en PRODUCTION WITH - SUBSURFACE SUCKER ROD PUMPS See ae StOil Production with Subsurface Sucker Rod Pumps SCHOELLER-BLECKMANN GmbHLEE EEEE LR RRRR RR RRR ET Authors: Prot. Dipl-Ing. Heinrich Rischmaller Bergschuldirektor Dipl.-Ing. Horst Meter (Deutsche Bohrmeisterschule in Celle) Revision: Dipl-ng. Gunter Hamedinger Translation: M, Taurer Publisher: ‘Schoeller-Bleckmann GmbH ‘A-2630 TernitziAustria TemitziAustria, January 1989 is the registered Trade Mark of SBS Oilfield Equipment and is registered at API. Schoeller-Bleckmann GmbH SBS Oilfield Equipment A-2630 Ternitz/Austria Tel. 0043 (2630) 311-0 Fax: 0049 (2690) 69 48 Telex: 16 660 SBT A Al rights reserved. All parts of this book, including all manufacturer's information, may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transcribed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, thout the prior written permission of the publisher, presumed the source of the reproduction is given “ne manufacturer reserves the right to change or modity all products, manufacturing processes, -shnical data and information at any time to adapt to the latest results of research and development well as to shifting market trends, ;stion and employment of products is in the sole responsibility of the user. matters of warranty, please refer to manufacturer's terms of sale and delivery. -yright © 1989 by ‘seller-Bleckmann GmbH tstrasse 2 2830 Ternitz/Austriaphe be RR LLL GE EGE REEL! CONTENTS INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1 ‘SUBSURFACE PUMPS. 1.1 Pumping Cycle 1.2 API Pump Classification 1.3 Pump Types and Designs 1.3.1 Tubing Pumps 1.3.1.1 Tubing Liner (TL) Pumps 1.3.1.2 Tubing Heavy Wal! Barrel (TH) Pumps 1.3.1.3 Tubing Packed Plunger (TP) Pumps 1.3.2 Rod Pumps 1.3.2.1 Types and Design Principles 1.3.22 Survey of Standard SBS Rod Pumps 1.33 Casing Pumps 1.3.4 Special Designs 1.3.4.1 Pumps for High GasiOll Ratios 1.3.42 Large Volume Pumps 1.3.4.3 Pumps for High Viscosity Oils 1.3.4.4 Pumps for Olls with Increased Sand Content 4.4 Pump Components 1.4.1 Barrels 1.4.1.1 Working Barrels for Tubing Pumps 4.4.1.2 Working Barrels for Rod Pumps 1.4.2 Plungers 1.4.2.1 Metal Plungers 1.4.22 SottPacked Plungers 1.43 Valves 1.43.1 Valve Cages 1.432 Seats and Balls 1.4.4 Seating Arrangements of Subsurface Sucker Rod Pumps: 1.4.4.1 Seating Arrangement of Pullable Standing Vaives in Tubing Pumps 1.4.42 Seating Arrangement of Rod Pumps 1.4.43 Seating Arrangement by way of Pump Anchor 1.4.4.4 Hold-Down and Lift-Up Forces in Pump Seating Arrangements 1.45 Accessories 15 Special Production Problems 1.5.1 Free Gas 1.5.1.1 Gas Separation 15.2 Sand Problems 1.52.1 Slotted Liners and Sand Filters 18.22 Utilization of Gravel Pack 1.5.2.3 Preventive Measures at the Pump +8 Selection of Pump Size 1.7 Sources of Pump Failure “8 Selection of Plunger Fit CHAPTER 2 ‘SUCKER ROD STRING 2.1 Manufacture of Sucker Rods and Couplings 2.4.1 Sucker Rods2.4.2 Couplings 2.1.3 Hollow Sucker Rods 2.1.3.1 Admissible Stresses on Hollow Rods 2.1.3.2 Make-up Torques for Hollow Rod Strings 2.1.33 Thruput and Pressure in case of Injection through Hollow Rods 2.1.4 High Torsion Stretch Straightening 2.18 Sucker Rod Protectors 2.1.6 Polished Rods 22 Mechanical Properties and Materials for Sucker Rods and Couplings 2.2.1 Grade Selection for Sucker Rods and Couplings 2.2.2 Fatigue Strength as a Function of Yield Strength and its Dependence on Surface Quality and Corrosion 23 Polished Rod, Sucker Rod and Plunger Movement 23.1 Polished Rod Movement 2.3.2 Sucker Rod String Movement 23.2.1 Stretch 23.22 Overtravel 2.3.23 Vibration 2.3 Effective Plunger Stroke 24 Polished Rod Load 2.4.1 Maximum Dynamic Polished Rod Load 242 Minimum Dynamic Polished Rod Load 25 Sucker Rod String Design 2.6 Tapered Rod Strings 2.7 Make-up of Sucker Rods 2.7.1 Screw Joint Forces 28 Handling and Transportation of Sucker Rods 29 Common Rod Problems and thelr Solution 29.1 General 2.9.2 Causes for Rod Failure 2.9.3 Corrosion Phenomena 294 Sucker Rod Coating 295 Failure Analysis HAPTER 2 SYNAMOMETER MEASUREMENTS * General, Operating Principle, Measurement 2 Pressures and Forces in the Pumping System 3.3 Dynamometer Measurement in Completely Rigid Pumping Systems 3.3.1 Dynagraph Interpretation (Energy and Counterweight Deliberations) Dynamometer Measurement in Pumping Systems with Rigid Tubing String and Elastic Sucker Rod String 3.4.1 Dynagraph Interpretation Dynamometer Measurement in Pumping Systems with Elastic Tubing String and Elastic Sucker Rod String ‘Computer Assisted Evaluation of Dynamometer Measurements £7 Electrical Dynamometers 5 = Qualitative Interpretation of Dynagraphs ER 4 =_YPING UNITS. ~*~ y20s of Pumping Units “1 Pumping Unit with Beam Counterbalance 63 66 7 er 7 67 72 76 7 79 4 85 85 86 86 86 87 89 89 89 90 90 91 94 94 98 99 99 100 tot 102 102 108 108 108 409 109 110 112 113 113 115. 116 17 123 123, 123 125( MRR RR Ree r 4.1.2 Conventional Pumping Unit 4.1.3 Mark I Pumping Unit 4.13.1 Conventional Pumping Unit with Phased Crank 4.14 Air Balanced Pumping Unit 4.15 Special Types 42 API Classification 43 Well Head Equipment and Safety Features 44 Assembly of Pumping Units 45 Pumping Unit Calculation 438.1 Static Balancing 48.2 Maximum Torque 488.3 Prime Mover Horsepower Requirements CHAPTER 5 CALCULATION METHODS FOR SUBSURFACE SUCKER ROD PUMPING INSTALLATIONS, 5.1 General 5.2 SBS-Methode 5.3 API-Methode 127 131 133 133 134 196 137 140 140 142 143 143 145 148 148 148 151INTRODUCTION Of all West European welts operated by artificial lift methods, over 90% are equipped with sub- surface sucker rod pumps. It is a result of the economy, flexibility and wide range of application of these pumping systems. Major advantages of subsurface sucker rod pumps are: — independence from surface equipment — speedy and technically simple mode of installation — availability of subsurface pumps in many different sizes and material combinations, tallored to ‘meet production tates and media — possibility of adaption to changing Intake conditions by modification of stroke number, stroke length and effective plunger area of pure — relatively good overall efficiency — low maintenance expenditures — long service life — telatively fow costs for pump repairs Disadvantages are: — limitation of pumping rate and depth by limited stressability of rod string — wear problems on rod string and tubing, in particular in deviated wells; may be reduced by the use of protectors — change of subsurface pumps is lengthy and costly, requiring wincttes arid a (ot of personnel ‘The schematic drawing of a subsurface sucker rod installations (Fig. 1), shows the three major parts of the pumping system: Subsurtace pump Sucker fod string Pumping unitue Fad cernas nomusanne mpalepee gutag ana autor G Truatpeg spn nominate? aman Bog Lancs i weamye Fontes Try Le Hanger ee tela ra : fa baer ees wanyng cla Babesing SG wetter ameg Donupasgunsiia tomok ‘Sucker Rod String Topo press rata vee Production a = — [ Yenstbre obopyttanae 3k CMY AMY uoHHan Korot H [casing * a || typing sting Hacecns- counpeccoprare mpy tas (der) — subsuttace Pump Bemaenos Hora Donep Tubing — Anchor eee Fig. ¢ pees Formation Subsurface sucker tod } “ He pros naciem pump installation { (schematically) SER eee eeCHAPTER 1 SUBSURFACE PUMPS 1.1 Pumping Cycle ‘According to their mode of operation, the common types of subsurface pumps can be classified as single acting plunger pumps. The pumping cycle of a subsurface pump is illustrated by the schematic drawing In Fig. 2 <= — —> Travelling Valve Barrel — | T T | standing Soe Valve (a) (b) (ey (d) Downward Stroke Upward Stroke Fig. 2 Schematic representation of pumping cycle Start of cycle: Pump and tubing are filled with fluid. The plunger is at the top dead center; the travelling vaive is closed. The weight of the fluld column above the pump is carried by the rod string. ‘The weight of the fluid column closes the standing valve immediately as fluid stops moving up through the valve. The barrel is filed partially or completely with fluid. If the plunger moving downwards enters the fluid, the travelling valve opens, and the full weight of the fiuid column rests ‘on the standing valve and thus on the tubing string (Fig. 2a). As the plunger travels down further (Fig. 2b}, the polistied rod enters the fluid column and displaces a certain volume which is delivered into ‘the tubing. "RRERBRRRBRERERERRERRERRER In case of plungers with a diameter equal to or smaller than the polished rod diameter, fluid is delivered into the tubing only during the downward stroke and the fluid column is being refilled during the upward stroke. With the beginning upward stroke, the travelling valve closes again. Simultaneously, the load of the fluid column is transferred back to the rod string, The standing valve opens shortly after b.d.c. when the intake pressure exceeds the pressure in the barrel, Fig. 2c. Until the end of the upward stroke at plunger position t.d.c., Fig. 24, fluid from the formation flows into the evacuated pump barrel. At the same time, an equal amount of fluid is delivered by the plunger which Is lifting the fluid column. The actual working cycle of a pump is not necessarily as uncomplicated as shown by this simplified representation. The processes inside the pump are largely determined by the size of dead space and the gascoil ratio as well as by the viscosity of the pumped medium, In addition, the pumping cycle is also influenced by vibrations of tubing and sucker fod string due to the constant load changes of the fluid column, and by valve vibrations. 1.2 API Pump Classifications Tubing and rod pumps are grouped according to type of barre! and plunger design and type of seating assembly to API specification 11 AX and classified by code designations. Fig. 3 and 4 represent a survey of this system of classification together with pertinent instructions and a practical classif cation example. a) @ 9) w 6) © a ® RHA awa RS awe BHT awr 14 P FLA FSA FLB RSB ALT RST m1 Fig. API subsurface pump classitication 2The full pump designation includes: 41) Nominal tubing size 2) Basic bore diameter 3) Type of pump, including type of barrel and location and type of seating assembly 4) Barrel length 5) Plunger length 6) Total length of extensions, when used 10 = 2006 9000 X = X =X | Lota enath of extensions, whole fet Nominal plunger length, foot Barrel length, teat Type of seating assembly: C ~ Cup type M~ Mechanical type Location of seating assembly: A - Top B- Bottom T - Bottom, travelling barrel ‘Type of barrel: W - Thin-wall H - Heavy-wail | For metal plunger pumps L = Liner S - Thin.wall 7 for soft-packed P - Heavy-wall J plunger pumps Type of pump: R - Rod T - Tubing Pump bore, basic: 106-1%e" (27.0 mm) 125-1%4" (31.8 mm) 190-19" (38.1 mm) 175-1%" (445 mm) 178-%42" (45.2 mm) 200-2" (60.8 mm) 225-2%" (87.2 mm) 250-2%4" (63.5 mm) 275-2¥" (69.9 mm) Tubing size: 15-1.00" OD. (48.3 mm) 20-2%" OD. (60.3 mm) 25-2%" OD. (73.0 mm) 30-3%" OD. (88.9 mm) Example: ‘A.1u, in, (1.8 mm) bore rod type pump with a 16 ft. (3.05 m) heavy wall barrel and 2 ft. (0.61 m) of extensions, a 4 ft (1.22 m) metal plunger, and a bottom cup type seating assembly for operation in 2%, in, (80.3 mm) tubing, Would be designated as follows: 20-125 RHBC 16-4-2 Aside from this pump designation, the following additional information must be provided: a) Barrel material b) Plunger material 3BRE XK he ©) Plunger desian: pin or box type plunger, non-grooved oF grooved, plunger clearence (tt) type of seat - for liner pumps 4) Design and material of valve cage ) Valve seat and valve bali material ) Material of extension 9) Length of each extension h) Threading of rods and tubing Note: Tubing liner pumps and rod liner pumps are no longer part of API Specification #1 AX, starting with the 7" edition (Sune 1979), due to their wide application and good economy, however, we shall continue to include them in the SBS Standard Product Range. In addition, all pumps and spares from the previous API Standard 11 A are also still available, [Metal Plunger | Sott-packed Plunger [Barret Barrel [Thinwatt [Heavywan |“ | thin-watt | Heavy-wall (Rod Pumps) { ‘Stationary Barrel, Top Anchor | RWA RHA LA [ASA - Stationary Barrel, Bottom AWB RHE rus | RSB - Anchor Travelling Barrel, Bottom WT RET rut | Rst ~ Anchor ‘Tubing Pumps: \- 1H T - 1P Fig. 4 AP! System of designation for subsustace sucker rod pumps 4.3 Pump Types and Designs Subsurface pumps are afailable as — Tubing pumps — Rod pumps — Casing pumps In addition, there are designs for special applications (e.g. for large GOR, high production rates, high viscosity media, high sand content). Within each class, there are numercus variations as to design ‘and combination of individual components, 1.3.1 Tubing Pumps With tubing pumps, the pump barret is an integrated part of the tubing string and must be assembled together with the tubing. Plunger and standing valve can be assembled to the rod string at a later Point (Fig. § and 6). The standing vaive ig lowered into the bottom part of the pump by means of Suitable devices, described in detail in chapter 1.4.4, "Seating arrangements of subsurface sucker fod Pumps”. For disessembly, the standing valve is caught and pulled up again, a procedure which also drains the tubing. Standing valves are also available as nan-removable types. AS latter, they can be “made oversize which Is of special importance with + a high flow rates. In case of fixed standing valves, we recommend using an additional SBS Tubing Ora Valve. The fact that the plunger is provided with a precision machined surface, prohibits any notion of towering It through a fong tubing sting which is inmachined on the inside. Ever since reliable on and ott attachments have been available, the preferred method is to assemble the plunger together with the jump and connect it later to the rod string. At the start of the pulling operation, the on and off attachment can be loosened again, and the drain valve is opened. Now, the plunger can be pulled together with the barrel at the tubing string The design principle which is being described here, otters the possibility of selecting a nominal diameter for the subsurface pump which is larger than the nominal tubing diameter Dus to the larger barrel diamoter, the production rate of a tubing pump is always higher than that of arod pump of the same tubing size. Therefore, tubing Pumps are preferred for high production rates obtained from shallow wells, The limitation as to urping depth is a result ofthe limited stressabilty Of the sucker rod string, An advantage of tubing pumps is better service lite due to the larger size of wear parts. Another disadvantage aside from the limited pumping depth is the fact that the whole tubing string must be disassembled with each barrel replacement Fig. 5 shows the schematic outline ofa tubing pump, further details on this type of pump, please refer to our catalogue “SBS Subsurface Sucker Rod Pumps and Fittings Fig. § Tubing Pump, schematically 1.3.1.1 Tubing Liner (TL) Pumps With TL pumps, the liner jacket is provided with coaxially arrested sectional liners, i.e. bushings, hened on the inside, in which the plunger is running. The liners are centered inside the liner jacket with the help of a centering pin and arrested from both sides of the jacket with screwed on jacket bushing. A great advantage of these pumps is the possibility of remachining the liners and the easy replacement—if necessary—of the complete set of liners. Optimum running properties can be achieved by using the standard combination of hard chromium, plated plungers and centrifugally cast liners. In addition, we can supply specially hardened and corrosion resistant liners together with aluminium oxide ceramic coated plungers for extreme corrosion and wear problems. The stightly higher price of a liner pump as compared to a barrel pump is well compensated by these advantages. Our Standard Product Range includes TL pumps with an overall length up to 40ft. Pumps with greater length can asc be supplied on request~ i We also manufacture special types, e.g. pumps for deep wells and extreme pumping conditions. Standard Pump Sizes are: 23/14" (Nominal Tubing Size x Plunger Diameter) 2x2" Bg xh” 4 x3" 43" 6BEE EEEEEEEEEEEE cx Nz Ba oe cn au Pa cs iH = i so 38 ise su ro Description ‘GIy [SBSPARTNO.] Besignation serene Cll [g'74-35 [Bushing Jacket [2 |ovoae [oreo 1C-11-25 |Cage, Top Open, Tk" SA 1 | o002 | 00027] ‘619-225 | Cage, Closed, Plunger Pa [1206 [13206 |_-vn_[€35:225 cage, Closes, Punger Bor 5 fretoe | es0e 16-205 | Gage, Stanaing Valve) [9002 | 5002 Eases —| Comat Page Sr iste} 34-25 | Coupling, 24"-8 EU, [2 —orro2 force iz-as-_ [Jacke ner Jo20.. [020 1.21-225°8 [Liner Sectional 12% Bore Sue Group | — ase. [aba N12 [Wipple, Sealing, Mechanical 7 ard i925 ——[Wippe, Sesting, 2 Cup Type, a'-8 EULA [30102 |-—] 21-25-24 —[Nippe, Extension, Upper, 2 1p. 260 N 22-25-24 —[Nippe, Extension, Lower, [eo [osc P 23-296-8-4| Plunger, 2%", Pin End fh -28-225-0-4 | Punget_2¥%". Box End fe 31-225 [Puller Gushing, Standing Vat, Type Bt | as006_|as006 Puller Pin, Stanaing Vale, Type 8 [1 | 25002 [25002 ‘579-25 [Seating Cup Rina, Type HA [27002 [= 514-25 [Seating Cup Nut, Type HA [38008 [= S16-25 ating Cup Coupling [30008 |= ‘5 17-25 [Seating Mandrel,2 Gvp, Type HA—[1—| 35108 | 516-25 [Seating Cup, Type HR. 2 |ae102 [= 572-25 | Bottom Lack, Nipole [= sone Lt Botton: Lock, Sealing Ring, Copper [1 [= Toate Fi Bottom Lock, Anchor | [once ([Winezas [Valve galt and Seat, 5 [608 [4006 ga in ATTENTION: When using Plunger P21 omit C15, C22 and P23, When using Plunger P23 omit C13 and P21 The sectional plunger drawing shows the design "Plunger Pin” (P21/C 13) (left) and “Plunger Box" (P23/C 15) (ight) sz Ne Fig. 6 SBS Tubing Pump, Type TL1.3.12 Tubing Heavy Wall Barrel (TH) Pumps TH pumps are tubing pumps with metal plungers and a heavy.wall precision honed barrel with cylindrical external threading, The clearance between barrel and plunger in TH pumps is greater than with TL pumps. The antiictional properties oF the one:piece steel bartel are faferior To those of Centrifugaly cast sectional liners in TL pumps. The less favourable combination of materials has a ‘negative impact on wear resistance only with increasing water cvt in wet oil. All other components Such as plunger or vaive are designed similarly to that of TL pumps, maxinium barrel length 40 feet Special types, as for high tension load of the bate! because of long tailpipes are avaiable The sectional areas of flow in TH and TL pumps are of equal size. Standard Pump Sizes are: 25),""x1%)," (Nominal Tubing Size x Plunger Diameter) ani Binz aK” Special types: up to 5%/," plunger (and larger) 1.8.1.3 Tubing Packed Plunger (TP) Pumps TP pumps are tubing pumps with a soft-packed plunger in a heavy wall barrel which is provided with a tapered external threading. ‘The soft packed plunger can be of different design, e.g. — Soft-packed plungers with slotted plastic or ceramic sealing rings — Soft,packed plungers with graphite filled plastic sealing tings — Collar plungers (with varying types of collars) — Combination of above types of sealing arrangements When selecting the type of sealing arrangement, make sure to consider temperature, setting depth and water cut of pumped medium. ‘TP pumps can be successfully used in wells with higher water cut and an additional low content of fine sand (silt) in the pumped medium. Any content of cozsse sand which may stick to the sealing elements (soft packing) will cause rapid wear of barrels. The use of soft packed plungers is not limited to TP pumps only. They are also employed in various other pump types, sometimes even in combination with pressureless sand wiper sets, Standard Pump Sizes are: 23).”1%q" (Nominal Tubing Size x Plunger Diameter) Dmx 312 1.8.2 Rod Pumps (Insert Pumps) 1.3.2.1 Types and Design Principles ‘The characteristic feature of rod pumpsis the fact that the complete pump is connected to the sucker rod string and can be set and pulled and set into the seating arrangement of the tubing string in one piece. Because of the great variety of types and the possibility of selecting different materials for the pump, ‘components, rod pumps can be easily adapted to loval well conditions. ‘Compared to pumps of similar tubing size, rod pumps have a smaiter plunger, smaller sectional area ‘of flow and thus a lower rate of production. Depending on whether the pumping action is produced by plunger movement or barfel movement, we can distinguish two types of rod pumps: ”FEEFFRRFRERREEE a > c bottom top top and bottom Fig. 7 Seating arrangements of stationary barrel rod pumps (schematically) 1. Stationary barrel rod pumps 2. Travelling barrel rod pumps Pumps with travelling plunger and stationary barre! (RWA, RWB) show—due to their valve arrangement (large standing valve, small travelling valve) and flow condltions—a better performance with regard to gas dissociation (bubble point). They permit high pressure ratios and thus high volumetric efficiency. Pumps with stationary plunger and travelling barre! (AWN), travelling barrel pumps as shown in Fig. 10 and 11, are exclusively bottom-anchored pumps with stationery plunger and travelling barrel With this design, bottom seating arrangement, extended suction channel (through hollow plunger and connecting tube to the seating arrangement), and a rather unfavourable valve arrangement (small standing valve, large travelling valve) are unavoidable. Travelling barrel pumps are not suitable for wells with gas problems. Pressure losses on the suction side favour gas dissociation (bubbling) and cause a drop in volumetric efficiency and even cause gas lock. By installing a second standing valve in the area of the seating arrangement (anchor), suction problems can be reduced. This applies especially for low liquid levels. The different types of rod pumps may be grouped according to: a) Design of seating arrangement b) Design of working barrel and plunger ad a) seating arrangement: — pumps with bottom anchor (Fig. 7a) — pumps with top anchor (Fig. 7b) — pumps with bottom and top anchor (Fig. 7o—rarely used) 18j-ca |_an se se sit nn S16 BEE ‘Deseiption ‘FY [SBSPARTHO. Bésignation ae ae 11-200, [earrey Thnwal lara. lore 1871-25 [Bushing Vale Rod, SA 1 [sos [1505 12-200 | Cage, Top Plunger [10106 [oro 19-200 |Cage, Closed, Pie unger 1 [20s [205 (614-25 | Cage, Closed, Barre! 1 r904 [1308 1€21-25 | Connector, Upper Baral 1 [zzens [a0 11-25 _[Guise, Valve Ros 1 2a003 [200s 1N11-25 [pote Seating, Cupiype, 7-6 EU _|1 [008 [~ 12-25 | ope Seaigg, Mesnanca oti [1 32702 12-700 | Pup, Seat | zatos [00s 21-00-84 | Purge, 2, axe Se Gro 0, 1 [tee ft Ai3E.. [Ro valve fl ‘511-25 | Seating Mandel 8 Gups, Type HA [1 512-25 | Seating Gup, Type HA 3 '$ 19-25 | Seating Cup Ring, Type BA 2 ‘514-25 | Seating Cup Nut, Type HR ri ‘516-25 | Seating Cup Coupling n ‘82225 Hold Down Nut 1. Hold Down Seating Fing, Copper [1 Hold Down Anchor to (Vi7-266 | Valo, Seat ang Bail 1, Taveling | [Wott-205—[vaWe, Seat and Ball 1347, Standing Ne Fig. 8 Typical bottom-anckored SBS rod pump with stationary barrel (Type RWB) 19on on : _ Rn TL sn awn SS -so ce | se L sai su Li | Pat ss Hy | | | pen | : fc an un ra Bescon OY [SBSPARTNO Béhgsaton Seer NO. 75 [ Buaning, Va Roa 1m rms -2-35 —[ bushing seat, Berl Cage 1 feswes rc f 99-1603 [Bushing ack, [oer 6 12-16025 | Cape, Top Pung + roree[oree con [Git50 [cag cose, Pr Pung [ivan 255 Sc25 [age Closed Bar 1 farsor 908 i 1:25 [Bui Vave Ros [aon [ons = vn esac, nee Joan. oar 62 -15:5 [Liner Selena J 4 [03 2 [Rite | poi, seating. Gap Type -ED_[ [ae = —— 11-25 Nipple Seating. Meehan Top Lock [Stee oper ret 2 EU ae cu [oak Set Jaren Shoe, Lowar Hal AED 1: —forone PEs — [Pug sat 1am ass ne 2-80-84 [blnge Bae Sa Gow [Tt] i Tei Rod Vabe 7315 511-25 | Seaing Mand 3 Copa Tpe RA [1 [005 [= 512-25 [Sesing Gupta wt a [osone |= FS) ez 52-25 | seating oup ig, Tyee 2 —[arooe [= 514-25. | Seating Gap Nu Type BR 1 [ae03 |= — 51-25 | seating Oup Busing 1 fae003 |] 2126 Mana! bone, Fig. 9 Typical top anchored SBS wah See t om rod pump with stationary barrel Sushing tr 2003] and stationary liner 37-160 [Valve Sand Bal wie eaetng [112005 | 4003—| ‘ype ALA) W¥-225 —[Valie_Set and Ball 76" Standing 1 [same | 106 20Ai tee above mentioned typos of seating aang ments are designed either as cup-type or mechanical- + a ‘pe seating assembly. In some Instances, 8 combh nation of bath ay ao be ud Foradetaled aseipion ad discussion of averages tnd disadvantages of dierent seating arengerents plese vier fo socon a Coating Srangents of Suoourace Sues Rod Pumps" Special designes ave mn on rave ad 6) Working barrel and plunger: 1.3.22 Survey of Standard SBS Rod Pumps For better exposition of the Standard SBS Pump Program, the individual types of rod pumps are { Siscussed once more in detail on the following pages with emphasis on the criteria type of barrel and type of anchoring, For additional information, please refer to the SBS catalogue "Subsurface Sucker Rod Pumps’ oe atest schematically RW Pumps are rod pumps with thinwall precision honed barrel which is provided with cylindrical internal threading. The pumps are designed without extension couplings and equipped with a hard chromiurr-pated metal plunger and a hardened barrel. RW pumps Nave the largest plunger cross section of all rod pumps. Plunger stroke can be set to reduce dead travel to a minimum. This produces high pump efficiency when lifting media with relatively low gas content (see also section 1.5.1 “Free Gas”), In case of sand problems, pressureless sand wiper sets are provided above and below the plunger. As all other types of pumps, RW pumps too can be supplied with many different plunger and barrel designs as well as a variety of special components which are selected according to individual wear {and certasion conditions. For a closer description of these components, please refer to section 1.4 “Pump Components” RW pumps can be supplied with top anchor (RWA) or bottom anchor (WA) and with standing plunger and travelling barrel (RWT). The advantages and disadvantages of different seating arrangements are discussed in section 1.4.4 “Seating Arrangements of Subsurface Sucker Rod Pumps” WT pumps are designed with open vaive cages. This design feature and the fact that liquid can travel during pump operation between tubing and barrel will prevent sediment clogging of the pump fa case of sand containing media, In case of intermittent operation, sand cannot settle inside the pump, but there is a danger of the pump getting stuck inside of the tubing since this type of pump a! Toco [= Gy | BSPARTHO: en wil HTC [RHTM eee s,s Cita — Tease Toe Open SR ase 7 --175 [ease Top Pung Hoe nee = Fs —eotre,Upes Baal ; © gE Coping Steen rz 2-175 [ening Pu Tab, Upp ; 35-15 —[eouping PI Tube Lowe i ee a irreat —|ipaconng mechan Sot | Nave, Sey wire — Pe Pa 5 PaeRa| fue Ba See GeS Pt areas Fiabe oP ‘7-35 | seni ante Cap, Type RR [1 — [0 [= fees ae S$ 12-25, ‘Seating Cup, Type HR. 3_[ 360027 | Stat — [scent eis Regen ee Seas — [sonia cop hte ieee = AL yy (eta [sti Cup Douateg iss [=~ $222 —[relf Does ae | old Devs Saving Bing Soppe— [1 [=e | aaldDoae aS Ei race rae aoe ‘cea esata a its — [wave Sed-ang GaP 1 Sianaing— [1 [aoe [ae -se il a m7 | 1 yh 1h ea | | | C32 _m Pn cn [Hy se \ | _st 82 i Hesw f [we HB — u Pi Fig. 11 Typical bottom-anchored SBS Travelling ey si6 1 Barrel Rod Pump (Type RHT) 22design does not permit the use of a top seal. The use of these pumps in deviated wells and wells with low dynamic level is not recommended. Standard Pump Sizes for RW Pumps: 23h,"x1"/<" (Nominal Tubing Size x Plunger Diameter) Det ig Dpen2" BN a2” RH Pumps are rod pumps with heavy-wall precision honed barrel which is provided with cylindrical external threading. The pumps are designed with extension couplings and equipped with a hard- chromium plated metal plunger and a hardened barrel. The extension couplings permit the plunger to travel past the barrel during pump operation (“stroking through”). This helps to prevent scaling on the barrel inner wall and thus avoid jamming of the plunger. For application in gas containing wells, we recommend RW pumps since they permit maximum utilization of barrel length, i.e. minimization of plunger dead travel Pumps up to a length of 40 feet are commonly used. Because of the heavy-wall barrel, the plunger diameter of RH pumps is smaller than that of RW pumps. RH pumps are predominantly used for high viscosity oils and in all cases where the danger of collapsing requires the use of a heavy-wall barrel RH pumps can be supplied with top (RHA) and bottom (RHB) anchor and with standing plunger and travelling barrel (RHT). Standard Pump Sizes for RH Pumps: 2%/."%1%g" (Nominal Tubing Size x Plunger Diameter) 2x1" 2x1." 2x1" By" x2" RL Pumps are liner pumps. For a description of design and properties, please refer to section 1.3.1.1 “TL Pumps". The good running properties of the plunger in the liner must be weighed against the reduction of effective plunger area. Due to the excellent anti-frictional properties, these pumps have a very good service life even under severe operating conditions which beats the performance of RW and RH pumps under similar or even aggravated conditions. For large setting depths, these pumps are less suitable, because of the greater weight of fluid column which may cause stretching of jacket and misalignement of liners. ‘Types of design: RLA, RLB, RLT Standard Pump Sizes for RL Pumps: 23/"x1"h9" (Nominal Tubing Size x Plunger Diameter) Pherae 2g xh" oa RS Pumps are rod pumps with thin-wall barrel. Because of greater admissible tolerances of barrel inside diameter, such pumps are used in combination with soft-packed plungers. This makes them only suitable for small setting depths without aggravated operating conditions. Types of design: RSA, RSB, RST Standard Pump Sizes: 21g"x14" (Nominal Tubing Size x Plunger Diameter) Dyn ig” 212" By" x2" 23a» 1.8.8 Casing Pumps ‘The design of casing pumps, Fig. 12, Is similar to that of stationary pumps and they can be assembled and disassembled In the same way as the latter, i.e. connected to the sucker rod string and lowered in one piece into the casing. No tubing is used type of installation. Packoff between barrel and casing is provided by a packer either on the top or bottom of the working barrel. Casing pumps permit high production rates from low setting depths, Due to higher loads on the rod string, the achievable setting depth is lower than with tubing pumps. In addition, the use of casing pumps is normally restricted to wells with low or without {gas content. ‘The greatest disadvantage of this type of pump Installation is the fact that buckling of the rod string during down stroke may ‘damage both casing and rod string after a short time only, In case of rod string fracture it is difficult to catch the fractured piece, because the rod string is standing freely in the casing without guides. The installation of rod string guides or a free hanging tubing string for guidance purposes may help to remedy this problem, 1.3.4 Special Designs e@ The above described types and designs of subsurface pumps 1.3.4.1 Pumps for High GasiOil Ratios (SBS Twe Stage Pump) Tho operating principle of this pump is similar to that of a two-stage compressor with low pressure and high pressure stage. The lower chamber below the plunger represents the low pressure stage, the upper chamber the high pressure stage. The pressure increase in the second stage is determined by the ratio of the two plunger areas. By installing a hollow polished plunger rod with a valve at the top end, a second pump chamber is created above the plunger. The seal of the upper chamber between plunger rod and barrel is achieved by a stuffing box at the upper barrel end. The hollow plunger rod is provided with exit openings which connect the plunger chamber to the upper chamber. Fig. 13 shows the schematic design of an SBS Two Stage Pump. During the down stroke, the upper travelling vaive above the valve rod remains closed as long as the pressure in the hollow space of the plunger rod does not exceed the hydrostatic pressure in the tubing string, Oil from the plunger rad chamber keeps flowing into the upper chamber until the point when the diminishing pressure in the hollow space of the piunger rod and the rising pressure in the lower chamber opens the lower travelling valve and oll starts to flow from this chamber into the lower ‘chamber and into the plunger rod. During the upstroke, all plunger valves are closed, Oil flows from the upper chamber into the hollow space of the plunger rod with the pressure rising in the way as 24described above. Now again, the lower chamber is, fitting up with oit. This procedure is repeated untit the point when the pressure in the hollow space of the plunger rod is exceeding the hydrostatic pressure in the tubing string and the upper travelling valve starts to open during the upstroke. A gas lock Is practically impossible with this type of pump. ‘The SBS two-stage pump is recommended in wells: with foaming ols or very high GOR, where production with conventional Insert pumps is no longer possible. Aside from wells with high gasiil ratio, the pump is, also suitable for iow production wells, since even ‘small amounts of oll will already collect in the second chamber. in welis with high gasioil ratio, itis also possible to use an insert pump with an SBS no-lock plunger, especially in cases where gas lock diminished volumetric efficiency. For not too high GOR It is possible to use a top and a lower travelling valve on Tubing pumps. The top travelling valve ts sealing off the fluid Upper Travelting Valve t— valve Rod exit Upper Chamber column pressure of the lower travelling valve and }—— Puunger | therefore that valve can oped and gas (ock is avoided. To lower the fluid flow pressure loss through the standing valve special designs are available; e.g . ower friction ring anchoring assembly designs. tomer ve See also: SBS Gas Anchors etling Var ‘SBS No-Lock Plunger This plunger can be installed in exchange of the { regular plunger and travelling valve arrangement, During downstroke, the hollow plunger tube is moved—in refative terms—ty friction upwards on, i the vaive rod and thus opens—regardiess of the presence of gas—the {ull valve cross section, The | liquid is displaced through the annulus between i + Standing valv i hollow plunger tube and valve rod and through the travelling valve into the tubing. Simultaneously, the load of fluid column is transferred to the standing i valve, making gas lock impossible. Downstroke —Upstroke During upstrote, the hollow plunger tube slides downwards—n relative terms—and closes the valve Fig. 19 SBS Two Stage Pump cross section. The valve seat can be hardfaced. (schematically) 1.3.42 Large Volume Pumps (SBS Large Volume Pump) ‘The increased performance of this type of pump Is the result of a twin plunger system, Ie. a travelling barrel pump and a standing barrel pump installed in a tandem arrangement. ‘This means, achieving a larger effective plunger area with the same size of plunger, a fact solely Fesponsible for the increased performance of this type of pump. Thus, the large volume pump which belongs to the group of rod pumps, combines the easy pulling of conventional rod pumps with a production rate exceeding that of a tubing pump of similar tubing string diameter. 5= et Fig. 14 SBS no-lock plunger Fig. 15 shows the basic design and mode of operation of such a pump. ‘The pump consists of a conventional travelling valve and a standing valve which is designed larger than with regular rod pumps. The travelling barrel of the upper travelling barrel pump is attached to the upper valve. Aiso attached to the valve cage Is a tong pull tube, the bottom end of which holds the plunger of the lower standing barrel pump. The upper pump chamber is reduced by the cross section of this hollow tube (cross sectional area B). The upper plunger is hollow and is connected by the standing pull tube to the pump barrel of the lower standing barrel pump. The barrel of the lower standing barrel pump is attached to the standing valve. It is closed off by a packing box which connects—as already ‘mentioned—the pull tube to the upper standing plunger. The chamber above the lower plunger is connected by bores with the annulus between Pump and tubing and is not engaged in the pumping operation. Upstroke: Standing Barrel Pump (lower part) The plunger is moved upwards by the hollow pull tube. The standing valve ‘opens and the chamber below the lower plunger is filled. The total area A of the standing barrel pump is effective. Travelling Barrel Pump (upper part) ‘The barrel tube is moved upwards. Inside the barrel. and moving with it, is the pull tube which is also connected to the cage of the travelling (upper) valve and moves with the sucker rod string. The travelling valve is closed and liquid Is drawn through the hotfow pull tube and through the openings in the pull tube below the travelling valve into the chamber of the upper pump. A return of fluid between plunger and pull tube is prevented by a sealing arrangement. The effective area is internal cross section of travelling barrel minus external cross section of pull tube. Downstroke: Standing Barrel Pump: ‘The standing valve Is closed and the plunger moving downwards displaces the liquid of the lower chamber through the hollow pull tube and the open travelling valve into the tubing. Travelling Barrel Pump: The barrel which is moving downwards displaces the liquid from the upper chamber through the openings in the hollow pull tube and the open travelling valve into the tubing. Large volume pumps are mainly used for economic production from wells. with high water cut. To maintain economic production from such walls and achieve sufficient intake requires Increasing of either stroke length or the number of strokes. By employing a large volume pump, it is possible to provide the necessary additional production without changing any of the ‘other pumping parameters and save further investments in surface instal- lations. 1.3.4.3 Pumps for High Viscosity Oils We can distinguish several systems and pump installations for pumping the different typ9s of high- viscosity fluids. Its possible, for example, to bring kerosene and solvent into the space below the plunger. In this 6+ UPSTROKE { DOWNSTROKE Travelling Valve Travelling Pull Tube Top (Standing) Plunger Top (Travelling) Barrel ‘Standing Pull Tube Travelling Pull Tube Stuffing Box Openings Traveiting Pump Parts Standing Pump Parts N Tubing Seating Assembly Seating Nipple Fig. 15 Design principle of SBS Large Volume Pump arBottom Discharge Valve — Body |_| Bottom discharge Valve — Cage — Screw-Type Seat |__standing Valve — Cage ‘Standing Valve — Fig. 16 SBS Bottom Discharge Vawe 28 way, viscosity drops by mixing lighter compounds with the high-viscosity oil and the mixture Is thus made pumpable. Such Supportive pumping measures, require however, considerable above ground expenditures. Within certain limits, it is possible to achieve economic production without high extra costs by simply modifying standard Pump types. Compared to standard types, these modified heavy oll pumps show the following alterations: Enlarged sectional area of flow through the use of — smaller valve balls — box type plungers (larger sectional area of flow than pin type plungers) — standing valves of the next larger standard size (if possible) and enlarged clearance between plunger and barrel to guarantee sufficient plunger lubrication and avoid the risk of jamming. By Installing only one standing and travelling valve each, the flow resistance is, being reduced. Due to its high viscosity, the medium imposes high immersion resistance on plunger and sucker rod string. Therefore, these pumps can only be operated with a low number of strokes. Long strokes are of advantage. E.g.: SBS Long Stroke Pumping Unit with 301t. stroke. 1.3.44 Pumps for Oils with Increased Sand Content In this context, we can only show some possibilities of adapting subsurface Pumps and their components in case of sand problems, For more details, please fefer to section 1.5 “Special Pumping Problems”, For pumps which are used in wells with sand problems, the plungers are provided with pressureless SBS Sand Wiping Assemblies. The job of sand wiping assemblies Is to prevent sand particles from entering between plunger and barrel and help in this way to substantially increase pump life. Top anchored pumps are advantageous since they rule out the possibility of pump Jamming through sand settling between tubing string and barrelBottom anchored pumps require the installation of a top seal below the valve rod guide to prevent jamming of the pump due to sand sedimentation. To eliminate the risk of sand seitling between pump barre! and tubing in case of rod pumps with bottom anchor, itis possible to install a SBS Bottom Discharge Valve instead of the regular standing valve (see Fig. 16) The bottom discharge valve consists of two regular ball valves and a bottom discharge vaive body which provides an additional exit for the pumping medium through the barrel into the annulus between barrel and tubing, During the upward stroke, oi! enters into the barrel chamber through the discharge valve just like in case of 2 regular double valve. During the downstroke, the lower ball valve closes and part of the liquid enters through the upper valve and the bottom discharge valve body. On leaving, the liquid flowing upwards flushes the annulus between pump barre! and tubing from sand and any residual salt water and helps in this way also (0 reduce corrosion. 1.3.4.5. Pumps for highly corrosive wells ‘SBS is offering pumps and parts made of special materials; 2.g. stainless steel, plungers made of stainless stee! with metal spray-on layers and other. For special problems please contact SBS Engineering Department. Jacket Busting 1.4 Pump Components 1.44 Barrels Subsurface pump barrels are being manufactured with ditferent designs. Heavy-wall barrels are produced trom coid drawn seamless tubes made ftom various materials for all stroke lengths. ‘Due to their greater wall thickness they possess good retention of shape. A disadvantage with regard to effective plunger area are the barrel inside diameters which ‘compared to thin-wall barrels are smaller. Thin-wait barrels are manufactured from seamless drawn or longitudinally welded tube, Due to their low dimensional stability, the possible barrel length is limited. The smaller wall thickness of this type of barrel also makes them Susceptible to high differential pressures. To achieve higher wear resistance, the running faces can be hardened or hard chromium-plated. Jacket Liner Liner 1.4.1.1 Working Barrels for Tubing Pumps Working bartels for tubing pumps are available in the following designs: — Jacket with liner barret — heavy-wall precision honed barrel — heavy.wail honed barrel to be used in combination ith soft-packed plungers Jacket Bushing Jacket with Liner Barrel ‘This type of jacket design is similar for both tubing (TL) and rod (RL) pumps. Fig. 17 Tubing Liner Barrel 29We can distinguish one piece liners which are rarely used anymore and sectional liners (Fig. 17). The latter consist of cylindrical liner sections (each one foot in length) which are coaxially aligned in the jacket and fixed by bushings at the jacket ends. The advantage of this type of design Is the possibility, to rework or replace individual worn liner sactions. The liners are produced from hardened or hardened and tempered centrifugally cast tube. The internal surface (plunger running face} is precision honed to close tolerances. Excellent running properties can be achieved by combining a centrifugally cast liner with a hard cchromium-plated plunger, especially in case of noncorroding and nonabrasive media. Heavy-wall precision honed barrel for tubing pump (TH) The barrel is Integrated into the tubing string and must be designed with greater wall thickness (1,") than that usual for insert pumps, to meet the total tubing string stress (dead welght, tempe- rature, helical buckling, breathing, tensile stresses if packers or tubing anchors are being used) effective at setting depth. For Special Types (as for high tension loads because of fong tail pipe) special wallthickness is available. The inner barrel face (running face) is precision tioned, ‘etal plungers. The externat barrel threading Is cylindrical according to API Spec. 11 AX, Type C31 (Fig. 18a) \ce very close tolerances are desirable for -em | | flew oo Ty he o 7 Pb oavy-nall barrel for metal plunger TH @ | La | | | 1 heavy-nall barrel {or soft-packed plunger TP © heavy-wall barre! for metal plunger RH thin-walt barra for metal and sottpacked plungers, RW, RS: @ Fig. 18 Working barrels for tubing and insert pumps Heavy-wall honed barre! for tubing pump (TP) This type of barrel is used in combination with a soft-packed plunger. The tolerance requirements for such plungers are not as close as those for metal plungers and a normally honed running face Is, sufficient. With this type, the connecting thread of the barrel is tapered according to API Spec. 11 AX, Type B1 (Fig. 180), 301.4.1.2 Working Barrels for Insert Pumps The following barrel designs are available: — Jacket with liner barrel — heavy-wall precision honed barrel — thin-wail precision honed barre! — thin-walled honed barre! to be used in combination with soft-packed plungers Heavy-wall precision honed barrel for rod pump (RH) The barrel wall thickness is %,” with diameters of 1" and 1¥/”, and '/,” with larger diameters. The barrel seal is metallic at the faces of its cylindrical threading (specified torque!) It is possible to increase plunger stroke by way of screwed on extensions (Fig. 180). Thin-wall precision honed barrel for rod pump (RW) This type of barrel permits maximum plunger diameters and thus maximum production rates. Due to the small wall thickness (‘,"), however, the pumping depth is limited. The barrel is provided with cylindrical internal threading (Fig. 18d) Thin-wall honed barre! for rod pump (RS) Just as the TP type, this barrel is used in combination with soft-packed plungers. This permits again larger internal tolerances, Wall thickness and type of threading is similar to that of RW pumps. Letter | Material Grade Range of Application (without) | Nonhardened il, noncorrosive, without content of abrasive materials, carbon steel H Hardened carbon —_| Oil, noncorrosive, water cut, low contents of abrasive steel materials or Internally hard ll, water cut, low salt water corrosion and high content chromiumplated —_| of abrasive materials carbon stee! KH Hardened, stainiess: high water cut, high salt water corrosion and low steel content of abrasive materials B Admirality brass | Oil, high water cut, high salt water corrosion, without content of abrasive materials, Bor Internally hard il, high water cut, high salt water corrosion and chromium-plated _| content of abrasive materials Admirality brass M Monel Oil, high water cut, for heavy Co,-H,S salt water corrosion, without content of abrasive materials Mer Internally hard Oil, high water cut, for heavy CO;H,S salt water corrosion chromium-plated | and increased content of abrasive materials Monel I Fig. 19 Barrel material grades and range of application with letter designation to be added to SBS catalogue numbers atIn order to find the most economic solution with regard to individual well conditions such as corrosion and wear, it is necessary to select the most suitable material combination for barrel and plunger. The table in Fig. 19 represents a survey of SBS barrel material grades together with the Pertinent range of application. 1.4.2 Plungers Subsurface pump plungers are available as = metal plungers — soft-packed plungers 1.421 Metal Plungers With metal plungers, the sealing effect is achieved without any additional seating elements by a caretully selected close tolerance between plunger and barrel Plungers can be designed as — pin end plunger — box end plunger with either non-grooved or grooved running face (see Fig. 20). LHe |_-n2 Fig. 20. Pin end and box end plungers ‘Through the liquid which collects in the circular grooves of grooved plungers, the lubrication of the plunger is being improved. The sealing effect is not influenced by the circular grooves. If larger amounts of sand or metal particles collect in the grooves which can no longer be carried off by {he il being pumped (which acts as lubricant), it may lead to Increased wear or in extreme cases even to jamming of plunger. The fit between plunger and working barrel depends on the type of medium to be delivered. The parameters influencing the selection of a proper fit are discussed in the Section 1.8 “Selection of Plunger Fit’ ae1.4.2.2 Soft-Packed Plungers Degending on the type of sealing element used, we can distinguish soft-packed plungers with — fingtype sealing arrangement — cuptype sealing arrangement — combination of ring and cup seal For the different types of media to be produced, sealing elements made from leather, rubber-impregnated fabric and various plastic or ceramic rings are avai able. Soft-packed plungers are normally being Used for wells with a depth of 1500 m max. Differential pressures which rise with in- creasing well depth cause deformations and thus increased wear on sealing elements. Sand too, which collects in the sealing elements, may cause premature wear of damage on the working barrel. Just as in the case of barrels, it is also necessary for plungers to select proper materials which meet individual well condi tions. Fig. 22 represents a survey of SBS plunger material grades, material combina: tions and designs as dependent on specific ‘operating cangas. 1.43 VaWves Subsurface pump valves are predominantly designed as ball valves only a few have ringtype valves; e.g. SBS No-Lock Plunger. Depending on the medium to be produced, valves with different material combinations, hardness classes and designs are being vsed. 1.43.1 Valve Cages With regard to design we can distinguish “open” (Fig. 23) and “closed” (Fig. 24) valve cages. “Open” means that intake of liquid and subsequent exit of liquid takes piace through the cage which is open on the sides. “Closed” means that liquld cannot exit from the side of the cage but must flow upwards. Standard valve designs are made of one piece. For abrasive operating conditions, we can supply valve ball guides made from — SS} en \ __ Soft Packing Fig. 21. SBS Sott-Packed Plunger rubber (rubber guided cages) of with corrosion resistant inserts (insert cages). The latter design repre sents a time tested SB5 Insert Valve Cage, with the open insert vaive cage now being provided with ‘a dog which prevents the insert from being misaligned during operation. This type ot design also guarantees correct assembly For abrasive conditions (sand) a open cage type which is inside hardened on hard coated is available. 33Letter | Material Grade Range of Application R Hardened + tempered ll, noncorrosive, without content of abrasive carbon steel materials H Hardened carbon steel ll, noncorrosive, with low content of abrasive materials T Hard alloy-plated ll, noncorrosive, with content of predominantly carbon steel abrasive materials or Externally hard chromium- | Oil, water cut, with low salt water corrosion and plated carbon ste! content of abrasive materials cor Externally hard chromium- | Oil, water cut, with high salt water corrosion and plated stainless steo! content of abrasive materials K Stainless steel, with metal | Oil, high water cut, with increased salt water spray-on corrosion, without content of abrasive materials s Hard alloy-plated ll, high water cut, for severe CO,-H,S salt water stainless steel corrosion and high content of abrasive materials AOK | Aluminium oxide ceramic- | Sait water with residue of oil, severe CO,-H,S salt plated stainless steel water corrosion and high content of abrasive materials, wR Soft-packed plungers, Oil/salt water mixture, predominantly abrasive, very hardened + tempered low salt water corrosion carbon steel with cup-type seal and retaining rings wk Soft,packed plungers, Ollisalt water mixture, predominantly abrasive, stainless steel with cup-type | increased salt water corrosion seal and retaining rings MSR | Sealing ring plunger with __| Oil/salt water mixture, predominantly abrasive, with ‘grooves for holding seal rings, | low salt water corrosion, hardened + tempered carbon steel, with fabric seat Msk — | Sealing ring plunger with | Ollsalt water mixture, predominantly abrasive, with ‘grooves for holding seal increased sait water corrosion rings, stainless steel, with fabric seal Fig. 22 Materials and application ranges for metal plungers with ‘etter designation to be added to SBS catalogue number All individual components are made {rom corrosion resistant special steel grades, with the replace: able insert being subjected to a special heat treatment which greatly improves service life. Aside from this extra quality and operating properties, it should also be mentioned that with SBS insert valve cages, mechanical stresses are reduced by using a smaller valve ball (alternate ball) This positive effect is further improved by a very small ball travel and exact ball guidance In the cage insert, with the sectional area of flow being only slightly smaller than that of conventional valve cages. Fig. 23 shows open, Fig. 24 closed types of valve cages. 34u Fig. 28 Open Valve Cages ones a 4 ak yi Fig. 24 Closed Valve Cages Stainless Ball _— Stainless Ball \ Stainless Seat or _ Stainless Seat on | -" Te-Seat — TCSeat _— Stainless Ball _= Stainless Ball Stainless Seat with 1— Tungsten Carbide (TC) Insert Stainless Ball Fig. 25. SBS flat type and rib type Seat and Ball ToAnsert Seat 35 on both sides.1.4.3.2 Seats and Balls Fig. 25 shows the principle types of SBS valve seat designs. The earlier used rib type seats have been replaced by flat type seats by API;—(SBS is able to supply any rib type) Valve seats can be further distinguished by ball size, Le. — Valve seats with regular ball (normat ball diameter) — valve seats with alternate ball (smaller ball diameter) Flat type valve seats with altemate ball are mainly used for insert valve cages ar in some cases for ‘conventional types of valve cages to increase sectional area of flow. Rib type valve seats can also be supplied with tungsten carbide inserts on both sides. ‘SBS Valve seats and balls can be supplied in different designs and material combinations: |. SBS stainless seat and ball SBS stainless seat with tungsten carbide insert and stainless ball SBS stainless seat with tungsten carbide insert and tungsten carbide ball SBS tungsten carbide seal and stainless ball SBS tungsten carbide seat and ball SBS stainless seat with tungsten-carbide insert and ceramic ball SBS ceramic seat and ceramic ball Special materials on request (e.g. Titanium carbide, amorphous carbon) For details as to valve seat dimensions and ball diameters as well as pertinent SBS part numbers, please refer to our catalouge “SBS Subsurface Sucker Rod Pumps”. The different materials and material combinations of valve seats and balls are selected and matched with the aim of guarantee ing optimum service life under all kinds of operating conditions. Our materials are the result of many years of development and manufacturing experience in the field of corrosion resistant special alloys (upgraded by special heat treatment processes) and special tungsten carbide alloys. Each valve seat is subjected prior to shipment to a final pressure and vacuum test. 1.44 Seating arrangements of subsurface sucker rod pumps Insert pumps are placed into the tubing string as complete assemblies together with the sucker rod string and seated in a special nipple provided for this purpose in the tubing. The following types of seating arrangements, consisting of an anchor (on the pump body) and nipples (shoe) which are part of the tubing string, are being used: a) Cup type seating arrangement b) Mechanical type seating arrangement ©) Combined locking ring + cup type arrangement 4) Combined locking ring + mechanical type arrangement fe) Combined cup type + mechanical type seating arrangements 1.4.4.1 Seating Arrangement ot Pullable Standing Valves in Tubing Pumps (Fig. 6) The lowering and pulling of the standing valves of tubing pumps is catried out by way of the sucker rod string and a bayonet locking mechanism on the plunger (Fig. 6, Item P31). Depending on the type of seating arrangement of the standing valve, we can distinguish tubing pumps with — Mechanical seating arrangement The mechanical type of anchor transfers the pump hold-down forces by frictional and interlocking action. The standing valve with the sectional or one-piece hold-down anchor sits in a tapered bore in the ‘upper part of the hold-down nipple (shoe) and the spring loaded pins of the lower part of the hold- down anchor, which interlock in a bore in the lowor part of the hold down nipple, keep the standing valve positioned, 36‘The mechanical seating arrangement of tubing pumps and the fower mechanical anchor of rod bumps are similar in design and mode of operation. — Cup type seating arrangement Two cups provided on the holdsdown anchor arrest the standing valve in the hold-down nipple and ‘ke@p it fixed in place, To be able to pull the standing valve together with the seating arrangement through the barrel (oF liner), the outside diameter of the cups is smaller than the nominal plunger diameter. — Friction ring seating arrangements To have optimum flow condition through the seating arrangements. For special applications with two friction cings. 1.4.4.2 Seating Arrangement of Rod Pumps Stationary barre! rod pumps can be anchored on — top of pump — bottom of pump — top and bottom (see also section 1.3.2.1 “Types and Design vate Roe Principle: one Travelling barrel rod pumps can be anchored on the bottom of the pump only. Depending on the type of seating arrangement, we can distinguish rod pumps with er Upper mechanical seating arrangement ig. 26) During assembly of the pump, the spring seating ‘cage is forced through the seating ring of a the hold-down nipple (shoe) until the hold down anchor sits flush in the taper of the ook seat seating ring and the springioaded' fingers can shap out again and arrest the pump in place. To pull out the pump, the fingers must | be depressed again by applying axial force, Jn order to get the spring cage through the seating ring. —Lower mechanical seating arrangement ont (Fig. 27) It can be designed similar to the upper mechanical anchor (hold-down anchor with coupling instead of connector) or according to the mechanical seating arrangement of shoe, standing valves in tubing pumps. towed ~ Cup type seating arrangements Fig. 28) i With rod pumps, the hold-down function is carried out by three or more cups. The seating anchor (mandrel) is pressed during assembly of the pump until it sits flush in the seating nipple. The seating nipple Fig. 2¢ Upper mechanical design is similar for both upper and lower seating arrangement aThold-down forces of all types. Locking rings are not recommended, however, for wells with corrosive media. To produce the required frictional lock, these rings are made from deformable materials (brass or monel), which are not suitable for corrosive operating conditions. _— Hold-Down Anchor Hole-Down — Friction ring seating arrangements ee To have optimum flow condition through the seating arrangements and to resist corrosion, For special applications with two friction rings. _- Seating Mandrel NL seating Nipple _- Seating Cup Seating Nipple ~ Seating Cup Ring Fig. 27 Lower mechanical ‘Seating arrangement seating arrangement. In case of the upper Cup Nut seat, a connector is screwed to the working barrel or the extension coupling, in case of the lower seat, a seating cup coupling Is screwed to the seating mandrel. The cup type seating arrangement of tubing and rod pumps differs only with regard to the number of cups used. __-Seating Cup Coupling — Locking ring seating arrangement ‘The locking ring as holddown element is being used in combination with either cup type or mechanical type seating arrangement. One to three, sometimes even more, locking rings are normally provided. This type of Fig. 28 Cup-type seating arrangement produces the largest seating arrangementoy ‘The advantages and disadvantages of the different top and bottom seating arrangements are listed in the table shown in Fig. 29. ‘Advantages: Disadvantages Bottom anchor | Large pumping depth due to Danger of sand collecting in pumps favourable barrel load (hydrostatic | with standing working barrel due to supporting pressure from outside) _| sedimentation in the annulus between pumpitubing By means of an SBS Top Seal (Fig. 40) that can be avoided. Increased danger of corrosion in annulus Top anchor | Collecting of sand is not possible | Low pumping depth because of Little danger of comrosion in the unfavourable barre! load (barrels can annulus between pumpitubing burst) Pump barrel can act a8 gas anchor [ Bottom and top | Greatest pumping depth Loosening of anchor requires anchor | Collecting of sand Is not possibie | Felatively high forces Little danger of corrosion in annulus between pumpytubing Fig. 29 Advantages and disadvantages of different types of seating arrangements 1.44.8 Seating Arrangements by means of SBS-Insert Pump Anchor The subsurface insert pump anchor with wedges permits anchoring of insert pumps at any desired well depth without requiring seating nipples in the tubing string. This type of seating arrangement achieves smaller hold-down forces as mechanical or cup type seating assemblies, as compared to locking spring seating arrangements which achieve the greatest hold-down forces (Fig. 30). 1.4.44 Hold-down and Liftup Forces im Pump Seating Arrangements Subsurface pumps are exposed to forces which elther try to lift the pump from its seating arrangement (lift-up forces) or try to keep it down in its anchoring (hold-down forces). Causes for lift-up forces are — high-viscosity media — friction between plunger and barrel, e.g. in case of a too close fit — well pressure Causes for hold.dawn forces are — hydrostatic pressure of the fluid column — hold-down forces of the seating arrangement itself. Lift-up forces The formation pressure acts on the bottom of the pump plunger which may force the pump from its, ‘seating. This force is calculated by multiplying the data of formation pressure (at pumping depth) with the annular cross sectional area at the lower pump end which is exposed to the pressure acting below the pump. Due to their viscosity, high-viscosity media transfer during the upward stroke forces, from the moving plunger to the standing barrel. If these forces (which are proportional to the viscosity of the medium) exeed the holddown forces, the pump is torn from its seating. The frictional resistance created by the plunger movement in the barrel is equivalent to siiding friction. 38Expanding Spring Upward stroke: 40 — Head Rubber Sleeve Clamping Sleeve ‘Anchor Body Wedges ‘Spacer Ring Locking Arrangement Fig. 30. SBS rod pump anchor Adapter Fe Fu Fett (tA FLA F + Fa Gy Aa The amount of this friction can be calculated from the contact area F,, the coefficient of friction . and the radial pressure P,. For the materials which are commonly used for plunger and barrel—steel, grey cast iron, brass, Monel, chromium and metal carbide platings—we can assume a coefficient of friction of = 0.01005 for oll lubricated surfaces. If water gets in between the sliding faces, this coefficient increases by a multiple. The vaiue most difficult to determine is the radial pressure which is dependent on plunger fit. Therefore, determination of frictional resistance should be based on empirical data or on data gathered from test arrangements. Such tests are of great help in determining all forces acting on or inside ‘of subsurface pumps and make it easier to select the optimum liner (barrel)iplunger fit. Hold-down forces In addition to the hold-down force produced by the seating arrangement itself, the weight of fiuid colum acts on the upper cross sectional area of the pump body. Gi = eahA, ©, N_ Force of weight of fluid column in the tubing string which acts on the pump hom Pump setting depth Kolm Fluid density A, m* Cross sectional area at upper pump end This force is acting downwards. It increases ‘with increasing pump setting depth, with incre asing water cut in the pumped media (greater density) and greater affected area A, (larger plunger diameter, Due to a force lock (e.g. spring in a mechanical anchoring assembly) oF friction lock (e.g. cups in a cup anchoring assembly), the seating arrangement also exerts a hold-down force. If we add this force to the waight of the fluid Column and subtract all occurring littup forces, we arrive at the actuai force which holds down the pump into its seating (anchoring). The following conditions must be met to hold a ump down in its seating (Fig. 31) (Pa — Pad — 0-9. Aya) RHA by RAT LA ALT WA WT Dy (cm) Seat Plug — Inside Diameter {om} Plunger — Outside Biameter D, (cm) Seating Nipple — Inside Diameter Ds (cm) Barre! — Outside Diameter Duc (cm) Max. Seating Assembly Diameter Fig. 31 Schematic representation of hold-down and lttup torces daring the upward stroke Downward stroke: Fue FL~ Gi ~ Fy~ Fa FubF~eg.nay eee 4 HAP a Pa During standstill of pump, the frictional forces and the forces caused by the viscosity of the fluld are no longer acting. ‘The symbols in the above formula stand for: FON Lifting forces caused by well pressure FON Force caused by dynamic viscosity Fe N Frictional force Fu oN Hold-down force created by seating arrangement GN Weight force of fiuld cofumn in tubing string Pa.s Dynamic viscosity of pumped medium ‘Am? Plunger surface area being moved (moved cylinder surface) Aq m* Contact area during plunger stroke A, om Cross sectional area at the upper pump end vy mis Plunger velocity m Thickness of fluid im between plunger and barret 1 Coefficient of friction P,, Pa Pretension caused by radial pressure P, Pa Internal pressure 2 alm? Density of pumped medium bh m_—_ Pump setting depth 0.001 in. Fit (Clearance) a1.48 Accessories Accessories for oi and natural gas production include among others all kinds of elastic sealing ‘efements in the form of pressed or moulded components with high resistance to abrasive wear, resistance to swelling and temperature resistance, made from materials such as: Natural rubber NR. Styrene-butadiene rubber SBR. Nitrite rubber NBK (Perbunan) Chioroprene CR (Baypren, Neopren) Polyurethane (Adeprene) ‘or other materials. All pressed and moutged components can be manufactured on request according to customer speci fication or drawing. In addition, the manufacturing program includes the following special items: 1. Sucker Rod Catcher Combined design for rods and couplings as well as for all other diameters on the sucker rod string in 2%," to 4%," tubing, 2. Plunger Couplings (On-Off Attachements) Plunger couplings are available in corrosion resistant and high tensile steel designs and ‘guarantee a reliable connection between plunger and sucker rod string. They make it possible for tubing pumps to assemble the plunger together with the pump, eliminating the need of assembling the plunger to the rod string in a Subsequent operation—thus ruling out the danger of damaging the plunger surface. 3. Discharge Couplings With salt water proof bursting plugs for bursting pressures from 60 to 220 bar. Can be supplied for 2%" to 4'fp" tubing 4. Tubing Discharge Valves For discharging of tubing string. Available in different designs. 5. Rod Rotators To have a uniform wear on sucker rod couplings, protectors and on plungers and therefore to extend their lifetime the string can be rotated slowely by a SBS Rod Rotator. 1.5 Special Production Problems ‘Special production problems with subsurface sucker rod pumps will be encountered if the pumping medium contains free gas or sand. 1.51 Free Gas One of the major problems in oil production is the content of free gas. Its influence is most apparent in the efficiency of subsurface pumps as shown in Fig. 32 The term efficiency stands here for the ratio of volume of olf detivered with each stroke to volume of effective plunger displacement. In case of completely dissolved gas, efficiency runs along the line CBA. If pumping takes place with all gas breaking out of solution (bubbling), efficiency is consider- ably reduced (see line FB). Between lines CB and FB, all variations are possible depending on the amount of free gas being pumped. After point B pump intake pressure has risen to such a level that free gas will no longer occur. Following below is a survey of parameters which influence volumetric pump efficiency and thus the actual amount of oil being produced. Fig. 83 shows a graphic representation of the pumping of gas-liquid mixtures. The determination of theoretically possible pumping rate in the pumping of gas-oi! mixtures is accomplished by the following equations (according to Haddenhorst and Horn). a2Efficiency 1 i 1 t t rl 1 t ' t 1 1 Bubble Point pressure P,, Intake pressure Fig. 92 influences of free gas on pump efficiency a) Condition at pressure P, (Fig. $2) Va + Vou = Vat Vp b) Condition at pressure P, (Fig. $2) Va + Vou = Vo+ Vp ©) Adiabatic compression of free gas Va=P2V% 4) According to the definition of m Ne Vou ©) Alter reaching pressure P; (Fig. 39) only part of the gas-oil mixture in the bartel (Vi + Vis ke. Vs Is being pumped, OF the latter too, only a part (Voy) is present as liquid phase. The volume of all, Voy, pumped with each stroke is ta the Cota oll volume Voy which is present in the barrel as ¥, (8 (0 the total volume Va, + Vay during the time in which pressure P, is being reached in the bare poder lata -—] Vv, 3—s Lmet myPiP, +1 Thus, the ratio of volume of oll pumped with each stroke and plunger displacoment is established as a function of m, s, and PP, The symbols used stand for: Va om? = Volume of free gas in the barrel at pressure P, (Plunger position at dead center I) Vg om*........ Volume of free gas in the barrel at pressure P, (Plunger position at dead center Il) Vou em? . Volume of oil in the barrel at pressure Py Voy em*........ Volume of oil in the barrel at pressure P, ryI Dead Centers I I Dead Centers I Yet on Fig. 33 Schematical representation of the pumping of gas-liquid mixtures m4 Ve. ratio volume of free gas to volume of oil in the bartel at intake pressure P, {not to be contused with production gasiot ratio) KT ecsseseese Gy ratio of specitic heats P, bar Initial pressure (Plunger position at dead center 1) PL bar «Final pressure (Counter pressure acting on exit valve) s 4 ee ratio of dead space and total volume of pump barrel (Vs + V,) Va om®........ Dead space {Vou em*stroke «Volume of cil pumped with each stroke ve" om? Effective plunger displacement VE cmiistroke |. Volume of ot and Gas pumped with each stroke at pressure Py 1 bar = 105 Pa ‘According to this equation, the ratlo of initial pressure and end pressure Py/P, influences the expected production rate, This fact Is utilized in the application of two or three stage subsurface pumps (e.g. SBS Two Stage Pump). Here, a muiti stage compression of the pumping medium is taking place in the course of the pumping process in compression chambers, the volume of which is being reduced from stage to stage (see above). In order to achieve a favourable pump efficiency. two demands must be met 1. The ratio of dead space and total volume must be kept as small as possible. 2. The content of free gas in the medium being pumped must be as low as possible at pumping depth. The ratio of dead space and total volume can be reduced by the following measures: a) Maximum stroke length, b) Reduction of dead space, e.g. by installing travelling valve at bottom) ond of plunger. ©) Selection of special pump types (no double valves), 4d) Exact setting of pumps. 44Gas Separator Anchor Cage {otake Tube Deposited Sand Fig. 34a Schematic sketch of simple gas anchor Spill Tube Fig. 340 Schematie sketch of “packer” gas anchor Fig. 34 Schematic sketches of different lypes of gas anchors, | anchor cage Pump Barrel Fig. 340 Schematic sketch of submerged anchor | Tubing String Coupling LS exit openings | Anchor Cage Intake Tube FA— cottar Fig. 34d ‘Schematic sketch of shieldtype gas anchor 45‘The content of free gas can be lowered by: }__ Tubing a) Setting of pump at greater depth. Thread ') Separation of free gas prior to entering into the pump by provision of gas anchor and gas removal from annulus (SBS Gas Anchor). 15.1.1 Gas Separation All of the gas anchors used show the same operating principle. The separation of gas and oll is achieved by making use of the difference in density between gas and Tiquid, ie. the force of gravity p = Hiatus gas anchor p The pump isinstalled below te casing perforation. This ‘method is not suitable in case of high sand content or high pump intake pressure. — Simple gas anchor (Fig. 34a) The gas-oil mixture rises up to the setting depth of the {928 anchor. In this process, gas bubbles are formed in dependence on pressure, flow rate and viscosity of the mixture, The largest portion of gas is being separated at the dynamic oil level, a smaller portion enters into the anchor eage. In the anchor cage, gas bubbles travel upwards and form a gas cushion, from which relatively large bubbles evade through the upper opening, Since separation takes place in dependence on flow rate, the annulus cross section between casing and cage or the annulus In the anchor cage must be as large as Possible, with the latter solution yielding better result. Gas anchors of this type are, for example, the “poor boy” anchors or the improved poor boy version, the “marsh” anchers. J y — Submerged anchor Fig. 340 900 mm a5, es With submerged anchors, separation of gas and oil takes place in the annulus between anchor cage and Pump. The separation capability of this type is interior Tubing to that of the marsh anchor. Itis only suitable in case ot Thread high gas solubility in oif or with strongly foaming oils. ‘An anchor of this type, for example, is the “immersio gas anchor. Fig. 35 SBS Cup-Type — Packer-type gas anchor (Fig. 340) eee By providing a packer above the perforation, the casing ‘space is sealed off and the gas-oil mixture is fed into a spill tube between casing and tubing string. The gas is rising upwards in the casing space and oll flows downwards to the pump suction side. To achieve proper gas separation, the pressure inside the spill tube should be as low as possible. Therefore, pump and gas anchor must be installed closely below the dynamic level or the spill tube must be designed extra long, In case of difficult well conditions, a counter pressure valve may be installed below the pump, — Shield-type gas anchor (Fig. 340) With shield-type gas anchors, the casing space is also sealed off below the pump by providing a collar, The gas-oil mixture is flowing into the annular space between anchor cage and suction 46tube. Now, gas flows upwards through the exit openings and oil flows. downwards and enters the pump through the suction tubes above of the collar. Due two the double change in direction of the pumping medium, the efficiency of the shield-type gas anchor is quite good. In case of damages to the collar, however, the anchor looses its efficiency; in addition, the anchor may jamm in case of sand collecting on the collar. — SBS Cup-Type Gas Anchor (Fig. 35 In principle, it consists of a double-walled tube, with the outer tube which is shaped as shown in Fig. 34, being screwed to the tubing string ‘The principle mode of operation may be gathered from the schematic drawing shown in Fig. 36. The oil-gas mixture is drawn through the ‘cups of the gas anchor Into the gas chamber formed by these cups and the internal suction pipe. ‘The gas, being lighter, rises upwards in the annulus and is sucked off at the top. The heavier oll travels downwards and is taken in through the suction pipe which is screwed to the standing valve and delivered to the top by the pump. To achive sufficient degassing, the gas anchor can be extended (normally three times of a single length), Regarding the efficiency of cup-type gas anchors, the same applies as with shield-type gas anchors, with the disadvantages being elimi- nated, however, by the special design of the SBS cup-type anchor. Any sand that may be carried with can settle at the bottom of the closed tubing which is screwed to the suction pipe. 1.8.2 Sand Problems The fact that sand is being carried with the oil from the formation may have two causes: — the reservoir rock formation is insuificiently consolidated (binding matrix Is lacking or destroyed by acidizing) — the flow rate of the pumping medium is too high. ‘The negative influence of sand on the pump is a rapid abrasive wear of plunger, barrel and valves, Jamming of the plunger or—in case of rod pumps—"“cementing” of the pump into the seat or into the tubing string. If, for reasons of technical or economic nature, sand cannot be consolidated or filtered off (gravel pack) at the formation itself, attempts are made to keep sand away from the pump by slotted liners or sand filters. or to protect the pump by other means against. the negative effects of sand penetration. Experience has shown, that because of less fluctuating (intermittant) flow throw the formation around the well ‘ess sand is mobilized, if long strokes (e.g. SBS Long Stroke Pumping Units with 30 f. stroke) are used; also at the same production rate. The following measures can be employed for the protection of pumps (s00 also Fig. 36) — Installation of slotted liner or sand filter — Utilization of gravel pack — Protective measures at the pump — Solidification of sand at the formation (consolidation) SS SSS See Fig. 96 SBS Cup-Type Gas Anchor (Installation)Seeceel Horizontally Vertically Fitter Prepacked slotted slotted made from filter liner liner wire mesh A) Various types of sand filters Plastic-reinforced sand filter | Wash Pipe |- Extra Gravel Liner Filter Tube Open Check Valve Closed Check Valve Flushing of Gravel is forced Complete charging _—_Gravel and liner perforation through perforation with gravel; Flushing during production of Liner (wash pipe is replaced) B) Execution of gravel pack Fig. 37 Sand protection measures, schematically 1.5.2.1 Slotted Liners and Sand Filters ‘The installation of slotted liners or sand filters is aimed at filtering the sand out of the pumping medium prior to its entering the pump. Design of slotted liner A slotted liner consists of a tube which is provided with a number of exit openings of different shape ‘and position. Good results were achieved with slots which open in flow direction, i, slots with trape- Ziodal cross section. In addition, a wire wrapping is also widely employed. The size of openings depends on the grain size of the sand which Is to be kept out, Application of slotted liner Since slotted liners alone will yield only poor efficiency, they are often used in combin: ‘gravel pack. In case of gravel packs, a sand packing of specific graining Is tlushed in with a carrier fluid between formation and casing or between casing and slotted liner (see also below), 48Design of sand filter A sand filter consists of a slotted liner and a sand jacket of exactly matched grain size. The sa jacket is resin bonded. Thus, with defined grain size, the sand filter possesses specific permeabil {and porosity and the forming of preferential flow channels is not possible. To protect the sand jack from damage, it is provided on the outside with plastic or stee! reinforcement. ‘Similar filters are also made from ceramics, metal carbides, porous carborundum or porous plas’ compounes. Assembly of filters Filters are assembled either directly in the tubing string or “lost”, I.e. on @ packer, liner hanger catcher without any connection to the tubing string. The latter mode is recommended, to Keep « tubing string vibrations caused by the pumping cycle from the filters. In addition, the second mo: of assembly permits pulling of the tubing string without disassembly of filters. 1.5.2.2 Utilization of Gravel Pack A gravel pack consists of flushing in a sand packing with a carrier fluld between formation and casit oF between casing and slotted liners (or sand filters). In case of open hole completion, it is flush In between liner (or sand filter) and formation. ‘A successful execution of gravel packs is determined by three parameters: 1. Well matched grain size of gravel material in accordance with formation pressure, 2. Complete and thorough charging of gravel, ie. provision of sufficient clearance. 3. Selection of suitable type of slotted liner. Ad 2. Ne bridging may take place during charging at any point of the flow channel. Since brid will most likely occur at the perforation holes, make sure (0 flush perforation well prior charging, Ail solid particles or fluids contained in the gravel pack aside {rom packing sand must be ful compatible with the formation fluld and easily washed off by the latter. Gravel should always be flushed in from bottom to top, in particular in case of large carrier to avoid pocket formation and guarantee that no residual formation sand is left at any poi of the space to be filled with gravel. Ad 3. The siot’size of the liner is mainly dependent on the grain size of gravel, ie. the slots mu prevent the smallest possible grain of gravel from entering. It is recommended, therefore, design slots smaller that the smallest grain. The outside diameter of the siotted liner beir installed may only be as large that an annular space of five times the diameter of individu grains of gravel Is left between liner and casing or, in case of open hole completion, betwee formation and liner. in the pertinent literatur, this thickness of the gravel jacket is describ« as minimum thickness to guarantee bridging of formation sand. For more details and other sand protection measures, please refer to the large body pertinent literature. 1.5.2.8 Preventive Measures at the Pump @) Protection against abrasion ‘The only protection against rapid abrasive wear is selecting a materiat with extremely hard and we resistant surface. b) Protection against jamming of plunger — Fit I grains of sand penetrate between plunger and barrel, they will produce scores and increas: ‘wear, and may even lead {o jamming of plunger. To keep the amount of grains penetrating the annular space to a minimum, the annulus should be as small as possible, Le. the fit sho. bbe very close. Another way of preventing jamming of plunger would be to make the annulus : large as possible, to provide for quick and safe passing of sand grains and simultaneously * sufficient lubrication (see Section 1.6)50 Ft #1 1 — Stroking-Through Pumps (RH, AL) Formation of scores or scales at the top or bottom dead center may cause jamming of plunger at the slightes change in stroke, To avold this, the plunger must travel with each stroke past the barrel ends (also possible with TL and TH pumps). Part 1. Plunger Body Part 2. Seating Cup Part 3 Seating Cup Ring Part 4 ....... Seating Cup Nut Part 5 Connector Part 6 = Plunger Body Part7 ....... Threaded Seating Cup Ring Part 8 Optionally with Lock Nut (for rod pumps) or Bushing for Puller Assembly (for tubing pumps) — Sand Wiper Set (Fig. 38) ‘SBS Sand Wiper sets are used for both tubing and rod pumps which are operated in wells with sand problems. The can be employed in barrel as well as liner pumps. ‘The task of the sand wiper set is to effectively prevent sand particles from penetrating between plunger and barrel or liner, thus having a very positive effect on the extension of service lite. The plunger body with three cups (Fig. 38, Items 1—5} is installed between the pin or box plunger and the open valve cage (without valve) located above. Below the travelling valve at the bottom end of the plunger or (in case of tubing pumps) between travelling valve and puller assembly, a plunger body with cup is installed instead of the valve seating ring. Mode of operation: The upper plunger body is provided with three pressureless cups. These cups prevent sand particles during the upward stroke of the pump from penetrating between plunger and barfel (Winer). In addition, sand is aiso prevented from entering during idling of the pump. This sand wiper function can be carried out by these three plunger cups even after prolonged time of running. The lower plunger body also effectively prevents sand particles from entering between plunger and barrel by its downwards directed plunger cup. Part 1... Plunger Body Part 2 |_| Seating Cup Part 3 __. Seating Cup Ring Part 4... Seating Cup Nut Part 5... Connector Part 6 |. Plunger Body Part 7 .\. Threaded Seating Cup Ring Part 8 |. Optionally with Lock Nut (for rod pumps) or Bushing for Puller Assembly (for tubing pumps) Fig. 98 SBS Sand Wiper Set on box plungerSBS sand wiper sets are available for plunger diameters above 1"/,". f — Valve Rod Guide with Spoot (Fig. 39) To prevent sand trom entering during ide times between plunger and barrel of rod pumps and therefore “sanding fa of the pump, SBS Valve Rod Guides with Spoots are being used. During pump operation, the spoof is moved up and down together with the plunger. During idle time, the spool forms a seat together with the connector piece (below valve tod guide) and prevents sand from depositing inside the pump. |_— spoot ©} Protection against jamming of pump If sand collects between pump batrel and tubing string, = there is the danger of the pump being cemented Into the — Fae tubing string. In this case, sucker rod string and tubing 1 string must be pulled together if the pump Is to be disas sembled Fig. 39 Valve Rod Guide with Spoot The following possibilities exist to prevent sediment clogging of pumps: 2} — The rod pump is provided with top anchoring F1 arrangement, —A pump with travelling barrel and stationary lunges is used. — A.smail amount of pumping medium is branched Off through a SBS Bottom Discharge Valve ito the annulus between tubing and pump barrel — In case of bottom anchored pumps, an additional SBS Automatic Upper Sand Seal (Top Seal) can be installed, By providing such a top seal, it is possible to also ‘use pumps with stationary barrel and bottom anchor in wells where the sand content of the pumping medium woud normatly lead to sedimenting in of the pump. With the aid of a top seal itis possible to fully utliize the advantages of this pump design. ‘SBS Top Seal (Fig. 40, Top seat) ‘That top seal prevents sand particles from entering into the upper part af the pump and into the annulus: between tubing and pump by way of rubber sealing efoments. Openings provided below these sealing elements serve 10 equalize the pressure in the annulus between liners and tubing string, to produce hydr static support at the outside of the linets. The top seal is designed to permit assembly and disas- sembly together with the pump without any damage to the sealing element. Adaptor Bushing Packing Element collar Mandeet Feiction Ring (Grass) Bumper Nut Seat Bushing ‘The advantages of top seals are: —A threaded insert facilitates easy removal of sealing element from the tubing string during dis assembly of pump. Fig. 40 SBS Top Seal— A locking ring keeps the top seal in position after the sealing element has expanded. — Openings below these sealing elements equatize the pressure in the annulus between liner and tubing. — The pump is secured against twisting with respect to the sucker rod string by a number of grooves. ly large cross section permits the well fluld to flow past the top seal during dis- assembly of the pump, Function ct Top Seat With the pump being anchored, the weight of the sucker rod string pushes the sealing mandrel downwards, compressing the sealing element and sealing off the tubing. This axial force acting on the sealing mandrel forces the locking ring into a necking and arrests the sealing efement in place, During disassembly of the pump, the sealing element is pulled away from the tubing by lifting the Shreaded insert, The large openings in the lower bushing permit the pumping fluid to pass below the Sealing assembly during disassembly of the pump from the well. The sealing element remains in that Position and the pump can be removed by a slight pull since it is not weighed down by the fluid ‘column. SBS top seals are manufactured for tubing sizes 2%”, 2114" and 3%" 1.8 Selection of Pump Size The basic parameters for pump size selection are desired production rate and required setting depth, For the combination production rate/setting depth, a pump size (plunger diameter) must be deter- mined which lies in the range of achievable stroke lengths (h,) and stroke numbers (n). (See also. Chapter 5 "Calculation Procedures for Determining the Size of Subsurface Sucker Rod Pumps”) A limitation of plunger diemeter is already resulting from the available or intended tubing size. Fig. 41 represents a survey of respective tubing and pump sizes for pump types classified according to API Standard. Pump Type | Tubing Size (inches) 19 2, 2h, 3, Plunger Diameter (inches) AL = The. Te 2th RH the th 2 - 2M Bly RW 1M mm |2 2M, 2 3% RS mw, {2 2 = — | 1 = 2 2 a 3 ™ = 2% a . ah | 1P 2% 2, = = Fig. 41 Maximum pump size as dependent on pump type and tubing size The theoretical production rate of subsurface pumps is derived from: Oy = 729.104 dy For the determination of effective production rate, volumetric efficiency nj.) must also be considered, IIs defined as the ratio of volume produced to displacement of pump. owe ae 62= € : = s e s si 2 ela ws o =| [20 2 2 g aff 2 8 2 § g 2) bes 2 3| F 5 3 = sf a & aa = Fis Plunger diameters in inches pea ea ees Urea ence ree wy 2 yu y w Fig. 42 Nomogram for the determination of production rateZee a eto we soe arpa eh aeThe effective production rate V, is deter 729. 10-4. Bye ‘The symbols used stand for Vex mld theoretical production rate Vy mid effective production rate 4, inch plunger diameter hy cm effective plunger displacement stroke 2 min~* number of strokes ‘The determination or calculation of volumetric efficiency Ma 1S very complicated due to the great number of influencing variables. 41 is mainly determined by: |. Viscosity of pumping medium Free gas content in pumping medium, see also Chapter 1.5.1 “Free Ga: Water cut of pumping me Bubbling during intake Pump intake pressure . Fit between pump plunger and barrel Dead travel of pump ‘Wear condition of pump sealing faces Pumping rate In practical applications it is ofter not possible to calculate ,., from individual variables because the latter change continuously with the amount of fluld being delivered. It is common practice to either rely on the experience made in nearby wells or oll fields or to work with average vaiues of hot = 0.75. . 08, ‘A’nomogram for the determination of production rates is shown in Fig. 42. Pump selection includes the following determinations: 1. Type of pump according to operation parameters 2. Type of material for barrel, plunger and valves depending on component stresses and corrosive land abrasive attack of pumping medium. 4. Type af fit between plunger and barrel depending on viscosity as well as amount and grain size distribution of solid particles in the pumping medium. 4. Length of plunger depending on viscosity of the pumping medium, fit (clearance) and setting depth. Atable for selection of pump type and materials is shown in Fig, 43. 1.7 Sources of Pump failure Failures or drops in production rate of subsurface pumps are caused by damages inside of the plungerfbarrel assembly, at the valves, or at the pump seating arrangement, Premature wear on barrel or plunger is often the result of incorrect fit. The proper clearance can normatly be determined by field tests only. Jammed plungers are the result of an excessive content of solid particles in the pumping medium or caused by secondary foreign matter, Le. particles which have entered during changing of the pump. Excessive wear an cups or sealing rings of soft-packed plungers are otten an indication of an excessive pressure difference at the plunger, i. an excessive delivery head. Fracture of sucker or plunger rods as well as inexpert handling of pumps during assembly may cause mechanical damages of sealing and running faces of plunger andlor barrel. Valve failures are mainly caused by excessive or uneven wear due to erosion of covrasion phenomena, resulting from solid particles which have penetrated between seat and ball. Valve balls which are too heavy, may lead to deformation of the ball andlor seat face and consequently to 58bursting of the seating ring. Other possible causes for failure are clogging of valves and/or valve guides by rubber particles or other foreign matter, or by rust scales left behind from scraping or Wireline operations. Fallures or drops in production rate due to defect pump seating arrangements are also quite ‘common. Corrosive or mechanical damages are the major causes for such defects. 1.8 Selection of Plunger Fit The performance of metal plunger subsurface sucker rod pumps can be characterized as a function of fit clearance between plunger and barrel. The fit clearance determines — leakage losses along the plunger, and thus — amount of lubricant for the sliding plunger, — minimum grain size of sand which can still penetrate the annular clearance between plunger and barrel . — and finally, the freedom of motion of the plunger inside the barrel, ‘The leakage loss reduces the volumetric efficiency of subsurface pumps. Compared to other factors, however, it must not necessarily have a major influence on the overall efficiency of a down hole pump. The leakage loss is influenced by the fit clearance between plunger and barrel, by the differ ential pressure by the plunger length and by the viscosity of the pumping medium. The increase of leakage loss is not of great importance for the pumping operation, as long as it does, not cause a marked drop in pump efficiency. Since leakage loss Is directly proportional to differential pressure or delivery head and reversed proportional to plunger length, it is necessary in practical application to increase the sealing area by increasing the plunger length according to the following rule of thumb: 12" for each 300 m of delivery head. To guarantee sufficient lubrication, plunger length should, however, not exceed 6 feet. The correlation of fit, leakage loss and delivery head is shown in Fig. 44. It is quite apparent by this, diagram that leakage loss is small with narrow fit clearance. It increases with smaller plunger diameters, since delivery rate decreases, in proportion with plunger area and thus with the second power of diameter, whereas leakage loss decreases only proportionally with diameter. Thus, referred to total displacement, the amount of leakage loss is rising. Aside from the leakage loss, the annulus between plunger and barrel also determines the grain size of sand particles which may penetrate. Therefore, the fit clearance also has a certain influence on the production possibilities of subsurface pumps with regard to abrasive media. ‘The smallest possible clearance between plunger and barrel is determined by viscosity, since a certain amount of leakage is required for proper lubrication. If the pump Is not provided with this, required minimum clearance from the side of manufacture, it will quickly be produced by operational wear. This wear, however, will rapidly reduce service life. Formulas to calculate Slipage, Fit and Plunger Length: V mid ........ necessary slipage rate to have proper lubrication of the plunger usualy 2% of the pump production at 100% efficiancy). Ap Nim? or Pa... pressure difference between the plunger ends (fluid pressure to tift the Production fluid to surface + Line pipe pressure — pressure in annulus tubinglcasing Lom plunger length dom - plunger nominal diameter am Fit (is giving the difference of actual plunger diameter and barrel diameter; therefore: Fit Is giving two times the actual clearance around the plunger) # Pas ....... dynamic viscosity 562000 1800. ‘604 a] e888 sara ovrtha nba a FT { 260 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1400 2000 2200 2400 2600 ~ er ca Fig. 44 Leakage loss of a subsurface pump with a plunger of 1%" aia. and 48" length at 1 oP oll-viscosity Conversion factors: tmid 62000 $eTia BBs = 0.1590 md Nim’ = 1 Pa=14804.10-" ps! {pal = 86048. 40" Pa im 99.3707 in tin, =0.0054'm 1Pa.s 10! oP tee 21.10? Pa.s according to Hagen Poiseulls: + ve [nance {or plunger conditions that is: 404, (4)° 1 v= Pon ($) an (012 = integral constant) a the slipage Is actualy only during the up-stroke: o0164..4°.4.424 (o's) eee 3 3 1.414 10h, 40-84 (nid) La 87calculated for Fit (4 (rm) (mm) and a final formula is found which allows to see what is changing wien a parameter is changed (considering the slipage to stay constant} fe L..+- plunger length Ais Fit K.... Constant ‘Additionaly it should be pointed out, that by using SBS Sand Wigers the Fit can be defined without thinking of sand grain size as then no sand is entering the clearance. With properly selected clearance, the faces which run against each other during break-in of the pump will be smoothened and hardened and thus become more wear resistant. With insufficient lubri- cation, excessive wear will produce rough surfaces and strongly affect certain areas. Thus, proper breaking in cannot be achieved anymore. There is no generally applicable data to be specitied for minimum clearance. It is dependent on dimensional accuracy of interacting components, quality of surface finish and viscosity of pumping medium. {In case of a well which erupts from time to time, the minimum clearance required for sufficient lubri- cation must be selected larger than in case of a well operated only by pumping motion. During eruption, differentia’ pressure in the annulus between plunger and barrel is equal to zero. Thus, there is no cif flow and supply of lubricant is insufficient. Lubrication takes place only by adhesive oll which requires a larger clearance for proper functioning, Practical experience has also shown that the friction between plunger and barrel is largely responsible for the maximum delivery rate for rapid pumping and pumping at the upper production limit of a pumping installation. In such cases too, It is necessary to provide a larger clearance, to ensure free running of plunger. A clearance which Is too small will cause friction which in turn will lead to compressive stresses, buckling of rod string and shortening of effective stroke length, As a result, this may lead to fracture of rods and lower production rates. In case of a wider clearance, the drop in volumetric efficiency is often compensated by an increase in effective stroke. Tolerances and clearances of subsurface pumps are laid down in API Specification 11AX.CHAPTER 2 SUCKER ROD STRING 2.1 Manufacture of Sucker Rods and Couplings 24.4 Sucker Rods ‘The various steps of production in the manufacture fo sucker rods are shown in the flow chart of cs az Ld! ras 2 L4 = | Cs = i [= Lovetinecion_| Fig. 45 Flow chart for SBS Sucker Rod Production API Specification 11 8 does not deal with essential parameters such as steel melting, hot forming, type of heat tretment, guarantee measures for coaxiality of upset rod ends and rod proper, straighten: ing procedures and quality control measures, leaving them for the manufacturer to decide. Particular attention must be paid here to proper manufacturing technology, since the latter will greatly influence the service fife of sucker rods. Depending on the grade selected, melting of steel for sucker rods takes place in electric arc furnaces. or by other melting processes, ‘The forging process for SBS types is optimized with regard to temperature and degree of deformation to achieve an extra fine-grained structure, Testing for hardenability (Jominy specimen) and micro- structure are cartied out for each lot of rolled rod stock. Upsetting of threaded rod ends is carried out in several steps. The upsetting dies used are designed to guarantee already at the point of upsetting the coaxiality of rod and rod end. ‘The formation of micro-structure is largely determined by closed adherence to deformation parameters, such a8 upsetting force and even temperature distribution in the upsetting zone. Low-alloyed steels show better plastic properties in upsetting operations than high-alloyed steels, ‘This is confirmed also by the results of hot torsion tests. 59Fig. 46 Process steps in the upsetting of threaded rod ends Grain flow of rod end Special attention is being paid to optimize grain flow, in order to achieve good reverse bending fatigue properties. Fig. 47 shows such a streamlined grain flow. Designation of rads is applied by way of hard stamping to API specification, when the component Is still in forging heat. The designation Includes the manufacturer's symbol (SBS), nominal size of rod, “II BY for API Spec Il B or the APL-monogram, API-Grade, an Identification code mark to identify the product with respect to heat number, metallurgical treatment, time of manufacture and for special applications the SBS-type. After stamping of sucker rod has been completed, the rod is heat treated. Depending on requirements and type of material, it consists of a normalizing or hardening and tempering treatment. To garanty exact straightness, the rods are subjected to a straightening process after heat treatment. For details on straightening methods of SBS sucker rods, please refer to section 2.1.4 “High Torsion Stretch-Straightening After straightening, the surface of SBS sucker rods is subjected to a peening process, to improve the endurance strength. After peening, each rod is tested by a magnaflux test. In this test, each rod is magnetized over the whole length and iron powder is poured over the entire length of the rod. Any disturbance in the magnetic field by surface defects of the tested material will cause an accumula- ion of iron powder at the damaged spot and thus lead to visual detection. The next step of produc- tion is machining of the rod ends. To avold notches which may cause fatigue fracture, threads are produced by cold rolling, 60ee SSS erie ie t= W ee Nominal size ‘Width Length. [shoulder | Full form | Pin — CULT LF shat Lenath fare diameter diameter . os, . icc [om [Foot [mm [inch % [10 [os [700 | 1m [mm Joseea | ra80 Jor oe mo |e | mf [toe | na [ee 1 im [me aaa [ a 1 [asa wae [mde 13708 [1876 1 [ass amano Tolerances | 42° [Minimum | ari “002 7. “000 Fig. 48 Sucker Rod Dimensions Matching pony rods are also produced in standard lengths 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 feet. Finally, al! rods are coated with corrosion inhibiting paint in the following colours to distinguish dit ferent SBS sucker rod types: M125 red N2P green ‘S200h/HNC yellow ‘ARDS. ‘grey Additionaly coding colors according to the 23rd edition, October 1, 1989 of API Spec II B are used: SBS Type ‘API Color Code API Grade VM 125 white ° Nop blue K $200n yellow D HNC orange Fig. 49 API Color Coding Material control and final inspection covers both determination and control of characteristic mechanical values and careful dimensional inspection. Thread inspection Is carried out according to API Specification 11 B with a go and no-go gauge. Fig. 49 gives major sucker rod dimensions. The pin threads are carefully lubricated with thread grease, the coupling threads are protected with ‘a phosphate coating to prevent galling and then treated with thread grease. 6Fig. 50 Machining of pin, thread rolling and thread control with API gauges Protection of pin threads from damages is obtained on one end by the coupling and on the other by a threaded plastic cap. In addition, for protection of internal threads, the coupling is closed with a plastic plug To avoid damages during transportation, sucker rods are placed in sturdy wooden frames provided with suitably spaced circular recesses which guarantee that rods cannot be knocked against each other or damage each other in other ways (see also section 2.8 “Handling and Transportation of Sucker Rod: ‘To save space, rod arrangement is stepped. Two strong eyelets are provided for securing crane hooks Fig. 52) 62Fg. 5t Welghs and dimensions of packaging units fo erent rod sizes nos [tg [eco [wat [tow [oross un Tous | see Par plec| perunt | weight [weight (weight | atmonsions fapprox.) | (approx.) Inch ee fmm a (25 Feet * 2 [mo [wie [0 [08 eonsioxeoo0 [72 % ves [100 [heen [to [1900 00.5300 | 1.68 a ee 1 ee 1% 43.3 40 1732 70 1802 420x475x8000 | 1.60 ws 15.7, 130 2041 70 Tan 420x510x9600 | 2.05 Ta 22.0 100 2200 70 2270 400x510x9600 | 1.96 * ee ee 1 zea | 50 [1065 [70 aes [wzoxarexeen0 [191 vu sia [2000 [70 [eno ears | 9% a 24.2 Couplings Fig. 52 Packing of sucker rods The starting material for couplings is produced in the same way as that for sucker rods. Fig. 53 shows ‘a %" coupling connection, In API Specification 11 8 a coupling design of Class T Is specified with a Rockwell hardeness of 16 HRC minimum to 23 HRC maximum. On request, Class S no longer included in API Standards, can also be produced with 50 HRC minimum. In the latter case, the coupling surface is high frequency hardened. Surface hardened couplings are, however, more sensitive to corrosive attack than couplings of Class T and can damage the tubings. Depending on customer request, couplings can be supplied with or without flats, Due to the fact that flats will produce a notch effect, smooth couplings without flats are predominantly used. 63Coupling ‘Sucker Rod Fig. 53. *l," Sucker Rod Connection a <3 ee i ni Fig. 54 Standard Coupling Dimensions ‘sucker rod Dimensions of slimhole coupling in inch (mm) | Weight of coupling stat dlameter Sige diameter] Logi in "a % th cia ona [oxo % wh 04 «010 [ae % % 9) 016) 088 i 2 way |4 018) 080 7 64‘Subsequently, threads are coldformed. Each coupling is stamped in the same way as rods with manufacturer's symbol (SBS), nominal size of rod, “II 8” for APL-Spec IIB or the APLmonogram, API-Class, an identification code mark to identify the product with respect to heat number (upon request) and date of manufacture. Couplings can be supplied as slimhole couplings (see Fig. 55) or as fullsize couplings (see Fig. 56). Normally, slimnole couplings are aeither surface hardened nor provided with flats. When using these couplings, the cross seation referring to fatigue strength is to be reduced according to the quotient of metal cross section of coupling divided by 2.5. The maximum load must also be reduced accord- ingly. Thin-walled slimhole couplings are very sensitive to notches and impact stresses. [ccrers0d—[Binaoion a fain counings in ooher fom wean of shat Touaae [tangs wie ana ping | inh w % ri % . % Me (38.1) | 4 (101.6), a (349) | 1% (31.8) [980 Ye 1% (41.3) | 4 (101.6) | 1% (38.1) | 1% (31.8) | 0.70 % W%6 (46.0) 4 = (101.6) | 1% = (41.3) | 1% = (31.8) | 0.85 1 2%e (85.6) | 4 (101.6) Ye = (47.6) | 1% (38.1) | 1.10 Me 2% (60.3) | 4% (114.3) | 2% (53.9) | 1% (41.3) | 2.00 oa Clearance between Tubing and Sucker Rod Coupling Nominal tubing | inside diameter] Sucker and Size | Coupling Clearance size (EU) outside diameter a) (in (rum) | (in a) men) | in.) (mm) 3M x9.3 2.892 76.00) 1 ise 556 | 402 10.22 2 508 | 496 12.60 Bex85 2.441 62.00 2h 556 | 127 322 2 508 | .221 5.60 Ihe 460 | 314 7.98 Fe 41.3 | 408 10.36 Dex AT 1.995 50.66 | 7 460 | .091 232 413 | 185 470 Se | 18% 413 | 185 470 1 36.1248 6.23 19x29 1.610 40.90 |e te 38.1 |.055 1.40) 1 31.8 | 180 457 ) Standard (fullsize) - API - couplings are underlined In case of frequent occurrence of fatigue fracture on couplings, we recommend the use of oversized couplings. There must, however, be enough clearance between coupling and tubirig to avoid in- creased friction between coupling and tubing during downward stroke (see Fig. 56). Due to a standard coupling length specified by API of 4”, only a very small space is left between the pin faces after couplings are screwed together — in particuar in the case of 1" couplings. This rather 65narrow gap Is often filled excessively with lubricant, causing high internal pressures during screwing together and prevent a full adherence screw connection. Therefore, we recommend using extended Couplings for all sucker rods from 2/." onwards. With this design itis possible to guarantee properly sctawed joints and substantially reduce coupling and pin fractures. For the connection of sucker rods of different size, reduction sub-couplings are available. The standard reductions are 1%" to 1", 1” to "he", 34” toa” Coated Couplings: A special type of coupling is available, where a Polyurethane coating is bonded onto the stee! surface. The bonding makes it impossible that worn parts can get loos off the coupling. Any thick- ness of that coating can be made. Standard is a slime hole API Coupling steel body and a poly urethane coating of a thickness which gives the OD of an API fullsize coupling “SBS PU-Coupling”. 2.1.8 Hollow Sucker Rods Hollow sucker rods serve two purpose in subsurface pumping operations: 1. Transmission of polished rod movement similar to standard sucker rods. 2. Injection or metering in of fluids for protection from parattin andlor corrosion, of solvents, hot liquids, driting fluids end emulsion breakers. The steel types used are the same as those for standard sucker rods. The major dimensions of hollow rods can be gathered from the table in Fig. 57. ‘The manufacture of rods starts from seamless, cold drawn, calibrated tube. Rod ends are made by a forging processes and pre-boring. After completed promachining operations, rod ends are con- nected to the hollow tubes by way of multilayer automatic girth welding. Subsequently, the welded area — root pass of welding joint — is being bored out. By these special machining and welding operations, itis possible to achieve perfect axial alignement of rod ends and rods. After welding, the complet rod is heat treated once again, stretch-straightened and checked once more for proper axial alignement. Magnaflux testing, thread cutting and calibration is carried out in the same way as with solid rods, ‘Since the welded zone Is the most critical area of any hollow rod, special attention must be paid to {his part of rod. All SBS Hollow Rods are completely die penetration tested after each welding pass. In addition, a certain number of finished rods are subjected to a 100% Xxay testing of the whole welded zone. Dimensions of SBS-Hollow Sucker Rods Nominal | Outside [inside | Wail | Width | Length | Collar | Pin Pin*) pin diameter | diameter | thickness across of flats diameter | length _| diameter diameter flats op ‘0 N “ F ap oP mae tr ae tee ia we [the | 1.ag7* | 1.081" 52 [39 | 54 | 3475) | 81) | 6.50) _| (26.95) te " te we" v ane [ame | 1.625" | 1.186" can | 635) [sa | errs {ara | a2 | 60.19) the 1" 0.6307 fotes* [1° ane [a | 1.625" | 1.186" 6 (47) [5.4 | ean.rs) a.m | 41.27 | 90.19) io tne [o70e- [0208 [te [ame [ar 1.8757 | 1.347" (120) [629 | @33) | @an | 60.8) | (47.69) | 4.89) nob (omen) *)full form major thread diameter 66Length of hollow tube Fig. §7 Major hollow rod dimensions 2.1.8.1 Admissible Stresses on Hollow Rods With regard to fatigue strength, the same principles apply for hollow rods as for solid rods. In view of the notch effect, solid rods are normally provided with pins showing 1.5 times and boxes showing 2.5 times the cross-sectionat area of the rod body. A pin of the “ls” hollow rod, for example, still meets this demand with 317 mm? supporting cross section, the pin of a 1* hollow rod does not. The quotient of supporting pin cross section divided by the safety factor 1.5 yields for 1° a reduced area of 292 mm®, which must be the basis of calculating for the carrying force of the rod string ‘The admissible loads a5 dependent on setting depth and impulse factor (Mills) can be gathered from the diagrams in Fig. 69 and 60. These diagrams are based on the data from Fig. 58. [ Outside diameter in ] VK veri | 4" (K 16mm) 1%" Bee Sse [susporng cow econ’ bov_/04Bt Gi[oaio G60" ons enw oat Gen | Fatigue strength ksi (Nimm [27.6 (190) 27.6 (190) | 27.6 (190) 27.6 (190) Rod string weight lomitt ckgimy | 1.78 (2.65) | 2.14.19) | 1.75 en [228 (632) Molt of fd colon) emt gi [005 aon [aoe @7e [ore 20) 017 020 | Total weight lbmit (kam | 1.83 72/229 (993/189 @a1 | 240 Bsn! >)internally; specific gravity = 1 Fig. 88 21.3.2 Make-up Torques for Hollow Rod Strings ‘The recomended torques are given in Fig, 61 2.1.8.3 Thruput and Pressure for Injection through Hollow Rods ‘The important criterion for injection is not carrying strength but first of ati pressure loss, flow rate, type of pumped medium, desired heat transmission and other parameters. The diagrams in Fig, 62, 63 and 64 are used for determining pressure loss as dependent on injection rate and fluid viscosity {or laminar and turbulent frow. With equivalent viscosity, the straight line representing turbulent flow is more steeply inclined than that of laminar flow. 2.44 High Torsion Stretch-Straightening ‘As mentioned already, all heat treated rods must be subjected to a straightening process to guar- antee the coaxiat alignement of rods, o7os = 190 Nimm? 7 Thy hollow rod with i" bore 60 50 = S09 x ® E Tollow rod S : with ti,” bore ze € 30 Bs s oo = 3s = uw ons 20 02 5 03% 00 8 a1 7 028 a3& 0 0 200 00 600 800 1000 1200 Length of rod string h (m) Fig. 59 Maximum polished rod load for %/" and 1” rods with °%" and "/." bore The results of rotating bar fatigue tests for determination of fatigue corrosion resistance carried out by SBS (see als supplementary literature ,EinfluB korrosiven Fordergutes aut die Korrosionszelt- festigkeit von Pumpstangenstahien") and other pertinent tests showed that it is not only surface quality of sucker rods which is of inportance (see Fig. 77 “Decrease of Fatigue Strength in Percent ‘as a Function of Yield Point, Surface Quality and Corrosion”) but rather that with corrosive pumped media, fatigue strength is substantially affected by the method of straightening. Strass concen- trations caused by straightening with stamps, dies or rolls can lead after only a few weeks of opera: tion to the widely known fatigue corrosion fractures, i.e. such stress concentrations ean trigger stress corrosion cracking, ‘This realization led SBS to develop a new straightening methode, the socalled high torsion stretch: straightening process. SBS is the only sucker fod manufacturer in the world to use this process. 685 = 190 Nimm? 1% hollow 108 with 18mm bore 7 {4 F dyn. max (kN) ‘m0 (400 600 800 Length of rod string h (m) 1200 Fig. 60 Maximum polished rod toad for 1'/," rods with 18 mm bore {Nominal Diameter ] Torque N.m (Ibf.ft) Impulse factor ¢ (Mills) 1 | Bore Diameter 7 ra © i Po pe oar wos * ‘nm [sts fe fr [evo—r coro Fig. 61 Recommended Torques for SBS Hollow Sucker RodsTt Tressure lass due (0 injection throug! 1'fg" hollow rods with 18 mm bore Pressure loss (barim) s6780? 2 3 4567803 2 365 Injection rate mm) Fig. 62 Correlation pressure losslinjection rate with 1,” hollow rods On the straightening machine, designed by SBS, sucker rods are subjected to an axial tensile stress which is higher than the yield point of the material. The tensile stress causes a stretch-straightening process in the rod with subsequent twisting unter tensile load. The result is a perfectly straight and highly flexible sucker rod. By this straightening metnode, all stress concentrations are eliminated ‘and an even distribution of material stresses over the whole rod length is achieved. Any material detect in the form of impurities, inclusions or notches will be detected and faulty rods are destroyed on the machine and rejected. In addition, testing for surface cracks is also carried out by way of 70bar = 10°Pa | 10 8 = 6 Pressure loss due to injection through 5 1” hollow rods with "le" bore ~} 4 3 Pressure loss (barim) 567807 2 3456707 2 345 Injection rate (uh) Fig. 63 Correlation pressure loss/injection rate with 1" hollow rods magnaflux processes. Prior to magnatlux testing, the sucker rod surface is subjected to a controlled eening treatment. In this way, it is possible to achieve an even, fine grained, high quality surface, In combination with even distribution of material stresses, as it can be achieved by the streteh- straightening process, this surface quality Is of decisive importance for the service life of sucker rods. Together with further measures which are discussed in detail in section 2.2.1 “Type Selection, the occurrence of fatigue corrosion fracture could be substantially reduced—even in cases with high loads under corrosive conditions. nbar = 109Pa 8 t 6 Pressure loss due to injection through, "ig" hollow rods with %," bore Pressure loss (barim) 4 10 2 10 e 5 567890 2 3 4567890 2 345 Injection rate (vn) Fig. 64 Correlation pressure lossiinjection rate with “%" hollow rods 2.4.8 Sucker Red Protectors The reason for using sucker rod protectors is mainly to prevent excessive wear of sucker rods and tubings in strongly deviated welts. They are also used as permanent “scrapers” for mechanical removal of paraitin deposits ‘The first attempts to avoid wear or paraffin deposits in the tubing string by means of suitable sucker rod protectors were made some 40 years ago. The reasons tor frequent failures at these early attempts were often unsuitable or even wrong materials and Insufficient fastening of protectors, 2Fig. 65 SBS High Torque Stretch-Straightening Machine ‘The fact that otherwise fully operationable subsurface pumps had to be primaturely pulled simply because of stuck sucker rods due to paraffin deposits was reason enough, however, to continue these attempts, Aside from time and energy intensive well heating systems and the use of expensive solvents and dispersion agents, first partial success could be achieved with the application of socalled "snap on” protectors. A marked disadvantage, however, of this development is resulting from insufficient clamping forces (easy wear) and — from the point of fluid mechanics — un. favourable longitudinal slots (causing erosion and corrosion phenomena) on the protector, To eliminate these disadvantages, extensive tests were carried out in practical field operations. The results from these tests permitted the development of todays rod protectors (see Fig, 68) which have an excellent performance record in pumping operations. The rod guides are made of high wear resistant polyamide which has excelent anti-trictional proper ties and absolute resistance to oil and water attack at continuous temperatures formation of up to 100°C max. For higher temperatures, Le. applications in which heat is applied for better oilrecovery, protectors, can be supplied which are made of Rytone (PPS) and are resistant up to 220°C. Just as polyamide, this riiateriat too is resistant to chemical attack. After careful preparation of rods without damaging its surface, protectors are sprayed on at tempera tures close to 300°C. The next following protector is than sprayed on al a stroke fength distance but offset by 45°. Due to the greatly increased contact area, the patented shape quarantees better adhesion of the protector bady to the rod and maximum utilization of fluid mechanics. (SBS Pro: tectors can withstand forces up to 15 tons without slipping.) If polyamide sucker rod guides are used in combination with SBS Rod Rotators, elimination of parattin deposits and a near total wear protection of sucker rads, couplings and tubing string can be achieved {or the pump lite to be expected. This type of paraffin and wear protection is superior to all other methods, both with regard to effectivity and economy, Fig. 67 shows the spacing af protectors on the rod. 1Fig. 66 A Spray-on Type Sucker Rod Protector (Pat. by Ebenhoh) So ee het aan Fig. 67 Protectorequipped Sucker Rodssedky poy so¥ons Sas Jo salnedoid (B0ISKYy 99°81 |sonbe! Uo Igy UE! senjer yBUeNS J0UBI4 (2. eds (0. piepueis (. predwl pue oe6| set pevepieu| ory| v9] sz2-see “ or v1|-062|-s11] 06s] se) zztri| geen] cay - pavedwer | pur pezsewsou} ozr| 19] see-see| 99 ss 069} oot} aso] sata|(,ONH peseduiy | pur s6| ort] | Pevepieu| osr| s9| sez-se 69 % z1| -09e) -set] osc) sur G pavecwer ue | eziwewioul ozr| 9) see-sea| % z 99] oot} szzzt]_—oze al (.uoczs a peredwy | pue ose| su) | penyewiou} oge| es] sez-szt za 09 si} 06s) se] o6r) ox -| 90a] azn » ose] su ezirewiou} oce| ay] sez-2et 69 0 ai| -0¢9] -06] ozr| _09| +[ esa} sztwal 9) in| 194 vom um! int iy] in| 9 1 ww) peer uawoeds| %| eimoess uo1ipuoo waa] eave jo usw} voneu] ——e¢ht| eds pou woureen soupiey| yiduans| on uibuans| ysuens| sea] years} seyong) pep 10H wena) ioedwi|— -onpeu eusuer| —_pieial t001s Nia| soya} sas iv 6For Moineau-Pump application: Special Protector Types are available for Moineau Pumping such as Spiral Types made of Nylon or Rytone and a SBS patented type, the “SBS Hydro Dyn Spiral Protector” (hydrodynamic acting) made of Polyurethane. Newest design of SBS is a “SBS Non-rotating Protector”. Using that type any wear of the tubing is avoided. 2.4.6 Polished Rods The upper seal of the tubinglrod annulus Is achieved by a stuffing box. The polished rod which represents the connection between sucker rod string and surface pumping unit Is running through this stuffing box. To prevent any damage of the stuffing box and achieve a proper seal, polished rods are increasingly used with bright ground or bright ground and subsequently burnished or reel polished surtace. Any leaks caused by Insufficient surface finish or as a result of corrosion damages may produce substantial follow-up costs. Thus, demands on polished rods with optimum surface finish and maximum wear and corrosion resistance have greatly risen in recent years. The steel type used by SBS for corrosion resistant Polished rods, the well known rod type ARD 3, has proven Its excellent performance and made its way in national and international oil fields. Aside from maximum quality control measures for each individual rod, the manufacturing process Includes the following important production steps: 1. To achieve optimum surtace finish, all polished rods are bright drawn and ground with tolerances to DIN 671 followed by subsequent surface treatment (ree! polishing). 2. Connecting threads are cold rolled and not machined, producing a maximum surface quality even at the thread root and a substantial reduction of fatigue failures. The average analysis and the mechanical properties of SBS type ARD 3 can be gathered from sucker, rod tables. See section 2.2 “Characteristic Mechanical Properties and Materials for Sucker Rods and Couplings”, Fig. 68, 70 and 71, The surface hardness in reel polished condition is approx. 26 HRC. For wells with increased danger of stress corrosion cracking and pitting or crevice corrosion, SBS has developed anew steel type—A90S. It is an austenitic-ferrtic alloy, .e. a steel type with a duplex structure, a further development of alloy 1.4462 with improved corrosion resistance. By addition of nitrogen, it is possible to achieve improved mechanical properties, Average analysis of steel type A905: Cmax. 0.004%, Si 0.4%, Mn 5.8%, Cr 25.9%, Ni 3.8%, Mo 2.3%, N 0.38%. Mechanical properties Yield strength 690 Nimm? min, Tensile strength 750 Nimm? min. SBS polished rods made from the new alloy A905 have excellent wear resistance. In reel polished condition, the surface hardness is approx. 28 HRC. 762.2 Mechanicat Properties and Materials for Sucker Rods and Couplings In compliance with API Specification 11 8, sucker rods are only distinguished by tensile strength values. Chemical composition is according to API more or less left up to the manufacturer. Thus, Proper material selection and suitabie production technology is of Importance. Pump life too is directly influenced by these parameters. API classification is as follows: API Grade K Tensile strength 85000 psi min. ~ 115 000 psi max. 594 {0 790 Nimm? API Grade C Tensile strength 90.000 psi min, ~- 115 000 psi max. 630 to 790 Nimm? API Grade D_ Tensile strength 115.000 psi min. ~ 140 000 psi max. 790 to 965 Nimm? The tables in Fig. 68 and 69 show characteristic mechanical values of SBS Sucker rod types. Within certain limits, mechanical properties of a given stee! grade can be influenced by heat treatment measures. in general, sucker rods are either normalized, normalized and tempered or hardened and tempered. ‘The following steels are commonly used: for API Grade C: Carbon steels with increased Ma for API Grade K: Nickel-molybdenum alloyed heat treatable steels for API Grade D: Chromium-molybdenum alloyed heat treatable steels Specialy alloyed heat treatable steels The influences of alloying elements on materis! properties are as follows: Carbon: Rising carbon content increases yield point and tensile strength. Manganese: With every 1% of manganese, tensile strength and yield point can be increased by ap- prox. 100 Nimm®. Elongation drops only slightly, impact strength is increasad, Silicon: With every 1% of silicon, (ensife strength and yleld point can be increased by approx. 100 Nimm?. Elongation and impact strength drops only slightly. Rod size ‘Weight per unit of length Elastic constant Inch Tort Tom inulbt fe “Tenet [as ret : - — “ 1164 4732 2342. 10-9 % 4,640 2a 71649. 10-7 % 2222 307 4218.10 a 2,928, 4387 0,997 . 10-* a - 3,818 5,682 D712. 10 wre | % [tase wi? 2,360. 10-* a 4,817, "2,406 1,686. 10-5 Vs 2,190 3,259 1,236 . 10-5 . o 2,873 4,276 1 51. 10-* To,985 10-8 Ow 3,148 5577 39.10% 0,731. 10-5 | Fig.69 Weight and Elastic Constant of SBS Sucker Rods nChromium: Chromium strongly increases carbide formation and thus raises tensile strength, hardness and elongation. Corrosion behaviour is substantially improved. ‘Nickel: With every 1% of nickel, tensile strength can be increased by approx. 40 Nimm* with a super- proportional increase in yield point. Nickel alloyed steels have performed very well in the production of corrosive media. e.g. with HS content. Molybdenum: Similar to carbon, molybdenum increases tensile strength and yield point, Full hardening ability 's greatly improved The chemical composition of sucker rod steels is given in Fig. 70. ip ]888]Sea) ]Ste! Bono | Chemical conpostion, auto Grade | Sucker] type | type | stee!_| typical analysis (%) SBS fod | tals ODI | be " counting Tee [si [wo [or [wo [wi | pee © | vwras| 8 rites] vo00 |e [20 a0 || amas ae [8 |ta0 Kwa [wear] [ese |e fam Jeo 25 am fiae Jowsn 2s [35 | 90 |imn | 30. | 200 a | 30 | too | tao | 28 ob 4 2s wine | [A882 | VIBE | a0 [max | 40-40" |e | va [35 |S" [40 [130 | [130 Speciall ARD 3 | - +4122 [395 |.35- |.90- | 50- | 16.00 | .90- | 70- ARDS [2 [20 [0 [eal 10 | a0 Fig, 10 Chemical Analysis of tel for SES Sucker ods 388 | Stoo! [Sioo!_[ Bone | Chomioal composition sauna Covptna | tape to] type to ste!” | pel analyte (land average (4) _| Suoker od Air] BI | ype APiede | C2 oe c Si Mn Cr Mo Ni | ewis[=wa| unm [ves |e asm [| |- 16 LM3h | - 15755 |v214 |.90 |.25 |.60 |.75 |- 350 |K 0s [~ai0 [7205 |veeo [2.28 [70 fr [20 |- [0 ana [> [aaraa [woos [a foo |.s0- | re00-|70- Spec se [20 [a0 [too | to | Fig. 71 Chemical Analysis of steels for SBS Sucker Rod Couplings Compared to normal API grades, SBS types are produced according to special requirements and specific manufacturing technologies. For more details, please refer to section 2.2.1 "Grade Selection for Sucker Rods and Couplings” The chemical composition of coupling materiats is given in Fig. 71 Since sucker rods are only exposed to dynamic load, the basis of calculation must be the fatigue strength of the pertinent steel! grade. For determination and representation of fatigue strength, please refer to DIN 50.100. Depending on the type of load, the following diagrams apply for sucker rods 82) for representation of ulate stress as a fonction ot numb of eyes, the Wontar diagram, Fg. 72 b) for representation of fatigue stenath in = (\ diferent stress. ranges, the alle strength diagrams to Smith'and Moor Kommarsasper FQ. 73, In the US, the representation according to Goodman is also being used. For shop ap- plication, however, the representation to Moore-Kommers Jaspers is most suitable. A frequent cause for sucker rod failure in pumping operations Is material fatigue due to continuously changing mechanical stres ses partly also under the influence of corro- sive media. The determination of fatigue strength and corrosion resistance yields valuable information on the operating range of a given material. Fig. 74 shows the results of rotating bar fatl ‘gue tests on longitudinally ground round specimen with cooling air or spraying with ‘water or in sea water. The alloyed heat treat- ing steels show a marked drop in case of spraying with water and even more so in case of sea water. The stainiess SBS type ARD 2 shows a high fatigue strength even if sprayed with water or sea water. Therefore, this grade is highly suitable for corrosive operating con- ditions, Fig. 72 Wonler diagram of steels used for SBS Sucker Rod Types 2.2.1 Grade Selection for Sucker Rods and Couplings The basic criteria for API grade or SBS type selection are determined by given well conditions. With regard to sucker rod loads, itis mechanical properties and with regard to analysis of pumped media, it is the chemical composition of the materials used which must be payed attention to. Another ‘essential parameter for grade Selection is the consideration of production processes and the study of pertinent information supplied by manufacturers. Depending on load, selection of sucker rod grades is governed by their mechanical properties (see Fig. 68). Here, the API classification of Grade C, Grade K and Grade D applies. For corrosion and acid resistant steel types, please refer to manufacturer's data listed in Fig. 68. The applicability of steel types in view of the different corrosion requirements resulting from the production of oils of very different composition is determined by the chemical properties of the former. ‘The manufacturing process has a decisive influence on the creep rupture behaviour of sucker rods (service Wfe) and is thus another important criterion in grade selection. With otherwise identical material characteristics, chemical analysis and mechanical properties, it may produce different ‘operational properties of sucker rods, Based on test results and extensive practical experience with regard to the influence and effects of corrosion on the service life of sucker rods. SBS types are produced by employing the following special manufacturing technologies: — use of stock material which is molten and shaped by specfal processes and the application of a fine grain treatment achieves a fine steel structure, 79Modified Smith Diagram Moore-Kommers-Jaspers MK Diagram Carbon steel (with increased Mn) for low mechar “co 40 30 gx € = z Fatigue strength without 2 mo 0 2 corrosion, 5 VMI25, ° _Type a,loy_|o (Nimm’) ry wuss] oss | az 00 41-08-05 -04-02 0 020406 0B 1 12 asis of calculation: Point A and a: %!2 equivalent 24; point C: a/N, C’= 0,/N 2004 8 culat WA and a: “1% equivalent 574: point C: 0, 7 N = safety factor = 2; K = stress concentration factor = 1.3 for unevenness of surtace Nickelmolybdenum steel for medium mechanical stresses and medium corrosive invironment © © € — x0 E 300 g z Fatigue strength at ° ° mechanical stresses, 200 20. 2° Type | odog_|o, Wimmy NP wap | om | 457 0: Endurance strength at medium corrosion -1 08-06-0402 0 02 0406.08 ; Fig. 73 Fatigue strength of steels used for SBS Sucker Rod Types in the representations of Smith and Moore-Kommers Jaspers107 aumber of cycles with out fracture of specimen 600}. VM125 | S200h | N2P } ARD3 \ \ ' $500 fp | Alternating stress amplitude + o, (Nimm2 Stet Environment: air water tem Sea water Fig. 74 Comparison of rotating bar fatigue strength and corrosion resistance of steels used tor SBS Sucker Bod Types = employment of SBS High Torsion Strech-Straightening Process for each individual SBS type ‘sucker rod instead of conventional roller, dle or punch straightening — to avoid stress concentra. tion and produce an even distribution of material stresses over the whole rod fength, — surface treatment by contralled SBS Shot Peening Process for improvement of fatigue strength, — final inspection of rods for surface cracks by improved magnatiux testing. ‘A number of additional measures such as special corrosion inhibiting coating and special packing rounds aff the speciai treatments of @ product intended for meeting extreme stresses and severe ‘operating conditions. Differing from US-suppliers, SBS believes in special matching steel types for different API Grade ‘sucker rods. The steel tyne for couplings must always be matched to that of the rods being used and to local ‘operating conditions Fig. 75 represents a survery of Sucker rod type to coupling type combinations. SBS Boner|S85 = SSC*~*~*~« A od Type Stoel Type | Coupling Type Steel Type | sucker rod grade vis SsS~*~*~«és napSSS~*=t@ feo Saoonmnc vows fos vO anos S™*~*~«~«SN AR N36 | Speciel | Fig. 75 atNimm2 350] 250 200] in water +25mg/INo Ci +25 mgllNa 50, in water + 29/INa Ci 4 tert o In water, + 39 ai!No Cl ws 2 3 45678908 2 5 4 8678907 2 3 4 567890% Number of cycles Fig. 76 Wohler diagram for fatigue strength of 480N/nm? in corrosive media r 11 polishes l 0 = ground aot — 7 m™ PY 30} rough machined 24 % 50 . — a 3 60 mS = SL v-noten = tot 3 70}—+- i> rolling scale |—+- Ss | I 3 89) a tap water 200 sea water 200 300 400 500 G00 700 800 900 1000 N10 1200 1300 400 GF {N/mm#] Fig. 77 Decrease of fatigue strength in percent as a function of yield strength, surface quality and state of corrosion of stretch-straightened sucker rods with even distribution of material stresses and without stress concentrations 8283 sequinu e ‘sajidde ile fatigue stress with corrasior 002 20} posn uwnvapasjous ~ wna .d2N 20} Pasn :j2a1s wunvapq sou 19¥0H S21 WA 10} pesn "uj paseosoUI ULM [8018 Uo or sexans Bu\kie9 peo! ouldor Jo soIoWeID stress at the topmost load carrying ‘Sucker rod erose section (a in Nimm?) admis 400 % % woes PS 200 to the fatigue strength of steers used for SBS Sucker Rod Types with consideration of corrosion phenomena 8 [ omen | . | — er ae ee ee fangs PK s ‘4 peoy Net Fig. 78 Nomogram for determination of maximum admissible polished rod load accordingFor wet oil production, ie, wells with high water cut and high salinity, special couplings (SBS type LM3hy, have been developed which fully utilize the excellent fatigue strength under corrosive attack of SBS sucker rod grades. These couplings are subjected to a special heat treatment and can thus also be used in combination with SBS sucker rod types VM 125 and S200h. Since flats will weaken wall thickness and produce a certain notch effect which may lead to early fatigue fracture, most of the couplings used are of slick design, ie. without fats. 2.22 Fatigue Strength as a Function of Yield Strength and its Dependence on Surface Quality and Corrosion Simultaneously occuring fatigue and corrosion stresses will lead to a substantial reduction of strength. The normally possible fatigue strength is no longer reached and after 10 to 15 million load cycles (only one or a few years of pumping operation) creep rupture strength has dropped to a level which practically represents the destruction of the material (Fig. 76). In addition, the surface quality —in particular the notch effect — produces also a marked reduction of fatigue strength (Fig. 77) Fig. 77 also shows that the use of high tensile steels under corrosive conditions is not advantageous. ‘The higher fatigue strength of such grades can only be utilized in combination with effective corrosion inhibiting measures. In such cases, however, an evalution may show that the use of corrosion resistant sucker rods is more economic. Fig. 78 shows the influence of corrosion on maximum polished rod load, Ba2.3 Polished Rod, Sucker Rod and Plunger Movement Polished rod, sucker rod and plunger movement can be simplified and treated as harmonic vibration with an amplitude of half of the polished rod stroke h,/2 and a frequency of stroke number n. Deviations from harmonic movement result — for the polished ad, from unit geometry as well as from characteristics of the drive engine and from power transmission — for the sucker rod string and the pump plunger, from frictional forces as well as from stretch and vibration of the Sucker rod string, 2.3.1 Polished Rod Movement ‘The motion of the polished rod can be determined from the dynamics of the crank and pitman drive in Fig. 79. Fig. 79. Crank and pitman drive, schematically ‘Assuming simple harmonic motion, we are dealing with a crank and pitman drive with a crankipitman ratio of ine hy a rz 2 Then, for the polished rod travel x applies: @ The differentiation of travel x to time t yields for the pertinent polished rod velocity v: ech @) =p e-sina and for the pertinent polished rod acceleration a: te at.cos a=} .u?.cosa Oy The maximum polished rod velocity else) Youn =p + ® ©) is reached at x =h,/2. At this point, polished rod acceleration a is at @ minimum and practically down to zero. At the points of reversal of polished rod travel x (at the top and bottom dead centers), polished rod velocity v reaches its minimum and is practically equal to zero, At the same time polished rod accel: eration a reaches its maximum: a5tau © By inserting angular velocity aon 30 7 we arrive at 2 maximum polished rod acceleration of ®) hy em polished rod stroke 1 min~*__ number of strokes (pumping frequency pa, m. Se¢~® maximum polished rod acceleration Because of the danger of buckling, the sucker rod string should not be subjected to compressive stress, which means that theoretically aga, = 9 must apply for polished rod acceleration. In prac- al operations, however, this theoretical value is not admissible due to the friction in the tubinglsucker rod annulus and paralfin deposits. A useful approximation is represented by nas = 05 g. In this caso we artive for a polished rod stroke of h, = 3m at a pumping frequency of = 17 min—* with a maximum polished rod velocity of v = 0,270'm. seer. 2.8.2 Sucker Rod String Movement The polished rod movement which is transferred to the sucker rod string is superimposed by the ini tial movement of the rod string caused by stretch, gravitational forces and vibrations. 2.3.2.1 Stretch Due to its elasticity, the sucker rod string will stretch when it receives the weight of the fluid column Gr,, 2. at the beginning of the upward stroke, and contracts again during the load change at the beginning of the downward stroke. The stretch which can be determined according to Hook's law causes a loss in travel (Ah,) @ Ah, om loss in travel nl pump setting depth A, cm? sucker rod cross section GON gravitational force of fluid column E Nimm? modulus of elasticity of the subsurface pump. In.case of a combined sucker rod string, Ah, must be determined separate. ly for each individual cross section. 28.2.2 Overtravel ‘With pumping frequencies of n > 10 min~", the acceleration of the moving sucker rod string causes, an overtravel of the pump plunger at the dead centers which cannot be neglected. This overtravel ‘Ah, which effects the subsurface pump as gain in travel is determined according to Marsh-Coberiy: hyn? Tt 4h, = Br (10) fy em —_ stroke length at polished rad Tom ump setting depth hn min~! pumping frequency {In this equation, ofo represents the overtravel correction factor shown it Fig. 80 which also considers: unit geometry by way of the satio of pitman lengthicrank diameter Lir (r= b,/2). 86ur | ! | J 390 400 «10 420 430 Fig. 80 Overtravel correction factor For conventional pumping units, we can assume a mean overtravel factor cfo = 400. (Note: If the sucker rod string is seen as a harmonically vibrating string, we can also compute stroke gain and stroke loss by way of the spring constant of the rod string) 2.8.2.3 Vibration The sucker rod string represents a vibratory system with an initia frequency f, tet an Influenced by the periodic disturbing force of the drive acting with the pumping frequency n. hom wave length of the longitudinale wave (= v mis __velocity of sound in steel = 4880 mis The frequency ratio N (1) Js called the order of pumping operation. Selection of pumping frequency according to the order of pumping operation yet =~ iit frequency 73.300 891 ni in = ‘pumping frequency T Yah Tm pump setting depth 4h, ™ rod stretch OW @i| 87Initial frequency 15, Order Pumping frequency a (min Dia Ter ert eer ttt Pumping depth in 100m Selection of pumping frequency according to the order of pumaing operation f __initiat frequency, _ 78,900 © ~ pumping frequency T Tm pumping depth am, m_ tod stretch synchronous pumping frequency nonsynchronous pumping frequency ‘safety range for speed reduction of drive unit stroke numbers which may be caused by the engine and the beit drive { not to be used ‘safety range for attenuation and friction stroke numbers to be used Fig. 81 Selection of pumping frequencies according to the order of pumping operation The influence of the periodic disturbing force of the drive unit on the sucker rod string increases with diminishing difference between pumping frequency and initial frequency, Le. with decreasing order of pumping operation N. In order to avold inadmissibly high stresses on the rod string, we recommend avoiding the low, integral number orders of pumping operations, the socalled synchro- lous pumping rates. An exact determination of synchronous speeds for the different orders N according to equation (12) Is possible only for straight sucker rod strings. For tapered strings, exact determination with the aid of the dynamic spring constant is rather complicated and unsuitable for practical purposes since it is hardly possible to quantitatively determine attenuation. It suffices to compute the synchronous pumping rates of tapered rod strings similar to that of straight strings and consider the effect of attenuation according to Fig. 81 88In case of frequency ratios 1.5; 35; 5.5 a.s.o, the interference of expansion wave (during upward stroke) and contraction wave (during downward stroke) produces a resulting vibration which causes a gain in travel, 2.38 Effective Plunger Stroke ‘The offective plunger stroke h, is calculated trom the polished rod stroke h, with consideration of toss in travel (ah,) and overtravel (Ah): y= hy — Ahy + Ah, 3) {ah stands for both loss in travel due to elongation of rod string h, and tubing string hg, (in case of nonanchored tubings) Ah = Ah, + Ang, 4) The tubing string elongation is computed analogous to the rod string elongation. 2.4 Polished Rod Load Of major interest in this context are the maximum and minimum loads, necessary for determining the dimensions of sucker rod string and pumping unit as wet! as determination of dynamic load factor S. 24.1 Maximum Dynamic Polished Rod Load For determination of maximum polished fod load, occurring during upward stroke, two empirical formulas have been developed which are both widely in accordance with practical field results: 1. The Mitts formuta 2. The Slonneger formula In Europe, a modified Mills formula altered to suit local well conditions is being widely used. It incorporates: 1. The gravitational forces of the rod string G, (In aif) and of the fluid G, to be pumped 2, The forces whiich accur with the acceleration ana, of the rod string and the fluid column. = (G+). (1+ Sem, (16) Gy + G) ( 9 ) (18) Feynman = (Gq + Gi). (1 +0) The quotient of acceleration c= anq/g is called the Mills impulse factor. Inserting the expression for a, according to equation (8) we arrive at the Mills factor as hp 178913 an hy om polished rod stroke n° min-! stroke number (frequency) c Mills factor Fig. 82 shows impulse factors determined by equation (17) For equation (16), it was assumed that frictional forces and buoyance forces acting in opposite direction are more or less compensating each other. The fluid toad G, incorporates the weight of the fluid column actually to be Jifted, the casing pressure P,. and the line pressure P,. Special attention must be paid to determining the mean density of the fluld column, 89by.nt 779000 28-+-26-- 24 + [224 Range 3 Gc = os haf E = as] i et A Range 1 505570 80 9pq'® 2920 10°°s07°60 Dog 20 2% 5060” 699° 300 ‘h, (om) Fig. 82 Mills impulse factors 2.4.2 Minimum Dynamic Polished Rod Load For the calculation of minimum polished rod load occurring during the downward stroke, a formula derived from the Mills formula is commonly used. It accounts for 1. The weight of the sucker rod string G, (in aif) and 2, Acceleration forces 3, Buoyance forces which excert a relieving effect. s, oe Fagan = Gy “2 Bay — G2 18) = 9 Ore oy Faynmin = Gy (0.8725 — 6) (19) AAs mean value for the Quotient of density, ey/2-4=0,1275 has been inserted in equation (10), ‘The correlations for computatian of polished rod loads and pertinent individual loads are compiled in the calculation sheet for well equipment (see Chapter 4). 2.5 Sucker Rod String Design Major parameters for sucker rod string design are: 41. Minimum rod string weight in accordance with admissible polished rod load. 2. Minimum rod stretch and thus minimum loss in travel. 3, Material and cross section must be chosen to guarantee meeting all occuring stresses. This also means paying close attention to the development of pumping operations. 90Due to the load caused by the initial weight G,, the stress on the sucker rod string Increases from bottom to top. The maximum stress at the top rod occurs with 1oad Fay. mer? (20) The admissible stress 0,4 1s determined as a function of dynamic load factor S se fina ey from the MK diagram (Fig. 83) by inserting the pertinent rod string material Fig. 83 shows a representation of maximum admissible stress 4,4 a8 a function of dynamic joad factor § for a number of different SBS rod types. E } | I 2m tH rH 5 Ct Teer ial I | 'S 200 h 1 aso | {| 200 T LI I oz) EE COCCETTET on On 02 03 04 Os 06 Fax Fig. 83 Maximum admissible stress as a function of dynamic load factor S (for noncorrosive environment) If used with API design procedure, do not use a service factor! 2.6 Tapered Rod Strings With straight sucker rod strings of one and the same sod size itis aniy possibfe to produce limited amounts from jimited pumping depths. orRod ey Ny Share of rod sizes in tapered string in Ne (in. kgim) 0. (in) tkaim) ms a aa 3 55 all 1.69 100.0 65 1.25 197 37.3 627 65 150 2.00 418 58.2 65 175 | 204 469 53.1 65 2.00 207 52.0 48.0 65 2.25 212 58.4 416 6 250 2a7 652 348 65 275 223 R25 278 65 3.25 234 88.1 119 66 All 243 100.0 6 1.08 233 27.0 2nd 456 75 1.25 239 20.8 298 408 75 1.50 248 33.3 333 33.3 8 175 258 378 37.0 25.1 8 200 | 268, 42.4 413 163 6 225 | 2.79 46.9 458 72 76 1.08 2.68 28.5 nS 76 1.25 2.70 306 69.4 76 150 | 273 33.8 662 76 175/276 378 625 76 2.00 280 a7 58.3 76 225 | 2.84 465 535 Fig. 84 Tapered Rod String (to API) With increasing pump setting depth and liquid fluid level it is recommendable, therefore, to install tapered rod strings in order to 1, Eliminate unnecessary rod string weight 2. Achieve even load distribution over the whole rod string There are two possibilities for selecting rod sizes of tapered strings: 1. The upper cross section of each rod size of a tapered string Is designed for the same stress, right below fatigue strength 2. The tapered strings is calculated from bottom to top in such a way that the topmost carrying cross section of the bottom dimension is loaded to the point of admissible stress, followed by the topmost carrying cross section of the next dimension in line and so on. ‘The tapered strings shown in Fig. 84 were calculated by method 1. Assuming the same pump setting depth and fluid lift calculation according to method 2 yields in general a lighter rod string than with method 1. In addition, method 2 is suitable for determination ‘of maximum pumping depth, since the topmost rod size too is fully exposed to the admissible stress. 92Rod J& [Ny | Share of od sizes In tapered sting th % No, tm | my) a 6 [250 288 50.8 49.2 76 275 | 200 ws 495 6 525 | 303 _ 6 ars [ass ws tee 7 a [at ‘oo @ 10s 20 m2 [aa [aaa [oso as 125 | 280 zo faz [aaa are a 150 [sas ver lara ann t92 a 175 [ase ne foo [208 | 108 36 106 [a8 me [zo [eas a6 125 Jans za [aes fs 86 150 fas7 we jaro fas 26 15 |a25 ze [ooo fans 88 200 [as wa |s2 Jano a 225 [as ees |as0 ars a6 250 | 55 ws jest rar 6 275.965 us [ao |22 a 10636 mars a 125 sr ast \raa ” 150 [a9 a 7 175 |s6e wos foo o 200 | 385 wz | oss ca 225 [ase wes | oa er 250 jars a9 foo @ 27s | 7s a9 [so °7 a2 [383 sue | ana @ ars | 303 oe | oe fa _ we [16a a an [ase 1000 06 toe [ase [vor [wor [ros fans 96 ee ee 2 150 Jara |o0a 005 aoe aa 96 175 faa [ous ass fast ass 96 200 402 fors —|aro Jara az 96 225 4.18 29.6 307 ‘208 98 Fig. 8 Tapered Rod String (to AP) continued 93Rod ey Ny ‘Share of rod sizes in tapered string in % No. (in) sim 5 fa re ia a7 os = [394 [196 200 a7 125 «|397 | 208 212 97 150 |403 | 225 230 97 175 409 | 245 250 97 200 Jair = | 268 m4 97 225 [425 | 20.4 302 97 250 [435 | 325 33.1 97 275 [445 | 6.1 35.3 97 325 [aes | 429 419 98. 10s fas? [ate 788 88 125 |45a | 222 778 98 150 |460 | 238 76.2 98 175 [42 | 257 743 98 200 |4e4 | 277 723 98 225 [467 | 30.1 699 98 250 [470 | 327 673 88 275 |473 | 358 644 88 325 [ager = | aa 578 98 375 [agg | 4a7 503 98 475508 | 657 34.3 99 Alt 547 | 1000 ‘above designations stand for 4,(ia) plunger diameter N, (kglm) weight per meter of pertinent tapered string Fig. 84 Tapered Rod String (to AP!) continued 2.7 Make-up of Sucker Rods The pretension in the screwed joint of a sucker rod string must not only prevent loosening during operation but also premature fatigue fracture of the pin. It is necessary, therefore, by applying proper torques to produce an axial pretension in the screwed joints which guarantees that maximum and minimum stresses of fatigue strength will not reach the axial vector of pretension. Nominal | 12" we * Y Jaw 08 dame on M125 | 149 (110) | 204 (217) [471 (227 | 706 21) | 1080 (797) | 1619 (1194) 200m 22i_8)| ee ee [ eo can | 71) | a 7) | 8 0 wae ‘aoa [rier 78) | eso | HT99 | ARDS 221 (163) | 326 (242) | 520 (384) | 771 (569) | 1187 (875) | 1638 (1208) Fig. 85 Recommeénded torques for SBS sucker rod strings in Nm (Ibf. tt) 2.7.4 Make-up of Sucker Rods A sucker rod string joint, Le. a shouldered connection with pin and box couplings, represents a mechanical connection of similar strength as that of a straigth string, provided it has been properly 94‘executed. With proper execution we mean here treatment and maintenance of joints according to API specifications as well as make-up by applying proper torques. As mentioned earlier, screwing together with proper torques provides @ pretension and surface pressure on the shoulder which is definitely above the highest maximum strass to be expected in the sucker rod string and with similar certainty below the yield strength of the material in question. Therefore, we are confronted with the following questions: 1. Which is the optimum pretension in the rod string joint? 2. By which make-up torque can this optimum pretension be achieved? 3. How can this proper make-up torque be maintained? The importance of proper cleaning and sufficlent Jubrication of threads is best illustrated by the fact that approx. 90% of the applied make-up torque of a freely moving, well cleaned and lubricated joint is still ost to Sriction in the threads (40%) and friction on the shoulder (50%) — with only 10% of tte torque remaining for production of the necessary surface pressure on the shoulder. We shall try to illustrate by way of an example the forces which are active in a %4'-S200h threaded sucker rod joint. Calculation example: Dougtie and Carter have determined the make-up torque by the following formula F (PB, Ow Me $e BE + Oy.) 2) It follows that 2Me Po, et cosa DAM F 2590. 10° “= Gea, 22.017 2, BROT yy aia toes * 849-015 The pretension force F, produces in the threaded pin a stress of F,__s6e1e ony = Et = SEE = 227.9 Nim? & ons a Ee = umn @) Uf this screwed joint is exposed now to an additional maximum operational load of 65 KN, we arrive at a total pin stress of Fe 65.108 Ozges= 8m, EP = 2079 + OSI Imm? an Ot A a3 + 765 = 280 NI Assuming a minimum yield strength of c, = 700 Nimm:, the resulting safety Is 24) The symbols used stand for: My Make-up torque for %" rod 530 N.m F, pretension force N F, operational load N Pe thread pitch 2.54 mm D, —_ flank diameter for 1'%e" thread 25.22 mm Coefficient of friction of flanks 17 a half of apical angle of thread 30° D, mean diameter of box/pin contact area 349 mm. Ha Coefficient of friction of box!pin contact area 0.15 Sm _Stfe8s in threaded pin caused by pretension force 227.9 Nimm* A, recessed area at threaded pin 423 mm? A, carrying annular azea on box (coupling) 765 me? rym total pin stress 283 Nimm? 6, minimum yield strength 700 Nita? 95Lengthening |, of pin due to pretension force: Feed, 96414. 18.1 aT R Te = 423.21. 19" = 00184 mm ta) Shortening ly of box (coupling) due to pretension force: I= heb = SBA TET = 0.0091 mm (26) E 765.21.10 Lengthening |, + 4, pin due to pretension force and operational (oad: soa any = ue: Aes Be _ 289.1841 kth E 2110" = 0.0203 mm. The condition Al, < ly must be met, in order to prevent a separation of the box (couplingy/pin con. tact areas. In other words, the additional lengthening of the pin due to the operational load must be smaller than the shortening of the box (coupling) achieved by pretension. |, lengthening of pin due to pretension force mm Al, additional lengthening of pin due to operational load mm yy shortening of box (coupling) due to pretension force. mm 8, length of elongation on pin 16.1 mm By length of shortening on box (coupling) 15.1 mm E modulus of elasticity 21. 104 Nimm= For calculation data see table in Fig. 86. ft el om alm tne | en on fe fe [es finan [ze00 | we fe] ‘moma zeae cone oma | SOS we oe [ca | 2setmea| occa cco |i eos [eons Tm = Ed 1” 254 33.15 45.30 1465 762 20.2 20.2 j 5am | seat coin |e oc oa Fig. 86 Data for calculation of forces in sucker rod string screw joints ‘The diagram in Fig. 87 shows the influence of pretension on the screwed joint. The most important question now for the operator is how to maintain the proper torque during make-up. The proper torques for different SBS rod types and sucker rod sizes are listed in Fig. 85. If manual sucker rod wrenches are being used for the screwing operation, keeping of proper torque is not guaranteed and cannot be controlled. Therefore, we recommend using hydraulically driven power tongs which, provided they are properly handled and maintained, guarantee to a high degree maintaining of a specitied torque. Below, we shall only discuss the possibilities of torque control arising from the use of hydraulic sucker rod power tongs. When using such tongs, the common procedure is to set the rolief valve of the tong to a pressure which — based on the torque recommended for the rod in question (In accordance with rod size and steel type)—can be gathered from the calibration diagram (torque-oll pressure-diagram) of the tong ‘manufacturer (see Fig. 88). 96le detormation (mm) maximum total load iz minimum total load im = shortening of box (coupling) operational toad Alz = lengthening of pin due pretension force to operational load remaining pretension force 99 = maximum stress ‘minimum operational load qy = minimum stress = maximum operational load lengthening of pin Fig. 87 Influence of pretension on screwed joint The follawing criteria should be met in this operation: 1, The calibration diagram must be exact; if possible, there should be a calibration diagram for each individuat tong and not only a collective diagram for a tong type. 2. The torque transmission mechanism of the tong and the relief valve must be properly functioning which must be checked by regular tests and maintenance work. 3. Differences in viscosity of the hydraulic tluid will influence force transmission. Make sure, th fore, to always use the same hydraulic fluid as specified by the tong manufacturer. 4, Prior to the start of screwing operation, the hydraulic system should be brought to the required operating temperature. The safest method for determining and for regularly controlling the proper functioning of hydraulic, system, relief valve and wrench has proven to be the measurement of hydraulic pressure after the relief valve by way of inductive pressure transducer and torque measurement at the tong head with a wie strain gauge mounted on a rod test coupling. Both vatues, pressure as well as torque, are 97to API-RP 11 BR, comparison of data supplied by wrench manufacturer | s with empirical shop data 3 M for steel with o,4, % 250 Nimm? SBS — S200n £ M for steel with oy,, = 250 Nimm? SBS — VM 125, N2P = 3 Characteristic M ="f (F) according to manufacturer E2000} Characteristic M = f (F) according to shop measurement 3 = 1800. . 118" Bd = 1600) _ a 140. AK * 1200) 1000) Diagram M,,,.0il pressure for sucker '6d wrenches B.J. and H. K, 1 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 TO 120 BO uo 10 1 bar = 10° Pa Oil pressure (bar) Fig. 88 Oil pressure-torque — correlation of a number of hydraulic sucker rod wrenches simultaneously registered on recording strips. Since both pressure transducer and test coupling with Wire strain gauge are calibrated, each deflection on the recorder chart corresponds to a specific pressure or a specitic torque. In this way, it is possible to compile exact calibration data for the tong. In addition, this testing method also permits determining the influence of different lubricants on the ‘screwing operation and to find out the best mode of handling and applying the tong during operation, 2.8 Handling and Transportation of Sucker Rods To protect the sucker rods from damage, an API recommendation for handling and transportation {API RP Il BR) has been issued which contains the following 16 items: 1. Care must be taken during all transportation and handling to protect all rods and rod ends from contacts which may cause notches or dents. All threads must be protected from damage that may be caused by Jamming of thread protectors. In addition, rods may never be transported in any way which permits the occurrence of notches or dents. All nicked, bent or dented rods are considered to be permanently damaged and must be rejected, 2. If possible, packed rods should always be transported and stored in their original state of Packing until the moment when they are being Installed into the well, Make sure to use proper tools for unpacking operations to avoid any damaging of tods. Pay special attention to avoid » oe e 8 s Teoma Sm ‘ s oe 7 e 7 é tase 104SBS type: N2P a5 (Niemen + =Sinstort 280! 2404 200. 160 120 80: 40! oO on = 7 . : SBS type: VM 125 240: . ta. $28 ‘Srarvanion Sinstor |o, : ° ; admissible - br . ° o> Gyaluaiion Fel 80t2~ 40: Ls : ne o 0.3 aa Fig. 90 Upper stress (ultimate stress) as a function of dynamic load factor $ for steels used for ‘SBS types N2P and VM 125CHAPTER 3 DYNAMOMETER MEASUREMENTS 3.1 General, Structure of Device, Measurement The dynamometer used in well operations today is an instrument which is, installed by way of a harness above the polished rod of the pumping unit. ¢¢ yields a load-travel diagram in the form of a closed graph, By way of dynagraphs, the static and dynamic loads can thus be determined for each phase of the pumping motion. In this way it is possible to gather Information on flow rates, the operation of valves, valve damages, the wear situation on plunger and barrel, tubing string leaks and production rate. The interpretation of dynagrams can be utilized for proper design of drive unit and counter weight, for maximum setting of stuffing boxes and stroke length, for analysis of rod fractures, determination of paraffin deposits in the tubings and other problems of pump-off situations. In this way it is possible to substantially improve the effectivity of pumping systems. In many cases, early recognition of broblems and preventive repairs may help to avoid more severe damages and save substantial costs. Any pumping operation will profit from growing production rates, dropping maintenance expendi tures, rare occurrence of production problems and low production costs. Operating principle: The recording of Polished rod load Is effected by way of 2 hycraulic system, whereas the polished rod stroke is transmitted by the mechanical roll-off operation of a drum with recoil spring, To enabie the hydraulic system to transmit the polished rod load, the device is provided with a pump Which delivers oil from a storage tank to the measuring cylinder. In the course of this operation, two hydraulic punches are extended which slightly lift off the polished rod and thus permit the hydraulic cylinder to enter into the flux of force between subsurface pump drive unit and polished rod. The change in polished rod load causes in turn a change of pressure in the hydraulic cylinder. This pressure is transferred by the metering mechanism and the recording device and plotted on the diagram drum. Since the recording drum rotates with the stroke of the subsurface pump drive unit, 2 closed foad-travel diagram is being recorded, Execution of measurement: Whenever possible, the measurement should only be executed with running pumping unit. Any switch-off of the drive prior to measurement can falsity the result. ‘The operator cartying out the measurement takes up position in front of the pumping unit, hotding the device with both handles, waits until the horsehead is within reach and slips the device into the harness. The provision of an additional safety fatch Is quite useful. During the next horsehead strokes, the hydraulic system is pumped up by hand until itis apparent from the indicator or the harness that the device is fully transmitting the polished rod load. Now, the cord wound up on the measuring drum must be pulled and fastened by way of a hook or magnetic catch to the stuffing box. In the mean time, a dynagraph card has been fastened onto a cartridge. This cartridge can be stipped in a self-locking manner on the measuring drum. Now, the recording pin which is stil floating freely is placed on the paper by releasing the holding mechanism and the diagram Is being recorded. Then, the recording pia is fifted off again and the cartridge is removed during the next stroke. Ha socalled valve check is to be carried out, the pumping unit may be stopped after lifting off of recording pin, Ideally, the unit should be stopped shortly before reaching the upper or lower dead center. If the pump has been slowed down and stopped, the cord leading to the stuffing box is slightly 108Back Flow Valve f High Pressure Pump t + Hf! --— It \ Carrying |} 1} Cy shouiger [Hill] l Ur t ite © On ct rT hy 8 { i Hamess fp. | | I Hy 5 |i | o- " om SiRERY Fu = t S P 1 == : t \ Recording Orum Measuring / NN Spring Plunger and Barrel Oynamometer Housing Fig. 91 Dynamometer LL 57 (according to Lodynski? Pulled from the measuring drum. Then, the recording pin is placed back on the card again and the cord is being pulled in one second intervals. Now, the recording pin must be removed again and the Pumping unit is restarted. After several strokes, the measurement can be repeated at the second dead center. Removal of device: The activation of a lever opens the back flow vaive which permits the hydraulic fluid to flow from the measuring cylinder back to the storage tank. Now, the device can be removed from the harness. For the subsequent evaluation itis necessary to draw a neutral line on the diagram, For this purpose, the device must be held freely and the recording pin is placed on the paper. If the cord is pulled now, the recording pin will draw a zero line. The drawing of this line can also be executed prior to the start of measuring procedure, 107Load Transmission Indicator Recording Mechanism Harness attached to Horsehead Stroke Transmission Polished [_ Garrier ~ Steel Cable Spacer — Base Plate cross Bar Polished Rod Fig. 92 Dynamometer — Mode of operation 1083.2 Pressures and Forces in the Pumping System Initial weight of sucker rod string in air m, For a tapered rod string, the following formula applies: Mg = (Mg 1% + Mya KelT Buoyancy F, ef immersed rod string Fa=Vp-er-9 art Fea) ey -. density of pumped medium (for a tapered rod string: Fa, Pressures in pumping systems (see Fig. 86 and 87) P, ... hydrostatic pressure of fluid column in tubing string Prseg-T P, ... hydrostatic pressure of fluid column in casing annulus Pee er-9.(T— Tad P. ... as pressure in casing annulus PL... tubing head pressure Fluid toads The pressures P,, P., P, and P, act on the gross plunger area A, (Fig. 86 and 87) according to the ‘general law of polydirectional and even pressure distribution. Fluid load G = (P, + Py — Pp —P)- Ay T ump setting depth = rod string length Tot liquid tevel m1 and m,> ... weigh? per meter of sucker rods used in kgim x, Rd Hy proportionate lengths (x; + % = 1.0) my Vi ex Vp 0d string volume 8 im, -@ = gravitational force of rod string 3.3 Dynamometer Measurement in Completely Rigid Pumping Systems — Description of pumping process and dynagraph development It we assume the ideal condition of a pumping system with completely rigid rod and tubing string, we may describe the situation of dynamometer measurement as follows: ‘The purnp plunger is at some point on the downward stroke. The traveling valve Is open; the load of fluid column G,=(P, +P — P,—P,).Ax fests on the rigid tubing string and keeps the standing vaive closed (see Fig. 93) At this point, a dynamometer attached to the polished rod will pick up the force (G, — Fase the individual weight of the sucker rod string in alr G, reduced by the buoyancy force Fx. This force represents the minimum polished rod load of the pumping system, The travelling valve closes atthe bottom dead center ofthe polished rod and plunger downstroke. With the upward stroke, starting simultaneously, the tubing string is completely relieved of the fluid column toad Gj; the latter rests now completely on the plunger (see Fig. 93) and the stand ing valve opens. During the upward stroke, a polished rod dynamometer measures the force {(G, - Fa + G) (maximum polished rod load). 109he i SSS [Aooon! Fig. 82 Schematic sketch of pumping system during upward and downward stroke— Representation of pressures acting in the system [At the end of the upward stroke, the stancing valve through which In the course of this stroke new ‘Huid has been taken in, closes again. With the simultaneous start of the downward stroke, the travelling valve opens, rod string and plunger are relieved from the load of the fluid column and the load is transferred to the tubing string, Under ideat conditions, as described here, valve clearances and time spans for fluid load changes are assumed to be infinitesimal. tis possible to installa dynamometer at the lowest point of the rod string (right above the pump plunger). This pump dynamometer would only record, however, the load of fluid column G, We arrive atthe following dynagraphs. 3.3.1 Dynagraph Interpretation (Energy and Counterweight Deliberations) The polished rod and plunger movement of a pumping cycle takes place periodically. If we regard it a8 oscillation, each upward and downward stroke is equivalent to an angle of 180°. Werk and energy are defined as forcextravel. The dynamometer measures forces which have travelled a certain distance and the dynagraph area thus produced represents the work or energy ac- complished. During the upward stroke, the rod string Is lifted by the amount h, To if the rod string requires the force G, — Fa. The work thus accomplished (G, — F,) his equivalent to the area E—A—D—F in the polished fod dynagraph (Fig. 94 and 95). In addition, the load cf the fluid column G, acts on the plunger. This means that lifting of the fluid column requires the work G_.h, (area A~B—C—D). During the upward stroke only force G, — F is acting on the polished rod. Here, the product of (G.~F,)-n, (area F—D—A’—E} represents that amount of energy which 1s regained by the Gropping of the rod string in the course of the downward stroke, with the areas £—A—D—F and F—D--A'—E' showing the same dimensions and thus also the same area (Fig. 9). 110Poienes 08 aynareph Patanes ros onapeh A rb tl) « pa __* 1 ny —Polaned ad take hy — Plunge ste My) aning vate cess, 0 Trovaling vale open De eee Fig. 94 Dynagraphs Hlapped and interpreted This requires of the motors: constant power output over the whole pumping cycle. The energy released during the downward moverient of the sucker rod string (G, — F,).h, is stored on the other side in form of potential energy by the counterweight and delivered again during lifting of the rod string (G, — F).h,. The amount of energy G, .h, which must be produced during the pumping cycle by the drive engines in order to tft the fluid column is equivalent to the area A—B~C—D in the polished zod dynagraph and 1—2—3—4 in the pump dynagraph (Fig. 95). We are dealing here with effective energy (electrotechnically: active energy) whereas the amount (G,— F,) represents transfer or, electrotechnically speaking, blind energy. This amount of blind energy performs no effective work in the lifting of the fluid column; it is inherent in the pumping system. Consideration of fonal forces Frictional forces and the resulting frictional work are very difficult to incorporate and analyse in the actual dynagraph. If we assume, however, by way of simplification that frictional forces are constant over thie whole stroke length of a subsurface pumping installation, we can consider them quite easily in theoretical dynagraphs. Since friction is always acting In opposite direction to the rod string movement, we arrive at the fol- lowing situation (see Fig. 96): 1. Upward stroke: Frictional forces are directed downwards and increase polished rod ioad. 2. Downward stroke: Frictional forces are directed upwards and decrease polished rod load. In contrast to a polished rod dynamometer, a pump dynamometer can only pick up part of the friction ‘occuring ia the pumping system, ie. plunger friction. ma (G0) sine 7 am, Fig.96 Dynagraph with eton foran FQ. 97 Pllshed od and pump dnagraph absolute tad pumping sytem ‘ara pumping sytem wih eats svcer rod string and rigid (anchored) tubing string 3.4 Dynamometer Measurement in Pumping Systems with Rigid Tubing String and Elastic Sucker Rod String Description of pumping cycle and development of dynagraph Difference to the completely rigid system: With the start of the upward stroke, the total load of fluid column G; Is transferred to the polished od with the tubing string and its seating assembly being at the same time completely relieved. In the course of this load change, the polished rod travels the distance h,. The plunger, however, does not move during this change and both valves are closed. After completion of change, the force G, — F,+G, Is acting on the polished rod, the standing valve opens and new oil is taken in Because of the fact that—by taking on the load of fluid column G,—the polished rod has moved upwards by Ah, we may say: the sucker rod string has stretched by the amount Ah,. The stretch is, in accordance with the spring constant K, of the sucker rod string. Applying the law of linear force distribution we arrive at: F = K, . Ah,. Since both valves are closed during the downward stroke and oll can be considered as being in- compressible, the fluid column between plunger and standing valve can be seen as fixed counter Support on which the plunger rests. Thus, at the beginning of the downstroke we encounter the fol- towing situation: The polished rod moves downwards but the plunger stays put at first. Only when the polished rod has travelled the distance Ah, ie. when the sucker rod string has been relieved and contracted by the amount Ah,, the plunger too Is moving downwards. With this taking place, the travelling valve opens. The new amount of oil taken in during the upward stroke Is forced through the travelling valve and the tubing string is again exposed to the total load of fluid column G,. The downstroke is finished when the polished rod has travelled the distance h, land the plunger the distance h, — Ahg = hy. The results are the dynagraphs shown in Fig. 97. 12A—B—C—D—A and 1—2—3—4—1: measurement lines by ove polished rod stroke he plunger stroke, (hy + Ah, = hy) An, ‘amount, by which the rod string stretches or contracts 8 spring coefficient of sucker rod string tge=—St = 5, graphic representation of spring coetticient hy Travelling valve closes, start of upstroke, end of downstroke Standing valve opens, start of upwards directed plunger movement, intake of new fluid starts End of upstroke, start of dawnstroke, standing valve closes Travelling valve opens, start of downwards directed plunger movement goer 8.4.1 Dynagraph Interpretation If the rod string Is elastic, load changes cannot take place suddenly because they are governed by the spring characteristic of the rod string, i.e. by the Spring coefficient s,. The inclination of s, lines in the polished rod dynagraph (AB and CD) are a result of the angle, the tangens of which is rathing else but a graphic representation of the spring coefficient s,. AL the start of individual strokes, both pump plunger and polished rod show a deviating force-ravel behaviour which is no longer paralle!—quite in contrast to an absolutely rigid pumping system. If, however, the load changes have been completed, no difference as to the pumping process and forces 2cting in the pumping system éxists between the absolutely rigid system and the system with elastic sucker rod string. Similar to the absolutely rigid pumping system, a transter of energy also takes place here between the counter balance and the sucker rod string. A-second transfer of energy takes place because of the elasticity of the sucker rod string. When the string stretches by Ah, at the start of the upstroke, the rod string receives the spring energy. When it contracts again at the start of the downstroke, this amount of energy is delivered back by the rod string. Since, however, the rod string contraction Ah, involves the simultaneous lifting of the counter- balance, this amount of energy is used for lifting the counterbalance. The amounts of energy dealt with sofar are transfer energies, i.e, energies which perform no actual work but are only flowing back and forth in the pumping system. 3.5 Dynamometer Measurement in Pumping Systems with Elastic Tubing String and Elastic Sucker Rod String From what has been said above, it appears that in the course of the individual pumping cycles of a pumping system, continuous (oad changes are taking place between tubing string and sucker rod string. White, during the upward stroke, the pump plunger together with the rod string and the polished rod are carrying the fluid load and are relieved of it during the downward stroke, quite the contrary is true for the tubing string. These load changes cause elongations and contractions in the rod string of the amount Ah, = Gis» If the tubing Is now also viewed as being elastic which—in field operations—coincides with a non. anchored, free hanging tubing string, we arrive at a situation where the tubing string, being also elastic and exposed to the fluid load changes, is stretched and contracted just as ihe sucker rod string. The amount of this change in length is governed, however, not by the spring constant s2 of the rod string but by the spring constant sq 9f the tubing string. As a rule, the following correlation applies: The fluid load changes cause elongations and contractioned in the tubing string of the amount Atte, = GySsy Upward stroke: ‘The rod string is exposed to fluid load G,—stretching of rod string. The tubing string is relieved of fluid load G,—contracting of tubing string. 13Downward stroke: The rod string is relisved of fluid load G—contracting of rod string. The tubing string is exposed to fluid load G,—stretching of tubing string, its apparent that the changes in length in the rod and tubing string are taking place with a shift In phases. Itis possible, to physically prove that rod string and tubing string are linked to each other during the fluid toad changes. Due to this link, the polished rod must travel the distance (Ah, + Ah) In order for a complete fluid load change to take place. Definition of spring constant, taking into account the above correlation: & Fluid load S 4 $2.55 fahy+ ahs) Gis. G85,” Gy a+ Ss) 2 + Sar 82-8 ‘That means: In a pumping system with elastic rod and tubing string, rod and tubing string are to be considered as two springs connected in series during fluid load changes, Fig. 98 Levtert-type Polished Rod Dynamometer 143.6 Computer Assisted Evaluation of Dynamometer Measurements At present, the mechanically operating Lodynsky-type polished rod dynamometer manufactured by Leutert is widely used in Europe. It records polished rod load over the stroke (see Fig. 98 and 99). By visual interpretation of dynagraphs, it is possible for simple operating conditions, i.e. low pump setting depth, low pumping rates and small strokes, to evaluate the power consumption per stroke with relative accuracy. To draw conclusions, however, from the dynagraph shape to subsurface well conditions by way of the conventional visualiqualitative mode of evaluation is in many cases not possible at all or with poor results only, due to the very complex behaviour of the subsurface equipment. This deficiency and the call for a quantitative mode of evaluation have led to the development of a mathematical model of the pumping system which facilitates computer assisted analysis. Among the latest works in this field is the dissertation of N, Pavlik. It focusses on the use of vibration models for determination of rod string movement in operating sucker rod pumps and the development of methods of calculation for dynagraph analysis. Fig. 99° Positioning of polished rod dynamometer ‘Three demands must be met in the development of such a model: — the rod string is to be surveyed as accurately as possible with regard to dimensions and material properties — the frictional forces acting on the rod string must be incorporated = the procedures resulting from this mode! should be applicable also for deep wells and high pumping frequencies.In the mode! discussed, the rod string is therefore seen as a continuum capable of vibrations which can be described by the motion equation for longitudinally vibrating rods. Based on the work of Gibbs and Neely, the employed mathematical methods and the basic principle of this mode of calculation is thoroughly explained by way of the most simple mode!—straight rod string from Hooke’s material with linear external damping. We are confronted here with the represen. tation of the dynamic elastic state by way of trigonometric polynomials, the coefficients of which are determined with the aid of the timeidistance equation of the polished rod movement and the respective dynagraph. The model of Gibbs and Neely is being completed and the questions as to damping constants left open by the former are being investigated. The contemplation of energy balance, attempted for the first time in this context, which relates the area of polished rod dynagraph to that of plunger dynagraph, yields some possibilities for the determination of damping constants, i.e. estimates af frictional influences. This basic model is then—going beyond other known publications on this topic—extended to the tapered rod string, also incorperating viscoelastic materials (fiberglass rods). Aside from the combi nation of various rod materials, the presented model also permits an almost unlimited variation of rod string taperings and is thus suitable for widespread application. To permit an exact calculation of frictional forces acting on the rod string, a model was finally developed which considers the nonstationary fluid friction. While in previous investigations of tlow conditions inside the tubing, the rod string was viewed as being rigid, itis possible for the first time here to achieve an approximate calculation of flow field and rod string movement for the elastic string. The essential problem (solved here by an iterative method) lies In the fact that—contrary to the rigid system—the plunger movement and thus the flow volume is not known in advance. The computer assisted methods of calculation derived from these models appear to be suitable and effective aids in the analysis of dynagraphs. They make it possible to determine rod string stresses and to calculate plunger dynagraphs. 3.7 Electrical Dynamometers For quite some time, electrical dynamometer systems have also been offered. These systems which were mainly developed in the US record load-time and travel-time graphs. With directly connected electronical calculating devices, the computer backed evaluation takes place right in the field, in a Way as described in section 3.6 “Computer Assisted Evaluation of Dynamometer Measurements”, supplying the pump operator with more and improved data for decision making. We must distinguish here between mobile and stationary systems. For cost reasons, the mobile unit is preferred in most cases. Therefore, the choice of available equipment is greater in this sector. — Mobile systems With mobile systems, both amplifying and recording equipment is rigidly mounted on 2 small truck or can be carried. With some designs, the computer too is brought on site to permit immediate evaluation of data. The load transducer, normally a transmitter operating with a wire strain gauge, Is inserted during the pumping operation into ar. adapter device between polished rod clamp and carrier bar. The travel transducer is either positioned near the carrier bar or at the samson post close to the main bearing. Another possibility of mobile measurement is realized by permanent installation of both load and travel transducer. Then, for measurement purposes, it is, only necessary to connect the measuring lines. In the latter case it is possible to install trans- ducers at ideal positions. — Stationary systems, i.e. systems with remote transmission of measuring data For continuous monitoring of power consumption per stroke, dynamometer systems are being ‘used which are installed on site and operate automatically (pump off controller) or systems which teed measuring data to a central computer station by remote transmission either with cables or wireless. Both systems entall high costs. Especially in systems with remote transmission, the technical expencitures in the field of data transmission and data processing Is rather high. Nonetheless, some companies have started in recent years to develop stationary systems. 116(One company installed an extensive monitoring and transmission network at an oll field. The heart ‘of the Computer Production Control system is a central computer which automatically indicates pump off situations, carries out complete analysis of power consumption per stroke and switches off the pump in case of malfunctioning of the pumping unit. (One Company offers an automatically operating system for the indication of pump off situations. It is installed on site and is provided with a separate minicomputer unit which receives loaditime and tcavel/time signals as input data. Hook-up of the device to a central computer is not necessary and primarily not provided for. Other companies have, however, developed a stationary system on the bar sis of a license which can be operated as a Separate unit installed on site es pump off controller or connected, if necessary, to a central computer. With regard to initial costs, stationary monitoring systems are always more expensive than mobile units. They offer, however, maximum control by a greater number of measurements with lower per- sonal expenditures, =\ =e 50 Fig. 100 Elements of a mobile system 3.8 Qualitative Interpretation of Dynagraphs In the previous sections, the mechanical principles of dynamometer measurements were outlined and explained by way of simple dynagraphs. In many cases, however, the shape of dynagraphs is of a complexity which requires scientific analysis. In certain cases, dynagraphs can be sufficiently interpreted with simple means, making scientific analysis unnecessary. This is true in particular for low pumping frequencies which hardly trigger any, rod string vibrations. With suitable gradations, both stroke and polished rod load can be read off directly from the dynagraph, For reading at load from the ordinate, several gradations are available depending on the ‘umber of metering springs which are used, optionally and according to experience, for each recording. For adjustment to the range of polished rod stroke, the gear reducer on the dynagreph ‘drum can be replaced. a “valve check” has been carried out, horizontal lines recorded shortly before the top and bottom dead center indicate complete tightness over the whole range of the subsurface pump. If a plunger check shows the second line being lower than the first and the third one lower than the second, and 0 on until a certain end level, itis an indication that, due to a leak of the plunger or plunger valve, the load of the fluid column is slowly transferred back again to the standing valve and thus to the tubing string, Leaks in the tubing located above the pump cannot be detected by a “valve check”. Even if the fluid column would drop in the tubing in this short span of time by several meters, the weight loss [s still below instrument sensitivity. a7If, In the lower check, the lines are deflected upwards, it is an indication that due to leakage losses in the area of the standing valve, load is being transferred back to the plunger again. If, at the same time, the upper check shows only a single horizontal line, it is no proof that the plunger Is tight. It is only an indication that leakage losses in the area of the standing valve are larger than any possible losses In the area of the plunger. Even a leaking plunger will carry the full fluid load if leakage losses, seep through the standing valve into the annulus. On the other hand, a single line at the lower check does not necessarily mean a tight standing valve if at the same time there appears a leak at the plunger. Here too, the rule applies: The standing valve is tighter than the plunger. Since this Is the common situation of subsurface pumps, the falso diagnosis of “Standing valve is tight" is quite often encountered. The calculation of rod string stretch with the aid of dynagraphs is possible by the following equation (ee Fig. 101): haw- Lows =a Of Fig. 101 Elements of a stationary system grp= Get Fe)-T | TIG—G) __T.aG aid AE A, -E AE In many cases itis also possible to read off the effective plunger stroke directly from the dynagraph. If we multiply the effective plunger stroke with the plunger area and the pumping time, we arrive at the well production rate (see Fig. 102). Great setting depths, gasous wells or high speed pumping units prohibit determination of production criteria by way of dynagraphs. They would produce distorted and very complicated dynagraphs, 18mainly caused by the occurrence of longitudinal vibrations, from which It Is no longer possible to read off plunger stroke. Dynamometers are a valuable ald in the control of subsurface installations. The user should be warned, however, to overestimate the value of dynagraohs, It is a false interpretation, for example, to mark a certain point in the dynagraph with the contention that “at this point, the plunger starts to move in the pump”. What the dynagraph really shows at this point Is only the polished rod load at a certain point of the polished rod stroke and nothing else. zl “s Fig. 102 Standard Dynagraph gy «+ effective plunger stroke v production rate per minute W..... production rate per day Ax... plunger cross section 1... stroke number t...., time elapsing for one turn of the crank Tess. efficiency = 80% Ag het RM = Ayer smn 1440 0 t = A Pa 1.1480 119ae voter fo SrrC——_ Lo ts es LS SS nme Co? PO (ae), —_ aliahes rod is too Fig. 103 Typical Oynagraphs Fig. 104 Typical Dynagraphs In the equation for V the values for (60.1. 1440) is a constant, therefore the formular can be simplitied, This factor multiplied by the plunger cross section A, gives at the plunger factor Ay. 60.9. 1340 Determination of production rate is facilitated by the fact that within a given field there is always a certain number of plungers with equal diameter. The daily production rate is determined by ene v=ote Examples Plunger diameter dy, Plunger factor Inch me sid Phe 107 2 7 2 265 A.2Mq" plunger with Myay = 1m at =5 strokesimin and t = 12 seconds produces Yard. 1 Va t77m old. GI = 14.754 We t5md 120Any concussions ot the pumping unit as they occur, for example, in case of damaged gears can often be cleary detected in the dynagraph. We therefore recommend to make sure that the pump drive is properly functioning during measurement, to prevent dynagraph interpretation carled out at a later Point from arriving at false conclusions about the condition of subsurface equipment. Fig, 103 and 104 show typical dynagraphs. 124RRATA 5 not suitable for corrosive operating page 38 /line 5: cross off: “why conditions’ page 47 / Section 1.5.2 / line 15 inrow" should read: “through” page 57 / Conversion factors / ine 1 °661/d" should read: “bbi/d! page 78 /Fig. 71 / last line (ARD 3). ‘Mo-Content: should read: » 90-110 Ni-Content: should read. °.70- 90" page 97 / Fig. 87: missing designations 10 kN page 100 / Section 2.9.2 / “Rodstring failure caused by flexure of rods" / line 7: cross off: “Such a failure is detectable by the fact that the surface of fracture is not perpenticular to the tod axis.CHAPTER 4 PUMPING UNITS 4.1 Types of Pumping Units ‘The design principle of pumping units is governed by the following demands: 1. Change of the rotary motion of the prime mover into a translational motion at the polished rod, 2, Equalization and reduction of the load on the drive unit caused by the periodically changing polished rod load (counter weights, unit geometry) Fig. 105 shows the basic design of a pumping unit. Norsenese Walking Beam Pimsa Bearing men counterweight ‘crank crank pin Bening Chaar and Ba Cover Prime Mover Fig. 105 Pumping unit The design principles and classification of common pumping units are compiled in API specification 11E (see section 4.2 “API Classification”) According to function, the components of a pumping unit may be divided Into five groups: — base structure, consisting of base and samson post with ladder as supporting structure of the unit. Ail components are arranged on a base frame, enable easy transportation of the whole drive unit, — drive unit, consisting of prime mover, power transfer (predominantely V-belt) and reducer (pre- dominantely two-stage helical or herringbone gearing). The prime mover is normally 2 common 123type electro motor. The motor rating depends on a number of parameters such as stroke number and stroke length. It cannot be aifered individually, however, e.g. with changing production rate, but must be adjusted to other drive components such as gear reducer, counter weight a.o. The type of motor commonly used is an asynchronous squirrel cage motor operating at a frequency of 50 Hz (60 Hz in US, with the three phases being delta connected. Some types may also be star connected during start-up, using a centrifugal clutch at the belt pulley. After reaching nominal speed, the motor runs delta connected again. Other motors are provided with an automatic starter which rocks up the counter weights to a full turn of the crank by switching power ‘on and off. All electrical drive systems must be provided with protective devices which switch off instal lations automatically in case of excess current, excess voltage, or short circuiting. The drive power of the electro motor is transfered by way of V.belt to the gear reducer. In this way, V-belt and gears reduce the motor speed down to the crank shaft speed. The pulleys. of the V-belt drive can easily be exchanged which permits changing of pumping rate by altering the entry speed at the gear reducer. (V-Belts have 10 give no explosion hazards). In general, two-stage helical or herringbone gearing running In oll are being used. They are mounted in a cast steel housing. For extra low pumping rates, itis also possible to use one-stage gearing, provided motor speed has been reduced by a two-stage V-belt drive. The reduction ratio within the V-belt drive can be as high as 4:1 Major gear data according to API specification 11 E are: 1. Gear size; it is in accordance with peak torque and rated in thousands of inchpounds. 2, Reduction ratio of entry and exit speed. — crank assembly, consisting of crank and pitman for changing rotary motion into translational motion. — walking beam assembly, consisting of walking beam and horsehead for transferring the stroke motion to the polished rod and the transfer of force and travel according to leverage ratios. The horsehead is mounted at the front part of the walking beam. A steel cable sling is carrying the wireline hanger. The latter is mounted at the upper end by a latch and represents the connection to the polished rod, if the carrier bar is placed into the eyelets provide at its two loose ends. This carrier bar is used for setting the polished rod which is held by a clamp. The configuration of the curved side of the horsehead is equivalent to a tractrix (see Fig. 106). This configuration makes it possible for the wireline to produce only a straight up and down movement during the whole pumping cycle. This helps to prevent any bending of the polished rod and rules ‘out uneven wear of the polished rod in the stuffing box. The reason for employing this curve is, that a steel rope is not ideally flexing. If a circle were chosen as horsehead configuration, it would be impossible to support the rope at exactly that point where it must touch the circle. The force would not act perpendicular to the radius and the result would be extreme wear or even fracture of the polished rod. — counter weight assembly, consisting of counter weights and adjusting mechanism or pneumatic cylinders for equalizing the load of the drive unit by storing energy during the downward stroke and releasing it during the upward stroke, The counter weights can elther be attached directly to the walking beam andior fastened to the Crank; they can be easily adjusted by way of toothed rack and crank wheel or spindle. On each side of the crank, one or two counter weights can be mounted, Other major components of @ pumping drive unit are the bearings, the main bearing between samson post and walking beam, the equalizer cross bearings between walking beam and equalizer, the iman bearings, the crank pit bearings and the crank shaft bearings. The weak point in the whole drive system is the main bearing. It suffers the highest surface pressure and is only exposed to up and down motion and not to complete rotation. This produces lubricant back-up at the cusp points. land leads to increased wear. There are two ways to solve this problem. Either by the use of simple friction bearings which must be replaced in certain intervals or by the use of self-lubricating roller bearings. The different types of pumping drive designs can be distinguished by the geometry of the leverage system and by the arrangement and design of counter weights. Each type of design shows typical characteristics which—depending on operating conditions~-may 124