic MODERATE BANK LEFT EVEN STEEPER BANK RIGHT GENTLE BANK RIGHT STEEP BANK LEFT CORRECT INCORRECT The solid line indicates the required track over the ground. Figore 1: Cortcet use ofthe wind can minimise the angle of tr required, reduce the chance of arsickness and lessen spatial disorientation ofthe observers turn down-wind (i. breaking down-wind). In this way the aircraft can be brought back over the same track, oF on a parallel track close by. Minimising the angles of bank required to make the procedure turn reduces the chance of air-sickness, is less likely to cause spatial disorientation and allows better visibility. Moreover, the stalling speed increases considerably in steep turns. Every pilot should choose afenceline at right angles to the wind and convince himself of the benefits of breaking down- ‘wind rather than up-wind. Operational planning and further notes Largely separate from the details of survey design are the operational aspects of a survey. Any limitations of aircraft type, endurance, equipment (navigational and radio), the rating held by the pilot and the availability and location of refuelling facilities will form a framework of feasibility within which the operation must be planned and the survey itself designed. Some of these factors will now be discussed, Pilot Are the circumstances of the pilot such that he will be able to (and want to) become a continuing member of the team? Does he have an authority to operate at low level? Will you require a pilot with a Night VMC rating so that a survey can be done as close to dusk and dawn as possible? Do you need to have a pilot rated for IFR? (Ifnot, better allow a schedule72 Aerial surveys of fauna popul slack enough to cope with any delays induced by bad weather preventing, say, getting out of Sydney or Canberra, or back home later. Aircraft ‘There has been an extensive paper written on the choice of aircraft for aerial survey (Tippet 1969). The sorts of factors to consider are: —high wing or low wing? (the former is practically mandatory) —large enough for load requirements? performance adequate for the airstrips available? —ADF and other gear suitable for night operations? —need IFR? —HF radio? —survival beacon? —struts (useful for streamers ete.) —airspeed and cost per hour? —endurance? In Australia, Cessna 182, 172, 206 and similar craft are most suitable for most purposes. Aerodromes Permission is required to use private airstrips. —Are any private airstrips one plans to use long enough and smooth enough? (Property owners often have an exaggerated idea of the serviceability of their airstrip.) —What if it rains? Fuel availability —Camet/eash/cheque? —What sort of fuel? —Where is such fuel available? —Drum fuel may be necessary, if so, need a pump, filter. Oil is less easily available than fuel —Take some oil anyway—and a funnel, Light and time of day Choose transects with regard to the direction of the sun if there are not other constraints, The pilot is able to fy into the sun better than an observer can see to count when looking into the sun, Work out daily schedules taking into consideration aircraft endurance, light, times of peak animal activity etc. And now you're all ready to leave, check these items: —somie agencies require an employee to have permission to fly in an aircraft —insurance policy in order —sunglasses —window-cleaning gear —sweater (may get cold in the air) —tape and streamer material —survival gear, water —maps —more pencils than you think you need (they fall under seats and ean never be found ‘when needed) —all survey requirements (data sheets etc.)‘Aeronaviveat aspects of oiiogica ae sutveys 19 —camera and film —air-sick bags —black T-shirts (kill reflections on the window) —tissues —binoculars —tea —tie-down pegs and ropes —a funnel and oil —a novel Acknowledgments | would like to acknowledge with gratitude the Crocodile Research Program within the University of Sydney under whose auspices my flying career began and continues. 1 am specially grateful to Professor Harry Messel, Director of that organisation, who suggested ‘one day in 1972 that I learn to fly, and to John Brunker and John Vallance of Rex Aviation who brought that about. Graeme Caughley, Ron Sinclair and Don Scott-Kemmis initiated ‘me in transect aerial survey techniques and tolerated my early mistakes. References BLEAZARD, . R. (1974), “The use ofa VOR radio beacon in acrial censusing’, E. Afr. Wildl. J. 12, 159-62. ‘THPrETT,1.(1969), “A comparison of the available range of light aircraft’, E. Afr. Agric. For. J. 34, 6-15, DISCUSSION Mr Jenkins: At what speed do you fly, and when does pilot fatigue set in? Dr Caughley ‘mentioned 2} hours as the normal time before there is a drop in observer efficiency. How does that time relate to pilot's fatigue, how long are the transects and how many transects would be flown in 24 hours? Dr Grigg: In acrial transect flying the pilot doesn’t tire nearly as quickly as the observers ‘because the pilot is ying straight and level, and navigating is not nearly as tiring as counting animals on the ground. The transects were across 14° of longtitude, I think about 65 to 75 nautical miles in length at these latitudes. We might do two or three transects ina session, so the actual time in the air might be 34 of 4 hours of which perhaps 24 are transect time. That time within the transect is further subdivided because there is a period of observation followed by a short period of rest while the observer writes the numbers down. Perhaps Graeme would like to comment on his buzzer system for segmenting the transects into linear distances? Dr Caughles: | think it should be pointed out that there ate two quite separate methods of recording. One isto stare at the transect and record the data on tape. People who do this say that it works very well and they wouldn't use any other system. I personally hate it, but thisis entirely personal prejudice; | wouldn't like to talk people out of it if they like it better. I'm against it because firstly the tape recorder or the tape does fail from time to time but more importantly you can’t take your eyes off the strip. What we do is fly for about 2 minutes. A buzzer then goes off and sounds for 7 seconds during which time you write down the number of animals counted in the previous 2 minutes, stretch your neck, refocus your eyes, check with the other observer that you are writing down the sae unit, and then continue. When we analyse the transect we take the 7 seconds at the end of each unit out of the transect, but we then pool all the data for the transect.74. Aerial surveys of fauna populations Dr Grigg: One comment on pilot fatigue. Once the observer has finished observing, there may be an hour or so of flight back to base. The observers promptly go to sleep but the pilot has to stay awake and may have to handle a difficult crosswind landing on a marginal strip when he gets there. In transect flying, therefore, the pilot's fatigue comes from a longer period of concentration at a lower level. In quadrat surveys, or in any sort of survey that needs a lot of steep turning back over the area all the time, one becomes tired much more easily Dr Jarman: Can you comment on the risk of bird strike? Dr Grigg: Lam amazed that we strike bieds so rarely. I've hit one bird only and that was taking off at Oodnadatta. When we hit the bird there was a great noise, and subsequently I found when we landed at Alice Springs that there was some blood on the engine cowling under the propellor boss. There was no sign of any aberrant engine performance so I had kept going. If you strike a bird about the only thing you can dois watch the engine gauges for any change in temperature or other signs of abnormality. Dr Caughley: When a bird gets near to a plane it instinctively dives so as to get out of trouble. Asa rule of thumb, ifthere is a bird coming up and a strike is likely, climb over it, never dive underneath it or it might fly into you, Dr Jarman: Would a radar altimeter improve your ability (o stay at a constant height, or ‘would it simply allow your observers to make corrections afterwards? Dr Grigg: U've not yet flown in an aircraft fitted with @ radar altimeter. I'm confident nevertheless that it would enable one to maintain a constant height—or very close to constant height. It gives a direct read-out of height above ground. Of course it’s not accurate during a bank but that’s not a problem in a transect because one tries to minimise bank as much as the steadiness of the air will allow. I get @ rough guide from the altimeter. When flying on survey in the north of Australia I often set up zero altitude on the aerodrome instead of setting up QNH as given by the Flight Information Service. In three or four hours QNH will change by about 2 millibars. One millibar equals about 10 m. That provides a fairly good guide to height. ‘Mr Prince: What temperature changes do you get? We once had a temperature of 48° degrees in the plane. This must affect pressure. Dr Grigg: The static port for the altimeter is located outside and not in the aircraft. Normal diurnal temperature change in a three or four hour period would rarely lead to more than 2 millibars change in pressure. That's not to say that I think an aneroid barometer is a good way of judging height above the ground, it certainly isn't. A radar altimeter is. But in the absence of a radar altimeter one simply uses every bit of information that one can get— combinations of altimeter read-out, the consensus of people in the aircraft, the size of the animals observed, every bit of information you can get. Addendum 15 Sept. 1978 Dr Grigg: Since the above material was written we have had the opportunity to fit a Bonza radar altimeter to a C.206 aircraft. We chose their horizontal display and fitted it above the eyebrow over the instrument panel, right in front of the pilot, Thus one could glance at the height read-out without any loss of attention to outside viewing. I found the unit easy to read ‘and the height indication very stable, There is no doubt that a radar altimeter is a valuable aid in transect flying. Its use takes a lot of strain off the pilot and removes any uncertait that may exist about whether or not one is at the prescribed height above terrain.