TRAININGHANDOUT

LIQUIDPENETRANTTESTING

General

Editor:

WingHendroprasetyo,M.Eng.

ASNTNDTLevelIII(IDNo.144934)

NDECENTER

DEPARTMENTOFNAVALARCHITECTUREANDSHIPBUILDINGENGINEERING
FACULTYOFMARINETECHNOLOGY
SEPULUHNOPEMBERINSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY(ITS)SURABAYA

KampusITSKeputih,Sukolilo
Surabaya60111
Telp./Fax.0315914533
Mobile08165428017

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Rev.3,28August2009

Page 0

CONTENTS
page
CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Basic Principles

The Nature of Discontinuity

Surface Conditioning

History

10

Commercially Available Liquid Penetrant Materials

11

Chapter One Review

15

CHAPTER TWO

16

Introduction

16

Surface Preparation

16

Detergent Cleaning

17

Vapor Degreasing

17

Steam Cleaning

17

Solvent Cleaning

17

Rust and Scale Remover

18

Paint Removal

18

Etching

18

Ultrasonic Cleaning

18

Mechanical Cleaning

18

Stationary Penetrant Test Equipment

20

Portable Penetrant Test Equipment

21

Black Light Equipment

22

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Page 1

Penetrant Material Combinations

23

Penetrant Testing Materials

24

Safety Precaution

26

Chapter Two Review

29

CHAPTER THREE
Introduction

28

Cleaning

28

Penetrant Application

29

Penetration (Dwell) Time

31

Penetrant Testing Processes

33

Leak-through Technique

37

Filtered Particle Technique

37

Fixing and Recording Indications

38

Chapter Three Review

39

CHAPTER FOUR

40

Introduction

40

Post-emulsifiable Penetrant (PE Penetrant)

40

Lipophilic Method

43

Hydrophilic Method

44

Developers Application

28

45

Dry Developers

45

Wet Developers

46

Guidelines to Choose Developer

48

Chapter Four Review

49

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CHAPTER FIVE
Introduction

50

Inspection

50

Interpretation and Evaluation of Indications

50

Typical Indications in Penetrant Inspection

51

False Indications

51

Nonrelevant Indications

52

True Indications

52

Depth Determination of Penetrant Discontinuities

56

Post Cleaning

56

Quality Control of Penetrant Process Variables

56

Aluminum Test Block

56

Sensitivity Test

57

Meniscus Test

57

Ceramic Block Test

58

Water Content Test

58

Viscosity Test

58

Fluorescent Penetrant Fade Test

59

Water Washability Test

59

Developer Test

59

Portable Equipment

59

Lighting

60

Chapter Five Review

50

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61

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CHAPTER SIX
Introduction

62

Categories of Discontinuities

62

The Origins of Discontinuities

63

Casting Discontinuities

64

Processing Discontinuities

66

Working the Billet

66

Forging Discontinuities

68

Service Discontinuities

73

Chapter Six Review

75

CHAPTER SEVEN

76

Introduction

76

Identification and Comparison of Discontinuities

76

Training and Certification

77

Chapter Seven Review

79

CHAPTER EIGHT

80

Introduction

80

Controlling Liquid Penetrant Tests

80

Standards

80

Specifications

80

Written Practice

82

Sample Specification Penetrant Testing Process

83

Chapter Eight Review

90

REFERENCES

62

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93
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

PENDAHULUAN

Liquid penetrant testing is a nondestructive

means of locating surface discontinuities
based on capillarity or capillary action. Capillary
action is responsible for both penetrant entry
and exit from discontinuities.

Pengujian cairan penetrant merupakan pengujian

tanpa merusak untuk menemukan diskontinuitas
permukaan berdasarkan prinsip kapilaritas.
Kapilaritas bertanggung jawab terhadap masuk
dan keluarnya cairan penetrant dari dan ke dalam
diskontinuitas.

In the liquid penetrant method, the liquid is

applied to the surface of the specimen and
sufficient time is allowed for penetration of
surface discontinuities. If the discontinuity is
small or narrow as in a crack or pinhole,
capillary assist the penetration.

Pada metoda cairan penetrant, cairan diaplikasikan

di atas permukaan spesimen dan diberikan waktu
yang cukup untuk menyusup ke dalam
diskontinuitas. Jika diskontinuitasnya kecil dan
sempit seperti pada retak atau lubang jarum,
kapilaritas membantu penetrasi.

After sufficient time has passed for the

penetrant to enter the discontinuity, the surface
of the part is cleaned. Capillary action is again
employed to act as blotter to draw penetrant
from the discontinuity.

Setelah waktu mencukupi bagi penetrant untuk

memasuki diskontinuitas, permukaan spesimen
kemudian dibersihkan. Gaya kapiler sekali lagi
bekerja sebagai penghisap yang menarik
penetrant keluar dari dalam diskontinuitas.

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Liquid penetrant inspection is a physicalchemical process. Application and reaction of

the penetrant (chemical) is dependent upon the
nature of the test article and the discontinuity it
contains (physical).

Pemeriksaan penetrant merupakan proses fisikakimia. Aplikasi dan reaksi cairan penetrant (kimia)
tergantung pada sifat artikel yang diuji dan
diskontinuitas yang terdapat padanya (fisika).

The ability of penetrant to spread over a solid

surface is referred to as the wetting ability. The
wetting ability and contact angle between solidliquid are inversely proportional. The higher the
wetting ability, the smaller the contact angle.
The contact angle determines the wetting
ability.

Kemampuan penetrant untuk menyebar di atas

pemukaan benda padat disebut kemampubasahan (wetting ability). Wetting ability dan sudut
kontak (contact angle) antara benda cair dan
padat adalah berbanding terbalik secara
proporsional. Sudut kontak menentukan wetting
ability.

Penetrating capability of a liquid penetrant is

controlled by:

Kemampuan
penyusupan
dikendalikan oleh:

Surface tension.

Tegangan permukaan.

Contact angle.

Sudut kontak.

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cairan

penetran

Page 6

BASIC PRINCIPLES

PRINSIP-PRINSIP DASAR

To insure visibility, the liquid penetrant contains

either a colored dye easily seen in white light,
or a fluorescent dye visible under black
(ultraviolet) light.

Agar dapat terlihat, cairan penetrant diberi pewarna

merah yang dapat dilihat dengan cahaya biasa
atau pewarna fluorescent yang dapat dilihat
dengan cahaya ultraviolet.

A penetrant examination consists of the

following basic steps, regardless of the material
tested:

Pengujian penetrant terdiri dari tahapan-tahapan

berikut tanpa mempertimbangkan material yang
diuji:

Step 1: The test object or spot is

thoroughly cleaned and
dried.

Langkah 1: Pembersihan dan pengeringan

benda atau lokasi yang
diperiksa.

Step 2: The penetrant is applied.

Dwell time is allowed to
penetrate discontinuities.

Langkah 2: Aplikasi penetrant. Dibiarkan

beberapa lama agar menyusup
ke dalam diskontinuitas.

Step 3: The excess surface

penetrant is removed.

Langkah 3: Pembersihan penetrant sisa

di permukaan.

Step 4: Developer is applied

Langkah 4: Aplikasi developer

Step 5: Indications are evaluated

and accepted or rejected.

Langkah 5: Evaluasi indikasi, diterima

atau ditolak.

Step 6: After the penetrant test, the

test object or spot is
postcleaned.

Langkah 6: Pembersihan benda atau lokasi

setelah selesai diuji.

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THE NATURE OF DISCONTINUITY

SIFAT DISCONTINUITAS

Discontinuities that are subsurface in one stage

of production could be open to the surface at
another stage, such as after grinding or
machining.

Diskontinuitas yang terletak dibawah permukaan

pada satu tahapan produksi dapat terbuka ke
permukaan pada tahapan lainnya seperti akibat
penggerindaan dan permesinan.

Nonmetallic inclusions and porosity in the ingot

may cause stringers, seams, forging laps, cold
shuts, and the like as the billet or slabs is
processed in the manner shown below.

Inklusi nonlogam dan porositas dalam ingot dapat

menyebabkan stringers, seams, lipatan tempa,
cold shuts, dan sejenisnya saat billet atau slab
diproses dengan cara seperti di bawah ini.

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SURFACE CONDITIONING

PENGKONDISIAN PERMUKAAN

Anything that could block the penetrant from

entering the discontinuity must be removed.

Semua kotoran yang menghalangi penetrant untuk

memasuki diskontinuitas harus dibersihkan.

A list of contaminants that must be removed

would include DIRT, GREASE, RUST,
SCALE, ACIDS, and even WATER. The
cleaning solvent used must be volatile
(readily vaporized) so that it easily
evaporates out of the discontinuity and does
not dilute the penetrant.

Jenis kotoran yang harus dibersihkan meliputi

DEBU, GEMUK, KARAT, KERAK, ASAM,
bahkan AIR. Solvent yang digunakan untuk
pembersih harus mudah menguap sehingga
cepat keluar dari dalam dikontinuitas dan tidak
mengencerkan penetrant.

Surface preparation by mechanical cleaning

such as wire brushing, abrasive blasting, emery
cloths, and metal scraping are not generally
recommended, but there are times when they
must be used.

Pembersihan permukaan secara mekanis seperti

memakai sikat baja, abrasive blasting, kertas
gosok, dan alat sekrap umumnya tidak
direkomendasikan, namun ada kalanya cara-cara
tersebut harus digunakan.

When they are used, discontinuities that are

open to the surface may be closed as ilustrated
below.

Apabila digunakan cara-cara di atas, diskontinuitas

yang membuka ke permukaan dapat tertutupi
seperti gambar di bawah ini.

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HISTORY

SEJARAH PENGUJIAN PENETRANT

Historically, penetrant inspection was called oil

and whiting method. The oil and whiting
method used in the railroad industry, i.e.
locomotive parts, etc. (axles, crank pins and
couplers), in the early 1900s was the first
recognized use of the principles of penetrants
to detect cracks.

Menurut sejarahnya, pemeriksaan penetrant

dulunya disebut metoda minyak dan kapur. Pada
awal tahun 1900an, metoda ini digunakan dalam
industri perkeretaapian untuk memeriksa komponen lokomotip (batang torsi, batang penggerak,
dan coupler, dll.), yang merupakan awal mula dikenalnya prinsip penetrant untuk mendeteksi retak.

The oil and whiting method used dirty or darkcolored lubricating oil that was thinned with
kerosene followed by the application of a
whiting or chalk coating, which absorbed oil
from the cracks revealing their locations.

Metoda minyak dan kapur memakai minyak lumas

hitam yang diencerkan dengan minyak tanah,
diikuti dengan aplikasi bubuk kapur di atasnya
yang akan menyerap minyak dari dalam retak
sehingga dapat diketahui lokasinya.

By the 1940s, fluorescent or visible dye was

added to the oil used to penetrate test objects.

Pada tahun 1940an, zat pewarna merah dan

fluorescent dicampurkan ke dalam oli yang
digunakan untuk pemeriksaan.

Following is stages of oil and whiting method.

Berikut adalah tahapan metoda pengujian minyak

dan kapur.

Experience showed that temperature and soak

time were important.

Pengalaman mengajarkan pentingnya mempertimbangkan suhu dan waktu celup.

This started the practice of written instructions

to provide standard, uniform results. The use of
written procedures has evolved, giving the
ability for design engineers and manufacturers
to get the same high standard results from any
properly trained and certified liquid penetrant
testing technician.

Hal tersebut memicu diterapkannya penggunaan

instruksi tertulis agar hasil pengujian menjadi
standard dan seragam. Pemakaian prosedur
tertulis diharapkan menjadikan pemeriksaan
penetrant akan memberikan hasil dengan standard
tinggi jika dikerjakan oleh teknisi yang terlatih.

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COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE LIQUID

PENETRANT MATERIALS

MATERIAL CAIRAN PENETRANT YANG

TERSEDIA DI PASARAN

The liquid penetrants used in nondestructive

testing can be categorized by the type of dye
they contain.
1. Visible dye penetrants contain a colored
(usually red) dye.
2. Fluorescent
penetrants
contain
a
fluorescent dye
3. Dual sensitivity penetrants contain a
combination of visible and fluorescent
dyes.

Cairan penetrant yang dipakai di dalam NDT dapat

dikagorikan berdasarkan jenis zat pewarna yang
ditambahkan.
1. Visible dye penetrants mengandung zat
pewarna merah.
2. Fluorescent penetrants mengandung zat
pewarna fluorescent (hijau-kuning).
3. Dual sensitivity penetrants, mengandung
kombinasi kedua zat pewarna, visible dan
fluorescent.

Penetrants can be further categorized by the

processes used to remove the excess
penetrant from the specimen.
1. Water-washable penetrants, are either
self-emulsifying or removable with plain
water.
2. Post-emulsifiable penetrants require a
separate emulsifier to make the penetrant
water washable.
3. Solvent-removable penetrants must be
removed with a solvent which is typical
when using visible dye in pressurized
spray cans.

Penetrant dikelompokkan lebih lanjut berdasarkan

proses pembersihan sisa penetrant dari permukaan spesimen.
1. Water-washable penetrants, mengandung zat
pengemulsi atau dapat dibilas dengan air.

The basic liquid penetrant classification system

is shown in Table 1.1.

Sistem klasifikasi cairan penetrant dapat dilihat

dalam Tabel 1.1.

2. Post-emulsifiable penetrants, memerlukan

pengemulsi terpisah untuk menjadikan
penetrant dapat dibilas dengan air.
3. Solvent
removable
penerants,
harus
dibersihkan dengan solvent khusus jika
menggunakan penetrant visible dalam
kaleng bertekanan.

Table 1.1. Basic liquid penetrant classification system.

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The flowchart below illustrates the processing

sequence with visible and fluorescent
penetrants.

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Diagram alir berikut memperlihatkan urutan proses

dengan penetran visible dan fluorescent.

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Dual sensitivity penetrants would follow a

processing sequence similar to that shown
below.

Dual sensitivity penetrants mengikuti urutan proses

yang diperlihatkan diagram alir di bawah ini.

The selection of the best process depends

upon:
1. Sensitivity required.
2. Number of articles to be tested.
3. Surface condition of part being
inspected.
4. Configuration of test specimen.
5. Availability of water, electricity,
compressed air, suitable testing area,
etc.

Pemilihan proses terbaik ditentukan oleh:

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1. Sensitivitas yang disyaratkan.

2. Jumlah artikel yang diuji.
3. Kondisi permukaan komponen yang
diperiksa.
4. Konfigurasi benda uji.
5. Ketersediaan air, listrik, udara bertekanan,
lokasi pengujian yang sesuai, dll.

Page 13

Penetrant testing is succesfully used on most

any materials, including metallic and
nonmetallic objects.

Pengujian penetrant secara memuaskan dapat

diplikasikan pada kebanyakan material, termasuk
material logam dan nonlogam.

Metallic materials include aluminum, magnesium, titanium, cast iron, stainless steel,
powdered metal products, copper, brass, and
bronze, as well as most other common alloys.

Material logam termasuk aluminium, magnesium,

titanium, besi cor, stainless steel, produk serbuk
logam, paduan tembaga, kuningan, perunggu,
juga paduan-paduan lainnya.

Nonmetallic materials include ceramics, plastic,

molded rubber, composites, and glass.

Material nonlogam termasuk keramik, plastik,

karet, komposit, dan kaca.

Penetrant testing is limited by its inability to test

materials with discontinuities that are NOT
OPEN to the surface or having extremely
porous surface.

Pengujian penetrant tidak dapat diaplikasikan

untuk menemukan diskontinuitas yang TIDAK
MEMBUKA ke permukaan dan permukaan material
yang berpori.

List below indicates the penetrant systems,

ranging from the most sensitive and expensive
to the least one.
1. Post-emulsified fluorescent.
2. Solvent-removable fluorescent.
3. Water-washable fluorescent.
4. Post-emulsified visible.
5. Solvent-removable visible.
6. Water-washable visible.

Daftar berikut menunjukkan tingkat sensitivitas

sistem penetrant, dari mulai yang paling senfitif
dan paling mahal.
1. Post-emulsified fluorescent.
2. Solvent-removable fluorescent.
3. Water-washable fluorescent.
4. Post-emulsified visible.
5. Solvent-removable visible.
6. Water-washable visible.

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CHAPTER ONE
REVIEW
_______ 1.

Nonmetallic inclusions and porosity in the steel ingot are commonly found
using liquid penetrant inspection techniques.

_______ 2.

Type II penetrants, according to our test, are those containing a fluorescent

dye.

_______ 3.

Because of the capillary action of penetrants, this process of inspection

works well on parts with very porous surfaces.

_______ 4.

When doing a liquid penetrant test, the configuration of the specimen has
little effect on the effectiveness of the test.

_______ 5.

Liquid penetrant inspection can be used only on metals such as aluminum

and steel.

_______ 6.

The penetrant inspection method is used only on the finished product.

_______ 7.

Oil and whiting are the names of the two men who invented the penetrant
test method.

_______ 8.

The first important step in penetrant testing is surface preparation.

_______ 9.

One of the most common contaminants in the penetrant method is water.

_______ 10. The most common method of surface preparation for penetrant testing is
sandblasting.
_______ 11. Chemical etching Is sometimes used to remove smeared metal from a
surface to open discontinuilies.
_______ 12. Some subsurface defects can be tested with the highly sensitive Type II
penetrants.
_______ 13. Blow holes and gas porosity may be detected with the penetrant method.
_______ 14. Solvent cleaning is a common method of surface cleaning parts before
penetrant testing.
_______ 15. The one major limitation to penetrant testing is that the part must be
metallic.
_______ 16. Grease and rust would usually be considered a contaminant on the surface
of a test piece.
_______ 17. To locate a defect with penetrant testing, the defect must be open to the
surface.
_______ 18. It is considered advantageous for a liquid penetrant material to have low
tension and high capillarity.

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CHAPTER TWO
INTRODUCTION

PENDAHULUAN

This chapter discusses the equipment and

material required to perform the various
penetrant test and the required PRE and POST
test cleaning.

Bab ini mendiskusikan peralatan dan bahan yang

diperlukan untuk melakukan pengujian penetrant
serta pembersihan material SEBELUM dan
SESUDAH pengujian.

SURFACE PREPARATION

PENYIAPAN PERMUKAAN

As discussed in Chapter 1, there are SIX basic

steps required for a penetrant test. Surface
preparation is entered on the flow diagram
below as step one.

Telah disampaikan dalam Bab 1 bahwa ada ENAM

langkah dasar pengujian penetrant. Penyiapan
permukaan dimasukkan sebagai langkah pertama
dalam diagram alir berikut.

Surface preparation, including proper cleaning

is essential to liquid penetrant testing for TWO
reasons:
1. If the specimen is not physically and
chemically clean and dry, penetrant
testing may be ineffective.
2. If all tracess of penetrant materials are
not removed after the test, they may have
a harmful effect on the specimen after the
test object is placed in service (chlorine
and sulfur may affect some alloys).

Pembersihan permukaan sangat penting dalam

pengujian cairan penetrant karena DUA alasan:

Selection of the cleaning process breaks down

to the following basic factors.

Pemilihan proses pembersihan ditentukan oleh

faktor berikut.

Type of contaminant.

Jenis kotoran yang dibersihkan.

Composition of the base material.

Komposisi logam induk.

Degree of cleanliness required.

Tingkat kebersihan yang disyaratkan.

Availability of cleaning equipment.

Ketersediaan peralatan pembersih.

Cost and time factors.

Faktor-faktor biaya dan waktu.

Unless the cleaning methods and chemicals

are known to be compatible with the penetrant,
a final cleaning should be done with the solvent
recommended by the manufacturer.

1. Jika spesimen tidak bersih secara fisika dan

kimia, pengujian penetrant menjadi tidak
efektip.
2. Jika semua bekas material penetrant tidak
dibersihkan setelah pengujian, maka akan
merusak spesimen setelah benda tersebut
terpasang (klorin dan sulfur dapat merusak
beberapa jenis paduan).

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Jika kompatibilitas antara metoda pembersihan,

cairan pembersih dan penetrant tidak diketahui,
pembersihan akhir sebaiknya dilakukan dengan
solvent yang direkomendasikan oleh pabrik
penetrant.
Page 16

DETERGENT CLEANING

PEMBERSIHAN DENGAN DETERJEN

Immersion tanks and detergent solution may

be used as an effective method for removing
surface soils, particularly when employed as a
hot tank process.

Tangki perendam dan larutan deterjen dapat

dipakai sebagai metoda yang efektip untuk
membersihkan kotoran permukaan, utamanya jika
memakai proses tangki panas.

However, since the solutions used may be

either acidic or alkaline in nature, precautions
must be taken to ensure that the selected
detergent is noncorrosive to the article being
cleaned.

Namun demikian mengingat larutan yang dipakai

dapat bersifat asam atau basa, harus diperhatikan
agar deterjen yang dipilih tidak mengakibatkan
korosi terhadap benda yang dibersihkan.

When thoroughly rinsed and dried, detergent

cleaning leaves a test surface that is physically
and chemically clean.

Bila dibilas dengan bersih dan dikeringkan,

pembersih deterjen menghasilkan permukaan
yang bersih secara fisika dan kimia.

VAPOR DEGREASING

PEMBERSIHAN DENGAN UAP SOLVENT

Vapor degreasing is effective in the removal of

oil, grease, and similar organic contaminants.
This method does not remove solid contaminants such as varnish, paint, scale, or oxide.

Uap solvent efektif untuk membersihkan minyak,

gemuk, dan kontaminan organik sejenisnya.
Metoda ini tidak menghilangkan kontaminan padat
seperti pernis, cat, kerak, dan oksida.

However, this method is considered as the

most effective means of precleaning a test
item prior to a penetrant test

Namun demikian, metoda ini dianggap sebagai

cara yang paling efektip untuk membersihkan
benda sebelum diuji penetrant.

Safety and environmental concerns have

virtually eliminated vapor degreasing. The chlorinated solvents employed (methyl chloroform),
if acidic, can be harmful to certain materials
such as nickel, stainless steel, and titanium.

Masalah keselamatan dan lingkungan telah

melarang penggunaan metoda ini. Chlorinated
solvent yang dipakai (methyl chloroform), jika
bersifat asam dapat merusak material seperti
nickel, stainless steel, dan titanium.

STEAM CLEANING

PEMBERSIHAN DENGAN UAP AIR

Steam cleaning is an excellent method of

cleaning large articles, or portions of large
articles that cannot be washed with detergents.
It removes inorganic soils as well as many
organic contaminants, but it may not reach to
the bottom of deep discontinuities. A follow-up
solvent soak is often recommended.

Pembersihan dengan uap air merupakan cara

yang unggul untuk membersihkan benda berukuran besar yang tidak dapat dicuci dengan deterjen.
Cara ini menghilangkan kotoran organik dan
inorganik, namun tidak dapat mencapai dasar
diskontinuitas yang dalam. Pencelupan ke dalam
solvent setelahnya seringkali direkomendasikan.

SOLVENT CLEANING

PEMBERSIHAN DENGAN SOLVENT

Solvent cleaning may use immersion tank, or

the solvent may be sprayed, brushed, or wiped
on and wiped off. Solvent cleaning is the
process most commonly used for spot
inspections.

Cara
ini
dilakukan
dengan
pencelupan,
penyemprotan, penyikatan, atau pengusapan.
Pembersihan dengan solvent merupakan proses
yang umum digunakan untuk pemeriksaan
setempat.

Solvent cleaners should only be used to

remove organic contaminants, and are not
recommended for removing rust and scale,
welding flux or spatter. Typical solvents are
kerosene, paint thinner, alcohol, benzol, and
trichloroethylene.

Solvent pembersih hanya untuk menghilangkan

kotoran organik dan tidak diremomendasikan
untuk menghilangkan karat dan kerak, flux
pengelasan, atau percikan las. Cairan solvent
contohnya minyak tanah, thinner cat, alkohol,
benzol, dan trichloroethylene.

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Page 17

RUST AND SURFACE SCALE REMOVER

PENGHILANG KARAT DAN KERAK PERMUKAAN

Rust removers (descaling solutions, either

alkaline or acid), pickling solutions (acid), and
sometimes wire brushing are used to remove
rust and surface scale. Wire brushing is
accomplished with a minimum of pressure to
avoid closing surface discontinuities or filing
them with smeared metal.

Penghilang karat dan kerak (larutan penghilang

kerak, basa atau asam), larutan pickling (asam),
dan kadang kala sikat baja digunakan untuk
menghilangkan karat dan kerak permukaan.
Penyikatan dilakukan dengan tekanan rendah
untuk mencegah penutupan atau pengisian
diskontinuitas permukaan oleh gram.

PAINT REMOVAL

PENGHILANG CAT

Dissolving type hot tank paint strippers and

bond release or solvent paint strippers may be
used to remove paint in precleaning.

Pengelupas cat dan pelepas ikatan memakai

tangki pelarut panas atau solvent pengelupas cat
dapat dipakai untuk menghilangkan cat saat
pembersihan awal.

ETCHING

ETSA

Etching is normally required on soft metallic

materials (such as aluminum and magnesium),
materials that tend to smear (such as titanium),
and materials which have been mechanically
process-ed by machining, grinding, or similar
procedure. Etching is accomplished with either
an acid or an alkaline solution to open up
grinding burrs and remove metal from surface
discontinuities.

Etsa biasanya disyaratkan pada material logam

lunak (seperti aluminium dan magnesium), material
yang cenderung teroksidasi (seperti titanium), dan
material yang telah diproses secara mekanis
melalui permesinan, penggerindaan atau sejenisnya. Etsa dilakukan dengan larutan asam atau
basa untuk membuka bekas gerinda dan
menghilangkan gram dari permukaan diskontinuitas.

ULTRASONIC CLEANING

PEMBERSIHAN ULTRASONIK

Ultrasonic cleaning equipment is useful in the

cleaning of large quantities of small test
objects. Ultrasonic cleaning is often combined
with a solvent or detergent bath to improve
cleaning efficiency and reduce cleaning time.

Peralatan ultrasonik dipakai untuk membersihkan

benda berukuran kecil yang jumlahnya banyak.
Pembersihan ultrasonik seringkali memakai bak
berisi cairan solvent atau deterjen untuk meningkatkan efisiensi pembersihan dan menghemat
waktu.

The method works best with water and detergent cleaning when contaminants to be
removed are inorganic, and with solvents when
contaminants are organic.

Campuran air dan deterjen merupakan yang

terbaik untuk membersihkan kontaminan inorganik,
sementara cairan solvent untuk membersihkan
kontaminan organik.

MECHANICAL CLEANING

PEMBERSIHAN SECARA MEKANIS

Cleaning processes that are not generally

recommended include abrasive blasting (shot,
sand, grit, or pressure), liquid honing, emery
cloth, wire brushes, and metal scrapers, but
there are times when they must be used.

Proses pembersihan yang umumnya tidak direkomendasikan adalah abrasive blasting (pelor, pasir,
atau tekanan), cairan pengasah, ampelas, sikat
baja dan penyekrapan. Namun ada kalanya caracara tersebut harus dilakukan.

These processes tend to close discontinuities

by peening or cold working the surface of the
specimen.

Proses ini cenderung menutup diskontinuitas

dengan cara pemukulan atau pengerjaan dingin
pada permukaan spesimen.

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Page 18

When mechanical cleaning must be used,

closed discontinuities can be reopened with a
chemical etch that removes a very slight
amount of material from the surface.

Saat pembersihan mekanis harus dilakukan,

diskontinuitas yang menutup dapat dibuka kembali
dengan pengetsaan yang akan menghilangkan
lapisan tipis material dari permukaan.

Table 2.1. Mechanical cleaning processes.

Table 2.2. Chemical cleaning processes.

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Page 19

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW
_______ 1.

Wire brushing Is a common and acceptable method of surface cleaning a

test part that is to be penetrant inspected.

_______ 2.

A good exhaust system is recommended when working with cleaning

solvents.

_______ 3.

Vapor degreasing is often used to remove oxidation, rust, and scale before
a part is penetrant inspected.

_______ 4.

Parts that have been painted usually cannot be inspected with penetrants
because suitable paint removing techniques have not been developed.

_______ 5.

Detergent cleaning is acceptable for postcleaning but should never be used

for precleaning because it may affect the emulsifier during the penetrant
test.

_______ 6.

Etching is often effective in precleaning a part that has been machined to a

specific tolerance by surface grinding.

_______ 7.

Only visible dye penetrants are available in portable kits because

fluorescent dyes will not function in pressurized spray cans.

_______ 8.

Dry developers are usually only used with visible dye penetrants.

_______ 9.

Emulsifiers and solvents are both commonly used in penetrant testing as

postcleaners.

_______ 10. Wet developers should never be used when they will come into contact with
gaseous or liquid oxygen because of the results caused by oxygen and
water mixing.
_______ 11. Emulsifiers must have high penetrating characteristics to emulsify
penetrants that lie in fillets and corners.
_______ 12. The black light used in fluorescent penetrant inspection is not hazardous to
the human eyes if the correct filter is in place and not broken or cracked.
_______ 13. Penetrant materials are often placed in groupings that will assure a valid test
with materials that are compatible with each other.
_______ 14. Nonaqueous developer refers to a powder that is applied dry.
_______ 15. Post-emulsifiable penetrants are usually soluble in water after the application
of an emulsifier.
_______ 16. Water-washable penetrants are cornmonly used with either a visible or
fluorescent dye.
_______ 17. Flashpoint refers to the lowest temperature at which vapors will ignite when
exposed to flame.

www.ndecenter.com

Page 29

CHAPTER THREE
INTRODUCTION

PENDAHULUAN

This chapter discusses penetrant application.

As discussed in Chapter 2, surface cleaning is
the first step prior to the penetrant application.

Bab ini mendiskusikan aplikasi penetrant. Seperti

dibahas dalam Bab 2, pembersihan permukaan
adalah tahap pertama sebelum aplikasi penetrant.

CLEANING

PEMBERSIHAN

The effectiveness of liquid penetrant testing is

based upon the ability of the penetrant to enter
surface discontinuities. All paint, carbon, oil,
varnish, oxide, plating, water, dirt, and similr
coating must be removed before application of
penetrant.

Efektifitas pengujian cairan penetrant bergantung

pada kemampuan penetrant untuk menyusup ke
dalam cacat permukaan. Semua cat, karbon, oli,
pernis, oksida, lapisan, air, kotoran dan cat
sejenisnya harus dihilangkan sebelum aplikasi
penetrant.

Liquid penetrant placed on the surface of a

specimen does not merely seep into
discontinuities. It is pulled into them by capillary
action. This is the reason one can cover the
under surface of an item with a penetrant and
still have a valid test.

Cairan penetrant di atas permukaan benda uji tidak

semata-mata meresap ke dalam diskontinuitas.
Penetrant tertarik ke dalamnya oleh gaya kapiler.
Inilah mengapa permukaan bagian bawah dari
suatu benda masih dapat diperiksa dengan
penetrant dan memperoleh hasil yang valid.

The following are typical cleaning methods

discussed earlier.
1. Detergent cleaning
2. Vapor degreasing
3. Steam cleaning
4. Solvent cleaning
5. Rust and surface scale remover
6. Paint removal
7. Etching
8. Ultrasonic cleaning
9. Mechanical cleaning

Berikut adalah metoda pembersihan permukaan

seperti didiskusikan sebelumnya:
1. Pembersihan dengan deterjen
2. Pembersihan dengan uap solvent
3. Pembersihan dengan uap air
4. Pembersihan dengan solvent
5. Penghilang karat dan kerak permukaan
6. Penghilang cat
7. Etsa
8. Pembersihan ultrasonik
9. Pembersihan secara mekanis

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Page 30

PENETRANT APPLICATION

APLIKASI PENETRANT

Since penetrant application is step two in the

process, lets add it to the flow diagram.

Aplikasi penetrant merupakan tahapan kedua

dalam proses pemeriksaan.

Almost any liquid could be considered a

penetrant, but modern penetrants must have:

Hampir semua cairan dapat dianggap sebagai

penetrant, namun penetrant moderen harus
memiliki:
1. Kemampuan menahan zat pewarna dalam
suspensi.
2. Kemampuan menyebarkan pewarna secara
merata di atas permukaan benda.
3. Kemampuan membawa pewarna ke dalam
diskontinuitas yang terbuka ke permukaan
4. Kemampuan membawa kembali pewarna ke
permukaan.
5. Kemampuan, jika diinginkan, untuk dibersihkan dengan mudah.

1. The ability to hold a dye material in

suspension.
2. The ability to spread the dye evenly over
the surface.
3. The ability to carry the dye into any
discontinuity open to the surface.
4. The ability to bring up the dye as it is
coaxed back to the surface.
5. The ability, when desired, to be easily
removed.
There are two types of dye used in modern
penetrants:

Ada dua jenis zat pewarna yang digunakan dalam

penetrant moderen:

1. Visible or color contrast a brightly

colored dye that is highly visible under
normal lighting conditions.

1. Visible atau color contrast pewarna merah

yang tampak jelas di bawah kondisi
pencahayaan normal.

2. Fluorescent or brightness contrast an

almost colorless dye which emits visible
ligh rays when viewed under black light.

2. Fluorescent or brightness contrast pewarna

yang akan memancarkan cahaya tampak
apabila dilihat dengan lampu ultraviolet.

A dye with dual sensitivity, or dual-mode, or

dual-response contains a combination of
visible and fluorescent dyes.

Pewarna dengan sensitivitas ganda atau mode

ganda atau respon ganda mengandung kombinasi
pewarna visible dan fluorescent.

The visible color is generally a bright red and

the fluorescent color a bronze-orange or
blue-green.

Pewarna visible umumnya merah menyala dan

pewarna fluorescent berwarna kuning-perunggu
atau biru-hijau.

The combination permits penetrant tests to

be made under visible light and questionable indications to be resolved under black
light; hence the term dual response.

Kombinasi ini memungkinkan pengujian

penetrant dilakukan di bawah cahaya biasa dan
indikasi yang meragukan diperiksa di bawah
cahaya ultraviolet.

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Page 31

Penetrants, either fluorescent or visible can be

applied by any one of the following means:
1. Spraying usually using a conventional
low pressure spray guns or from
pressurized spray cans.
2. Brushing or swabbing usually applied
with rags, cotton waste, or brushes, when
testing a small, specific area of the
specimen.
3. Dipping or immersion the article is
generally lowered into a tank of
penetrant, then raised and allowed to
drain. This method is impractical when
dealing with large articles, and is wasteful
when only small areas of a large
specimen are to be tested.
4. Flowing or drain-dwell the penetrant is
simply poured over the surface and
allowing it to drain.

Penetrant, baik fluorescent maupun visible dapat

diaplikasikan dengan salah satu dari cara berikut:
1. Penyemprotan biasanya menggunakan alat
penyemprot bertekanan rendah atau dari
kaleng semprot bertekanan.
2. Kuas atau kain bisasanya diaplikasikan
dengan kain lap, kapas, atau kuas, apabila
menguji sebagian kecil/lokasi dari suatu
benda.
3. Pencelupan benda uji dibenamkan ke
dalam tangki penetrant, lalu diangkat dan
ditiriskan. Metoda ini tidak cocok untuk
benda berukuran besar dan merupakan
pemborosan apabila hanya daerah kecil saja
yang diuji.

The terminology used in penetrant application

is listed in Table 3.1.

Istilah yang digunakan dalam aplikasi penetrant

dapat dilihat dalam Table 3.1.

4. Penuangan penetrant dituangkan di atas

permukaan benda dan setelah itu ditiriskan.

Table 3.1. Liquid penetrant application terminology.

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Page 32

PENETRATION (DWELL) TIME

WAKTU PENETRASI (WAKTU DIAM)

The period of time during which the penetrant

is permitted to remain on the specimen is a
vital part of the test. This time, known as dwell
time, is directly related to the size and shape of
the discontinuities anticipated since the
dimensions of the discontinuities determine the
rapidity with which penetration occurs.

Jangka waktu dimana penetrant berada di atas

permukaan benda uji merupakan bagian
terpenting dari pengujian. Jangka waktu ini dikenal
sebagai waktu diam, yang berhubungan langsung
dengan ukuran dan bentuk diskontinuitas yang
dicari mengingat ukuran diskontinuitas menentukan kecepatan terjadinya penetrasi.

Tight, crack-like discontinuities may require in

excess of 30 minutes for penetration to an
extent that an adequate indication can be
expected. Gross discontinuities may be
suitably penetrated in 3 to 5 minutes.

Diskontinuitas yang rapat, seperti retakan

memerlukan waktu penetrasi lebih dari 30 menit
untuk
terbentuknya
indikasi.
Diskontinuitas
berukuran besar memerlukan waktu penetrasi
antara 3 sampai 5 menit.

The temperature of the specimen and

temperature of the penetrant can affect the
required dwell time.

Suhu benda uji dan suhu cairan penetrant dapat

mempengaruhi waktu diam yang disyaratkan.

Warming
the
specimen
accelerates
penetration and shortens dwell time.
However, care should be taken not to
overheat the specimen since too much heat
may cause evaporation of the penetrant
from the discontinuity, and thereby reduce
sensitivity.

Menghangatkan benda uji mempercepat

penetrasi dan mempersingkat waktu diam.
Namun demikian perlu diperhatikan agar tidak
berlebihan memanaskan spesimen karena suhu
yang terlalu tinggi menyebabkan penguapan
penetrant dari dalam diskontinuitas, yang
akhirnya akan mengurangi sensitivitas.

Dwell times are based on the assumption

that the penetrant will remain wet on the part
surface. Additional penetrant may be
applied during dwell time.

Waktu diam didasarkan pada asumsi bahwa

penetrant tetap dalam kondisi basah pada
permukaan benda. Penambahan penetrant
selama waktu diam diperbolehkan.

In each instance, dwell time is determined by

the anticipated discontinuities and the
penetrant manufacturers recommendations.
Typical minimum penetration times are shown
in Table 3.2.

Pada tiap kasus, waktu diam ditentukan oleh jenis

diskontinuitas
yang
hendak
dicari
dan
rekomendasi dari pabrik pembuat penetrant.
Waktu penetrasi minimum untuk kasus tertentu
diperlihatkan dalam Tabel 3.2.

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Page 33

Table 3.2. Typical minimum penetration time.

www.ndecenter.com

Page 34

PENETRANT TESTING PROCESSES

PROSES PENGUJIAN PENETRANT

We previously mentioned the two types of

penetrants: visible and fluorescent. For both
categories, there is a further breakdown.
1. Water-washable (visible or fluorescent).
2. Post-emulsifiable (visible or fluorescent).
3. Solvent-removable (visible or fluorescent).

Telah disebutkan sebelumnya ada dua jenis

penetrant: visible dan fluorescent. Kedua jenis
penetrant tersebut dapat dirinci menjadi:
1. Water-washable (visible atau fluorescent).
2. Post-emulsifiable (visible atau fluorescent).
3. Solvent-removable (visible atau fluorescent).

Water-washable Penetrants (WW Penetrants)

Water-washable Penetrants (WW Penetrants)

WW penetrants have a built-in emulsifier, or

what-so-called self-emulsifying penetrants.
The penetrant is soluble in water and is easily
removed by a water rinse.

WW penetrant mengandung zat pengemulsi, atau

dinamakan penetrant self-emulsifying. Penetrant
ini larut dalam air dan mudah dibersihkan dengan
bilasan air.

Care must be taken to insure that the spray

volume and force does not wash penetrant out
of the discontinuity. A solid stream of water is
not desirable. A coarse droplet size provides
optimal removal. Water pressure should not
exceed 40 psi.

Harus diperhatikan agar volume dan kekuatan

semprot tidak sampai membasuh penetrant dari
dalam diskontinuitas. Aliran air yang pejal tidak
diinginkan. Air dalam bentuk percikan kasar
menghasilkan pembersihan yang optimal. Tekanan
air tidak boleh melebihi 40 psi.

The recommended temperature range for water

rinse is 10oC - 38oC. Water temperatures above
38oC are not recommended because this may
speed up the evaporation of the penetrant.

Suhu air pembilas yang direkomendasikan sebesar

10oC - 38oC. Suhu air melebihi 38oC tidak direkomendasikan karena dapat mempercepat penguapan penetrant.

At angles of 80-90 degree, the spray droplets

will rebound into oncoming spray, which diverts
the droplets and reduce velocity. Generally, an
angle of 45-75 degree is most effective.

Pada sudut 80-90 derajat, titik-titik air akan

memantul kembali dan menabrak titik air yang
datang sehingga mengurangi kecepatan. Sudut
semprot yang paling efektif adalah 45-75 derajat.

The sketch below represents the steps in a

water-washable penetrant test.

Gambar di bawah memperlihatkan langkahlangkah pengujian water-washable penetrant.

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Page 35

Water-washable
penetrants
are
usually
preferred for use on articles with a rough
surface or if they contain threads or keyways.

Water-washable penetrant biasanya digunakan

untuk memeriksa benda yang permukaannya kasar
atau benda yang ada ulir atau alurnya.

The built-in emulsifier provides the best

penetrant removal from blind holes and other
hard-to-reach
locations,
but
has
the
disadvantage of poor reliability in detecting
wide or shallow discontinuities.

Emulsifier yang ada di dalamnya mengakibatkan

penetrant mudah dihilangkan dari lubang buntu
dan lokasi yang sulit dijangkau, namun memiliki
kelemahan dalam mendeteksi diskontinuitas yang
lebar dan dangkal.

Post-emulsifiable Penetrants (PE Penetrants)

Post-emulsifiable Penetrants (PE Penetrants)

The penetrants employed in the PE process

DO NOT contain an emulsifying agent. The
penetrant is NOT soluble in water.

Penetrant yang dipakai pada proses PE tidak

mengandung zat pengemulsi. Penetrant ini tidak
larut dalam air.

PE penetrants require a two-step removal

process. Excess penetrant is removed by
applying a separate emulsifier to make the
penetrant water-washable. The emulsifier is
usually
applied
by
dipping/immersion,
spraying, or flowing. The amount of dwell time
in the emulsifier is in the range of one to four
minutes in accordance with manufacturer
recommendations and the type of defects
expected.

PE penetrant memerlukan dua langkah proses

pembersihan. Sisa penetrant dibersihkan dengan
aplikasi emulsifier secara terpisah sehingga
penetrant dapat dibilas dengan air. Emulsifier
biasanya diaplikasikan dengan pencelupan,
penyemprotan, atau penuangan. Lamanya waktu
diam untuk emulsifier adalah satu sampai empat
menit mengacu pada rekomendasi pabrik
pembuat dan jenis cacat yang dicari.

The resultant penetrant-emulsifier mixture is

removed by water rinse.

Hasil campuran antara penetrant dan emulsifier

selanjutnya dapat dibilas dengan air.

Solvent-removable Penetrants (SR Penetrants)

Solvent-removable Penetrants (SR Penetrants)

The solvent removable method employs postemulsification-type penetrant. But instead of

using an emulsifier and water wash, excess
penetrant is removed by a solvent.

Metoda
solvent
removable
menggunakan
penetrant jenis post-emulsification. Solvent
digunakan untuk menghilangkan pentrant sisa
yang ada di permukaan benda.

SR penetrants have the advantage of portability

and can be used outdoors without using heavy
complex equipment.

SR penetrant menguntungkan dari segi portabilitas

dan dapat digunakan di luar tanpa menggunakan
peralatan yang berat dan rumit.

They are excellent for many maintenance

inspection and for checking portions of larger
structure.

Cara ini sangat memuaskan untuk pemeriksaan

pemeliharaan dan untuk memeriksa bagian dari
suatu struktur yang besar.

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Page 36

Penetrant is often applied from a pressurized

spray can which makes the system very
portable.

Penetrant seringkali diaplikasikan dari kaleng

semprot bertekanan yang membuat sistem ini
sangat portabel.

After the specified dwell time, the excess

penetrant is first removed by wiping with
absorbent towels and then cleaned with towels
dampened with solvent.

Setelah waktu diam terpenuhi, penetrant sisa pada

mulanya diseka dengan lap penyerap dan
kemudian dibersihkan dengan lap yang dibasahi
dengan solvent.

Solvent is NEVER applied directly to the

specimen as it might wash out or dilute the
penetrant in the discontinuity.

JANGAN PERNAH menyemprotkan solvent secara

langsung ke permukaan benda karena akan
melenyapkan penetrant dari dalam diskontinuitas.

Table 3.3 lists the preferred processes for

various penetrant test problems.

Tabel 3.3 memperlihatkan macam-macam proses

pengujian penetrant dan kegunaannya.

Table 3.3. Process selection guide.

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Page 37

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW
_______ 1.

Wire brushing Is a common and acceptable method of surface cleaning a

test part that is to be penetrant inspected.

_______ 2.

A good exhaust system is recommended when working with cleaning

solvents.

_______ 3.

Vapor degreasing is often used to remove oxidation, rust, and scale before
a part is penetrant inspected.

_______ 4.

Parts that have been painted usually cannot be inspected with penetrants
because suitable paint removing techniques have not been developed.

_______ 5.

Detergent cleaning is acceptable for postcleaning but should never be used

for precleaning because it may affect the emulsifier during the penetrant
test.

_______ 6.

Etching is often effective in precleaning a part that has been machined to a

specific tolerance by surface grinding.

_______ 7.

Only visible dye penetrants are available in portable kits because

fluorescent dyes will not function in pressurized spray cans.

_______ 8.

Dry developers are usually only used with visible dye penetrants.

_______ 9.

Emulsifiers and solvents are both commonly used in penetrant testing as

postcleaners.

_______ 10. Wet developers should never be used when they will come into contact with
gaseous or liquid oxygen because of the results caused by oxygen and
water mixing.
_______ 11. Emulsifiers must have high penetrating characteristics to emulsify
penetrants that lie in fillets and corners.
_______ 12. The black light used in fluorescent penetrant inspection is not hazardous to
the human eyes if the correct filter is in place and not broken or cracked.
_______ 13. Penetrant materials are often placed in groupings that will assure a valid test
with materials that are compatible with each other.
_______ 14. Nonaqueous developer refers to a powder that is applied dry.
_______ 15. Post-emulsifiable penetrants are usually soluble in water after the application
of an emulsifier.
_______ 16. Water-washable penetrants are cornmonly used with either a visible or
fluorescent dye.
_______ 17. Flashpoint refers to the lowest temperature at which vapors will ignite when
exposed to flame.

www.ndecenter.com

Page 29

CHAPTER THREE
INTRODUCTION

PENDAHULUAN

This chapter discusses penetrant application.

As discussed in Chapter 2, surface cleaning is
the first step prior to the penetrant application.

Bab ini mendiskusikan aplikasi penetrant. Seperti

dibahas dalam Bab 2, pembersihan permukaan
adalah tahap pertama sebelum aplikasi penetrant.

CLEANING

PEMBERSIHAN

The effectiveness of liquid penetrant testing is

based upon the ability of the penetrant to enter
surface discontinuities. All paint, carbon, oil,
varnish, oxide, plating, water, dirt, and similr
coating must be removed before application of
penetrant.

Efektifitas pengujian cairan penetrant bergantung

pada kemampuan penetrant untuk menyusup ke
dalam cacat permukaan. Semua cat, karbon, oli,
pernis, oksida, lapisan, air, kotoran dan cat
sejenisnya harus dihilangkan sebelum aplikasi
penetrant.

Liquid penetrant placed on the surface of a

specimen does not merely seep into
discontinuities. It is pulled into them by capillary
action. This is the reason one can cover the
under surface of an item with a penetrant and
still have a valid test.

Cairan penetrant di atas permukaan benda uji tidak

semata-mata meresap ke dalam diskontinuitas.
Penetrant tertarik ke dalamnya oleh gaya kapiler.
Inilah mengapa permukaan bagian bawah dari
suatu benda masih dapat diperiksa dengan
penetrant dan memperoleh hasil yang valid.

The following are typical cleaning methods

discussed earlier.
1. Detergent cleaning
2. Vapor degreasing
3. Steam cleaning
4. Solvent cleaning
5. Rust and surface scale remover
6. Paint removal
7. Etching
8. Ultrasonic cleaning
9. Mechanical cleaning

Berikut adalah metoda pembersihan permukaan

seperti didiskusikan sebelumnya:
1. Pembersihan dengan deterjen
2. Pembersihan dengan uap solvent
3. Pembersihan dengan uap air
4. Pembersihan dengan solvent
5. Penghilang karat dan kerak permukaan
6. Penghilang cat
7. Etsa
8. Pembersihan ultrasonik
9. Pembersihan secara mekanis

www.ndecenter.com

Page 30

PENETRANT APPLICATION

APLIKASI PENETRANT

Since penetrant application is step two in the

process, lets add it to the flow diagram.

Aplikasi penetrant merupakan tahapan kedua

dalam proses pemeriksaan.

Almost any liquid could be considered a

penetrant, but modern penetrants must have:

Hampir semua cairan dapat dianggap sebagai

penetrant, namun penetrant moderen harus
memiliki:
1. Kemampuan menahan zat pewarna dalam
suspensi.
2. Kemampuan menyebarkan pewarna secara
merata di atas permukaan benda.
3. Kemampuan membawa pewarna ke dalam
diskontinuitas yang terbuka ke permukaan
4. Kemampuan membawa kembali pewarna ke
permukaan.
5. Kemampuan, jika diinginkan, untuk dibersihkan dengan mudah.

1. The ability to hold a dye material in

suspension.
2. The ability to spread the dye evenly over
the surface.
3. The ability to carry the dye into any
discontinuity open to the surface.
4. The ability to bring up the dye as it is
coaxed back to the surface.
5. The ability, when desired, to be easily
removed.
There are two types of dye used in modern
penetrants:

Ada dua jenis zat pewarna yang digunakan dalam

penetrant moderen:

1. Visible or color contrast a brightly

colored dye that is highly visible under
normal lighting conditions.

1. Visible atau color contrast pewarna merah

yang tampak jelas di bawah kondisi
pencahayaan normal.

2. Fluorescent or brightness contrast an

almost colorless dye which emits visible
ligh rays when viewed under black light.

2. Fluorescent or brightness contrast pewarna

yang akan memancarkan cahaya tampak
apabila dilihat dengan lampu ultraviolet.

A dye with dual sensitivity, or dual-mode, or

dual-response contains a combination of
visible and fluorescent dyes.

Pewarna dengan sensitivitas ganda atau mode

ganda atau respon ganda mengandung kombinasi
pewarna visible dan fluorescent.

The visible color is generally a bright red and

the fluorescent color a bronze-orange or
blue-green.

Pewarna visible umumnya merah menyala dan

pewarna fluorescent berwarna kuning-perunggu
atau biru-hijau.

The combination permits penetrant tests to

be made under visible light and questionable indications to be resolved under black
light; hence the term dual response.

Kombinasi ini memungkinkan pengujian

penetrant dilakukan di bawah cahaya biasa dan
indikasi yang meragukan diperiksa di bawah
cahaya ultraviolet.

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Page 31

Penetrants, either fluorescent or visible can be

applied by any one of the following means:
1. Spraying usually using a conventional
low pressure spray guns or from
pressurized spray cans.
2. Brushing or swabbing usually applied
with rags, cotton waste, or brushes, when
testing a small, specific area of the
specimen.
3. Dipping or immersion the article is
generally lowered into a tank of
penetrant, then raised and allowed to
drain. This method is impractical when
dealing with large articles, and is wasteful
when only small areas of a large
specimen are to be tested.
4. Flowing or drain-dwell the penetrant is
simply poured over the surface and
allowing it to drain.

Penetrant, baik fluorescent maupun visible dapat

diaplikasikan dengan salah satu dari cara berikut:
1. Penyemprotan biasanya menggunakan alat
penyemprot bertekanan rendah atau dari
kaleng semprot bertekanan.
2. Kuas atau kain bisasanya diaplikasikan
dengan kain lap, kapas, atau kuas, apabila
menguji sebagian kecil/lokasi dari suatu
benda.
3. Pencelupan benda uji dibenamkan ke
dalam tangki penetrant, lalu diangkat dan
ditiriskan. Metoda ini tidak cocok untuk
benda berukuran besar dan merupakan
pemborosan apabila hanya daerah kecil saja
yang diuji.

The terminology used in penetrant application

is listed in Table 3.1.

Istilah yang digunakan dalam aplikasi penetrant

dapat dilihat dalam Table 3.1.

4. Penuangan penetrant dituangkan di atas

permukaan benda dan setelah itu ditiriskan.

Table 3.1. Liquid penetrant application terminology.

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PENETRATION (DWELL) TIME

WAKTU PENETRASI (WAKTU DIAM)

The period of time during which the penetrant

is permitted to remain on the specimen is a
vital part of the test. This time, known as dwell
time, is directly related to the size and shape of
the discontinuities anticipated since the
dimensions of the discontinuities determine the
rapidity with which penetration occurs.

Jangka waktu dimana penetrant berada di atas

permukaan benda uji merupakan bagian
terpenting dari pengujian. Jangka waktu ini dikenal
sebagai waktu diam, yang berhubungan langsung
dengan ukuran dan bentuk diskontinuitas yang
dicari mengingat ukuran diskontinuitas menentukan kecepatan terjadinya penetrasi.

Tight, crack-like discontinuities may require in

excess of 30 minutes for penetration to an
extent that an adequate indication can be
expected. Gross discontinuities may be
suitably penetrated in 3 to 5 minutes.

Diskontinuitas yang rapat, seperti retakan

memerlukan waktu penetrasi lebih dari 30 menit
untuk
terbentuknya
indikasi.
Diskontinuitas
berukuran besar memerlukan waktu penetrasi
antara 3 sampai 5 menit.

The temperature of the specimen and

temperature of the penetrant can affect the
required dwell time.

Suhu benda uji dan suhu cairan penetrant dapat

mempengaruhi waktu diam yang disyaratkan.

Warming
the
specimen
accelerates
penetration and shortens dwell time.
However, care should be taken not to
overheat the specimen since too much heat
may cause evaporation of the penetrant
from the discontinuity, and thereby reduce
sensitivity.

Menghangatkan benda uji mempercepat

penetrasi dan mempersingkat waktu diam.
Namun demikian perlu diperhatikan agar tidak
berlebihan memanaskan spesimen karena suhu
yang terlalu tinggi menyebabkan penguapan
penetrant dari dalam diskontinuitas, yang
akhirnya akan mengurangi sensitivitas.

Dwell times are based on the assumption

that the penetrant will remain wet on the part
surface. Additional penetrant may be
applied during dwell time.

Waktu diam didasarkan pada asumsi bahwa

penetrant tetap dalam kondisi basah pada
permukaan benda. Penambahan penetrant
selama waktu diam diperbolehkan.

In each instance, dwell time is determined by

the anticipated discontinuities and the
penetrant manufacturers recommendations.
Typical minimum penetration times are shown
in Table 3.2.

Pada tiap kasus, waktu diam ditentukan oleh jenis

diskontinuitas
yang
hendak
dicari
dan
rekomendasi dari pabrik pembuat penetrant.
Waktu penetrasi minimum untuk kasus tertentu
diperlihatkan dalam Tabel 3.2.

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Table 3.2. Typical minimum penetration time.

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Page 34

PENETRANT TESTING PROCESSES

PROSES PENGUJIAN PENETRANT

We previously mentioned the two types of

penetrants: visible and fluorescent. For both
categories, there is a further breakdown.
1. Water-washable (visible or fluorescent).
2. Post-emulsifiable (visible or fluorescent).
3. Solvent-removable (visible or fluorescent).

Telah disebutkan sebelumnya ada dua jenis

penetrant: visible dan fluorescent. Kedua jenis
penetrant tersebut dapat dirinci menjadi:
1. Water-washable (visible atau fluorescent).
2. Post-emulsifiable (visible atau fluorescent).
3. Solvent-removable (visible atau fluorescent).

Water-washable Penetrants (WW Penetrants)

Water-washable Penetrants (WW Penetrants)

WW penetrants have a built-in emulsifier, or

what-so-called self-emulsifying penetrants.
The penetrant is soluble in water and is easily
removed by a water rinse.

WW penetrant mengandung zat pengemulsi, atau

dinamakan penetrant self-emulsifying. Penetrant
ini larut dalam air dan mudah dibersihkan dengan
bilasan air.

Care must be taken to insure that the spray

volume and force does not wash penetrant out
of the discontinuity. A solid stream of water is
not desirable. A coarse droplet size provides
optimal removal. Water pressure should not
exceed 40 psi.

Harus diperhatikan agar volume dan kekuatan

semprot tidak sampai membasuh penetrant dari
dalam diskontinuitas. Aliran air yang pejal tidak
diinginkan. Air dalam bentuk percikan kasar
menghasilkan pembersihan yang optimal. Tekanan
air tidak boleh melebihi 40 psi.

The recommended temperature range for water

rinse is 10oC - 38oC. Water temperatures above
38oC are not recommended because this may
speed up the evaporation of the penetrant.

Suhu air pembilas yang direkomendasikan sebesar

10oC - 38oC. Suhu air melebihi 38oC tidak direkomendasikan karena dapat mempercepat penguapan penetrant.

At angles of 80-90 degree, the spray droplets

will rebound into oncoming spray, which diverts
the droplets and reduce velocity. Generally, an
angle of 45-75 degree is most effective.

Pada sudut 80-90 derajat, titik-titik air akan

memantul kembali dan menabrak titik air yang
datang sehingga mengurangi kecepatan. Sudut
semprot yang paling efektif adalah 45-75 derajat.

The sketch below represents the steps in a

water-washable penetrant test.

Gambar di bawah memperlihatkan langkahlangkah pengujian water-washable penetrant.

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Page 35

Water-washable
penetrants
are
usually
preferred for use on articles with a rough
surface or if they contain threads or keyways.

Water-washable penetrant biasanya digunakan

untuk memeriksa benda yang permukaannya kasar
atau benda yang ada ulir atau alurnya.

The built-in emulsifier provides the best

penetrant removal from blind holes and other
hard-to-reach
locations,
but
has
the
disadvantage of poor reliability in detecting
wide or shallow discontinuities.

Emulsifier yang ada di dalamnya mengakibatkan

penetrant mudah dihilangkan dari lubang buntu
dan lokasi yang sulit dijangkau, namun memiliki
kelemahan dalam mendeteksi diskontinuitas yang
lebar dan dangkal.

Post-emulsifiable Penetrants (PE Penetrants)

Post-emulsifiable Penetrants (PE Penetrants)

The penetrants employed in the PE process

DO NOT contain an emulsifying agent. The
penetrant is NOT soluble in water.

Penetrant yang dipakai pada proses PE tidak

mengandung zat pengemulsi. Penetrant ini tidak
larut dalam air.

PE penetrants require a two-step removal

process. Excess penetrant is removed by
applying a separate emulsifier to make the
penetrant water-washable. The emulsifier is
usually
applied
by
dipping/immersion,
spraying, or flowing. The amount of dwell time
in the emulsifier is in the range of one to four
minutes in accordance with manufacturer
recommendations and the type of defects
expected.

PE penetrant memerlukan dua langkah proses

pembersihan. Sisa penetrant dibersihkan dengan
aplikasi emulsifier secara terpisah sehingga
penetrant dapat dibilas dengan air. Emulsifier
biasanya diaplikasikan dengan pencelupan,
penyemprotan, atau penuangan. Lamanya waktu
diam untuk emulsifier adalah satu sampai empat
menit mengacu pada rekomendasi pabrik
pembuat dan jenis cacat yang dicari.

The resultant penetrant-emulsifier mixture is

removed by water rinse.

Hasil campuran antara penetrant dan emulsifier

selanjutnya dapat dibilas dengan air.

Solvent-removable Penetrants (SR Penetrants)

Solvent-removable Penetrants (SR Penetrants)

The solvent removable method employs postemulsification-type penetrant. But instead of

using an emulsifier and water wash, excess
penetrant is removed by a solvent.

Metoda
solvent
removable
menggunakan
penetrant jenis post-emulsification. Solvent
digunakan untuk menghilangkan pentrant sisa
yang ada di permukaan benda.

SR penetrants have the advantage of portability

and can be used outdoors without using heavy
complex equipment.

SR penetrant menguntungkan dari segi portabilitas

dan dapat digunakan di luar tanpa menggunakan
peralatan yang berat dan rumit.

They are excellent for many maintenance

inspection and for checking portions of larger
structure.

Cara ini sangat memuaskan untuk pemeriksaan

pemeliharaan dan untuk memeriksa bagian dari
suatu struktur yang besar.

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Page 36

Penetrant is often applied from a pressurized

spray can which makes the system very
portable.

Penetrant seringkali diaplikasikan dari kaleng

semprot bertekanan yang membuat sistem ini
sangat portabel.

After the specified dwell time, the excess

penetrant is first removed by wiping with
absorbent towels and then cleaned with towels
dampened with solvent.

Setelah waktu diam terpenuhi, penetrant sisa pada

mulanya diseka dengan lap penyerap dan
kemudian dibersihkan dengan lap yang dibasahi
dengan solvent.

Solvent is NEVER applied directly to the

specimen as it might wash out or dilute the
penetrant in the discontinuity.

JANGAN PERNAH menyemprotkan solvent secara

langsung ke permukaan benda karena akan
melenyapkan penetrant dari dalam diskontinuitas.

Table 3.3 lists the preferred processes for

various penetrant test problems.

Tabel 3.3 memperlihatkan macam-macam proses

pengujian penetrant dan kegunaannya.

Table 3.3. Process selection guide.

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Page 37

1. Water-washable

2. Post-emulsifiable

3. Solvent-removable

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Page 38

LEAK-THROUGH TECHNIQUE

TEKNIK PEREMBESAN BOCORAN

The leak-through technique is well suited for

finding leaks in such articles as tanks, piping,
tubing and hollow castings. There is no
knowledge concerning other quality characteristics of the specimen is obtained.

Teknik perembesan bocoran sangat sesuai untuk

mendeteksi kebocoran pada tangki, pipa, tube,
dan cor-coran berongga. Tidak ada informasi lain
yang diperoleh mengenai karakteristik kualitas
benda.

The sketch below illustrates the liquid penetrant

leak-through test as used on a large plate
section.

Gambar di bawah memperlihatkan pengujian

kebocoran dengan penetrant untuk memeriksa
bagian dari suatu pelat.

FILTERED PARTICLE TECHNIQUE

TEKNIK PARTIKEL TERSARING

Filtered particle testing uses small particles

suspended in the penetrant liquid. In most
instances these particles are fluorescent.

Teknik ini menggunakan partikel berukuran kecil

yang tersuspensi dalam cairan penetrant. Partikel
yang dipakai biasanya fluorescent.

The size of the suspended particles varies and

depends upon the porous nature of the
inspection surface.

Ukuran partikel yang tersuspensi bervariasi,

tergantung pada kondisi pori-pori permukaan
benda yang diperiksa.

When testing a porous surface with filtered

particles, all of the liquid penetrant will be
absorbed. There will be no excess requiring
removal. Where a discontinuity (such as a
crack) is present, the increased area created
by a crack (its walls, etc.) will cause more of the
penetrant to be absorbed there than elsewhere.

Saat menguji permukaan berpori dengan cara ini,

semua cairan penetrant akan diserap. Tidak ada
langkah pembersihan penetrant sisa pada teknik
ini. Pada tempat dimana terdapat diskontinuitas
(seperti retak), penambahan luasan akibat retak
(dinding retak, dll.) akan mengakibatkan penetrant
lebih banyak terserap di daerah tersebut.

The crack will filter the penetrant, leaving the

fluorescent particles on the surface. Since more
penetrant will be absorbed there, a greater
buildup of particles will be found at the site of
the crack. This particel buildup provides an
indication of discontinuities open to the
surface.

Retak akan menyaring penetrant, meninggalkan

jejak partikel fluorescent pada permukaan. Karena
lebih banyak penetrant terserap di sana,
pengumpulan partikel lebih banyak terjadi di
daerah retak. Pengumpulan partikel ini menunjukkan adanya diskontinuitas yang membuka ke
permukaan.

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Page 39

FIXING AND RECORDING INDICATIONS

PEMELIHARAAN DAN PEREKAMAN INDIKASI

Fixing and recording indications can be carried

out by:
1. Photographs digital photography
provide excellent permanent records. In
addition to photographs, video cassette
recorders (VCRs) and closed-circuit
television cameras (CCTVs) are used to
record indications.
2. Special wax and plastic film developers
have been developed to absorb and fix
the penetrant indication to form a
permanent record.
a. Strippable lacquers are sprayed in
several coats over the indication and
when dry can be lifted to provide a
permanent record.
b. Special fixers are sprayed over the
indication and when dry are lifted with
transparent tape.

Pemeliharaan dan perekaman indikasi dapat

dilakukan dengan:
1. Fotografi foto digital merupakan cara
terbaik untuk merekam indikasi. Disamping
itu video kaset dan kamera CCTV juga dapat
digunakan untuk merekam indikasi.

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2. Lilin khusus dan lapisan plastik developers

dikembangkan
untuk
menyerap
dan
mengawetkan indikasi penetrant dan
membentuk rekaman permanen.
a. Lapisan lak disemprotkan beberapa lapis
di atas indikasi, dan setelah kering dapat
dikelupas untuk menghasilkan rekaman
permanen.
b. Fixer khusus disemprotkan di atas indikasi
dan setelah kering diangkat dengan pita
transparan (isolasi).

Page 40

CHAPTER THREE
REVIEW
_______ 1.

A dual sensitivity penetrant contains a special dye that is visible in white light
and will fluoresce without the use of a black light.

_______ 2.

A part being penetrant inspected must stay immersed in the penetrant tank
for the entire specified dwell time.

_______ 3.

The liquid penetrant leak-through test refers to the ability of a penetrant to

spread through the dry developer evenly.

_______ 4.

Visible dye penetrants are usually considered to be less sensitive than

fluorescent penetrants.

_______ 5.

Water-washable penetrants have a built-in emulsifier that permits good

results in penetrant removal from parts suspected of having wide or shallow
discontinjuities.

_______ 6.

Solvent-removable penetrants are available in both visible and fluorescent

dye.

_______ 7.

Excess post-emulsifiable penetrant is commonly removed by spraying the

surface of the part with cleaner (solvent) and then wiping with a lint-free
towel.

_______ 8.

Water washable penetrant systems are usually very portable because the
materials are commonly used in pressurized spray cans.

_______ 9.

Warming the specimen to temperatures up to about 20o C tends to

accelerate penetration and shortens dwell time.

_______ 10. For the dwell time to be accurate, the surface of the specimen must stay
wet with penetrant for the entire time specified.
_______ 11. The typipal dwell time for most penetrant Inspections is about 20-30
minutes.
_________________________ 12.
_________________________

List two (2) of the commonly used methods of applying

penetrants to a specimen that is to be inspected.

_________________________ 13.
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

List four (4) of the commonly used methods of

precleaning the specimen before penetrant inspection.

_______ 14. If you were asked to examine 200 steel bolts, each 3/8 x 3 inches with
rolled threads, which penetrant method would you choose?
(a) Post-emulsification

(b) Water-washable

_______ 15. The filtered particle method of penetrant inspection used extra fine
fluorescent particles that will not pass through a #120 sieve.

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Page 41

CHAPTER FOUR
INTRODUCTION

PENDAHULUAN

This
chapter
discusses
emulsification,
penetrant removal, and developer application.

Bab ini mendiskusikan proses emulsifikasi,

pembersihan penetrant, dan aplikasi developer.

POST EMULSIFIABLE PENETRANT (PE

PENETRANT)

POST EMULSIFIABLE PENETRANT (PE

PENETRANT)

This type of penetrant emulsification is

accomplished by dipping, spraying, or flowing,
but NEVER by brushing. Brushing makes
emulsification more difficult to control, besides
the bristle of the brush may enter the
discontinuity.

Emulsifikasi penetrant jenis ini dilakukan dengan

pencelupan, penyemprotan atau penuangan,
namun TIDAK BOLEH diaplikasikan dengan kuas.
Aplikasi dengan kuas menyulitkan pengontrolan
emulsifikasi, disamping bulu-bulu kuas bisa masuk
ke dalam diskontinuitas.

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Page 42

The skecth below represents the steps in a

post-emulsifiable penetrant test.

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Gambar berikut menunjukkan langkah-langkah

pengujian post-emulsifiable penetrant.

Page 43

The length of time the emulsifier is left to dwell

before commencing the penetrant removal
cycle is determined by the emulsifier used and
the type of discontinuities suspected.

Jangka waktu emulsifier dibiarkan di atas

permukaan benda sebelum dilakukan pembersihan penetrant ditentukan oleh jenis emulsifier dan
diskontinuitas yang dicari.

If too short an emulsification time is used, not

all penetrant will be removed, which will cloud
over discontinuities.

Jika waktu emulsifikasi terlalu singkat, tidak semua

penetrant akan tersapu, yang nantinya akan
menghalangi munculnya diskontinuitas.

If too long a time is used, penetrant within the

discontinuities will also become water soluble
and be washed away with excess penetrant.

Jika waktu emulsifikasi terlalu panjang, penetrant di

dalam diskontinuitas akan bereaksi dengan
emulsifier dan akan tersapu oleh air.

The PE penetrant makes the water wash less

critical.

PE penetrant membuat pembilasan dengan air

menjadi tidak terlalu kritis.

The sketches below compare the effects of

water-washable and post emulsification
penetrants.

Gambar di bawah ini membandingkan antara

pemakaian WW dan PE penetrants.

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Page 44

There are two types of emulsifiers used in the

removal process LIPOPHILIC (Method B)
and HYDROPHILIC (Method D).

Terdapat dua jenis emulsifier yang digunakan

dalam proses pembersihan LIPOPHILIC (Metoda
B) dan HYDROPHILIC (Metoda D).

Lipophilic and hydrophilic processes have

completely different mechanisms in converting
the oil based penetrant into a mixture that can
be washed.

Proses lipophylic dan hydrophilic memiliki

mekanisme yang sangat berbeda dalam merubah
penetrant berbahan dasar menjadi campuran yang
bisa dibilas dengan air.

LIPOPHILIC METHOD

METODA LIPOPHILIC

Lipophilic emulsifier is applied by immersion to

prevent mechanically mixing emulsifier into the
penetrant. In some automatic installations, the
emulsifier is applied as a fog or mist.

Emulsifier lipophilic diaplikasikan dengan cara

pencelupan untuk mencegah bercampurnya emulsifier dengan penetrant. Pada instalasi otomatis,
emulsifier diaplikasikan secara pengkabutan.

The mechanism of lipophilic emulsification is by

DIFFUSION. Molecules of emulsifier enter into
the penetrant layer while at the same time
molecules of penetrant enter the emulsifier
layer. The rate of diffusion increases with
increased
concentration
and
higher
temperatures.

Mekanisme emulsifikasi lipophilic adalah dengan

cara DIFUSI. Molekul emulsifier memasuki lapisan
penetrant, sementara pada saat yang bersamaan
molekul penetrant memasuki lapisan emulsifier.
Laju difusi akan bertambah dengan peningkatan
konsentrasi dan penambahan suhu.

The three properties of lipophilic emulsifiers

that control the washing characteristics are
activity, viscosity and water tolerance.

Tiga sifat emulsifier lipophilic yang mengontrol

karakteristik
pembilasan
adalah
aktivitas,
kekentalan, dan toleransi terhadap air.

If a penetrant is highly resistant to water, an

emulsifier with a high activity is needed. High
viscosity emulsifiers diffuse more slowly than
low viscosity emulsifiers. Lipophilic emulsifier
should tolerate 5% water by weight without
gelling, separating or coagulating and still be
capable of passing the penetrant removability
test.

Jika suatu penetrant memiliki ketahanan tinggi

terhadap air, maka diperlukan emulsifier dengan
aktivitas yang tinggi. Emulsifier dengan kekentalan
tinggi berdifusi lebih lambat ketimbang emulsifier
yang encer. Lipophilic emulsifier harus mampu
mentolerir 5% air tanpa mengalami penggumpalan
atau pembekuan dan mampu lulus uji pembersihan penetrant.

Method B emulsifiers are supplied in the readyto-use form and do not require further mixing.

Emulsifier metoda B dijual dalam bentuk siap pakai

dan tidak memerlukan pencampuran lagi.

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Page 45

HYDROPHILIC METHOD

METODA HYDROPHILIC

Hydrophilic emulsifier is a water based solution

and is a mixture of chemicals called
surfactants. They are supplied as a concentrate
and are mixed with water either before or
during the removal process. The concentrate is
required to contain a maximum of 5% water.

Emulsifier hydrophilic adalah larutan antara air dan

zat kimia yang disebut surfactant. Dijual di pasaran
dalam bentuk konsentrat dan harus dicampur dulu
dengan air sebelum atau selama proses
pembersihan. Konsentrat disyaratkan mengandung air maksimum sebesar 5%.

Hydrophilic emulsifier works based on the

principle to peel the penetrant away or by
dissolving droplets so they do not redeposit on
the surface.

Emulsifier hydrophilic bekerja berdasar pada

prinsip pengelupasan lapisan penetrant, atau
dengan melarutkan penetrant sehingga tidak
terdeposit kembali ke permukaan.

Because
post-emulsifiable
penetrant
is
incompatible with water, prerinsing before
application of emulsifier is recommended.
Prerinsing removes 60-80% of the surface layer
of
penetrant,
which
greatly
reduces
contamination of the emulsifier. It also provides
an even layer of surface penetrant.

Karena
post-emulsifiable
penetrant
tidak
kompatibel dengan air, direkomendasikan untuk
melakukan pembilasan awal sebelum aplikasi
emulsifier. Pembilasan awal menghilangkan 6080% lapisan penetrant di permukaan, sehingga
banyak mengurangi terjadinya kontaminasi pada
emulsifier. Pembilasan awal juga menghasilkan
lapisan penetrant permukaan yang rata.

Hydrophilic emulsifier is applied either by

immersion or spraying.

Emulsifier hydrophilic diaplikasikan dengan cara

pencelupan atau penyemprotan.

Immediately following the emulsification, a

fresh water rinse of the entire part is required.
This stops the action of any emulsifier
remaining on the part.

Segera setelah proses emulsifikasi, disyaratkan

untuk membilas seluruh bagian benda uji dengan
air bersih. Langkah ini akan menghentikan aksi
emulsifikasi yang masih tersisa di permukaan
benda.

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Page 46

DEVELOPERS APPLICATION

APLIKASI DEVELOPER

Some indications may be visible prior to the

application of a developer, but this step will
ensure that ALL discontinuities are visible to the
naked eye.

Beberapa indikasi bisa saja nampak sebelum

developer diaplikasikan, namun langkah ini akan
memastikan bahwa SEMUA diskontinuitas akan
tampak oleh mata telanjang.

Developing is accomplished when a highly

absorbent powder is applied to the item being
tested after excess penetrant is removed.

Proses developing dilakukan dengan mengaplikasikan serbuk berdaya serap tinggi ke permukaan
benda uji setelah sisa penetrant dibersihkan.

The penetrant is actually drawn out of the

discontinuity by the strong capillary action of
the developer.

Penetrant akan tertarik keluar dari diskontinuitas

akibat gaya kapiler yang kuat dari serbuk
developer.

As shown above, the image of the discontinuity

in the developer will actually be larger than the
actual size of the discontinuity.

Seperti diperlihatkan dalam gambar di atas, citra

diskontinuitas pada developer tampak lebih luas
ketimbang ukuran diskontinuitas sebenarnya.

There are two common types of developers in

use today dry and wet. Both use a white
powder and the primary difference is in the
method of application.

Ada dua jenis developer yang dipakai saat ini

kering dan basah. Keduanya memakai serbuk
putih dan perbedaan utamanya terletak pada
metoda aplikasinya.

DRY DEVELOPERS

DEVELOPER KERING

Dry developer is supplied as a fine-grained

fluffy white powder.

Developer kering dijual dalam bentuk butiran halus,

serbuk putih lembut.

Methods of application include the use of low

air pressure, such as that from a rubber
squeeze bulb or a spray gun. A soft brush may
sometimes be used; or, since the developer is
a very fine powder, articles may be simply
dipped in the developer, raised, and the
excess powder removed by gently blowing,
shaking, or tapping the article.

Aplikasi dilakukan dengan dengan alat penyemprot

bertekanan rendah. Kadangkala dipakai juga kuas
halus; atau karena bentuknya yang sangat halus,
benda uji dapat dibenamkan ke dalam tangki
developer, diangkat, dan sisa developer di
permukaan dihilangkan dengan cara meniup,
menggoyang-goyang, atau mengetuk-ketuk benda
uji.

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Page 47

It is very necessary to have a dry surface prior

to application of a dry powder.

Permukaan benda uji harus benar-benar kering

sebelum serbuk developer diaplikasikan.

A wet surface would result in an uneven layer of

powder or, even worse, too thick a powder
buildup. Discontinuity indications would be
obscured.

Permukaan yang basah menghasilkan lapisan

yang tidak merata, bahkan bisa terjadi peggumpalan serbuk. Indikasi diskontinuitas akan
terhalangi.

Dry developer is usually used with fluorescent

penetrant.

Developer kering biasanya

dengan penetrant fluorescent.

WET DEVELOPERS

DEVELOPER BASAH

Non-aqueous wet developer is held in

suspension in a solvent base and is usually
supplied in pressurized cans. Evaporation of
the solvent carrier helps draw penetrant from
discontinuities.

Non-aqueous wet developer terikat dalam suatu

suspensi solvent dan dikemas dalam kaleng
semprot
bertekanan.
Penguapan
solvent
membantu menarik penetrant dari dalam
diskontinuitas.

Nonaqueous wet developer is most often

employed with solvent-removable penetrants
and less often with water-washable or postemulsifiable penetrants.

Nonaqueous wet developer paling sering digunakan bersama solvent-removable penetrant dan
jarang dipakai bersama water-washable atau postemulsifiable penetrants.

The nonaqueous wet developer is THE MOST

SENSITIVE of all the developers in detecting
fine discontinuities.

Nonaqueous wet merupakan jenis developer yang

PALING SENSITIP dalam mendeteksi diskontinuitas halus.

The best results are obtained when developer

is applied as a thin and even film.

Hasil terbaik diperoleh apabila developer diaplikasikan dalam bentuk lapisan tipis dan rata.

Like dry developer, nonaqueous developer is

applied ONLY to dry test surfaces.

Seperti halnya developer kering, nonaquous

developer HANYA diaplikasikan pada permukaan
yang benar-benar kering.

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dipakai

bersama

Page 48

Water-base wet developer

Water-base wet developer

In water-base wet developer, the powder is

mixed with water.

Pada water-base wet developer, serbuk developer

dicampur dengan air.

The developer comprises of two types: watersuspended and water-soluble developers.

1. In water-suspended developer, the
developer particles are held in suspension in water and require continuous
agitation to keep them in suspension.
2. In water-soluble developer, the developer
powder is dissolved in water and forms a
solution. Once mixed, they remain mixed.
Water-soluble developer provides the
greater sensitivity in detecting fine
discontinuities.

Developer ini terdiri dari dua jenis: watersuspended dan water-soluble developers.
1. Pada water-suspended developer, partikel
serbuk developer terikat dalam suspensi
dengan air dan perlu diaduk terus-menerus
agar tidak mengendap.
2. Pada water-soluble developer, serbuk
developer larut dalam air dan membentuk
suatu larutan yang tidak perlu diaduk lagi.
Water-soluble
developer
menghasilkan
sensitivitas yang lebih baik untuk mendeteksi
diskontinuitas halus.

Water-suspended and water-soluble developers are generally used with water-washable or

post-emulsifiable penetrants and rarely with
solvent-removable penetrants. They are applied
while the test article is still wet from the water
wash.

Water-suspended dan water-soluble developers

umumnya digunakan dengan water-washable atau
post-emulsifiable penetrants, dan jarang dengan
solvent-removable penetrant. Mereka diaplikasikan
saat permukaan benda uji masih dalam kondisi
basah setelah pembilasan.

Methods of application include the following:

Metoda aplikasi water-base wet developer:

Dipping (or immersing)

Pencelupan

Pouring (or flowing)

Penuangan

Spraying

Penyemprotan

A short time is allowed for the water to

evaporate, leaving a thin layer of white powder.
The evaporation process is often hurried by the
use of a recirculating hot-air dryer after the
developer has been applied. If an oven is used,
the temperature should not exceed about
100oC as this could evaporate penetrant in the
discontinuity.

Beberapa saat diperlukan bagi air untuk menguap,

meninggalkan lapisan tipis serbuk putih. Proses
penguapan
seringkali
dipercepat
dengan
menggunakan oven setelah aplikasi developer.
Jika digunakan oven untuk pengeringan, suhunya
tidak boleh melebihi 100oC karena akan
menguapkan penetrant di dalam diskontinuitas.

Water soluble developer is not recommended

to be used with water washable penetrant.

Water soluble developer tidak direkomendasikan

untuk dipakai dengan water washable penetrant.

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Page 49

GUIDELINES TO CHOOSE DEVELOPER

PEDOMAN PEMILIHAN DEVELOPER

Now you might ask: What governs the choice

of developer for a given situation? Here are
some guidelines.

Sekarang anda mungkin bertanya: Apakah yang

menentukan pemilihan developer untuk situasi
tertentu? Berikut beberapa pedomannya.

Water-Base Wet Developer Applications

Aplikasi Water-Base Wet Developer

On very smooth surfaces where a dry

developer will not adhere.

Pada permukaan sangat halus dimana

developer kering tidak bisa menempel.

When testing large numbers of small,

irregularly-shaped articles (production
testing).

Saat memeriksa sejumlah besar artikel

berukuran kecil dan bentuknya tidak teratur
(pengujian untuk produksi).

When wide, shallow discontinuities are

sought, wet developer tends to leave a
more even film of developer than does
dry developer.

Saat mencari diskontinuitas yang lebar dan

dangkal, developer basah cenderung
menghasilkan lapisan developer yang lebih
rata ketimbang developer kering.

Nonaqueous Wet Developer Applications

Applications on spot checks or when
conducting tests in the field.

Aplikasi untuk pemeriksaan setempat atau

untuk pengujian di lapangan.

On vertical surfaces, a uniform film of

developer is more easily obtained.

Pada permukaan vertikal, lapisan developer

yang merata lebih mudah diperoleh.

When greatest sensitivity is needed in

revealing difficult-to-detect indications.

Apabila diinginkan sensitivitas terbaik untuk

mencari diskontinuitas yang sulit terdeteksi.

Dry Developer Applications

Aplikasi Developer Kering

On rough surfaces, dry developer gives

far better results than wet developer.

Pada permukaan kasar, developer kering

memberikan hasil yang lebih baik
dibandingkan developer basah.

On sharp fillets, holes, and threaded

articles where wet developers tend to
leave too much developer.

Pada sudut-sudut tajam, lubang, artikel

berulir dimana developer basah cenderung
meninggalkan lapisan yang terlalu tebal.

On very large articles where it might be

difficult to apply wet developer.

Pada artikel berukuran besar dimana

kesulitan mengaplikasikan developer basah.

Again, these are only guidelines. There will be

exceptions. Some specifications permit the use
of only one type of developer and, as
mentioned earlier, there are some applications
that do not require the use of a developer since
the penetrant alone provides sufficient
discontinuity
indications
through
selfdevelopment.

Aplikasi Nonaqueous Wet Developer

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Sekali lagi perlu disampaikan bahwa ini hanya

sekedar pedoman. Beberapa spesifikasi mungkin
hanya mengijinkan penggunaan satu jenis
developer saja, dan seperti telah disebutkan
sebelumnya, bahwa ada beberapa aplikasi yang
tidak mensyaratkan penggunaan developer karena
penetrant sendiri sudah menghasilkan indikasi
diskontinuitas yang mencukupi melalui mekanisme
self-development.

Page 50

CHAPTER FOUR
REVIEW
_______ 1.

When using a post-emulsified penetrant, if too long a time is used for

emulsification, penetrant within the discontinuities will be washed away with
the excess penetrant.

_______ 2.

During the rinse cycle an emulsifier is added to a solvent-removable

penetrant to make it water soluble.

_______ 3.

Water washable penetrants have a built-in emulsifier.

_______ 4.

Post-emulsification penetrants are commonly available in both visible and

fluorescent dyes.

_______ 5.

Post-emulsification penetrants usually require a two-step penetrant removal

process.

_______ 6.

The penetrant removal process with water washable penetrants is very

critical because of the danger of over-wash.

_______ 7.

Solvent-removable penetrants are commonly used because they will

withstand a very forceful water wash without the danger of over-wash.

_______ 8.

An advantage of the solvent removable penetrant is that the excess

penetrant is easily removed by dipping the part in a tank of solvent solution.

_______ 9.

Wet developers are usually chosen over a dry developer for use on a
smooth surface.

_______ 10. A major advantage of the dry developer over wet is that it will not leave the
same amount of excess build-up in threads and fillets.
_______ 11. The emulsification time required to detect wide or shallow discontinuities is
usually longer than for finding narrow and deep discontinuities.
_______ 12. To avoid over-wash when using water washable penetrants, the water
spray nozzle is usually held at a 90 angle to the surface.
_______ 13. When using a water-washable penetrant, the part must be completely dried
in an oven (not in excess of 225 F) before the wet developer can be
applied.
_______ 14. A major advantage of a nonaqueous developer is that it can be applied to a
part that is heated above 225 F without evaporation on the developer
vehicle.
_______ 15. Solvent-removable fluorescent penetrants require the use of a rather timeconsuming method of excess penetrant removal.
_______ 16. Post-emulsifiable visible dye penetrants commonly use both wet and dry
developers.

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Page 51

CHAPTER FIVE
INTRODUCTION

PENDAHULUAN

This chapter discusses the final step in the

penetrant process inspection, evaluation,
postcleaning, and material control.

Bab ini mendiskusikan langkah akhir dalam proses

pemeriksaan penetrant, evaluasi, pembersihan
akhir, dan pengendalian material.

INSPECTION

PEMERIKSAAN

Proper lighting should be the first consideration

in the inspection of an article.

Pencahayaan yang tepat harus dijadikan pertimbangan pertama dalam pemeriksaan benda uji.

1. If a fluorescent dye penetrant is used, a

room or booth with dim light and a black
light with proper intensity are required.

1. Jika dipakai fluorescent dye penetrant maka

diperlukan ruangan gelap dan lampu
ultraviolet dengan intensitas yang memadai.

2. If a visible dye penetrant is used,

adequate normal lighting is necessary.

2. Jika dipakai visible dye penetrant, diperlukan

penerangan dengan cahaya biasa.

INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION OF

INDICATIONS

INTERPRETASI DAN EVALUASI INDIKASI

The terms interpretation and evaluation are

often confused by testing personnel. Actually,
the terms refer to two entirely different steps in
testing process.

Istilah interpretasi dan evaluasi seringkali membingungkan personel NDT. Sesungguhnya kedua
istilah tersebut mengacu pada dua langkah yang
sama sekali berbeda dalam proses pengujian.

After an indication is located, it is interpreted.

During the interpretation, the cause of the
bleedout and the severity of the indication must
be determined. It is at this phase that the
indication is classified as false, nonrelevant or
relevant.

Setelah indikasi diketahui lokasinya, selanjutnya

diinterpretasi. Selama interpretasi, penyebab dan
pengaruh indikasi terhadap artikel harus ditentukan. Pada tahap ini indikasi tersebut
diklasifikasikan sebagai palsu, tidak relevan atau
relevan.

Evaluation follows interpretation. If during the

evaluation phase it is determined that the
discontinuity interferes with the serviceability of
the part or it does not meet the acceptance and
rejection criteria, the discontinuity is then
classified as a DEFECT.

Evaluasi mengikuti interpretasi. Jika selama tahap

evaluasi ditentukan bahwa diskontinuitas membahayakan pemakaian komponen, atau tidak memenuhi kriteria penerimaan dan penolakan, diskontinuitas tersebut selanjutnya diklasifikasikan
sebagai CACAT.

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Page 52

TYPICAL INDICATIONS IN PENETRANT

INSPECTION

JENIS INDIKASI PADA PEMERIKSAAN

PENETRANT

All indications found with the liquid penetrant

method will be open-surface discontinuities,
but the indications may or may not affect the
usefulness of the article.

Semua indikasi yang ditemukan dalam pengujian

penetrant adalah diskontinuitas permukaan,
namun indikasi tersebut mungkin saja atau tidak,
mempengaruhi kegunaan benda uji.

FALSE INDICATIONS

INDIKASI PALSU

The most common sources of false indications

are poor washing, poor processing conditions,
lack of cleanliness in the inspection booth or
other aspects of the penetrant process.

Penyebab indikasi palsu yang paling umum adalah

pembersihan yang buruk, kondisi pemrosesan
yang buruk, bilik pemeriksaan yang kurang bersih,
atau aspek lain dari proses penetrant.

The operator can easily tell when a good rinse

is obtained by using a black light during and
after the fluorescent pentrant removal process.

Operator dapat dengan mudah mengatakan jika

pembilasan sudah dilakukan dengan benar
dengan memakai lampu ultraviolet selama dan
setelah proses pembersihan penetran fluorescent.

To avoid false indications, care should be taken

so that no outside contamination such as the
following occurs:
1. Penetrant on operators hand.
2. Contamination of wet or dry developer.
3. Penetrant transfered to clean specimen
from other indications.
4. Penetrant spots on the inspection table.

Untuk menghindari indikasi palsu, harus diperhatikan agar tidak ada kontaminasi dari luar seperti
berikut ini:
1. Jejak penetran di tangan operator.
2. Kontaminasi developer basah atau kering.
3. Penetran yang berpindah dari indikasi lain ke
spesimen yang bersih.
4. Jejak penetran di meja pemeriksaan.

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Page 53

NONRELEVANT INDICATIONS

INDIKASI NONRELEVANT

Nonrelevant indications are caused by surface

irregularities or part configuration that in most
cases are there by design.

Indikasi nonrelevant disebabkan karena ketidakteraturan permukaan atau konfigurasi benda yang
pada kebanyakan kasus akibat disain.

They are caused by some features of assembly

such as articles that are press-fitted, keyed,
splined, or riveted. Nonrelevant indications
could also include loose scale or rough surface
on a forging, casting, or welding.

Indikasi nonrelevant disebabkan karena adanya

press-fitted, alur, splined, atau kelingan. Termasuk
juga dalam indikasi nonrelevant adalah kerak lepas
dan pemukaan kasar pada benda tempa, benda
cor dan pengelasan.

Nonrelevant indications are considered not

detrimental to the serviceability of the part.

Indikasi nonrelevant dianggap tidak menggangu

pemakaian komponen.

As with false indications the inspector must

carefully examine these indications to ensure
that they do not mask a relevant indication.

Sama halnya dengan indikasi palsu, inspektor

harus memeriksa indikasi ini dengan hati-hati untuk
memastikan agar jangan sampai menutupi indikasi
relevant.

TRUE INDICATIONS

INDIKASI SEJATI

True indications are those caused by surface

discontinuities that have been interpreted as
not being false or nonrelevant.

Indikasi sejati disebabkan karena diskontinuitas

permukaan yang telah diinterpretasikan bukan
sebagai indikasi palsu atau nonrelevant.

True indications are subject to evaluation as to

the cause and the effect they will have on the
service life of the article.

Indikasi sejati harus dievaluasi penyebab sampai

pada pengaruh yang ditimbulkannya pada usia
pakai komponen.

It is important to note that all relevant

indications are discontinuities, but not all
discontinuities are defects.

Penting dicatat bahwa semua indikasi relevant

adalah diskontinuitas, namun tidak semua
diskontinuitas adalah cacat.

True indications could be divided into SIX basic

categories.
1. Continuous Line
These indications are caused by cracks,
cold shuts, forging laps, scratches, or die
marks.
Cracks usually appear as jagged lines;
cold shuts as smooth, narrow, straight
lines; and forging laps as smooth, wavy
lines.
Scratches and die marks appear in a
variety of linear patterns but are readily
recognizable when all penetrant traces
are removed, since the bottom of the
discontinuity is usually visible.
2. Intermitten Line
These indications could be caused by
any of the discontinuities mentioned
above provided they were very tight or
where the part had been peened,
machined, or ground.

Indikasi sejati dibagi menjadi ENAM katagori

utama:
1. Garis Menerus
Indikasi ini disebabkan karena retak, cold
shuts, lipatan temp, goresan, atau tanda
cetakan.
Retakan biasanya tampak sebagai garis
bergerigi; cold shut sebagai garis lurus,
rapat, halus; lipatan tempa sebagai garis
berombak yang halus.
Goresan dan tanda cetakan kelihatan
sebagai pola lurus yang bervariasi, namun
mudah dikenali setelah jejak penetrant
dibersihkan, karena dasar diskontinuitas ini
biasanya tampak.
2. Garis Putus-putus
Indikasi ini disebabkan karena diskontinuitas
memerus dimana ada bagiannya yang
tertutup rapat akibat terkena pukulan,
permesinan, atau penggerindaan.

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Page 54

3. Round
Rounded indications usually are caused
by porosity. Deep cracks may also
appear as rounded indications, since
they trap a large amount of penetrant that
spreads when the developer is applied.
Any rounded indication that appears
singularly in an isolated position usually
indicates a discontinuity of depth that
may or may not be round.
4. Small Dots
Tiny round indications caused by the
porous nature of the specimen, coarse
grain structure, or microshrinkage.
5. Diffuse or weak
These indications are difficult to interpret
and often the part must be cleaned and
retested. In many cases the diffused or
weak indications turn to be false
indications caused by an improper
penetrant procedure.
6. Gross
Gross indications are the result of
ineffective penetrant removal or deep
indications on the surface.
Skecthes below show typical true indications.

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3. Bundaran
Indikasi berbentuk bundar biasanya disebabkan karena porosity. Retak dalam juga bisa
kelihatan sebagai indikasi bundar karena
banyaknya penetrant yang terperangkap di
dalamnya yang menyebar saat developer
diaplikasikan.
Sembarang indikasi bundar yang muncul
sendirian pada posisi menyendiri biasanya
menunjukkan indikasi yang dalam dan belum
tentu bentuk aslinya bundar.
4. Bintik-bintik Kecil
Indikasi bundar kecil-kecil disebabkan karena sifat permukaan spesimen yang berpori,
butiran kasar, atau penyusutan mikro.
5. Tersebar atau Samar
Indikasi ini sulit diinterpretasi dan seringkali
benda uji harus dibersihkan dan diuji ulang.
Pada banyak kasus, indikasi yang tersebar
atau samar berubah menjadi indikasi palsu
yang disebabkan prosedur penetrant yang
kurang benar.
6. Nyata
Indikasi nyata adalah akibat pembersihan
penetrant yang tidak efektip atau adanya
indikasi yang dalam pada permukaan.
Gambar berikut adalah indikasi sejati.

Page 55

Figures below illustrate typical liquid penetrant

indications found in liquid penetrant testing.

Gambar dibawah ini memperlihatkan indikasi

cairan penetrant pada pengujian penetrant.

Visible dye indication of seam.

Visible dye indication of lamination.

Visible dye indication of forging lap.

Visible dye indications of unhealed porosity in aluminum plate.

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Page 56

Visible dye indications of cracks in aluminum forging.

Visible dye indications of weldment shrink cracks.

Visible dye indication of forging burst.

Fluorescent indications of porosity.

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Page 57

DEPTH DETERMINATION OF PENETRANT

DISCONTINUITIES

PENENTUAN KEDALAMAN DISKONTINUITAS

PENETRANT

The greater the depth of a discontinuity, the

more penetrant it will holds and the larger and
brighter the indication.

Makin dalam suatu diskontinuitas, makin banyak

penetrant tertahan di dalamnya dan makin besar
dan jelas indikasinya.

POSTCLEANING

PEMBERSIHAN AKHIR

After the specimen has been inspected, it is

very important that it be thoroughly cleaned. A
thorough postcleaning is necessary because
penetrant and developer residue tend to attract
moisture which may cause corrosion, or it can
interfere with subsequent processing or usage.

Setelah spesimen diperiksa, sangat penting untuk

mencucinya dengan bersih. Pembersihan akhir
yang menyeluruh perlu dilakukan karena sisa-sisa
penetrant dan developer akan mengikat uap air
dan mengakibatkan korosi, atau zat-zat tersebut
dapat mengganggu proses atau penggunaan
selanjutnya.

Postcleaning usually will involved the same

types of cleaning operations as were used in
precleaning.

Pembersihan akhir biasanya melibatkan jenis

proses pembersihan yang sama seperti pada
pembersihan awal.

QUALITY CONTROL OF PENETRANT TEST

MATERIALS

KENDALI MUTU UNTUK MATERIAL PENGUJIAN

PENETRANT

ALUMINUM TEST BLOCKS

BLOK UJI ALUMINIUM

They provide a good means of evaluating

general purpose penetrants. They should be
used for comparisons only and not for absolute
evaluations.

Blok ini dipakai untuk mengevaluasi kegunaan

umum dari penetrant. Blok ini hanya dipakai
sebagai perbandingan saja, bukan untuk evaluasi
mutlak.

These blocks are nonuniform, the depth and

width of cracks are uncontrolled. The size of
the blocks may vary but are about 5 x 8 cm by
10 mm thickness of 2024-T-3 aluminum alloy.

Blok ini tidak seragam, kedalaman dan lebar retak

tidak terkontrol. Ukuran blok bisa bervariasi tapi
biasanya sekitar 5 x 8 cm dengan tebal 10 mm,
terbuat dari paduan aluminium 2024-T-3.

The blocks are heated to 510-525oC and

quenched in cold water to provide an overall
crack pattern. A groove approximately 1.5 mm
deep by 2 mm wide may be cut across the
center of the heat-affected zone on both faces
of the block.

Blok dipanaskan sampai suhu 510-525oC dan

didinginkan cepat di air dingin untuk membuat
pola retakan. Alur sedalam 1.5 mm dan lebar 2mm
dibuat di tengah-tengah daerah pengaruh panas
pada kedua sisi blok tersebut.

Because of the large cracking that often results

in this block, it is used for comparing low and
medium sensitivity fluorescent penetrant.

Karena jumlah retak yang banyak pada blok ini,

maka blok ini seringkali dipakai untuk membandingkan sensitivitas penetrant fluorescent tingkat
rendah dan medium.

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Page 58

SENSITIVITY TEST

UJI SENSITIVITAS

While there have been no simple quantitative

tests developed for measuring penetrant
sensitivity, a simple comparative test is usually
adequate.

Sementara belum ada uji kuantitatip sederhana

untuk mengukur sensitivitas penetrant, uji
perbandingan sederhana biasanya dianggap
mencukupi.

The penetrant to be tested is applied to onehalf of the test block and the new or reference
penetrant is applied to the remaining half.

Penetrant yang diuji diaplikasikan pada setengah

blok uji, dan penetrant baru atau yang dijadikan
referensi diaplikasikan pada setengah bagian lain.

The processing usedincluding dwell time,

emulsification or removal, and developingis
that
recommended
by
the
penetrant
manufacturer.

Pemrosesan penetrant termasuk waktu diam,

emulsifikasi atau pembersihan, dan developing
dilakukan sesuai rekomendasi pabrik pembuat
penetrant.

By visual observation it is determined if the old

penetrant is contamined to the point where it
must be discarded.

Melalui pengamatan visual, selanjutnya ditentukan

apakah penetrant yang lama telah terkontaminasi
dan harus dibuang.

MENISCUS TEST

UJI MENISKUS

Provides a practical test for evaluating the dye

concentration in thin-liquid films.

Merupakan
pengujian
untuk
mengevaluasi
konsentrasi pewarna di dalam cairan.

The test utilizes a flat glass platen and a convex

lens. When a drop of solution is placed
between the lens and platen, a colorless or
nonfluorescent spot is formed around the point
of contact. The resultant contact angle simply
indicates the ability of a liquid to wet a surface.

Pengujian ini menggunakan kaca rata dan lensa

cembung. Saat satu tetes larutan fluorescent
diteteskan antara lensa dan kaca, maka akan
terbentuk jejak di sekitar titik sentuh. Sudut kontak
yang dihasilkan memperlihatkan kemampuan
cairan untuk membasahi permukaan.

The diameter of the remaining spot of colorless

penetrant provides a measure of film thickness
which can be used to compare the dye
concentration of penetrant.

Diameter dari jejak penetrant pada lensa cembung

menunjukkan ukuran ketebalan lapisan film yang
dapat dipakai untuk membandingkan konsentrasi
zat pewarna di dalam penetrant.

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Prolonged exposure of a film to ultraviolet light

or accidental contamination by acids or alkalis
will affect the dye concentration and therefore
change the spot diameter.

Paparan dalam waktu lama di bawah cahaya

ultraviolet atau kontaminasi akibat asam atau basa
akan mempengaruhi konsentrasi pewarna dan
akan mengubah diameter jejak pada lensa.

CERAMIC BLOCK TEST

UJI BLOK KERAMIK

Consists of an unglazed ceramic disc which

has thousand of micropores and cracks on its
surface.

Terdiri dari piringan keramik buram yang mengandung ribuan pori dan retak berukuran sangat kecil
pada permukaanya.

A performance comparison can be made of

two or more penetrant merely by noting the
number of distribution of porosity indication
and their brightness in a side-by-side comparison test.

Perbandingan performance dapat dilakukan antara

dua penetrant atau lebih yang diaplikasikan secara
sebelah-menyebelah dengan memperhatikan jumlah distribusi indikasi porositas dan kecemerlangannya.

A small amount of a test penetrant is placed on

one side and a reference penetrant is applied
to the other side. After the correct dwell time,
the two penetrants are compared.

Sejumlah kecil penetrant yang diuji ditempatkan

pada satu sisi dan penetrant referensi ditempatkan
pada sisi yang lain. Setelah waktu diam tertentu,
kedua penetrant tersebut diperbandingkan.

A reduction in the number of apparent

brightness of pore indications should be
observed when comparing a fresh and old
batch of penetrant.

Pengurangan jumlah dan tingkat kecemerlangan

indikasi pori-pori selanjutnya diamati saat
membandingkan antara penetrant yang lama dan
baru.

WATER CONTENT TEST

UJI KADAR AIR

The ASTM Standard D-95 describes a test

where 100 ml of penetrant is placed in a boiling
flask with a similar quantity of moisture-free
xylene. The condensate is collected in a
graduated tube to show percent of water by
volume.

Standard ASTM D-95 menjelaskan pengujian ini,

dimana 100 ml penetrant ditempatkan dalam gelas
ukuran yang berisi xylene bebas air dengan
volume yang sama. Uap pembakaran dikumpulkan
dalam suatu tabung berjenjang untuk memperlihatkan persentase air per volume.

If percent of water exceeds manufacturers

remommendation, the penetrant is discarded.

Jika persentase air melebihi rekomendasi pabrik,

penetrant harus dibuang.

VISCOSITY TEST

UJI KEKENTALAN

A viscometer tube is used to measure the

viscosity in centistoke to determine if the
penetrant is within the range recommended by
the manufacturer. A typical standard is ASTM
D-445.

Sebuah tabung ukuran kekentalan digunakan

untuk mengukur kekentalan dalam centistoke
untuk menentukan apakah penetrant masih di
dalam rentang yang direkomendasikan oleh
pabrik. Standar yang dipakai adalah ASTM D-445.

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FLUORESCENT PENETRANT FADE TEST

UJI KEPUDARAN PENETRAN FLUORESCENT

This test involves the use of the aluminum test

blocks in a side-by-side comparison test.

Pengujian ini memakai blok aluminium dengan

perbandingan secara sebelah menyebelah.

The fluorescent penetrant is placed on both

sides of the block and processed normally.
One half of the block is then exposed to a
standard black light for one hour, while the
other side is covered with paper.

Penetran fluorescent ditempatkan pada kedua sisi

blok dan diproses seperti biasanya. Separuh
bagian blok disinari cahaya ultraviolet selama satu
jam, sedangkan separuh sisi yang lain ditutupi
kertas.

The fluorescent brilliance of the two sides is

observed and if one side is noticeably less
brilliant, the penetrant is discarded.

Kecemerlangan fluorescent dari kedua sisi tersebut

diamati dan dibandingkan, dan jika salah satu sisi
tampak lebih pudar, penetrant harus dibuang.

WATER WASHABILITY TEST

UJI KEMAMPUCUCIAN DENGAN AIR

This test evaluates the efficiency of the

emulsifier by comparing two different
percentage blends of penetrant and emulsifier.

Pengujian ini mengevaluasi efisiensi emulsifier

dengan membandingkan dua macam persentase
campuran penetran dan emulsifier yang berbeda.

A special steel block is placed at a 75o angle

and the two blends are allowed to flow
separately down the block. After a five-minute
waiting period, the block is washed and
examined for traces of remaining penetrant.

Blok baja khusus diposisikan pada sudut 75o dan

dua macam campuran tadi dialirkan secara
terpisah di atas blok. Setelah waktu tunggu selama
lima menit, blok dicuci dan diperiksa mengenai
keberadaan jejak penetran.

DEVELOPER TEST

UJI DEVELOPER

Dry developers are simply visually inspected to

see that they are not lumpy or caked instead of
fluffy and light.

Developer kering cukup diperiksa secara visual

untuk melihat adanya gumpalan-gumpalan atau
tidak ada yang lengket satu sama lain.

Wet developers are often checked using a

hydrometer to assure that the density of the
powder in the vehicle is within the range that
recommended by the manufacturer.

Developer basah seringkali diperiksa memakai

hydrometer untuk menjamin bahwa massa jenis
serbuk di dalam campuran masih dalam rentang
yang direkomendasikan oleh pabrik pembuat.

PORTABLE EQUIPMENT

PERALATAN PORTABEL

The process control of portable equipment

involves checking materials and associated
equipment of the penetrant kit.

Pengontrolan proses untuk peralatan portabel

meliputi pemeriksaan material dan peralatan yang
ada hubungannya dengan paket penetran.

When ordering penetrant materials from the

manufacturer,
performance
specifications
should be requested in the purchase order.
This establishes the necessary documentation
to verify material performance. Aerosol cans
are normally used in portable equipment; each
can has a batch number on it.

Saat memesan material penetran dari pemasok,

spesifikasi performance sebaiknya dicantumkan
dalam dokumen pembelian. Hal ini bermanfaat
untuk mendokumentasikan performance material
penetrant. Tiap kaleng semprot yang dipakai pada
peralatan portabel, pada bagian bawahnya selalu
terdapat nomer batch.

Portable kits contain a cleaner. If the cleaner is

used to preclean a part, it must be able to
preclean the part without leaving a residue.
Care should be taken to ensure that the cleaner
used is not marked as a remover, which has a
very slow evaporation rate and will leave an oil
residue.

Paket portabel termasuk juga pembersih (cleaner).

Jika cleaner dipakai sebagai pembersih awal maka
harus mampu membersihkan benda tanpa
meninggalkan sisa. Harus diperhatikan agar tidak
memakai remover sebagai pembersih awal karena
laju penguapannya rendah dan akan meninggalkan sisa minyak di permukaan.

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Most cleaners today are labeled cleaner/

remover. These cleaners do not leave a residue
and can be used to preclean parts.

Kebanyakan cleaner yang ada saat ini diberi label

sebagai cleaner/remover. Cleaner ini tidak meninggalkan sisa minyak dan bisa dipakai sebagai
pembersih awal.

Developers now use a different liquid solvent

as a vehicle, which does not evaporate as
quickly. To prevent a loss of sensitivity and a
possible masking of discontinuities, allow the
developer to dry before applying more
developer.

Developer yang ada saat ini memakai solvent cair

yang berbeda-beda sebagai pengencer, sehingga
tidak cepat menguap. Untuk mencegah hilangnya
sensitivitas dan tertutupnya diskontinuitas, biarkan
developer mengering dulu sebelum penyemprotan
developer tambahan.

LIGHTING

PENCAHAYAAN

Control of lighting is a key part of the process

control.

Pengontrolan cahaya merupakan bagian kunci dari

pengendalian proses.

The ultraviolet light in fluorescent penetrant

portable kits must be checked for lens
cleanliness and possible cracks. The ultraviolet
light intensity must be checked against the
applicable specification.

Lampu ultraviolet pada paket portabel penetran

fluorescent harus diperiksa kebersihan lensanya
dan kemungkinan adanya retak. Intensitas cahaya
ultraviolet harus diperiksa apakah sudah sesuai
dengan spesifikasi yang berlaku.

Ultraviolet lights from a 100 Watt mercury vapor

lamp normally produce higher intensities than
the 1000 W/cm2 at a distance of 38 cm.

Cahaya ultraviolet dari lampu mercury 100 Watt

umumnya menghasilkan intensitas lebih dari 1000
W/cm2 pada jarak 38 cm.

Daily checks of ultraviolet light intensity is a

necessity for adequate process control. For
systems used during multiple 8 h shifts,
ultraviolet lights should be checked at the start
of each shift.

Pemeriksaan harian intensitas cahaya ultraviolet

diperlukan untuk pengendalian proses yang benar.
Untuk sistem shift yang digunakan selama
kelipatan 8 jam, lampu ultraviolet harus diperiksa di
awal mulainya shift.

The darkness of the fluorescent penetrant

inspection area is important. Most specifications require no more that 20 lux. (2 fc) of
white light in the area.

Tingkat kegelapan ruangan pemeriksaan penetrant

fluorescent perlu diperhatikan. Kebanyakan
spesifikasi mensyaratkan intensitas cahaya tampak
tidak lebih dari 20 lux (2 fc) dalam ruang
pemeriksaan.

In addition, inspectors must allow their eyes to

adjust when first entering the darkened test
area. Normally, 5 min is enough time for the
eye to adapt to a dark environment. Tests
should not start until the inspectors eyes have
adapted to the darkened conditions.

Sebagai tambahan, inspektor harus membiasakan

matanya saat memasuki ruang gelap. Umumnya
perlu waktu 5 menit bagi mata untuk beradaptasi
dalam lingkungan gelap. Pengujian sebaiknya
jangan dimulai hingga mata inspektor terbiasa
dengan keadaan gelap.

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CHAPTER FIVE
REVIEW
_______ 1.

A typical false indication could be caused by an assembly that requires the

components to be press-fitted.

_______ 2.

Nonrelevant indications could be caused by the rough surface on a casting.

_______ 3.

Postcleaning is necessary only when the part must be retested by the liquid
penetrant method.

_______ 4.

A typical true indication producing round indications is commonly caused by

porosity.

_______ 5.

Diffused or weak indications are often caused by subsurface discontinuities,

and the part must be retested using a highly sensitive penetrant that will
penetrate grain structure.

_______ 6.

True indications are usually those that require evaluation to determine their
effect on the service life of the part.

_______ 7.

The aluminum test blocks used in penetrant evaluation are heated and
quenched in water to produce a pattern of cracks on the surface.

_______ 8.

The sensitivity tests used in penetrant inspection are relatively simple,

nonquantitative, and require side-by-side visual observation.

_______ 9.

The meniscus test utilizes a flat glass platen and convex lens to determine
the dye concentration of a visible or fluorescent penetrant.

_______ 10. The ceramic block test uses an unfired ceramic disc to determine the dye
concentration of a visibles or fluorescent penetrant.
_______ 11. A special steel block, placed at a 75 angle, is used to check the
effectiveness of the emulsifier.
_______ 12. Dry developers are often checked with a hydrometer to insure that they are
still light and fluffy and not settled into a dense mixture.
_______ 13. The fluorescent penetrant fade test usually makes use of the aluminum test
blocks to perform the test.
_______ 14. The depth of a discontinuity can be compared by observing the relative size
or brightness of the indication.
_______ 15. Penetrant that has been transferred to a clean article from the indication on
another article can cause a false indication.
_______ 16. Nonrelevant indications often are actual surface discontinuities.
_______ 17. If a discontinuity is evaluated as being a true indication, the article should
automatically be rejected.

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CHAPTER SIX
INTRODUCTION

PENDAHULUAN

This chapter discusses types of discontinuities

that can be evaluated with the liquid penetrant
method.

Bab ini mendiskusikan jenis-jenis diskontinuitas

yang dapat dievaluasi menggunakan metoda
cairan penetrant.

CATEGORIES OF DISCONTINUITIES

KATAGORI DISKONTINUITAS

Discontinuities can be divided into THREE

general categories: inherent, processing, and
service.
1. Inherent.
They are usually related to discontinuities
found in the molten metal.
Inherent wrought discontinuities relate to
the melting and solidification of the
original ingot before it is formed into
slabs, blooms, and billets.
Inherent cast discontinuities relate to the
melting, casting, and solidification of a
cast article. Usually caused by inherent
variables such as inadequate feeding,
gating, excessive pouring temperature,
and entrapped gases.
2. Processing discontinuities.
They are usually related to the various
manufacturing processes such as machining, forming, extruding, rolling, welding,
heat treating, and plating.
3. Service discontinuities.
They are related to the various service
conditions such as stress corrosion,
fatigue, and erosion.

Diskontinuitas dapat dibagi menjadi TIGA katagori

umum: bawaan, proses, dan servis.

REMEMBER, when you use the liquid penetrant

method, you can find only those discontinuities
which are open to the surface.

INGAT, jika anda menggunakan metoda cairan

penetran, anda hanya bisa menemukan diskontinuitas yang membuka ke permukaan.

However, during the manufacturing process,

many discontinuities that were subsurface can
be made open to the surface by machining,
grinding, and the like.

Namun demikian, selama proses manufaktur,

banyak diskontinuitas yang tadinya di bawah
permukaan menjadi membuka ke permukaan
karena
permesinan,
penggerindaan,
dan
sejenisnya.

Remember that discontinuities are not

necessarily defects. Any indication that is found
by the inspector is called a discontinuity until it
can be identified and evaluated as to the effect
it will have on the service of the part.

Ingat bahwa diskontinuitas belum tentu cacat.

Sembarang indikasi yang ditemukan oleh inspektor
dinamakan sebagai diskontinuitas hingga dikenali
dan dievaluasi pengaruhnya terhadap pengoperasian komponen.

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1. Bawaan.
Biasanya berhubungan dengan diskontinuitas yang ditemukan dalam logam cair.
Diskontinuitas wrought bawaan berhubungan
dengan peleburan dan pembekuan ingot
sebelum dibentuk menjadi slabs, bloom, dan
billet.
Diskontinuitas tuangan bawaan berhubungan dengan peleburan, pengecoran, dan
pembekuan benda cor. Biasanya disebabkan karena variabel bawaan seperti kurang
pengisian, gating, suhu tuang berlebihan,
dan gas yang terperangkap.
2. Diskontinuitas Proses.
Biasanya berhubungan dengan aneka
proses manufaktur seperti permesinan,
pembentukan,
extruding,
pengerolan,
pengelasan, laku panas, dan pelapisan.
3. Diskontinuitas Servis.
Berhubungan
dengan
aneka
kondisi
pengoperasian seperti korosi tegangan,
kelelahan, dan erosi.

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THE ORIGINS OF DISCONTINUITIES

ASAL-MUASAL DISKONTINUITAS

Listed below are some typical discontinuities

that should be recognized when doing any type
of nondestructive test.

Di bawah ini adalah beberapa jenis diskontinuitas

yang sebaiknya dikenali jika melakukan pengujian
tanpa merusak.

Discontinuities trapped in the ingot during steel

making process may cause aditional types of
discontinuities as the steel is used in the manufacture of an article.

Diskontinuitas yang terperangkap di dalam ingot

selama proses pembuatan baja dapat menyebabkan terjadinya jenis diskontinuitas lain saat baja
tersebut dipakai memproduksi suatu artikel.

There are FOUR main types of discontinuities

found in ingots:

Ada EMPAT jenis diskontinuitas utama yang

ditemukan di dalam ingot:

1. Porosity caused by entrapped gas in

the molten metal.

1. Porositas disebabkan oleh gas-gas yang

terperangkap di dalam logam cair.

2. Nonmetallic inclusions caused by

impurities accidentally included in the
molten metal.

2. Inklusi Nonlogam disebabkan karena

ketidakmurnian yang tanpa sengaja terjadi
dalam logam cair.

3. Pipe caused by shrinkage at the center

of the ingot as the molten metal solidifies.

3. Pipa disebabkan karena penyusutan pada

bagian tengah ingot selama pembekuan.

4. Segregations occurs when the

distribution of the various elements is not
uniform throughout the ingot. This
condition is called banding and is not
usually significant.

4. Segregasi terjadi karena ketidakseragaman

distribusi aneka elemen di dalam ingot.
Kondisi ini dimanakan banding dan
dianggap tidak begitu berarti.

The hot top is usually cropped off to remove

most of the above discontinuities.

Bagian hot top biasanya dipotong untuk menghilangkan sebagian besar diskontinuitas di atas.

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CASTING DISCONTINUITIES

DISKONTINUITAS TUANGAN

Casting discontinuities occur when molten

metal is poured into a mold and allowed to
solidify.

Diskontinuitas tuangan terjadi saat logam cair

dituangkan ke dalam cetakan dan dibiarkan
membeku.

A COLD SHUT is caused when molten metal is

poured over solidified metal as shown below.

COLD SHUT disebabkan jika ada logam cair

menumpuki logam yang sudah membeku.

When the metal is poured, it hits the mold

too hard and spatters small drops of metal.
When these drops of metal hit higher up on
the mold, they stick and solidify. When the
rising molten metal reaches and covers the
solidified drops of metal, a crack-like
discontinuity is formed.

Saat logam cair dituangkan dan membentur

dinding cetakan terlalu keras akan terjadi
percikan logam cair. Jika percikan ini mengenai
dinding cetakan, dia akan lengket dan
membeku. Apabila logam cair menutupi
percikan beku tersebut, terbentuk diskontinuitas
yang menyerupai retakan.

HOT TEARS (SHRINKAGE CRACKS) occurs

when there is unequal shrinkage between light
and heavy sections as shown below.

SOBEK PANAS (RETAK SUSUT) terjadi apabila

terjadi penyusutan yang tidak merata antara
bagian ringan dan berat seperti dalam gambar.

In a casting having light and heavy sections,

the light sections, being smaller, solidify
faster; they shrink faster pulling the heavier
sections, which are hotter and not shrinking
as fast, toward the light sections.

Pada benda cor, makin ringan suatu bagian

maka makin cepat pembekuan dan penyusutannya, yang akan menarik bagian berat yang
lebih panas dan lebih lambat penyusutannya
dibandingkan bagian tipis.

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SHRINKAGE CAVITIES occur when there is

insufficient molten metal to fill the space
created by shrinkage, just as pipe is formed in
an ingot.

RONGGA SUSUT terjadi jika volume logam cair

tidak cukup mengisi rongga akibat penyusutan,
sama seperti halnya pipe yang terbentuk di dalam
ingot.

GATE
(ENTRANCEFOR
MOLTENMETAL)

Shrinkage cavities can be eliminated, or the

possibility of shrinkage cavities can be
greatly reduced, by adding a feeder head or
reservoir as shown above on the right.

Rongga susut dapat dicegah atau dikurangi

kemungkinan terjadinya dengan menambahkan
corong pengisian seperti dalam gambar kanan
atas.

MICROSHRINKAGE is usually many small

subsurface holes that appear at the gate of the
casting caused by premature blocking of the
gate.

SUSUT MIKRO biasanya berupa lubang-lubang

kecil di bawah permukaan yang muncul pada gate
akibat penyumbatan gate sebelum pengisian
selesai seluruhnya.

Microshrinkage can also occur when the

molten metal must flow from a thin section
into a thicker section of a casting.

Susut mikro dapat juga disebabkan ketika

logam cair harus mengalir dari bagian tipis ke
bagian yang lebih tebal di dalam cetakan.

BLOW HOLES are small holes at the surface of

the casting caused by gas which comes from
the mold itself. Many molds are made of sand,
and when molten metal comes into contact
with the mold, the water in the sand is released
as steam.

LUBANG TIUP adalah lubang-lubang kecil pada

permukaan benda cor akibat gas-gas yang berasal
dari dinding cetakan. Banyak cetakan yang dibuat
dari pasir dan saat logam cair bersentuhan
dengannya kelembaban yang terkandung dalam
pasir berubah menjadi uap air.

POROSITY is caused by entrapped gas.

Porosity is usually subsurface but can occur on
the surface depending on the design of the
mold.

POROSITAS disebabkan karena gas-gas yang

terperangkap. Porositas biasanya di bawah
permukaan namun dapat pula terjadi di
permukaan, tergantung pada disain cetakan.

WATER
WASHABLE
FLUORESCENT
PENETRANT is best suited for the highest
sensitivity in cast articles.

WATER WASHABLE FLUORESCENT PENETRANT

adalah jenis penetrant yang paling baik untuk
memperoleh sensitivitas tertinggi pada bendabenda cor.

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Page 67

PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES

DISKONTINUITAS PROSES

Processing discontinuities are those found or

produced by forming or fabrication operations
including rolling, forging, welding, machining,
grinding, and heat treating.

Diskontinuitas proses ditemukan atau dihasilkan

saat pembentukan atau operasi fabrikasi, termasuk
pengerolan, penempaan, pengelasan, permesinan,
penggerindaan, dan perlakuan panas.

WORKING THE BILLETS

PENGERJAAN BILLET

When an ingot is further processed into slabs,

blooms, and billets, it is possible for the
discontinuities to change size and shape.

Ketika ingot diproses lebih lanjut menjadi slabs,

blooms, dan billets, diskontinuitas bisa berubah
ukuran dan bentuk.

As a billet is flattened and spread out,

nonmetallic inclusions may cause a lamination.
Pipe, and porosity could also cause
laminations in the same manner as shown
below.

Saat billet diratakan dan digepengkan, inklusi

nonlogam dapat menyebabkan laminasi. Pipa dan
porositas juga dapat menyebabkan laminasi
dengan cara yang sama seperti dalam gambar di
bawah ini.

As a billet is rolled into bar stock, nonmetallic

inclusions are squeezed out into longer and
thinner discontinuities called stringers.

Saat billet dirol menjadi batang tongkat, inklusi

nonlogam tertekan menjadi diskontinuitas yang
panjang dan tipis dinamakan stringers.

A nonmetallic inclusion in bar stock extends in

the direction of grain formation. As the billet is
rolled smaller around and longer, the stringer
also becomes smaller around and longer.

Inklusi nonlogam dalam batang tongkat menyebar

ke arah pembentukan butiran. Saat billet dirol
semakin kecil dan panjang, stringer juga menjadi
lebih kecil dan panjang.

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Page 68

As a billet is rolled into round bar stock, surface

irregularities may cause SEAMS. Seams are
caused by folding of metal due to improper
rolling or by a crack in the billet as shown
below.

Saat billet dirol menjadi batang tongkat, ketidakteraturan permukaan bisa mengakibatkan seams.
Seams terjadi akibat lipatan logam karena
pengerolan yang salah atau karena retakan pada
billet seperti dalam gambar berikut.

A seam could also occur when the billet is

formed into a rectangular bar as shown below.

Seam juga bisa terjadi saat billet dibentuk menjadi

batang kotak seperti berikut.

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Page 69

FORGING DISCONTINUITIES

DISKONTINUITAS TEMPAAN

Forging discontinuities occur when metal is

hammered or pressed into shape, usually while
the metal is very hot.

Diskontinuitas tempaan terjadi saat logam dipukul

atau ditekan menjadi bentuk tertentu, biasanya
ketika logam dalam kondisi sangat panas.

A forged part gains strength due to the grain

flow taking the shape of the die, and the
process is shown below.

Benda tempa memperoleh kekuatan akibat

aliran butiran yang berlangsung ke semua arah
mengikuti bentuk cetakan seperti gambar.

A FORGING BURST is a rupture caused by

forging at improper temperatures. Forging
metal at too low temperature may cause burst.
Burst may be either internal or open to the
surface a shown below.

PECAH TEMPA adalah kepecahan yang disebabkan karena suhu penempaan yang salah. Penempaan logam pada suhu terlalu rendah mengakibatkan kepecahan. Pecah tempa bisa di dalam,
maupun membuka ke permukaan.

Improper temperatures caused these parts

to break as the material was being shaped
by forging. The metal was not hot enough
and did not want to flow with the forging.
When squeezed by the heavy forging press,
the metal in the center simply ruptured.

Suhu tempa yang terlalu rendah mengakibatkan

komponen di atas pecah saat ditempa. Logam
tidak cukup panas sehingga tidak terjadi aliran
saat ditempa. Saat ditekan pada waktu
penempaan, logam akan pecah di bagian
tengahnya.

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Page 70

A FORGING LAP is caused by folding of metal

on the surface of the forging, usually when
some of the forging metal is squezeed out
between the two dies that do not match.

LIPATAN TEMPA disebabkan lipatan logam pada

permukaan benda tempa, terjadi karena logam
terjepit antara cetakan bagian atas dan bawah
yang tidak lurus.

Forging laps can also be caused by poor

die design. As the metal is pressed into the
cavity in this die, the metal is forced up at
the bottom of the die and tends to fold over
on itself, forming the forging lap shown on
the right.

Lipatan tempa dapat juga disebabkan disain

cetakan yang keliru. Saat logam ditekan di
dalam rongga cetakan, logam dipaksa memenuhi cetakan dan cenderung terlipat ke arahnya
sendiri membentuk lipatan tempa seperti dalam
gambar kanan bawah.

For production testing of forgings, POSTEMULSIFIABLE FLUORESCENT PENETRANT is the

recommended penetrant technique to obtain
the best sensitivity.

Untuk pengujian produksi benda-benda tempa,

POSTEMULSIFIABLE
FLUORESCENT
PENETRANT merupakan teknik yang direkomendasikan
untuk memperoleh sensitivitas terbaik.

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Page 71

GRINDING CRACK are a processing-type

discontinuity caused by stresses which are built
up from excess heat created between grinding
wheel and metal.

RETAK GERINDA adalah diskontinuitas proses,

disebabkan karena tegangan yang terjadi akibat
panas berlebih yang ditimbulkan antara mata
gerinda dan logam.

Grinding cracks will usually occur at right angle

to the rotation of the grinding wheel.

Retak gerinda biasanya akan terjadi pada arah

tegak lurus terhadap arah putar mata gerinda.

HEAT TREAT CRACKS are often caused by the

stresses built up during heating and cooling.
Unequal cooling between light and heavy
sections may cause heat treat cracks.

RETAK LAKU PANAS seringkali disebabkan tegangan yang terjadi selama pemanasan dan pendinginan. Laju pendinginan yang tidak sama antara
bagian ringan dan berat bisa menyebabkan retak.

Heat treat cracks have no specific direction

and usually start at sharp corners which act
as stress concentration points.

Retak laku panas tidak mempunyai arah

tertentu, dan biasanya bermula dari pojok-pojok
tajam yang bertindak sebagai titik konsentrasi
tegangan.

During inspection of heat treated parts, the first

areas of concern will be:

Selama pemeriksaan komponen yang dilaku

panas, tempat pertama yang menjadi perhatian:

Any sharp area, such as corner, ridges,

etc.

Daerah tajam seperti pojok-pojok,

permukaan kasar, takik, dll.

Junction of light and heavy sections.

Pertemuan antara bagian ringan dan berat.

The photo below shows a part that has cracked

from heat treatment. Notice that the crack cuts
across the grain. Since heat treatment cracks
have no specific direction, the crack might just
as well have followed the grain.

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Foto di bawah ini memperlihatkan komponen yang

retak akibat perlakuan panas. Perhatikan bahwa
retak tersebut melintang terhadap butiran logam.
Karena retak laku panas tidak memiliki arah tertentu, arahnya bisa juga mengikuti butiran logam.

Page 72

WELDING DISCONTINUITIES below are types

of processing discontinuities.

DISKONTINUITAS PENGELASAN dibawah

termasuk ke dalam diskontinuitas proses.

Crater cracks

Retak kawah

Stress cracks

Retak tegang

Porosity

Porositas

Slag Inclusion

Inklusi Slag

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ini

Page 73

Tungsten Inclusion

Inklusi Tungsten

Lack of Penetration

Kurang Penembusan

Lack of Fusion

Kurang Peleburan

Undercut

Undercut

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Page 74

SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES

DISKONTINUITAS SERVIS

FATIGUE CRACKS are service-type discontinuities that are usually open to the surface
where they start from concentration points.

RETAK FATIK merupakan diskontinuitas servis

yang biasanya membuka ke permukaan dimana
mulainya dari titik-titik konsentrasi tegangan.

Fatigue cracks occur crosswise to the

direction of strees movement. The stress on
the driven shaft below would have been
clockwise the direction of its rotation. The
fatigue crack occured across the direction of
stress movement.

Arah perambatan retak fatik melintang terhadap

arah tegangan. Arah tegangan yang bekerja
pada poros penggerak di bawah ini searah
jarum jam yaitu arah putaran poros. Retak
fatik yang timbul arahnya melintang terhadap
arah tegangan.

Fatigue cracks are possible only after the

part is placed into service, but may be the
result of porosity, inclusions, or other
discontinuities in a highly stressed metal
part.

Retak fatik hanya mungkin timbul setelah

komponen menjalankan fungsinya, dan bisa
disebabkan karena porositas, inklusi, atau
diskontinuitas lain pada bagian logam yang
konsentrasi tegangannya tinggi.

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Page 75

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Page 76

CHAPTER SIX
REVIEW
_______ 1.

The general category of processing discontinuities relates to discontinuities

caused during manufacturing processes such as welding, extruding, and
heat treating.

_______ 2.

During the steel-making process the top of the ingot is usually removed to
help eliminate such discontinuities as pipe, porosity and nonmetallic
inclusions.

_______ 3.

When a billet is rolled into bar stock, a nonmetallic inclusion could be

formed into a longer and thinner discontinuity called a stringer.

_______ 4.

Porosity in a billet could cause a lamination if the metal were formed into a
flat plate.

_______ 5.

Seams are usually subsurface discontinuities caused by improper rolling of

a billet into round stock.

_______ 6.

During the rolling of a billet into round bar stock, the grain in the metal forms
perpendicular to the direction of rolling.

_______ 7.

In the forging operation, underheated metal will not allow the metal to flow
properly and may cause "forging seams".

_______ 8.

Forging bursts are considered subsurface discontinuities and can never be

inspected with liquid penetrant techniques.

_______ 9.

Cold shuts are common discontinuities found in the forging process and are
caused by inadequate heating of the forged part.

_______ 10. Blow holes are subsurface discontinuities commonly found in cast parts.
_______ 11. Because cold metal occupies more space than hot metal, there is the
danger of "hot tears" during the casting process.
_______ 12. Porosity is often caused by entrapped gas that is expanded during the
heating and pressing in the forging process.
_______ 13. Microshrinkage is often found at the gate of a casting and is usually
subsurface.
_______ 14. Grinding cracks are usually at right angles to the direction of grinding and
are caused by the heat build-up between the grinding wheel and metal.
_______ 15. Heat treat cracks are often associated with stress concentration points on
the part being heat treated.
_______ 16. Porosity may lead to a fatigue crack in a highly stressed part.
_______ 17. Crater cracks and tungsten inclusions are both associated with
discontinuities formed during the welding process.
_______ 18. Lack of penetration and lack of fusion both refer to the same type of
welding discontinuity.

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Page 77

CHAPTER SEVEN
INTRODUCTION

PENDAHULUAN

It should be emphasized that liquid penetrant

inspection is NOT the best method in all cases.

Perlu ditekankan bahwa pemeriksaan cairan penetran BUKAN metoda terbaik untuk semua kasus.

The selection of one testing method over

another is based upon variables such as:
1. Type and origin of discontinuity.
2. Material manufacturing process.
3. Accessibility of article.
4. Level of acceptability desired.
5. Equipment available.
6. Cost.

Pemilihan satu metoda pengujian atas metoda

lainnya didasarkan pada variabel-variabel seperti:
1. Jenis dan asal diskontinuitas.
2. Proses pembuatan material.
3. Akses ke artikel.
4. Tingkat keberterimaan yang diinginkan.
5. Ketersediaan peralatan.
6. Biaya.

IDENTIFICATION AND COMPARISON OF

DISCONTINUITIES

PENGENALAN DAN PEMBANDINGAN

DISKONTINUITAS

Each of the specific discontinuities below are

divided into three general categories:
INHERENT, PROCESSING, and SERVICE.

Tiap jenis diskontinuitas di bawah ini dibagi

menjadi tiga katagori umum: BAWAAN, PROSES,
dan SERVIS.

Cold shut

Cold shut

Fillet crack

Retak fillet

Grinding crack

Retak gerinda

Heat-affected zone cracking

Retak daerah pengaruh panas

Heat-treat crack

Retak laku panas

Shrinkage crack

Retak susut

Thread crack

Retak ulir

Hydrogen flake

Hydrogen flake

Lack of penetration

Kurang penembusan

Lamination

Laminasi

Laps and seams

Lipatan dan lapisan

Laps and seams

Lipatan dan lapisan

Microshrinkage

Susut mikro

Stress corrosion

Korosi tegangan

Hot tears

Sobek panas

Intergranular corrosion

Korosi batas butir

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Page 78

TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION

PELATIHAN DAN SERTIFIKASI

It is important that the technician and supervisor be qualified in the liquid penetrant method
before the technique is used and test results
evaluated.

Adalah penting bahwa teknisi dan pengawas

dikualifikasi untuk metoda cairan penetran sebelum menggunakan teknik ini dan mengevaluasi
hasil uji.

The American Society for Nondestructive

Testing recommends the use of its document
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.

ASNT merekomendasikan penggunaan dokumen

Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.

This document provides the employer with

necessary guidelines to properly qualify and
certify the NDT technician in all methods.

Dokumen tersebut memberikan pedoman bagi

perusahaan dalam mengkualifikasi dan mensertifikasi teknisi NDT untuk semua metoda.

To comply with this document, the employer

must establish a WRITTEN PRACTICE which
describes in detail how the technician will be
trained, examined, and certified.

Dalam rangka mengikuti dokumen tersebut,

perusahaan harus menyusun sebuah WRITTEN
PRACTICE yang menjelaskan secara detil, cara
melatih, menguji dan mensertifiksi teknisi NDT.

The student is advised to study the 2006

Edition of SNT-TC-1A to determine the
recommended number of hours of classroom instruction and months of experience
necessary to be certified as a liquid
penetrant testing technician.

Peserta disarankan untuk mempelajari dokumen

SNT-TC-1A edisi 2006 untuk mengetahui jumlah
jam pelajaran yang direkomendasikan dan
pengalaman (dalam bulan) yang diperlukan
dalam proses sertifikasi sebagai teknisi
pengujian cairan penetrant.

Certification of NDT personnel is the responsibility of the employer and is usually at THREE
levels.
Level I is qualified to properly perform
speci-fic calibrations, specific NDT,
and spe- cific evaluations for
acceptance
or
rejection
determinations according to written
instructions and to record results.
Should receive the necessary
instruction and supervision from a
certified NDT Level II or III individual.
Level II is qualified to set up and calibrate
equipment and to interpret and
evaluate results with respect to
applicable codes, standards, and
specifications. Should be thoroughly
familiar with the scope and limitations of the methods for which
qualified. Should exercise assigned
responsibility for on-the-job training
and guidance of trainees and NDT
Level I personnel. Should be able to
organize and report the results of
NDT tests.

Sertifikasi personil NDT merupakan tanggung

jawab perusahaan dan biasanya dibagi menjadi
TIGA level.
Level I memiliki kualifikasi untuk melakukan
kalibrasi, NDT, dan evaluasi tertentu
untuk menentukan penerimaan atau
penolakan dengan mengacu pada
pedoman tertulis, dan untuk merekam
hasil.
Menerima
perintah
dan
pengawasan seperlunya dari NDT level II
atau III.

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Level II memiliki kualifikasi untuk mengatur dan

mengkalibrasi peralatan dan mengiterpretasi serta mengevaluasi hasil dengan
mengacu pada code, standard, dan
spesifikasi. Mengenal dengan baik
lingkup dan batasan metoda dimana ia
terkualifikasi.
Melakukan
tanggung
jawab yang dibebankan untuk memberikan petunjuk kepada siswa dan NDT
Level I. Mampu mengorganisir dan
membuat laporan hasil pengujian NDT.

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Level III Should be capable of developing,

qualifying, and approving procedures, establishing and approving
techniques, interpreting codes, standards, specifications, and procedures; and designating the particular
NDT methods, techniques, and
procedures to be used. Should be
capable of interpreting and evaluating results in terms of existing
codes, standards, and specifications. Should have sufficient practical
background in applicable materials,
fabrication, and product technology
to establish techniques and to assist
in establishing acceptance criteria
when none are otherwise available.
Should have general familiarity with
other appropriate NDT methods.
Should be capable of training and
examining NDT Level I and II
personnel for certification in those
methods.

Level III mampu mengembangkan, mengkualifikasi, dan menyetujui prosedur, menyusun dan menyetujui teknik, menginterpretasi code, standard, dan prosedur;
dan menunjuk metoda NDT tertentu,
teknik, dan prosedur yang akan digunakan. Mampu menginterpretasi dan
mengevaluasi hasil sesuai code,
standard, dan spesifikasi yang ada.
Memiliki latar belakang kemampuan
praktis yang mencukupi dalam aplikasi
material, fabrikasi, dan teknologi
produksi yang berlaku untuk menyusun
teknik dan untuk membantu dalam
menetapkan kriteria penerimaan dimana
tidak tercakup dalam code, standard,
atau spesifikasi yang ada. Memiliki
pengetahuan tentang semua metoda
NDT. Mampu mengadakan pelatihan
dan pengujian terhadap personil NDT
Level I dan II untuk disertifikasi pada
metode NDT tertentu.

The SNT-TC-1A document recommends that

the level I and II NDT technician be examined in
the following areas:
A. General examination.
B. Specific examination.
C. Practical examination.

Dokumen nomer SNT-TC-1A merekomendasikan

bahwa teknisi NDT Level I dan II diuji dalam bidang
berikut:
A. Ujian General.
B. Ujian Specific.
C. Ujian Practical.

ASNT provides a service to the industry by

providing Level III examination in the basic and
method areas. Because of the individual
requirements of the many industries using NDT,
the specific examination is still the responsibility
of the employer.

ASNT menyediakan layanan kepada industri

dengan mengadakan ujian Level III dalam bidang
basic dan method. Mengingat banyaknya persyaratan industri pengguna NDT yang berbeda-beda,
ujian specific masih merupakan tanggung jawab
perusahaan.

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Page 80

CHAPTER SEVEN
REVIEW
_______ 1.

The selection of one test method over another is usually the decision of the
Level I technician performing the test.

_______ 2.

ASNT provides a service for examining Level I, II, and III personnel in the
General and Specific areas.

_______ 3.

The responsibility of issuing a certificate to the NDT technician is always

given to the employer if the SNT-TC-1A document is to be complied with.

_______ 4.

If the SNT-TC-1A document is to be used as a recommended guideline,

the Written Practice must be submitted to ASNT for approval.

_______ 5.

If the SNT-TC-1A guidelines are to be followed, the Level III technician

should have a knowledge of other commonly used methods of NDT
eventhough certification is needed only in the liquid penetrant area.

_______ 6.

A Level I technician performing a liquid penetrant test is permitted to

accept or reject the part provided that written instructions or procedures are
given to him by a level II or level III certified individual.

_______ 7.

It is essential that every employer using the SNT-TC-1A document establish

a Written Practice.

_______ 8.

If an employer does not have a Level III technician in his company, he can
retain the services of an outside agency to perform these functions.

_______ 9.

To comply with the guidelines of SNT-TC-1A, all three levels of technicians

must take a General, Practical, and Specific test if examinations are used to
determine certification.

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Page 81

CHAPTER EIGHT
INTRODUCTION

PENDAHULUAN

This chapter discusses test procedure for liquid

penetrant test.

Bab ini mendiskusikan prosedur pengujian untuk

cairan penetrant.

CONTROLLING LIQUID PENETRANT TESTS

PENGENDALIAN UJI CAIRAN PENETRAN

The three types of written documents that

control penetrant tests are standards,
specifications, and written practices. Level II
personnel are required to be able to interpret
and prepare these documents.

Tiga jenis dokumen tertulis untuk mengendalikan

pengujian penetrant adalah standard, spesifikasi,
dan written practice. Personil level II disyaratkan
agar mampu menginterpretasi dan menyiapkan
dokumen-dokumen tersebut.

STANDARDS

STANDARD

A standard is a reference document that

controls and standardizes generally accepted
practices for a nondestructive testing method. It
defines criteria for equipment, penetrant
materials, inspector qualifications, test requirements, and written procedure requirements.
ASTM E 165, Standard Test Method for Liquid
Penetrant Examination are examples of
standards.

Standard adalah dokumen referensi yang mengendalikan dan menstandardkan kebiasaan yang
umum diterima untuk melakukan metoda NDT.
Standard mendefinisikan kriteria peralatan, material
penetran, kualifikasi inspektor, persyaratan uji, dan
persyaratan prosedur tertulis. ASTM E 165,
Standard Test Method for Liquid Penetrant
Examination merupakan contoh standard.

Many standards require that penetrant tests be

performed to written procedures. Quality and
reliability can be affected if proper test
techniques and procedures are not followed. In
addition, written procedures establish test
repeatability.

Banyak standard mensyaratkan agar pengujian

penetran dilakukan dengan mengacu pada prosedur tertulis. Kualitas dan keandalan dapat
terpengaruh jika teknik dan prosedur yang benar
tidak diikuti. Lagi pula, prosedur tertulis menjamin
dilakukannya pengujian berulang-ulang.

SPECIFICATIONS

SPESIFIKASI

A specification is written by a company for a

specific process. The specification is a tool
used by engineering, management, and
purchasing
for
contractual
documents.
Normally, the specification will contain the
following sections:
1. Reference documents,
2. Materials,
3. Equipment,
4. Personnel qualification,
5. Process control, and
6. Written procedure requirements.

Spesifikasi dibuat oleh perusahaan untuk proses

tertentu. Spesifikasi adalah alat yang digunakan
oleh bagian teknik, manajemen, dan pembelian
untuk keperluan dokumen kontrak. Biasanya,
spesifikasi akan mencantumkan bagian-bagian
berikut ini:
1. Dokumen referensi,
2. Material,
3. Perlengkapan,
4. Kualifikasi personil,
5. Pengendalian proses, dan
6. Persyaratan prosedur tertulis.

A sample specification is contained in the last

part of this chapter.

Contoh spesifikasi dapat dilihat di bagian akhir bab

ini.

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Page 82

1. Reference Documents Section

All the documents that are applicable to the
penetrant specification are listed in the
reference document section of the procedure. For example, the company may
require that all penetrant practices meet the
requirements of ASTM E 165, Standard Test
Method for Liquid Penetrant Examination, so
this standard would be listed as a source or
reference document.

1. Bagian Dokumen Referensi

Semua dokumen yang berlaku untuk membuat
spesifikasi penetran dimasukkan dalam daftar
di bagian dokumen referensi dari prosedur
tersebut. Contohnya, perusahaan mensyaratkan bahwa semua pekerjaan penetran harus
memenuhi ketentuan ASTM E 165, Standard
Test Method for Liquid Penetrant Examination,
sehingga standard ini akan dimasukkan dalam
daftar sebagai sumber atau dokumen referensi.

2. Materials Section
The materials section establishes the
penetrant materials that can be used to
perform the procedure. It may include the
type, technique, and sensitivity level of the
penetrant. Acceptable developers are also
included in this section, and any special
cleaning materials may be noted.

2. Bagian Material
Bagian material menetapkan material penetran
yang dapat dipakai untuk menjalankan
prosedur. Bagian ini menyebutkan jenis, teknik,
dan tingkat sensitivitas penetrant. Developer
yang diijinkan untuk dipakai juga disebutkan di
dalam bagian ini, disamping itu jenis material
pembersih khusus juga bisa dimasukkan.

3. Equipment Section
The equipment required to apply, remove,
dry, develop, and test the part is listed in this
section. Any special equipment requirements will also be noted.

3. Bagian Peralatan
Peralatan yang disyaratkan pemakaiannya,
untuk membersihkan, mengeringkan, mendevelop, dan menguji komponen dimasukkan dalam daftar di bagian ini, termasuk persyaratan
untuk peralatan khusus jika ada.

4. Personnel Qualification Section

The personnel qualification section is normally written to an established industry
document such as Recommended Practice
No. SNT-TC-1A or CP-189.

4. Bagian Kualifikasi Personil

Bagian kualifikasi personil biasanya mengacu
pada dokumen yang sudah ada seperti
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A atau
CP-189.

5. Process Control Section

The process control section specifies any
tests that must be performed on the
materials and the acceptable criteria for that
test. In addition, this section contains any
special requirements to be used, such as
acceptable precleaning techniques or
specific developers.

5. Bagian Pengendalian Proses

Bagian pengendalian proses menetapkan jenis
pengujian yang harus dilakukan pada material
penetran dan kriteria keberterimaan untuk
pengujian tersebut. Bagian ini juga menyebutkan persyaratan khusus yang dipakai seperti
teknik pembersihan awal yang diijinkan atau
jenis developer khusus.

6. Written Procedure
A prime contractor may establish the written
procedure for a part or have the subcontractor submit a written procedure for
approval. In either case, a written procedure
is needed to perform a liquid penetrant test
effectively.

6. Prosedur Tertulis
Kontraktor utama dapat membuat prosedur
tertulis untuk suatu komponen atau meminta
subkontraktor mengajukan prosedur tertulis
untuk dimintakan persetujuan. Pada kedua
kasus tersebut, prosedur tertulis diperlukan agar
pelaksanaan pengujian penetran berjalan
efektip.

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Page 83

WRITTEN PRACTICE

WRITTEN PRACTICE

Written practices provide specific guidance on

the performance of the penetrant test. The
depth or detail contained in a written practice
will vary.

Written practice memberikan pedoman khusus

terhadap pelaksanaan pengujian penetran. Detil
yang tercantum dalam suatu written practice
adalah bervariasi.

Some written practices are very specific and

are written for one kind of test object, whereas
others are general and cover many different
parts. Often, company will require a
subcontractor to provide written practice for a
specific part. In this case, the written practice
will be written to the companys specification
document.

Beberapa written practice bisa sangat khusus dan

ditulis untuk satu macam benda uji, sebaliknya
yang lain bersifat umum dan mencakup banyak
benda uji yang berbeda. Seringkali, perusahaan
mensyaratkan subkontraktor menyediakan written
practice untuk satu bagian khusus. Dalam hal ini
written practice akan ditulis mengacu pada
dokumen spesifikasi dari perusahaan tersebut.

A written practice should contain, at the

minimum, the following:
1. Penetrant materials to be used,
2. Details of precleaning the part,
3. Complete processing parameters,
4. Inspection and evaluation requirements,
5. Specific information of part to be
inspected,
6. Acceptance/rejection criteria and
7. Postcleaning procedures.

Sebuah written practice sebaiknya memuat, paling

tidak, hal-hal berikut ini:
1. Material penetran yang dipakai,
2. Detil pembersihan awal benda uji,
3. Parameter pemrosesan secara lengkap,
4. Persyaratan inspeksi dan evaluasi,
5. Informasi khusus mengenai benda yang
diperiksa,
6. Kriteria keberterimaan dan penolakan dan
7. Prosedur pembersihan akhir.

Many times, inspection personnel will find that

testing documentation is a combination of the
specification and written practice. This is
acceptable and, in some cases, can be a more
cost effective way to control penetrant tests.

Acapkali, personil pemeriksaan akan menemukan

bahwa dokumentasi pengujian adalah kombinasi
antara spesifikasi dan written practice. Hal ini sahsah saja dan, pada beberapa kasus, dapat
menghemat biaya.

An example of a combined specification and

written practice is the way one aircraft
manufacturer combined the documents. The
combined document was placed in the general
section of the aircraft maintenance manual.
Whenever a part in other areas of the manual
required a penetrant test, the inspector was
referred to this document. This simplified the
process and was more cost effective.

Contoh dari kombinasi antara spesifikasi dan

written practice adalah cara dimana sebuah pabrik
pesawat terbang meggabungkan dokumen.
Dokumen gabungan diletakkan pada bagian
umum dari manual perawatan pesawat. Apabila
sebuah komponen di bagian lain dari manual
tersebut mensyaratkan uji penetran, inspektor
dapat mengacu pada dokumen ini. Hal tersebut
menyederhanakan proses dan menghemat biaya.

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SAMPLE SPECIFICATION PENETRANT TESTING PROCESS

XYZ Manufacturing, Inc.
1.0.

Penetrant Testing Process Specification

1.1. Scope This specification establishes the minimum requirements for penetrant
inspection of nonporous materials. The penetrant inspection processes described in this
specification are applicable to inprocess and final inspections.

2.0.

Reference Documents
2.1. The following documents, of the issue in effect on the date of invitation for bids or request
for proposal, forma part of this specification to the extent specified therein:
ANSI/NCSL American National Standard for Calibration
Z540-1-1994
ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-IA
ASTM D 95 Method of Test for Water in Petroleum Products
ASTM D 2512 Test Method for Compatibility of Materials with Liquid Oxygen
ASTM E 1316 Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
ASTM E 1417 Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Examination
MIL-I-25135 Inspection Materials, Penetrant
QPL-SAE-AMS-2644-3 Qualified Products List of Products Qualified under SAE
Aerospace Material Specification AMS 2644.
2.2. The referenced documents form a history of this specification to the extent specified
herein. Unless otherwise indicated, the issue in effect on the date of invitation for bids or
request for proposal shall apply.

3.0

Materials Section
3.1. Penetrant Materials

4.0.

a.

Use only materials listed or approved for listing by the Air Force in QPL-SAE-AMS2644-3 for penetrant inspection.

b.

The manufacturer of penetrant materials shall furnish the purchaser with

recommended emulsifier dwell times, wet developer concentrations and mixing
instructions.

c.

The manufacturer shall provide material safety data sheets for each product.

d.

The system concept for penetrant materials shall be used for all penetrant
inspections.

Equipment Section
4.1. General The penetrant equipment shall be constructed and arranged in a manner that
will:

a.

minimize water, dust and other contamination to the inspection materials and parts,

b.

permit uniform, controlled operations and provide safe and adequate ventilation for
the process and materials involved and

c.

be suitable for the penetrant material in use.

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4.2. Certification and calibration of equipment.

a.

All gages, meters and measurement equipment shall be calibrated per ANSI/NCSL
Z540-1-1994.

b.

Certify temperature and pressure instrumentation for the operating range to be used.
Minimum accuracy of temperature gages is 2.8C ( 5F). Minimum accuracy of
pressure gages is 35 kPa ( 5 psi).

c.

SI units shall be used for measurement of ultraviolet light intensity.

d.

Lux (lx) shall be used for measurement of visible light.

4.3. Removal Station.

a.

The removal station shall be equipped with a water pressure gage, water
temperature gage and spray nozzles that produce a coarse spray that is cone
shaped or fan shaped.

b.

Maximum water pressure allowed is 276 kPa (40 psi).

c.

Water temperature shall be between 10 and 38C (50 and 100F).

d.

Ultraviolet light intensity at the rinse station shall be 1000 W/cm2 and a maximum of
100 lx of ambient white light at the parts surface.

4.4. Developer Station.

a.

Dry developer stations shall be equipped with a system to inject dry air into the
chamber and disperse the particles.

b.

Aqueous suspendible developers shall be equipped with a system to keep the

developer agitated and maintain the developer materials in suspension.

4.5. Dryer Station

a.

Dryers shall be equipped with a temperature control and a monitoring device.

b.

Thermostatic controlling devices shall be calibrated per 4.2.

c.

Dryer temperatures shall not exceed 72C (160F) in the area of the component.
Recommended dryer temperature is 49C (120F).

4.6. Inspection Station

a.

The area shall be kept clean and free of contaminating products and clutter.

b.

Ultraviolet lights used in the inspection station shall have a minimum intensity of 1000
W/cm2 at the working surface of the part being inspected.

c.

Ambient light in the inspection station during fluorescent penetrant inspection shall
not exceed 20 lx.

d.

White light used in the inspection station for interpretation and evaluation of visible
penetrant indications shall have a minimum intensity of 1000 lx.

e.

Inspection stations should be equipped with ventilation systems.

4.7. Portable Kits

a.

Ultraviolet lights used in portable kits shall have a minimum intensity of 1000 W/cm2
at the working surface of the part being inspected.

b.

Portable kits shall maintain the system concept for penetrants and developers.

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5.0.

Personnel Qualification Section

5.1. The training, qualification and certification of personnel performing penetrant operations
and inspections for acceptance/rejection shall be in accordance with ASNT
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.

6.0.

Process Control Section

6.1. Quality Checks
a.

The following tests of penetrant materials used in open tanks shall be made, in
accordance with AMS 2644, on a monthly basis:
1)

penetrant intensity,

2)

sensitivity,

3)

water content (Method A only),

4)

lipophilic emulsifier water content and

5)

hydrophilic remover concentration.

b.

Dry developers shall be checked daily for caking and penetrant contamination.

c.

Wet developers shall be checked daily for penetrant contamination and wetting ability
and weekly for concentration.

d.

Ultraviolet light intensities shall be checked at the beginning of each shift and after
bulb replacement.

e.

Ambient light intensities shall be checked weekly.

f.

White light inspection intensities shall be checked at the beginning of each shift and
after bulb replacement.

g.

System performance checks shall be made daily.

6.2. Process Limitations

a.

Do not use form a or b developers with Type II penetrant systems.

b.

Do not use Type II penetrants for final acceptance inspection of aerospace

components except as specified on engineering drawings.

c.

The use of developer is required for all inservice inspections.

d.

When inspecting oxygen lines or tanks, penetrant materials should be tested for
impact sensitivity before use per ASTM D 2512.

e.

Final inspection of components shall not be performed until all operations that could
expose or produce surface discontinuities have been performed.

6.3. Sequence of Operations for Penetrant Inspection

a.

Penetrant inspection operations shall follow established and approved sequences.

b.

Normal inspection sequence shall be:

1)

precleaning,

2)

penetrant application and dwell,

3)

penetrant removal/wash,

4)

dry and developer application depending on type developer used,

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5)

developer dwell,

6)

inspection and

7)

postcleaning and protection.

6.4. Precleaning of Components

a.

Clean all components to be penetrant tested in accordance with applicable process

specifications.

b.

Surfaces shall be free of any rust, scale, welding flux, burrs, feather edges, smeared
material, spatter, grease, paint, carbon, plating, engine varnish, oily film, dirt and
other contaminants that would mask discontinuities or produce nonrelevant
indications.

c.

Surfaces shall be cleaned by solvent or chemical means. Mechanical cleaning shall

only be accomplished by abrasive blasting if the surface of the metal is not peened
by the process and surface discontinuities sealed.

d.

Etching of components shall only be accomplished per approved engineering data.

e.

Components shall be thoroughly rinsed and dried after solvent, chemical or

mechanical cleaning.

6.5. Penetrant Selection and Application

a.

Unless indicated on engineering drawings, the following penetrants and sensitivities

will be used for the components indicated in Table 1.

b.

Method B or Method D will be used on aluminum alloys.

c.

Temperature of the component, penetrant and ambient air shall be between 10 and
43C (50 and 110F) for penetrant application. Components shall not be preheated
above the maximum temperature range.

d.

Application of penetrant shall be applied by dipping, spraying, brushing, pouring or

flowing.

e.

Parts shall not remain immersed in penetrant during penetrant dwell time. Parts shall
be rotated if necessary to avoid pooling of the penetrant. The penetrant on the
surface of the component will not be allowed to dry.

6.6. Penetrant Dwell Time

a.

Unless indicated on engineering drawings, the minimum penetrant dwell time shall
be 15 min for discontinuities other than intergranular corrosion.

b.

Minimum penetrant dwell time for intergranular corrosion shall be 1 h.

6.7. Penetrant Removal

a.

General Keep washing of components to a minimum. Components suspected of

being overwashed shall be reprocessed. A small amount of background is
acceptable. Type I penetrants shall be removed under ultraviolet light.

b.

Method A, Water Washable Penetrant

c.

1)

A manual or automatic spray wash may be used.

2)

Removal shall be as specified in 6.7f.

Method B, Postemulsifier, Lipophilic Penetrant

1)

Emulsifier will be applied by dipping, pouring or flowing onto the component.

Brushing or spraying shall not be used.

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2)

Emulsifier dwell time shall be the minimum time required to render the penetrant
water washable. Minimum time will be determined by experimentation on a test
component.
Table 1. Penetrant selection

d.

e.

Type

Sensitivity
Level

Castings, other than precision.

All materials not otherwise covered by

this table.

Aluminum alloys.

Method C for suspected localized damage

or rework.

II

N/A

Material/Component

Ground handling or support equipment

and tooling.

3)

Maximum dwell time is 3 min for Type I penetrants and 30 s for Type H
penetrants.

4)

Emulsifier action shall be stopped by water immersion or quick water spray of

the entire component.

5)

Rinse of the component shall be performed as specified in 6.7f.

Method C, Solvent Removal

1)

Type I and II penetrants shall be removed by first using a clean, dry, lint free
cloth or towel to remove excess penetrant. The remaining background penetrant
shall be removed, under appropriate lighting, by wiping with a clean, lint free
cloth or towel dampened with solvent. Repeat until all excess penetrant is
removed.

2)

In no manner will penetrant be removed by spraying or flushing the surface of

the component with solvent.

Method D, Postemulsifier,
Hydrophilic Penetrant

1)

Prerinse the component with a water spray for the time necessary to remove the
bulk of the excess penetrant. Water spray shall be in accordance with 6.7f.
Maximum prerinse time is 90 s for any one area.

2)

Hydrophilic remover may be applied by immersion, flowing or spraying. If a

spray rinse is used, do not exceed recommended limits for remover
concentration. Spray rinse parameters are in 6.7f.

3)

Remover dwell time will be determined by experimenting on test components.

The dwell time will be the minimum time necessary to produce an acceptable
background. Dwell time will not exceed 2 min.

4)

Final rinse will be performed as specified in 6.7f.

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f.

g.

h.

i.

Rinsing
1)

Removal stations shall conform to 4.3.

2)

Hydro air nozzles are permitted only with Type I, level 1 sensitivity penetrants.
Maximum air pressure is 172 kPa (25 psi).

3)

Rinse spray will be a coarse spray that is cone shaped or fan shaped. Spray
nozzles will held about 30 cm (12 in.) from the part.

4)

Rinse water contaminants that may leave residue on the component after drying
are not acceptable. Filtering of water may be required.

Drying
1)

Dry stations will conform to 4.5.

2)

Components shall be removed from the dryer as soon as the surface is dry.

3)

Maximum drying time, for circulating air dryers shall not exceed 30 min. Parts left
in dryers for longer than 30 min shall be reprocessed.

4)

Maximum drying time for room temperature drying is 1 h.

5)

If required, parts will be rotated to avoid pooling of liquid during drying.

6)

Components with thin cross sections shall not be mixed with components with
thicker sections.

Developing
1)

Components will be completely dried before application of dry or nonaqueous

developer.

2)

Developer dwell times will be half of the penetrant dwell time, but not less than
10 min for final inspection. Developer dwell time begins when developer is on
the part and dry.

3)

Dry developers may be applied by dipping, dusting or fogging. Excess dry

developer may be removed by gently tapping component.

4)

Aqueous soluble and suspendible developers may be applied by dipping,

flowing and spraying. Brushing on is not acceptable. Dry parts immediately after
excess developer has drained from the component.

5)

Nonaqueous developers are applied by spraying. Containers shall be shaken or

agitated sufficiently. Developer will be sprayed onto the component in a manner
to produce a light uniform coating.

Inspection/Evaluation
1)

Inspection of components may begin and it is recommended, as soon as

developer is dry. However, final inspection of the component shall not be made
until the developer dwell time has elapsed.

2)

Inspection of components shall be accomplished in the proper and appropriate

lighting conditions as specified in 4.6.

3)

Inspectors working in darkened conditions shall allow at least 5 min for dark
conditioning to occur before inspection components.

4)

Inspect components completely. Magnifiers may be used to interpret or evaluate

indications.

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j.

7.0.

5)

Perform interpretation and evaluation of indications to determine if components

meet specification requirements per engineering data.

6)

Removal of an indication and application of nonaqueous developer is permitted

only once.

7)

Acceptance and rejection criteria per engineering data will be provided for each
component inspected and included in the written procedure.

Postcleaning
1)

Components will be postcleaned by either water wash or solvent to remove all

penetrant materials.

2)

Mild scrubbing may be used to remove wet developers.

3)

Components will be dried after cleaning and protected as needed.

Written Procedure Requirement

7.1. Written procedures for components shall be in writing and approved by a Level III certified
per 5.1 in penetrant testing.
7.2. Perform penetrant inspections according to a written procedure that meets the
requirements of this specification. A general written practice for similar components is
acceptable. All written procedures will contain at least the following information:

a.

precleaning operations should include the materials and procedures to be used;

b.

the type, technique and sensitivity of penetrant materials to be used;

c.

detailed procedures on the application and dwell time of penetrants, the removal of
the penetrant, drying parameters, developer and application technique, developer
dwell time, inspection and evaluation requirements and postcleaning of components;

d.

inspection and evaluation criteria will include areas of high interest on each
component and acceptable and rejectable criteria based on engineering data.
Allowable limits of mechanical evaluation should be included;

e.

postcleaning operations should include the materials and procedures to be used;

and

f.

documentation requirements for each inspection.

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CHAPTER EIGHT
REVIEW
_______ 1.

For penetrant testing, the process specification establishes:

a. a minimum degree requirement.
b. an average degree requirement.
c. a maximum degree requirement.
d. an engineering specific degree requirement.

_______ 2.

When are inservice quality test on penetrant materials in open tanks

required?
a. Quality tests are not required; they are recommended periodically according to
need.
b. Whenever a complete changeover of materials is accomplished.
c. Whenever requested in writing by the Quality Assurance Auditor.
d. At least monthly.

_______ 3.

In order to enhance the sensitivity of the process, which of the following may be
done before application of the penetrant?
a. The penetrant may be preheated to 66 C (150 F).
b. The parts may be preheated between 66 and 107 C (150 and 225 F).
c. A more sensitive penetrant may be mixed with contaminated penetrant.
d. Fluorescent penetrant can be charged by exposure to intense ultraviolet light.
e. None of the above procedures are permitted.

_______ 4.

Which reference document covers the calibration of equipment?

a. ANSI/NCSL Z540-1-1994.
b. SNT-TC-lA.
c. ASTM E 1316.
d. QPL-SAE-AMS-2644-3.

_______ 5.

Allowable penetrant materials are restricted to those in:

a. ANSI/NCSL Z540-1-1994.
b. ASTM E 1316.
c. ASTM E 1417.
d. QPL-SAE-AMS-2644-3.

_______ 6.

The minimum accuracy of a temperature gage is:

a. 5 F ( 2.8 C).
b. 10 T(5.6 -C).
c. 15 -F(18.3 -C).
d. Calibration is not required.

_______ 7.

Material safety data sheets are provided by the:

a. prime contractor.
b. subcontractor.
c. penetrant manufacturer.
d. Federal government.

_______ 8.

For small parts, a dryer is required when:

a. aqueous wet developer is used.
b. nonaqueous developer is used.
c. dry developer is used.
d. all of the above are used.
e. only a and c are used.

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_______ 9.

One component requiring penetrant testing is suspected of having stress

corrosion cracking. According to the specification, the penetrant dwell time
required is:
a. 10 min.
b. 30 min.
c. 1 h.
d. 2 h.

_______ 10. According to the specification, which of the following reference documents
is used for qualification of testing personnel?
a. ATA Specification 105.
b. SNT-TC-1A.
c. MIL-STD-410E.
d. ISO 9712.
_______ 11. Your company has entered into a contract to produce components for XYZ
Manufacturing. A requirement of the contract is to use this specification for
penetrant testing of the components. The date of the contract is January 1,
1996; components were not produced and tested until June 1996. The
Specification was originally approved for use in January 1980. It was
superseded and revised in May 1985 as the B Revision, again in April 1992
as the C Revision and also in August 1996 as the D Revision. Which revision
is in effect for the purpose of your company's contractual requirement?
a. The original January 1980 version.
b. Revision B.
c. Revision C.
d. Revision D.
e. Any of the above, according to your preference.
_______ 12. Emulsifier dwell time shall be:
a. as recommended by the penetrant material manufacturer.
b. as specified in Table 1 of the Specification.
c. determined experimentally on each part.
d. controlled by use of a stopwatch.
_______ 13. According to the specification, specifying acceptance criteria is the
responsibility of:
a. the Level III.
b. Quality assurance personnel.
c. engineering personnel.
d. the Federal government.
_______ 14. According to the specification, Type II penetrant can be used with:
a. Form a developer.
b. Form b developer.
c. Form c developer.
d. both a and b above.
e. both b and c above.
_______ 15. According to the specification, Type II penetrants can be used for final acceptance
inspection of aerospace components.
a. True
b. False

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_______ 16. The system concept for penetrant materials is required for:
a. water washable penetrants.
b. postemulsifier penetrants.
c. solvent removed penetrants.
d. all penetrants.
e. The system concept does not have to be used.
_______ 17. According to the specification, etching of components shall be
accomplished:
a. per engineering data.
b. according to MIL-STD-6869.
c. according to the Level III.
d. Etching of parts is not permitted.
_______ 18. The maximum lipophilic emulsifier dwell time for Type I penetrants is:
a. 30 s.
b. 1 min.
c. 2 min.
d. 3 min.

These last two questions are not related to the sample specification.
_______ 19. What is a common industrial technique of implementing a penetrant test
requirement?
a. Use an established written standard.
b. Use a process specification.
c. Use a written practice.
d. None of the above.
_______ 20. A subcontractor for a manufacturer would normally perform penetrant test
to:
a. A process specification.
b. An established standard.
c. A written practice.
d. None of the above.

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REFERENCES
ASNT, NDT Training Program Liquid Penetrant Method, Columbus, 2nd Edition, 1979.
Badger, Duane, Liquid Penetrant Testing Classroom Training Book, ASNT, Columbus, 2005.
Eick, Charles W., ASNT Level III Study Guide Liquid Penetrant Testing Method, ASNT, Columbus, 2nd
Edition, 2003.
Smilie, Robert W., Classroom Training Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Liquid Penetrant, PH
Diversified, Inc., South Harrisburg, 1998.
Smilie, Robert W., Programmed Instruction Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Introduction, PH
Diversified, Inc., South Harrisburg, 1995.
Smilie, Robert W., Programmed Instruction Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Liquid Penetrant, PH
Diversified, Inc., South Harrisburg, 1998.

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