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ABSTRACT
Aircraft design is an evolutionary process rather than a revolutionary process
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN
1.1INTRODUCTION
For any airplane to fly, it must be able to lift the weight of the
airplane, its fuel, the passengers, and the cargo. The wings generate most
of the lift to hold the plane in the air. To generate lift, the airplane must
be pushed through the air. The engines, which are usually located
beneath the wings, provide the thrust to push the airplane forward
through the air.
The fuselage is the body of the airplane that holds all the pieces of the
aircraft together and many of the other large components are attached to
it. The fuselage is generally streamlined as much as possible to reduce
drag. Designs for fuselages vary widely. The fuselage houses the cockpit
where the pilot and flight crew sit and it provides areas for passengers
and cargo.
The wing provides the principal lifting force of an airplane. Lift is
obtained from the dynamic action of the wing with respect to the air. The
cross-sectional shape of the wing as viewed from the side is known as the
airfoil section. The planform shape of the wing (the shape of the wing as
viewed from above) and placement of the wing on the fuselage
(including the angle of incidence), as well as the airfoil section shape,
depend upon the airplane mission and the best compromise necessary in
the overall airplane design.
The control surfaces include all those moving surfaces of an airplane
used for attitude, lift, and drag control. They include the tail assembly,
the structures at the rear of the airplane that serve to control and
maneuver the aircraft and structures forming part of the tail and attached
to the wing.
1.2ACTUAL PROCESS OF DESIGN
Selection of aircraft type and shape
3
on
relevant
design
requirements
(specified
by
Airworthiness Authorities)
Evaluation of similar existing designs
Studies on possibilities of introducing new concepts
Collection of data on relevant power plants
Laying down preliminary specifications
1.3.2PRELIMINARY DESIGN
It consists of the initial stages of design, resulting in the
presentation of a BROCHURE containing preliminary drawings and
clearly stating the operational capabilities of the airplane being
designed. This Brochure has to be APPROVED by the manufacturer
and/or the customer.
The steps involved:
Layout of the main components
Arrangement of airplane equipment and control systems
Selection of power plant
Aerodynamic and stability calculations
Preliminary structural design of MAJOR components
Weight estimation and c.g. travel
Preliminary and Structural Testing
4
1.3.3DESIGN PROJECT
Internal discussions
Discussions with prospective customers
Discussions with Certification Authorities
Consultations with suppliers of power plant and major accessories
Deciding upon a BROAD OUTLINE to start the ACTUAL
DESIGN, which will consist of Construction of Mock-up
Structural layout of all the individual units, and their stress analysis
Drafting of detailed design drawings
Structural and functional testing
Nomenclature of parts
Supplying key and assembly diagrams
Final power plant calculations
Final weight estimation and c.g. limits
Final performance calculation
1.4THE DESIGN WHEEL
SIZING AND
TRADE
STUDIES
DESIGN
ANALYSIS
REQUIREMENTS
DESIGN
CONCEPT
1.5DESIGN SEQUENCE
1. Define the mission
2. Compare the past design
3. Parametric selection
a. Geometry
b. Shape
4. Weight Estimation
5. Aerodynamics
a. Wing
b. Speed
c. Altitude
d. Drag
6. Propulsive device
a. Engine selection
b. Location
7. Performance
a. Fuel weight
b. Take-off distance
c. Landing distance
d. Climb
e. Descent
f. Loiter
g. Cruise
8. Configuration
a. Conceptional
b. Preliminary
c. Detailed design
9. Stability and control
a. Tail
b. Flaps
c. Control surfaces
7
10. Structure
a. Primary
b.Secondary
c. Tertiary
11. Construction
a. Truss
b. Semi-monocoque
c. Monocoque
12. Manufacturing Models
a. Mock up model
b. Training model
c. Scale in/out
d. Fake model
e. Test model
f. Prototype model
g. Flying model
13. Life cycle cost Minimize the owning cost
14. Iteration Refine the weight and design
15. Simulation Flight envelope
16. Testing
17. Modification and refinement
18. Design report
a. Executive summary
b. Management summary
c. Design details
d. Manufacturing plan
CHAPTER-2
COMPARATIVE DATASHEET
Table 2.1
Comparative Datasheet
Aircrafts
Parameter
Units
Name
707-320B
757-200
767-200
777-200
787-9
Total Seating
202
234
290
301
280
Aircraft
Capacity
Length
46.61 Dimensions
47.32
48.5
63.7
62.8
Height
12.93
13.56
16.8
18.5
16.9
Fuselage Dia
3.76
4.1
5.03
6.2
5.9
Wing Span
44.42
38.05
47.6
60.9
60.1
Chord
6.25
4.76
5.95
7.02
6.4
7.1
7.98
7.99
8.67
9.4
181.25
283.3
427.8
325.3
25
31.5
31.64
32.2
Aspect Ratio
Wing Area
Wing Sweep
m2
273.7
Degree
35
Performance
Cruise Altitude
10,058
10,668
10,668
10,668
12,192
Ceiling
11,887
12,802
11,887
13,137
13,106
Range
Km
10,650
7,600
7,300
9,695
15,000
Cruise Speed
Mach
0.86
0.8
0.8
0.84
0.85
Max Speed
Mach
0.97
0.84
0.84
0.87
0.9
320.4
193
222
330
320
No of Engines
Max thrust
kN
Design Weights
capability
MTO Weight
Kg
Empty Weight
Kg
2
151320
115680
142880
247200
248000
66400
57180
81230
134800
115000
Wing Loading
Kg/m
552.87
638.23
504.34
577.84
762.37
Max Fuel
Litre
90,160
43,490
90,770
117,000
127,000
Capacity
Table 2.2
Comparative datasheet 2
Aircrafts
Parameter
Units
Name
A380-800
B-747-200
Total Seating
64
412
Aircraft
70.6
Dimensions
Capacity
B-787-8
B-787-10
10
B-747-300
310
313
270
68.3
67.9
60.7
Length
72.
Height
7
24.45
19.3
16.9
17.1
17.2
Fuselage Dia
5.6
5.64
5.64
5.64
5.96
Wing Span
4
79.75
59.6
60.1
63.45
64.8
Chord
5.8
5.64
6.5
6.8
9.3
9.3
9.25
7.
7.7
Wing Area
m2
7
84
219
325
439.4
443
Wing Sweep
Degree
37.5
32.2
31.1
31.9
Aspect Ratio
33.5 Performance
Cruise Altitude m
13,136
13,100
13,100
10,972
12,192
Ceiling
12,000
12,497
12,000
12,527
13,137
Range
Km
15700
12690
14,500
16,060
15,000
Cruise Speed
Mach
0.85
0.84
0.85
0.83
0.85
Max Speed
Mach
0.89
0.89
0.90
0.86
0.9
No of Engines
Max thrust
kN
244
28
249
374
2
369
Design Weights
capability
MTO Weight
Kg
575000
377842
228000
372000
268000
Empty Weight
Kg
276000
174000
118000
170900
115700
Wing Loading
Kg/m2
660.38
748.86
644.36
846.61
604.96
Max Fuel
Litre
323,546
200
126.210
2,14,810
1,29,000
Capacity
10
Table 3
Comparative Datasheet 3
Aircrafts
Parameter
Units
Name
Total Seating
11
12
13
14
Lockheed
Ilyushin
Tupolev
Douglas
Tupolev
Tu-204-100
210
DC-8-63CF
259
Tu-114
220
L-1011-200 IL-96-300
26
300
3
Capacity
15
Aircraft Dimensions
Lengt
54.15
55.3
46.1
57.1
54.1
h
Height
16.87
17.5
13.9
13.11
15.44
Fuselage
6.0
6.08
4.1
3.73
4.2
Diameter
Wing
Span
47.35
60.11
41.8
45.24
51.1
Chord
6.7
5.82
4.40
6.01
6.08
8
6.9
10.32
9.48
7.52
8.39
8
321.1
350
184.2
271.9
311.1
35
30
30
32
35
Aspect Ratio
Wing Area
Wing Sweep
Degree
Performance
Cruise Altitude m
10,257
10,668
12,100
10,668
8,991
Ceiling
10,668
13,106
12,588
12,497
11,887
Range
Km
7,420
10,400
5,650
3,445
6,200
Cruise Speed
Mach
0.8
0.78
0.78
0.80
0.74
Max Speed
Mach
0.95
0.84
0.85
0.8
0.82
kN
222.4
157
158.3
84.5
60
No of Engines
Max thrust
capability
Design Weights
Kg
211000
250000
103000
161000
175000
Empty Weight Kg
105100
120400
60000
66360
93000
MTO Weight
657.11
714.28
559.17
592.12
562.52
Max Fuel
99,935
152,620
41,000
66,243
71,615
Litre
Capacity
11
Table 4
Comparative Datasheet 4
Aircrafts
Parameter
Name
Units
-
16
17
Ilyushin
B-767-400-ER
IL-86
Total Seating
304
320
18
19
20
Ilyushin
Ilyushin
Ilyushin
IL-96M
IL-96T
IL-96-400
340
313
386
60.21
64.7
63.9
63.9
Aircraft Dimensions
Length
61.4
Height
16.62
15.8
15.7
15.7
15.7
Fuselage Dia
5.64
6.08
6.08
6.08
6.08
Wing Span
48.06
60.11
60.11
60.11
Chord
5.8
5.64
6.5
6.8
Aspect Ratio
7.7
Wing Area
Wing Sweep
m2
290
28
Degree
51.9
300
35
350
35
350
35
350
35
Performance
Cruise Altitude m
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
Ceiling
13,100
13,100
13,100
13,100
13,100
Range
Km
10,418
3,400
12,800
5,000
10,000
Cruise Speed
Mach
0.8
0.88
0.78
0.78
0.78
Max Speed
Mach
0.86
0.84
0.84
0.84
0.84
No of Engines
Max thrust
kN
282
128
167
167
171
Design Weights
Kg
204000
Empty Weight Kg
104000
MTO Weight
215000
270000
270000
265000
117.5
132.4
116.4
122.3
Wing Loading
Kg/m2
660.38
748.86
644.36
846.61
604.96
Max Fuel
Litre
91,400
75,470
152,260
152,260
152,260
Capacity
12
Table 5
Comparative Datasheet 5
Aircrafts
Parameter
Units
21
Name
(no unit)
Total Seating
(no unit)
Capacity
A300-B4
22
23
24
25
A310-200
A330-300
A340-500
A350-800
240
295
313
270
46.6
63.6
67.9
60.7
266
Aircraft Dimensions
53.62
Length
Height
16.62
15.8
16.85
17.1
17.2
Fuselage Dia
5.64
5.64
5.64
5.64
5.96
Wing Span
44.85
43.9
60.3
63.45
64.8
Chord
5.8
5.64
6.5
6.8
(no unit)
7.7
7.78
9.3
9.3
9.25
m2
260
219
361.6
439.4
443
degree
28
28
30
31.1
31.9
Aspect Ratio
Wing Area
Wing Sweep
Performance
Cruise Altitude
10,668
9,998
10,972
10,972
12,192
Ceiling
12,000
12,497
12,527
12,527
13,137
Range
Km
7,540
9,600
10,500
16,060
15,000
Cruise Speed
Mach
0.78
0.8
0.82
0.83
0.85
Max Speed
Mach
0.86
0.84
0.86
0.86
0.9
(no unit)
kN
311.4
262.5
320
249
374
No of Engines
Max thrust
Design Weights
capability
MTO Weight
Kg
171700
Empty Weight
Kg
90900
83100
Wing Loading
Kg/m2
660.38
748.86
Litre
68,150
75,470
Max Fuel
164000
Capacity
13
233000
124500
372000
268000
170900
115700
644.36
846.61
604.96
97,170
2,14,810
1,29,000
CHAPTER 3
LIST OF GRAPHS
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.77
0.82
0.87
0.92
0.97
0.82
0.87
0.92
14
0.97
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.77
0.81
0.85
0.89
0.93
0.97
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.77
0.82
0.87
15
0.92
0.97
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.77
0.82
0.87
0.92
0.97
0.92
0.97
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.77
0.82
0.87
16
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
0.77
0.82
0.87
0.92
0.97
0.77
0.82
17
0.87
0.92
Fuselage Height
(m)
0.82
0.87
0.92
0.97
0.82
0.87
0.92
18
0.97
700000
600000
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
0.77
0.82
0.87
0.92
0.97
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0.77
0.82
0.87
0.92
19
0.97
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0.77
0.82
0.87
0.92
0.97
Range (km)
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0.77
0.82
0.87
20
0.92
0.97
Fuel Capacity
(liters)
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
0.77
0.82
0.87
0.92
0.97
Ceiling (m)
13500
13000
12500
12000
11500
11000
10500
10000
0.77
0.82
0.87
21
0.92
0.97
33
(Degree)
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
0.77
0.82
0.87
0.92
0.97
34
10
9
8
7
6
5
0.77
0.82
0.87
22
0.92
0.97
Payload (kg)
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
0.77
0.82
0.87
0.92
0.97
Thrust (KN)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.77
0.82
0.87
23
0.92
0.97
450000
400000
350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
0.77
0.82
0.87
0.92
0.97
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
24
Design Parameter
Value
Unit
1.
Cruising Speed
Mach 0.85
(no unit)
2.
Length
55.5
3.
Wing Span
54
4.
Wing Area
350
m2
5.
Height
18
6.
Cabin Width
5.6
7.
Seating Capacity
300 (Passengers)
(no unit)
8.
Cargo Capacity
146
m3
9.
Fuselage Width
10.
Fuselage Height
5.8
11.
Fuselage Diameter
12.
2430
13.
Maximum Speed
Mach 0.871
(no unit)
14.
Range
13800
Km
15.
136,000
Litre
16.
Service Ceiling
12,750
17.
30.6
(degree)
18.
Aspect Ratio
(no unit)
19.
Thrust
185
kN
20.
120,000
Kg
21.
230,000
Kg
22.
Maximum Payload
46,000
Kg
23.
170,000
Kg
24.
MaximumWeight
Landing Weight
Engine
185,000
Kg
(no unit)
25.
25
CHAPTER-4
FLIGHT MISSION PATH
Fig4.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The above plan one of the most basic and would generally correspond
to a Commercial aircrafts. It consists of flight phases made up of engine
start up and take-off, climb and accelerate to cruise altitude and speed,
cruise out to destination, and landing.
4.1 ENGINE START-UP AND TAKE-OFF
The Engine start-up and Take-off is the first phase in any flight plan. It
consists of starting the engines, taxiing to the take-off position, take-off,
and climb out. A good empirical estimate for the weight of fuel used in
this phase is from 2.5 to 3 % of the total take-off weight.
26
27
CHAPTER 5
WEIGHT ESTIMATION
28
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Phase 1:
The Engine starts warm-up Weight Ratio is W1 /W2
Phase 2:
The Taxi Weight Ratio is W2 / W1
Phase 3:
The Take-off Weight Ratio is W3 / W2
Phase 4:
The Climb Weight Ratio is W4 / W3
Phase 7:
The Descent Weight Ratio is W7 / W6
Phase 8:
The Landing Weight Ratio is W8 / W7
29
Aircraft
W1 / W0
Transport
0.990
W2 / W1 W3 / W2 W4 / W3 W7 / W6
0.990
0.995
0.980
0.990
jet
Phase 5:
The Cruise Weight Ratio is W5 / W4
By using formula,
Cruise
Loiter
L/D
14
17
Cj
0.75
0.5
30
W8 / W7
0.992
Phase 6:
The Loiter Weight Ratio is W6 / W5
Eltr = (1 / Cj)ltr x ( L /D )ltr x In ( W5 / W6 )
Eltr = 25 min = 0.417 hrs.
Eltr = (1 / Cj)ltr x( L /D )ltr x In ( W5 / W6 )
0.417 = (1/ 0.5) x (17) x In (W5 / W6)
In (W5 / W6) = 0.0122
(W5 / W6) = 1.00122
( W6 / W5 ) = 1.000
The total weight ratio is,
( W8 / W0 ) = ( W1 / W0 ) ( W2 / W1 ) (W3 / W2 ) ( W4 / W3 )
( W5 / W4 )( W6 / W5 ) ( W7 / W6 ) ( W8 / W7 )
(W8 / W0) = 0.990 x 0.990 x 0.995 x 0.9980 x 0.9995 x 0.9878
x0.990 x0.992
( W8 / W0 ) = 0.9558
Table 5.3
Aircraft
Transport Jet
0.0833
1.0383
31
Graph 23
WTo = 5.07 x 105 lbs,
WE = 270000 lbs
ITERATION
We put approximate Value
WTo = 508,560 lbs
WE = Antilog10 (5.454849)
WE = 270000 lbs
Therefore,
32
33
CHAPTER 6
POWERPLANT SELECTION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
From the first weight estimate, we can have a rough idea of the
weight of the power-plant that is to be used.
The total weight of the power-plant (0.055W) requires being
approximately 15,443.5 kg.
Choice of engine is a Turbofan for obvious reasons such as
higher operating fuel economy & efficiency for high payloads.
Engines can be used in combination of 2 x 7721.8 kg engines. Or
3 x 5147.85 kg engines Or 4 x 3860.6 kg engines providing enough
thrust for Take-off.
Most of the aircraft in the 250-350 passenger category were found
to have 2 engines and 4 engines. Hence the preference is towards
having three engines (Trijet).
A list of engines with weight and thrust matching our requirements are
chosen and are tabulated below.
Table 6.1
Engine
Rolls
Pratt &
CFM
General
Pratt &
name
Royce
whitney
CF
Electric
Whitney
Trent
PW400
M56
CF6-50
JT9D
4270
3990
4104
772B
Dry weight 478
4030
8
Max thrust
320
310
151
240
250
Bypass
6.4
4.4
4.8
ratio
34
- 222.41 KN
- 5.8
Fuel type
- Jet A-1
Oil system
36
CHAPTER-7
AIROFOIL SELECTION
7.1 AIROFOIL
The airfoil is the main aspect and is the heart of the airplane. The
airfoils affects the cruise speed landing distance and take off, stall speed
and handling qualities and aerodynamic efficiency during the all phases
of flight.
Aerofoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions,
design/selection, families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness/chord
ratio, lift curve slope, characteristic curves.
An airfoils shape is defined by several parameters, which are shown in
the following figure:
38
NACA 5 Digit
NACA 6 Digit
CL max
= 1.6
41
CHAPTER-8
WING SELECTION AND WING LOADING
8.1 INTRODUCTION
After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary
component of the aircraft to be designed is the wing. The wing weight
and its lifting capabilities are in general, a function of the thickness of the
airfoil section that is used in the wing structure. The first step towards
designing the wing is the thickness estimation. The thickness of the wing,
in turn depends on the critical mach number of the airfoil or rather, the
drag divergence Mach number corresponding to the wing section.
The wing may be considered as the most important component of an
aircraft, since a fixed-wing aircraft is not able to fly without it. Since the
wing geometry and its features are influencing all other aircraft
components, we begin the detail design process by wing design. The
primary function of the wing is to generate sufficient lift force or simply
lift (L).
However, the wing has two other productions, namely drag force or
drag (D) and nose-down pitching moment (M). While a wing designer is
looking to maximize the lift, the other two (drag and pitching moment)
must be minimized. In fact, a wing is considered as a lifting surface that
lift is produced due to the pressure difference between lower and upper
surfaces. Aerodynamics textbooks are a good source to consult for
information about mathematical techniques for calculating the pressure
distribution over the wing and for determining the flow variables.
During the wing design process, eighteen parameters must be
determined. They are as follows:
1. Wing reference (or planform) area (SW or Sref or S)
2. Number of the wings
3. Vertical position relative to the fuselage (high, mid, or low wing)
4. Horizontal position relative to the fuselage
42
43
45
6. The wing has less contribution to the aircraft dihedral effect, thus
the aircraft is laterally dynamically less stable.
7. Due to item 6, the aircraft is laterally more controllable, and thus
more maneuverable.
8. The aircraft has a lower landing performance, since it needs more
landing run.
9. The pilot has a lower lower-than-horizon view. The wing below
the pilot will obscure part of the sky for a fighter pilot.
8.5 WING LOADING
In aerodynamics, wing loading is the loaded weight of the aircraft
divided by the area of the wing. The faster an aircraft flies, the more lift
is produced by each unit area of wing, so a smaller wing can carry the
same weight in level flight, operating at a higher wing loading.
L = W = (1/2) V2 S CL
Vstall = SQRT ((2xW) / ( S CL))
(W/S) = V2stall CL / 2
= (289.228x0.25)2x (1.225) x (0.3)/2
(W/S) = 961.17 N/m2
48
49
51
CHAPTER-9
DRAG ESTIMATION
9.1 DRAG
Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force
which is parallel to the flight direction (or relative oncoming
airflow).
It always acts to oppose the direction of motion.
It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while lift
is the desirable component.
9.2 DRAG COEFFICIENT (CD)
Amount of drag generated depends on:
Planform area (S), air density (), flight speed (V), drag coefficient
(CD)
CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends
upon:
Section shape, planform geometry, angle of attack (),
compressibility effects (Mach number), viscous effects (Reynolds
number).
9.3 DRAG COMPONENTS
9.3.1 SKIN FRICTION
Due to shear stresses produced in boundary layer.
Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of boundary
layers.
53
= 0.2599
9.6.1 DRAG AT CRUISE
= 0.27641 kg/m3 (at the cruising altitude of 12750m)
V = 289.228 m/s
S = 350m2
CL(cruise) = 0.523 (from the wing and airfoil estimation)
Substituting all these values in the general drag equation,
D(cruise) = 1/2x0.27641 x (289.228)2 x 350 x 5.65333 x 10-3
Drag at cruise = 30.992 kN
9.6.2 DRAG AT TAKEOFF
= 1.225 kg/m3 (at sea-level)
V = 0.7 x Vlo
= 0.7 x 1.2 x Vstall
= 60.738 m/s
S = 350m2
CL(take-off) = 0.6257(flaps kept at the take-off position of 20)
Substituting all these values in the general drag equation,
D(take-off) = 1/2x 1.225 x (60.738)2 x 350 x (6.7583 x 10-3 )
Drag at take-off = 17.7235 kN
9.6.3 DRAG AT LANDING
= 1.225 kg/m3 (at sea-level)
V = 0.7 x Vlo
= 0.7 x 1.3 x Vstall
= 65.799 m/s
55
S = 350 m2
CL(Landing) = 0.65 (flaps kept at the take-off position of 40)
Substituting all these values in the general drag equation,
D(Landing) = 1/2x 1.225 x (65.799)2 x 350 x (7.54656 x10-3 )
Drag at Landing = 33.513 kN
56
CHAPTER-10
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
The bracketed term will vary with speed but an approximation may
be made by using an instantaneous value for when V = 0.7 x Vlo.
In the above equation:
Where,
Where,
h = height above ground,
b = wing span.
r = 0.02 for smooth paved surface, 0.1 for grass.
10.1.1 CALCULATION
58
So for given speed and turn radius there is only one correct bank angle
for a co-ordinate (no sideslip) turn.
Maneuverability equations simplified through use of normal load factor
(n) = L/W.
59
10.3.2 CALCULATION
W = L cos
Let = 30
n = (L/W)
= 1.572
R = 7030.37 m
= (V/R)
= 0.0411 rad/sec
10.4 GLIDING
Similar to the steady unaccelerated case but with T = 0.
= 4.085
60
Where,
Vav may be taken as 0.7 x touch-down speed (Vt or V2)
Vt is assumed as 1.3 x Vstall.
r is higher than for take-off since brakes are applied - use r = 0.4
for paved surface.
If thrust reversers (Tr) are applied, use:
10.5.1 CALCULATION
61
CHAPTER 11
CALCULATION OF CENTER OF GRAVITY
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The precise location of the aircraft cg is essential in the positioning of
the landing gear, as well as for other MDO applications, e.g., flight
mechanics, stability and control, and Performance. Primarily, the aircraft
cg location is needed to position the landing gear such that ground
stability, maneuverability, and clearance requirements are met. Given the
fact that none of the existing conceptual design-level cg estimation
procedures has the degree of responsiveness and accuracy required for
MDO applications, a new approach is formulated to provide a reliable
range of cg locations that is better suited for MDO applications.
11.2 CURRENT CAPABILITIES
Although not expected to determine the location of the aircraft cg,
current aircraft sizing programs, as typified by Jayaram et al. and
McCullers, do provide some rudimentary estimates. These codes use
estimated component weights obtained from statistical weight equations,
and either user-specified or default component cg locations to arrive at
the overall aircraft cg location. The lack of responsiveness and accuracy
has rendered current approaches inadequate for MDO application.
63
measured aft of the datum or to the right side of the center line when
considering a lateral calculation. The algebraic sign is minus (-) if
measured forward of the datum or the left side of the center line when
considering a lateral calculation.
11.8 MOMENT
The moment is the moment of force, or torque that results from an
objects weight acting through an arc that is centered on the zero point of
the reference datum distance. Moment is also referred to as the tendency
of an object to rotate or pivot about a point (the zero point of the datum,
in this case). The further an object is from this point, the greater the force
it exerts. Moment is calculated by multiplying the weight of an object by
its arm.
11.9 MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (MAC)
A specific chord line of a tapered wing. At the mean aerodynamic
chord, the center of pressure has the same aerodynamic force, position,
and area as it does on the rest of the wing. The MAC represents the width
of an equivalent rectangular wing in given conditions. On some aircraft,
the center of gravity is expressed as a percentage of the length of the
MAC. In order to make such a calculation, the position of the leading
edge of the MAC must be known ahead of time. This position is defined
as a distance from the reference datum and is found in the aircraft's flight
manual and also on the aircraft's type certificate data sheet. If a general
MAC is not given but a LeMAC (leading edge mean aerodynamic chord)
and a TeMAC (trailing edge mean aerodynamic chord) are given (both of
which would be referenced as an arm measured out from the datum line)
then your MAC can be found by finding the difference between your
LeMAC and your TeMAC.
66
11.10 CALCULATION
5.89m
20 m
11.99m
Wcrew
8.72m
Wpassengers
Wengine
Wbaggage
Fig11.2
CG WITHOUT WING
(W crew x 5.89) + (W engine x 25) + (W passengers x 36) + (W baggage x 46)
X=
Where,
Wcrew
= 464.94 kg
Wengine
Wpassengers = 23814 kg
Wbaggage
X=
= 680.4 kg
(464.94 x
67
CG for wing
(Ctip + Croot + Cmean ) x S
X wing =
3xS
(S = 350 m2)
X wing =
Xwing = 6.739 m
Wwing = 2.5 x S
Wwing = 875 kg
X total =
Xtotal = 34.845 m
68
CHAPTER-12
VIEWS OF DESIGNED AIRCRAFT
65 m
Fig12.1Top view
69
17 m
70
54 m
71
CONCLUSION
Design is a fine blend of science, presence of mind and the application of
each one of them at the appropriate time. Design of anything needs experience
and an optimistic progress towards the ideal system. The scientific society
always look for the best product design .This involves a strong fundamental in
science and mathematics and their skill full application which is a tough job
endowed upon the designer . We had put enough hard work to the best of our
knowledge for this design project. A design never gets completed in a flutter
sense but it is one further step towards the ideal system. But during the design of
this passenger aircraft we learnt about aeronautics and its implications when
applied to an aircraft.Thus a conceptual design of a 250 seater passenger aircraft
has been successfully done. The Aircraft is a twin engine configuration. It uses
two RR Trent 768 engines which fulfills the power requirement. The wing is
B737 A/il airfoil.
72
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Design
Methodologies,
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2004-4430,
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74