Levelling

1.0. Introduction
Leveling is the operation required in the determination or, more strictly, the
comparison, of heights of points on the surface of the earth. The
qualification is necessary, since the height of one point can be given only
relative to another point or plane. If a whole series of heights is given
relative to a plane, this plane is called a datum, and in topographical work
the datum used is the mean level of the sea, since it makes international
comparison of heights possible. In England, mean sea level was determined
at Newlyn, Cornwall, from hourly observations of the sea level over a sixyear period from 1 May 1915. This level is termed Ordnance Datum and is
the one which is normally used in England, though on small works an
arbitrary datum may be chosen.

1.1.
I.

Terms used in levelleng

Back sight:

This is the first reading taken after the instrument has be set up.
A. Foresight
This is the last reading taken after the instrument has nee set up.
B. A level line
A level line is one which is at a constant height relative to mean sea level,
and since it follows the mean surface of the earth, it must be a curved line.
C. Bench mark
This is the point / surface whose height is known and has accurately
determined by the survey means.

D. horizontal line
A horizontal line, however unlike level line, is tangential to the level
line at any particular point, since it is perpendicular to the direction of
gravity at that point. Over short distances the two lines are taken to
coincide; but over long distances a correction for their divergence
becomes necessary. Figure 1 illustrates this point.

Figure1
E. Reduced level
This is a level which has been referred to datum
F. Datum
This is a surface to which the all survey readings are referred.
2.0.

The basic equipment required in leveling is:

(a)

A device which gives a truly horizontal line (the Level),

(b)

A suitably graduated staff for reading

Leveling Staff).

vertical

heights

(the

In addition, an equipment to enable the points leveled to be located relative

to
each
other on a map, plan or section; this might be, for example, chain and tape
or a theodolite.

2.1.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Types of level equipment

Dumpy level
Tilting level
Automatic level
Precise level
2.1.1.

A dumpy level

In the dumpy level the telescope is rigidly fixed the tribrach or leveling plate.
The level has the following parts:
i. Telescope
ii.
Tribrach
iii. Trivet stage

The distinguishing features of this instrument from the other instrument are
that the telescope is fixed to the spindle.

2.1.2.

mTilting level

2.1.3.

Adjustment of a level

There are two adjustments carried out on a level.

These are:
a) Temporary adjustment
b) Permanent adjustment

2.1.4.

Temporary adjustment

Before the instrument is ready to be used,

operations are carried out on it first. These are

2.1.5.

i.

Centring

ii.

Leveling

iii.

Focusing and removing the parallax

three

Levelling Procedure

Open tripod legs to about 60 and press firmly into the ground.
Open box and note carefully how the instrument is packed -neglecting
to do this may cause considerable difficulty when replacing the
instrument, which if done incorrectly is a source of much of the
damage caused to surveying instruments.
Lift instrument from box, but never by the telescope tube.
Screw firmly on to the tripod, taking care not to cross the threads.
Roughly level the instrument by adjusting the tripod and complete by
means of the foot-screws, i:e. make the bubble axis at right angles to
the vertical axis of the instrument, as follows:

Position 1, telescope parallel to screws A and B: Turn screws A and

B in opposite directions until the bubble is in the centre of the run (the
bubble will follow the movement of the left thumb). Position 2, at right
angles to position 1: Turn screw C until bubble is in the centre of the run.
Position 3: Turn back to position 1 and repeat until bubble remains central
when telescope is turned in any direction

Position 1: Turn screws A and D.

Position 2: Turn screws B and C.
Position 3: Turn back to position 1 and repeat until
bubble

2.1.6.
Focusing and removing the Parallax
Parallax is the apparent movement of the stadia hairs against the
image of the reading of the staff.
When making observations with optical instruments it is important
that they should be focussed carefully.

Focus the instrument eye piece so that the cross hairs appear
clear and sharp.

Loosen the tangent clamping screw, point the telescope to the

staff and re-clamp.
Focus the telescope with the milled edged focusing knob sharp
image of the leveling staff is seen in simultaneous graticule
lines.
Test for elimination of parallax. When looking through the telescope, parallax
is the apparent movement of the cross hairs relative to line or point onto
which the instrument sighted and is due to the eyepiece being imperfectly
focused.
2.2.

Leveling principle (procedure)

The basic operation is the determination of the difference in level between

on the earths surface. The leveling operation is carried out in conjunction
with a staff This is illustrated in figure2

Figure 2:
i.
ii.
iii.

iv.

The level I1 set up at and a a BS of 2.191 is taken on a staff held on

the BM.
The staff is moved to points A and B in turn and readings taken as
intermediate sights of 2.507m and 2.325m respectively.
The last reading is taken point C and the instrument is moved to point
position I2.At this point a BS is taken on C then an intermediate
reading is taken on point D and the last reading taken on point E
The process is continued until the leveling is finished.
2.2.1.

Booking and reducing of the readings

There 2 methods of booking and reducing, namely

i.
ii.

Rise and fall method

Height of collimation
Rise and f'allll1ethod

Bs

IS

FS

FALL

RISE

2.191

RL
49.872

2.507
2.325
3.019

0.316

RL
OBM 49.872m
AOD
49.559 A
49.741 B

49.872

0-182
0.829

50.567 50.570

C (CP)
D
E (CP)

2.513

6.962

REMARKs

49.556
49.738

1.496

1. 752

CORR.

2.81I

0.506
0.298

51.073
50.775

3.817

2.065

48.710

8-124

1.517 2.679

49.872

6.962

1.517

48.710

51.079
50.781
48.71
9

rBM
48.719m
AOD

Height of collimation booking.

BS

IS

FS

HPC

2.191

52.063

REMARKS

49.872

2.507

49.556

49.559/

2.325

49.738

49.741'

50.567

50. 570

C (CP)

51.073

51.079'

50.77 5

50.781 '

3.817

48.710

48. 719

8.124'

49.872

6.962

48.710

1.496

53.586

2.513

6.962

CORR. RL

49.872

3.019

1. 752

RL

2.811

52.527

+ 1. 162

+1.162'

OBM 49.872m AOD

D
E (CP)
TBM 48. 719m AOD

3.0.

Permanent adjustment on level.

In order for the instrument to give the best possible results, it should be
frequently tested and adjusted. Such adjustments are called permanent
adjustment.
A dumpy level has two permanent adjustments and these are the:
i.
ii.

Plate bubble adjustment

Collimation adjustment

A. Plate bubble adjustment

Objective
To ensure that the axis of the bubble is perpendicular to the vertical
axis.
Test
-

Set the bubble parallel to two foot screws, centre it, turn it through
90 in the horizontal plane until over the third screw and centralize it
again using this screw only.
Re set the bubble parallel to two foot screws and centralizes
carefully.
Assuming the bubble axis is in error by some amount
Turn the bubble through 180 in the horizontal plane

Adjustment
-

The instrument is brought half way back to the central position

using two foot screws.
The remaining half is adjusted using capstan adjusting screws .

B. Collimation error adjustment

Objective
To ensure that the line of sight is parallel to the bubble tube axis to
the vertical axis.

1
01

Two peg Test

-

Set up pegs about A and B 100 meters apart.

Set up the instrument mid way the two pegs.
Take readings on the staves held on the two pegs A and B obtaining
the readings a and b respectively.
Obtain the difference of the two readings h1 = a - b
Set up the instrument some distance away from the peg B , AB
produced.
Take readings on the two staves A and B obtaining readings a 1 and
b1 respectively.
Obtain the difference of the two readings h2 = a1 - b1
If h1 is equal to h2 then the instrument has no collimation error
otherwise the adjustment should be done.

Adjustment

(b)

hAB2 - hAB1

From figure 1

(a)

hAB = a-b=d1e+a-(b+d2e)
hAB1 = a-b since d1e = d2e
From figure 1

(b) hAB2 = b+d3e (a + d1e+ d2e+ d3e)

hAB2 = e (d1 + d2) = hAB1
e=

Example 1
A tilting level was set up with the eyepiece vertically over peg A. The height
from the top of to centre of the eyepiece is measured and found to be
1.516m. A level staff is then held on a distant peg B and the reading of
0.696m is obtained.
The level is set over peg B. The height of the eyepiece above B is 1.466m
and the reading on A is 2.162m. Determine
I.

The difference in level between A and B

II.
III.

The collimation error of the instrument

How to adjust the instrument
Solution.
Apparent difference from A 1.516 0.696 = 0.820
Apparent difference from B 2.162 1.466 = 0.696
True difference =

= 0.758 m

From B the correct reading on A should be 1.466 + 0.758 = 2.224

Collimation error = 2.224 2.162 = 0.062
Make the instrument read the correct value from B using the tilting
screw and bring the bubble central using bubble adjusting screw.

Example 2
When checking a dumpy level the following readings were obtained in two
peg test:
Level set up mid way between two stations 100m apart.
Staff readings on A and B were 1.753m and 1.314m respectively.
Level set 10m behind B and in line AB produced. Staff readings on B and A
respectively were 1.039m and 1.509m.
Find the collimation error if present.
Example 3
the following readings were obtained with a tilting level to two staves A and
B 63 m apart.
Instrument station

midway
3 m from A and
60m from B

Stadia readings
A
1.655
1.881

B
1.865
2.033

Determine collimation error

3.2. Reciprocal leveling

When a wide ravine is met in the process of leveling it becomes difficult to
equalizes the distance and minimize the effect of collimation problem. The
method of reciprocal leveling which works on the fact that when the
instrument is kept the same distance behind the staff stations the level
difference in the two stations is the equal to the staff redings of the two
stations.
This method can correct collimation error, refraction error if the readings are
done at the same time and the curvature correction.

At position I1 height difference h 1 = a1 (b1 + e)

h1 = a1 b1 e = (i)
At position I2 height difference h 2 = a2 + e b2


h2 = a2 + e b2 = (ii)
Adding (i) and (ii)
2h = a1 b1+ a2 b2
h = (a1 b1+ a2 b2) /2
Example 1
A dumpy level is set up and a the following observations obtained
Observation from position X
Readings to a staff held at A = 1.470
Readings to a staff held at B = 3.562
Difference in level 3.562 1. 470 = 2.092
Observations at position Y
Readings on the staff held at A = 0.516
Readings on the staff held at B = 2.620
Difference in level

= 2.104

True difference (2.092 + 2.104)/2 = 2.098.

4.

Sources of error in leveling

a. Instrumental error
- imperfect adjustment
- parallax
- staff not standing its full length
- expansion of the staff
- staff not held plumb
- bubble not well leveled
- displacement of the instrument
mis booking
b. Errors to natural causes
- Windy conditions
- High temperatures
- Rainy conditions
- Refraction and curvature

4.1. Refraction and curvature

Because of curvature of the earth, the point read on the staff I not at the
same level as instrument since the line of sight is not horizontal and level.

From the sketch above, the staff I held at B and the reading is B instead of
B. The length of the sight is L and the radius of the earth is R.
Using the Pythagoras theorem

L +R

= (R2 + (BB))

Let BB be C (curvature)
So the equation becomes
2

L +R

= (R + c)

L +L R

=R

L =2RC + C

2+

2RC + C

C is small compared to R and its square is even smaller and can be ignored
for the equation to be come
2RC = L

C = L /2R
If R is equal to 6378149 m
Then C = 0.0784 L

4.1.1. To include the effect of the refraction

Refraction is taken to be 1/7 of the curvature i.e.
2

R = L2/2RX1/7 = L /14R
To combine refraction and curvature correction
2

C & R = L /2R - L /14R

2

= 6L /14R =0.0672L

5.

Uses of leveling ( application of Levelling)

Leveling is used to:

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Determine height differences between points on the erths surface

Carry out the longitudinal and cross sections
Contour an area
Determine indivisibility between points
Set out constructional works

5.1. LEVELLING APPLICATIONS

Of all the surveying operations used in construction, levelling is the most

common. Practically every aspect of a construction project requires some
application of the leveling process. The more general are as follows.
5.1.1. Sectional leveling
This type of levelling is used to produce ground profiles for use in the design
of roads, railways and pipelines.
In the case of such projects, the route centre-line is set out using pegs at
10-m, 20-m or 30-m intervals. Levels are then taken at these peg positions
and at critical points such as sudden changes in the ground profiles, road
crossings, ditches, bridges, culverts, etc. The resultant plot of these
elevations is called a longitudinal section. When plotting, the vertical scale is
exaggerated compared with the horizontal, usually in the ratio of 10 : 1. The
longitudinal section is then used in the vertical design process to produce
formation levels for the proposed route design Whilst the above process
produces information along a centre-line only, cross-sectional leveling
extends that information at 90 to the centre-line for 2030 m each side. At
each centre-line peg the levels are taken to all points of interest on either
side. Where the ground is featureless, levels

5-m intervals or less are taken. In this way a ground profile at right angles
to the centre-line is obtained. When the design template showing the road
details and side slopes is plotted at formation level, a cross-sectional area is
produced, which can later be used to compute volumes of earthwork.
When plotting cross-sections the vertical and horizontal scales are the same,
to permit easy scaling of the area and side slopes .
From the sketch above it can be seen that sectional leveling also requires
the measurement of horizontal distance between the points whose
elevations are obtained. As the process involves the observation
of many points, it is imperative to connect into existing BMs at regular
intervals. In most cases of route construction, one of the earliest tasks is to
establish BMs at 100-m intervals throughout the area of interest.

Levelling which does not require the measurement of distance, such as

establishing BMs at known positions, is sometimes called fly leveling.

5.2.

Contouring

A contour line is a horizontal curve connecting points of equal elevation.

They graphically represent, in a two-dimensional format on a plan or map,
the shape or morphology of the terrain. The vertical distance between
contour lines is called the contour interval. Depending on the accuracy
required,
they may be plotted at 0.1-m to 0.5-m intervals in flat terrain and 1-m to
10-m intervals in undulating terrain.
5.2.1.

The contour vertical interval is chosen

based on:

(1) The type of project involved; for instance, contouring an airstrip requires
an extremely small contour interval.
(2) The type of terrain, flat or undulating
(3) The cost, for the smaller the interval the greater the amount of field data
required, resulting in greater expense.
2
02

Contours are generally well understood so only a few of their most important
properties will be outlined here.
5.2.2. Characteristics Properties of the contour lines:
1) Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope.

(2) The horizontal separation between contour lines indicates the steepness
of the ground. Close spacing defines steep slopes, wide spacing gentle
slopes.
(3) Highly irregular contours define rugged, often mountainous terrain.
(4) Concentric closed contours represent hills or hollows, depending on the
increase or decrease in elevation.
(5) The slope between contour lines is assumed to be regular.
(6) Contour lines crossing a stream form Vs pointing upstream.
(7) The edge of a body of water forms a contour line.
5.2.3. Contours are used by engineers to:
(1) Construct longitudinal sections and cross-sections for initial investigation.
(2) Compute volumes.
(3) Construct route lines of constant gradient.
(4) Delineate the limits of constructed dams, road, railways, tunnels, etc.
(5) Delineate and measure drainage areas.
If the ground is reasonably flat, the optical level can be used for contouring
using either the direct or indirect methods. In undulating areas it is more
economical to use optical or electronic methods, as outlined later

5.2.4. Methods of contouring:

5.2.4.1. Direct contouring
In this method the actual contour is pegged out on the ground and its
planimetric position located.
A backsight is taken to an appropriate BM and the HPC of the instrument is
obtained, say 34.800 m AOD. A staff reading of 0.800 m would then place
the foot of the staff at the 34-m contour level. The staff is then moved
throughout the terrain area, with its position pegged at every 0.800-m
Reading. In this way the 34-m contour is located. Similarly a staff reading of
1.800 m gives the 33-m contour and so on. The planimetric position of the
contour needs to be located using an appropriate survey technique.
This method, although quite accurate, is tedious and uneconomical and
could never be used over a large area. It is ideal, however, in certain

construction projects which require excavation to a specific single contour

line.
5.2.4.2. Indirect contouring
This technique requires the establishment, over the site, of a grid of
intersecting evenly spaced lines. The boundary of the grid is set out by
theodolite and steel tape. The grid spacing will depend upon the ru
gosity of the ground and the purpose for which the data are required. All the
points of
Intersection throughout the grid may be pegged or shown by means of paint
from a spray canister. Alternatively ranging rods at the grid intervals around
the periphery would permit the staff holder to align himself with appropriate
pairs and thus fix the grid intersection point, for example, alignment with
rods B-B and 2-2 fixes point B2 When the RLs of all the intersection points
are obtained, the contours are located by linear interpolation between the
levels, on the assumption of a uniform ground slope between each value.
The interpolation may be done arithmetically, using a pocket calculator, or
graphically. Consider grid points B2 and B3 with reduced levels of 30.20 m
and 34.60 m respectively and a horizontal grid interval of 20 m
Horizontal distance of the 31-m contour from B2 = x1