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1.DescribethefoundingidealsofAmericangovernment
.

Powercorrupts.Absolutepowercorrupts,absolutely.LordActon

UnderstandingAmericangovernmentandpoliticsinvolvesahealthyrespectforthepast.Manyofour
democraticinstitutionsarerootedinhistoricaltraditions.Ofcoursetheessenceofourgovernmentisfound
inthewordsoftheUnitedStatesConstitution.Inthenextcoupleofweekswewillreviewthesetraditions
includingthedocumentthatbestdefinesthepowersandlimitsoftheUnitedStatesgovernment.

Whygovernmentatall?

ThewordgovernmentisderivedfromaLatinwordthatmeans,tomanage.Associetiesgrewmoreand
morecomplexgovernmentswereformedtohelpmanagegroupnorms.Thesenormsareestablishedinthe
formoflawsandpublicpolicies.

Throughouthistorytherehavebeenmanydifferentkindsofgovernments.Themostcommonformrelied
onunelectedauthoritarianrulerswhogovernedbyforce.Whenassessinggovernmentstwocriticalwords
mustbeconsideredlegitimacyandauthority.Legitimacyrelatestoacceptingonesgovernmentwhile
authorityrelatestothepowergiventoagovernmenttofulfillitsresponsibilities.

InourEnglishtraditiontheruleoflawis,inpart,rootedintheMagnaCharta(1215).Thekingslegitimate
powerwasfoundinawrittendocumentandnotonlyinhisarbitrarywill.TheMagnaChartaheraldedanew
eraingovernmentandpolitics.Thekingnolongerruledinisolationofhispeople.

IntheWesterntraditionenlightenmentthinkersdramaticallychallengedbeliefsaboutgovernment
legitimacy.JohnLocke,inthe17thcentury,nolongeracceptedthelegitimacyoftraditionalmonarchies.
Hewroteabouttheimportanceoftheconsentofthegoverned.Alsointhe17thcenturyThomasHobbes
favoredstrongcentralizedleadersbutsawlegitimacyinasocialcontractwiththepeople.Hobbesalso
wroteaboutthestateofnaturewheremanwassolitary,poor,nastyandbrutish.Alegitimategovernment
withthenecessaryauthorityisanessentialsafeguardforacivilsociety.

CertainsalientconceptsgivebreathetothegrandAmericanexperimentinselfrule.

FundamentallyourFoundersmaintainedanessentialcommitmenttoalimitedgovernment.TheUnited
Statesgovernmentwouldsetboundariesaslaidoutinexplicitformalexpressedpowers.Thenew
governmentwouldbecomprisedofthreebranchesthelegislative,executiveandjudicialallseparatebut
responsibleforcheckingandbalancingeachother.Thisseparationofpowersnotonlylimitedgovernment
butalsofulfilledthepromiseofourrevolution.Ultimatelegitimacyandauthorityisfoundinthepeople.
Popularsovereigntycouldonlybesafeguardedifgovernmentwaslimited.TheConstitutiondilutedpower
evenmorebycreatingafederalformofgovernment.Inthiswaypowerandauthoritywouldbeshared
betweencentral,stateandlocalgovernments.Intheendtheruleoflawwouldprotectnotonlytheliberty
butalsotheequalityofall.

Whereasdirectdemocracyempoweredthepeopletorulewithoutrepresentatives,theframersofour
constitutionoptedforarepublicanformofgovernment.Inthiswaytheuntrustworthypassionsofthe

peoplewereinsulatedthroughthedirectelectionofqualifiedrepresentatives.Republicanismintheory
hopestorepresentallofthepeopleandnotjustmajorities.Theoriginalconstitutiononlyallowedforthe
directelectionoftheHouseofRepresentatives.

AswewillseethegeniusoftheAmericansystemofgovernment,rootedinpersonalliberty,protectseach
andeveryoneofus.Heretheprivilegedandthestrongmustabidebythesamerulesaseverybodyelse.

Eachunitofstudyisbrokendownintoten(10)essentialobjectives.Eachobjectiverequiresacontextof
understanding.Youwillfindthatcontexthere.Readcarefully.Eachwordmatters.Intheendwehope
thatbydistillingthecontentofAmericangovernmentandpoliticstoitsbareessentialsalargernumberthen
beforecancountthemselvesaseducatedcitizens.Withoutsuchacitizenryourhopeforabrightfutureis
inperil.

2.IdentifythecriticalhistoricaleventsleadinguptotheratificationoftheU.S.
Constitution.

Inadditiontothecontinentalenlightenmentthinkers,thefoundationsofAmericangovernmentarealso
rootedinourcolonialexperience.Protestantcongregationswereselfgoverning.Thesalutaryneglectthat
characterizedtheAmericanexperiencewhencombinedwiththechangingattitudesaboutlegitimate
governmentauthorityonthecontinentprovidedtheessentialbackdroptounderstandingourRevolutionin
1776.

TheAmericanRevolutionwasfoughtandwonforthecauseofliberty.ThomasPaineinCommonSense
(1776)calledlibertythecauseofmankind.ThomasJeffersonintheDeclarationofIndependence(1776)
putinwritinganAmericanpromisetoupholdequalityforall.Governmentherewouldbeabyproductofthe
people.Alllegitimacyandauthoritywouldberootedintheconsentofthegoverned.Ourpolitical
institutionswouldbeselfgoverning.Suchideasweresorevolutionarynolonglastingmodelofgovernment
existed.Ourfirstattemptwouldfail.

TheArticlesofConfederation,thefirstgoverningcharteroftheUnitedStates,succeededinendingthewar
withEnglandandproposingterritorialrulesforexpansionbutmaintainingorderitcouldnot.Therewerea
numberoffatalflawsbuiltintotheArticles.Therewasnoexecutivebranch.Therewasnojudicialbranch.
AunicameralCongresscouldnottaxorregulatetrade.TheArticlesofConfederation,understandably,
createdaweakcentralgovernment.TooweakastheUnitedStatesgovernmentwasunabletoadequately
dealwiththeShaysRebellioninMassachusetts.AllthatwasgainedintheAmericanRevolutionforthe
rightsofmanlookedtobeonshakyground.

Leadersfromtheacrossthenew13StatesjoinedtogetherinPhiladelphiainthesummerof1787tomake
amends.IntheendtheychosenottocorrecttheArticlesbuttostartoverandwriteabrandnew
constitution.Todaytheirworkstillservesasourguidingdocument.InthenewconstitutionourFounding
Fathersaddressedboththestrengthsandweaknessesoftheirearlierexperience.

Historysuggeststhatthisnewconstitutionwasalmostscuttledduetoadisputeoverrepresentation
betweenthelargeandsmallstates.Haditnotbeenforcompromise,theGreatCompromise,theUnited
StatesConstitutionwouldneverhavesucceeded.Creatingatwohouselegislatureplacatedbothlargeand
smallstates.PopulationwoulddictaterepresentationintheHouseofRepresentativeswhiletheSenate
wouldbemadeupoftwomembersperstate.ThisbicameralCongresscomprisedofaHouseandSenate

wasjustonecompromisethatallowedforournewconstitutiontoberatifiedin1789.Theslaverydispute
wassettledwiththe3/5scompromise.

Ratificationdidnotcomeeasy.Nineofthethirteenstateswererequiredtoratifythisnewgoverning
documentbeforeitwasempoweredtoservethepeople.Aseriesofessays,calledtheFederalistPapers,
writtenbyproponentshelpednudgethestatelegislaturestowardratification.Twoofthemostnotedessays
wereFederalist10and51.Federalist10,writtenbyJamesMadison,addressedtheneedforarepublican
formofgovernment.Arepublicandemocracygivespopularcontrolovergovernmentthroughelected
officials.Italsoassuagedthefearoverdangerousfactionscontrollingthegovernmentatlarge.Madison
arguedthatfactionscouldneverbeabolishedwithoutremovingpersonalliberty.Alargerepublic,however,
couldlimitthem.Alargerepublicwouldmakeitunlikelythatanyonefactionorspecialinterestcould
controlthewholegovernment.IndoingsoMadisonwasespousingapluralistsystem.Aneliteclasswould
notrulehere.Rathermanycompetinggroupswouldattempttoinfluencepublicpolicy.Pluralismwould
protectusfromanauthoritariangovernment.Federalist51addressedthefearthatacentralized
governmentmightjeopardizeindividualfreedom.Ifmenwereangels,Madisonargued,wewouldnot
needagovernment.Madisonexplainedhowtheseparationofpowersandasystemofchecksand
balanceswouldprotectpersonalliberty.Neverthelessastrongbutnottoostrongcentralgovernmentwas
essentialtoenjoyingthatliberty.

Onemoreissuewouldneedtobesettledbeforethenecessarynumberofstateswouldsignontothisnew
governingdocument.TheframerswouldneedtoaddaBillofRights.Themembersoftheconstitutional
conventionarguedthatthisnewgovernmentwouldnotbestrongenoughtoimperilindividualliberty.Their
argumentswereinsufficient.AssurancesweremadethataBillofRightswouldbeadded.Thefirstten
amendments,ourBillofRights,wereproposedandratifiedbythefirstCongressandratifiedbythestates
in1791.

WiththeproposalandratificationoftheU.SConstitutionandtheBillofRightssomewouldsayAmerica
hadcompleteditssecondrevolution.Thefirstbroughtindependenceandthepromiseofliberty.The
secondestablishedaworkablegovernmentbasedonpopularsovereigntybutalsoprotectedorder.That
documentstillservesustoday.LetstakeacloserlookattheUnitedStatesConstitution.

3.ExplainhowtheU.S.Constitution,whenratified,impactedtheroleofthecentral
government.

TheoriginalU.S.Constitutionwasorganizedin7Articlesorsections.

Article1describesandenumeratesthepowersgiventoourLegislativebranch.TheLegislativebranchis
oftencalledourfirstbranch.OurbicameralCongresshasthreeprimaryresponsibilities:(1)makelaws(2)
provideoversighttotherestofthegovernment(3)representtheirconstituentsthroughcasework.
OriginallyonlytheHousetheRepresentativeswasdirectlyelected.AtourfoundingSenatorswere
appointedbytheirrespectivestatelegislatures.Thetimes,placesandmannerofallelectionswouldbe
determinedbyeachindividualstate.Article1,Section8enumeratedthebasicexpressedpowersgivento
ourCongress.ThemostnotablepowersgiventotheLegislativebranchweretherighttoraisetaxes,
declarewar,andtoregulateinterstatecommerce.Theinterstatecommerceclausewouldprovetobethe
mostfrequentlyusedprovisiontoexpandthepowerofourcentralgovernment.Themostcontroversial
power,however,isfoundinArticle1,Section8,andclause18.Calledtheelasticclause,thenecessary
andproperclauseempowersourlegislativebranchtopassanylawthatisrelatedtooneofitsexpressed
powers.Needlesstosaythisprovisionhasbeenusedtoextendthereachofgovernmentwheneverthe

vaguelanguageoftheConstitutionprovedinadequate.IntheendourLegislativebranchhasbeengiven
thepowerofthepurse.TheUnitedStatesCongressisresponsibleforcollectingallrevenuesnecessary
tocovertheappropriationsofourgovernmentaccordingtothepreparedbudget.

Article2describesandenumeratesthepowersgiventoourexecutivebranch.Thoughgiventhepowerof
thesword,ourearlypresidentswereconsideredrelativelyweak.Presidentialauthoritywasbasedmoreon
personalitythentheexpressedpowersfoundintheConstitution.ThatiswhytheLegislativebranch
overshadowedmanyofourearliestpresidents.NeverthelesstheConstitutionempowersthepresidenttobe
commanderinchief,toappointwiththeAdviceandConsentoftheSenateambassadors,judgesandother
officialsoftheExecutivebranch.Ultimatelythepresidentwasempoweredtofaithfullyexecutethelaws
passedbythelegislativebranch.Thepresidentcanvetoalllaws.Asisstilltrue,theoriginalConstitution
createdanindirectmeanstoelectourpresident.OurFramersfeareddemocracyasmuchastheyfeared
monarchy.AnElectoralCollegewascreatedtoprovideafilterbetweenthedirectvotesofcitizensandthe
selectionofourchiefexecutive.Presidentscanberemovedthroughimpeachment.TheHouseof
RepresentativescanaccusethepresidentofhighcrimesandmisdemeanorsbutonlytheSenatecanhold
thetrialtoremovehimfromoffice.

Article3describesthepowersofthejudicialbranch.AlexanderHamiltoncalledthejudiciarytheleast
dangerousbranch.TheauthorityoftheSupremeCourtwouldgrowassubsequentcongressesgaveit
moreandmorepower.TheSupremeCourtwasempoweredtointerpretwhatourlawsmean.

Article4describestherelationshipbetweenthecentralgovernmentandthestates.TheConstitution
guaranteesarepublicanformofgovernment.TheFullFaithandCreditclauseassuresthatallstateswill
respectthelawsoftheland.Thisalsoincludesthelawsofotherstates.ThePrivilegesandImmunities
clausehasalsobeenusedtolegallybindthestategovernmentsintoonecohesiveunit.

Article5describesthemeansbywhichtheoriginalconstitutioncouldbeamended.Theprocessmay
appearstraightforwardandsimple.Asoftoday,however,ourConstitutionhasonlybeenamended27
times.ThemostcommonwaytoamendtheConstitutionisforaproposaltobemadeby2/3sofCongress
andthenaratificationvoteby3/4softhestatelegislatures.Thoughneverusedassuch,proposalscanbe
madebynationalconventionswithratificationbystateconventions.

Article6assuredthatthedebtsoftheUnitedStatescarriedoverfromtheRevolutionwouldbehonoredand
paid.

Article7prescribedthat9oftheoriginal13stateswouldberequiredtoratifythenewconstitution.

ThoughtheU.S.Constitutiondoesnotmentionpoliticalpartiestwoprimaryfactionsdebateditsmerits.
TheFederalistsadvocatedforastrongercentralgovernmentandpushedhardestforratification.The
AntiFederalistsweresuspiciousofgrantingtoomuchpowertothenewnationalgovernment.Themost
significantreservationwasoveraBillofRights.

TheFederalistsclaimedthattheessentialcivillibertieswerealreadycontainedwithintheoriginal
constitution.TheWritofHabeasCorpus,showmethebody,protectsallcitizensfromunlawfuldetention.
BillsofAttainderwereprohibited.Allcitizenswouldbeguaranteedatrialbyajudiciary.Norcouldcitizens
beconvictedthroughExPostFactolaws.Onecannotapplylawafterthefactorretroactively.Federalists
arguedthatthecentralgovernmentwithitslimitedpowerswouldbeunabletoinfringeuponpersonalliberty.
AntiFederalistsheldoutfortheassurancethataBillofRightswouldbeadded.

4.DescribetheformalandinformalmethodsusedtochangethemeaningoftheU.S.
Constitution.

Article5oftheUnitedStatesConstitutiondescribesthemeansbywhichtheoriginalconstitutioncouldbe
formallyamended.Theprocessmayappearstraightforwardandsimple.Asoftoday,however,our
Constitutionhasonlybeenamended27times.ThemostcommonwaytoamendtheConstitutionisfora
proposaltobemadeby2/3sofCongressandthenaratificationvoteby3/4softhestatelegislatures.
Thoughneverusedassuch,proposalscanbemadebynationalconventionswithratificationbystate
conventions.

InadditiontotheBillofRightswehaveamendedtheConstitution17moretimesforatotalof27
amendments.Herearethemostnotable:

13th,14thand15thAmendmentsarereferredtoastheCivilWarAmendments.The13thfreedtheslaves.
The14thAmendmentextendedcitizenshipandthe15thgrantedAfricanAmericanmalestherighttovote.

16thAmendment(1913)establishedthefederalincometax.

17thAmendment(1913)establishedthedirectelectionofU.S.Senatorsbypopularvote.

19thAmendment(1919)extendedwomenssuffrage.

22ndAmendment(1951)limitedpresidentstotwoterms.

24thAmendment(1964)eliminatedthepolltax.

26thAmendment(1971)extendedtherighttovoteto1820yearolds.

Yetoneshouldnotimaginethatthemeaningofourconstitutionhasexperiencedlittlechange.The
followingwordsofThomasJeffersonhaveanimatedourpoliticssincethedayshefirststatedthem,On
similargrounditmaybeprovedthatnosocietycanmakeaperpetualconstitution,orevenaperpetuallaw.
Theearthbelongsalwaystothelivinggeneration.Thoughtheformalstructureofourconstitutionhasgone
virtuallyunchanged,themeaningandapplicationhasgonethroughnumerousinformalchanges.

Congressoftenchangesthemeaningofourconstitutionbyexercisingitslegislativeauthority.Empowered
bytheelasticclause,theU.S.Congresshasbeengrantedtheauthoritytopassnecessarylaws.These
lawsoftenexceedthereachofouroriginalconstitution.Thesechangesallpointtoasimilardirectionthe
sizeandscopeoftheUnitedStatesgovernmentisevergrowing.

TheCongressisnotaloneinexpandingthepowerandauthorityoftheU.S.constitution.TheSupreme
CourttoocaninformallychangethemeaningoftheU.S.constitutionthroughitsdecisions.Byestablishing
newprecedentstheCourtaltersthemeaningandunderstandingofourrulingdocument.

TheExecutivebranchtoocaninformallychangehowouroriginaldocumentisunderstood.Presidential
authorityallowsforexecutiveactionsthatoftengobeyondwhattheframersimagined.Agentsofthe
governmentaswell,makinguptheFederalbureaucracy,oftenpossessdiscretionarypowerthatseemto
movebeyondformalconstitutionallimits.


Intheend,however,weareanationoflawsandlimits.TheSupremeCourtisheldresponsiblefor
interpretingthoselimits.Thepeopleultimatelyholdthehealthofourlivingconstitutionintheirhands.

5.ExplainhowthefirsttenamendmentstotheU.S.Constitution,theBillofRights,limit
thecentralgovernment.

TodayourBillofRightsisfoundinthefirsttenamendmentstotheU.S.Constitution.Itshouldbe
rememberedthattheseprivilegeshavebeengrantedtoallasameanstodirectlylimitthepowerofthe
centralgovernment.

Belowisabriefreviewofourmostcherishedcivilliberties:

Amendment1:FreedomofSpeech,Religion,Press,Assembly,Petition.

Note:Thefreedomofspeechgetspreferentialtreatmentbythecourts.Itisourmostsacredright.Yet
evenfreedomofspeechhasitslimits.Youarenotfreetopublishobscenematerials.Youarenotfreeto
lieorslanderothersnorcanyouwritefalselywhichiscalledlibel.Likewisepriorrestraintorcensorshipof
thepressmustpassoverahighbar.Freedomofreligionissplitintotwoseparateprotections.Wehave
freedomfromanestablishmentofreligion.ThisprotectsusfromanofficialStatereligion.TheLemonTest
prescribestherulesregardinganyapparentcooperationbetweenchurchandstate:(1)Thegovernments
actionmusthaveasecularpurpose(2)Thegovernmentsactionmustnothavetheprimaryeffectofeither
advancingorinhibitingreligion(3)Thegovernmentsactionmustnotresultinanexcessiveentanglement
withreligion.Wealsohavethefreeexerciseofreligion.Thegovernmentcannotinfringeuponourrightto
worshipthewayweplease.

Amendment2:TherighttoBearArms.

Amendment3:FreedomfromQuarteringTroopsinpeacetime.

Amendment4:FreedomfromunreasonableSearchesandSeizures.

Amendment5:RightsgiventotheaccusedincludingDueProcess.Allcitizenswouldbefreefrom
selfincrimination.EminentDomainanytakingofprivatepropertyforpublicpurposesmustbe
accompaniedbyjustcompensation.

Amendment6:RightsoftheAccused.Allcitizenswouldbeguaranteedtherighttoanattorney,aspeedy
trialandanimpartialjury.

Amendment7:Certainrightsappliedincriminalcaseswouldbealsobeprovidedincivillaw.

Amendment8:FreedomfromCruelandUnusualPunishment.

Amendment9:Rightsgiventothepeople.Theenumeratedrightscontainedwithintheconstitutionwere
nottobeconsideredexhaustive.Whereotherrightswerefoundtheybelongtothepeople.[Note:the
enumeratedpowersarethosepowersthatbelongexclusivelytothenationalgovernment].

Amendment10:ReservedRights.Thoserightsnotguaranteedorenumeratedbythefederalconstitution
wouldbereservedtotheStates.The10thAmendmentfurthersolidifiedtheconceptoffederalism.

6.DescribehowtheFourteenthAmendmenthasbeenusedtochangethe
roleplayedbythecentralgovernmentinprotectingcivilliberties.

TheBillofRightswasaddedinfearofanallpowerfulcentralgovernment.Ironicallytheserightsultimately
extendedthereachandauthorityofthefederalgovernmentbeyondanyonesimagination.Itwasintended
thatway.Infact,theBillofRightsonlyprotectedourcivillibertiesfrombeinginfringedbythenational
government.ThiswasclearlydefinedbytheSupremeCourtinthecaseBarronv.Baltimore(1833).The
courtmadeclearthattherightscontainedinthefirsttenamendmentsdidnotapplytothestates.Inother
words,theUnitedStatesCongresscouldnotviolateyourfreedomofspeechbuttheStateofNewYork
could.Itwouldtakeanumberofgenerationsbeforethisconfusionwasremedied.

TheextensionoftheBillofRightstotheStatesiscalledtheselectiveIncorporationDoctrine.Itcouldnot
haveoccurredwithoutthe14thAmendment.The14thAmendmentguaranteedtoallcitizensinallofthe
Statesboththedueprocessoflawandtheequalityofopportunitygrantedtoall.FurthermorenoState
couldabridgetheprivilegesorimmunitiesgiventocitizensoftheUnitedStates.Itwasnotuntil1925inthe
caseGitlowv.NewYorkwheretheSupremeCourtappliedthelanguageofthe14thAmendmentintoa
Statedispute.TodayvirtuallyallofourcivillibertiesasguaranteedintheBilloftheRightshavebeen
appliedorincorporatedtotheStates.Tosummarize,littlebylittletheSupremeCourtappliedor
incorporatedtheBillofRightstotheStatesusingthedueprocessclauseofthe14thAmendment.

7.ExplainhowtheU.S.SupremeCourtovertimehasinterpretedthemeaning
ofourfundamentalfreedomsasfoundintheFirstAmendment.

UltimatelytheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtisempoweredtointerpretwhatourlawsandprivilegesmean.
Throughoutourhistorytherehavebeenanumberoflandmarkcourtcasesthathavedefinedthemeaningof
ourrights.Belowyouwillfindafewofthemostimportantlandmarkcases:

Marburyv.Madison(1803)establishedjudicialreview.Thisempoweredthecourttoruleonthe
constitutionalityofalllawsincludingpresidentialaction.Thoughrarelyusedinourearlyyearshardlyany
significantquestionintodayspoliticalarenaescapestheCourtsreviewandjudgment.

McCullochv.Maryland(1819)establishedthesupremacyofthenationalgovernment.Inthiscasethecourt
recognizedthenecessaryandproperclauseasauthoritativewhencreatinganationalbankdespitethe
constitutionssilenceonthematter.Thiscasewouldhavefarreachingconsequencesinthebattle
betweenthenationalgovernmentandthestates.

Schenckv.U.S.(1919)wasanearlycasedefiningthelimitsofourfreespeech.JusticeOliverWendell
Holmesfamouslystatedinhisopinion,Freespeechwouldnotprotectamaninfalselyshoutingfireina
theater.Therulingprecedentofthiscaseestablishedtheclearandpresentdangerstandard.

Gitlowv.NewYork(1925)incorporatedthefreespeechclauseoftheFirstAmendment.Forthefirsttime
freespeechwouldbeextendedequallyinallStatesthroughthedueprocessclauseofthe14th
Amendment.

Tinkerv.DesMoines(1969)furtherestablishedthereachoftheFirstAmendmentintosymbolicspeech
[laterthiswouldbecodifiedinTexasv.Johnson(1989),theflagburningcase].FurthermoretheCourt

recognizedthatstudentsdonotshedtheirrightsattheschoolhousegate.Mostimportantlysymbolson
clothingand/orinaudibleexpressionsareprotectedbythefreespeechclauseoftheFirstAmendment.

NewYorkTimesv.U.S.(1971)establishedthelimitsoffreepress.Thegovernmentcanusepriorrestraint
whenconfrontedbynationalsecurityissuesbutthebarforsuchcensorshipishigh.Thecourt,however,
choseinthiscasetoraisethestandardofnationalsecurityquitehigh.Herethecourtchosenottodisallow
thepublicationoftheleakedPentagonPapers.

Eversonv.BoardofEducation(1947)definedforthefirsttimetheestablishmentclauseoftheFirst
Amendment.JusticeHugoBlackstatedthatawallofseparationexistedbetweenchurchandstate.This
casealsoincorporatedtheestablishmentclause.Usingthedueprocessclauseofthe14thAmendmentno
statecouldestablishonereligionoveranother.

BeremindedthattheFirstAmendmentcontainsourmostcherishedrights.Oftenourcourtsgivethema
preferredposition.Governmentsdidnotgivetheserightstous.Ratherweempowergovernmentsto
protectthesenaturalrights.

8.ExplainhowtheU.S.SupremeCourtovertimehasinterpretedthe
meaningofcriminaldueprocessasguaranteedintheBillofRights.

TheBillofRightscontainsmanydiverseprotections.Inadditiontopoliticalrightslikespeechandpress
theyalsoprotectusfromoppressivepolicepowers.Throughoutourhistorytherehavebeenanumberof
landmarkcourtcasesthathavedefinedthemeaningoftheserights.Belowyouwillfindafewofthemost
importantlandmarkcases:

Mappv.Ohio(1961)incorporatedtheexclusionaryruleusingthedueprocessclauseofthe14th
Amendment.Theexclusionaryruledisallowsincourtanyillegallyobtainedevidence.Theexclusionary
ruleprovidesasafeguardforour4thAmendmentrighttobefreefromunreasonablesearchesandseizures.

Mirandav.Arizona(1966)heldthatanysuspectputincustodybyauthoritiesmustbefirstinformedoftheir
rights.TheMirandawarning,hence,hasbecomestandardatthepointofanylegaldetentionYouhave
therighttoremainsilent.Anythingyousaycanandwillbeusedagainstyou.Youhavetherighttoan
attorney.Ifyoucannotaffordanattorneyonewillbeprovidedforyou.

Gideonv.Wainwright(1963)incorporatedthe6thAmendmentsrighttoattorney.Notonlyinfederalcases
butalsoinallStateandLocal,aswell,thegovernmentmustprovidelegalcounsel.

Griswoldv.Connecticut(1965)utilizedthevaguelanguageofthe9thAmendmenttoestablishtherightto
privacy.ThoughnotspecificallymentionedintheConstitutionsBillofRightstherighttoprivacywaslater
extendedtoincludeawomensrighttochooseanabortioninRoev.Wade(1973).Fewjudicialopinions
havebeenmorecontroversial.

Onecommonlymisunderstoodcriminallawpracticeisthepleabargain.Courtshavefrequentlyupheldtheir
validity.Apleabargainallowsthestateanditsprosecutorstoofferareducedsentenceiftheaccused
agreetopleaguiltytoalesseroffense.Theintentofapleabargainistoreducetheheavyworkloadofthe
courtsystem.Pleabargainsultimatelymeanfewertrialsandmoredefendantsdoingtimefortheir
offences.

Asthesecasesrepresent,theSupremeCourtactsasthefinalarbitratorofourrightsandprivilegesas
UnitedStatescitizens.

9.DescribetheevolutionofcivilrightsinAmericansociety.

Whenlookingatourfoundations,libertywasnottheonlypromisemadeduringourRevolution.Equalityas
wellwasanessentialfeatureofouruniqueAmericanexperiment.Ourrecordinextendingequalitytoall
hasbeen,assomehavewritten,ourAmericandilemma.Defendingequalityalmosttoreusapartduring
theAmericanCivilWar.ButasLincolnwroteinhisGettysburgAddress,wefoughtforanewbirthof
freedom.Wecontinuetofight.Ourformofdemocraticrepublicanismupholdsmajorityrulewhileputtingin
placeprotectionsforminorityrights.

ThecivilrightsmovementheraldedtherightsofWomenandAfricanAmericans.Subsequentlyitwas
extendedtoLatinos.TodaysuchcivilrightsarebeingwagedonbehalfoftheLGBTcommunity.
Federalismoftendelaysandcomplicatestheextensionofcivilrights.Alimitedgovernment,likeours,is
notfittedtomakedramaticchangesinahurry.

Wecanlearnfromthecivilrightsmovementsofthepastonhowbesttopursueevengreaterequalityinour
future.AfricanAmericansfollowingtheCivilWarfoundmuchofAmericatobeunwelcoming.Gratefulfor
theirfreedombutJimCrowlawssegregatedandrelegatedthemtosecondclasscitizens.Workwas
difficulttofind.Theywerenotpermittedtojoininsocietyasequalpartners.EventheUnitedStates
SupremeCourtruledinPlessyv.Ferguson(1896)thatseparatebutequalwasatenablestandard.De
juresegregation,thatissegregationbylaw,wasindeedconstitutional.

Theearlycivilrightmovementsawthecourtsastheirbattleground.Throughlitigationcivilrightsattorneys
couldarguetheircaseincourt.Theirgreatestvictorycamein1954inthecaseBrownv.Boardof
Education.BrownoverturnedthePlessyprecedentbyrulingthatseparatewasnotequal.Schoolscould
nolongersegregateonthebasisofrace.Thislandmarkdecisionsetinmotionanendtodejure
segregation.Thelawofthelandwouldnolongerpermitaraciallydividedsociety.Itsrationalewasfound
inthedueprocessandequalprotectionclausesofthe14thAmendment.Thenationalgovernmentwas
flexingitsauthorityoverthestates.Defactosegregation,separationbyprivatechoices,stillexists.

Withthecourtssolidlybehindthem,thecivilrightsmovementturnedtoCongress.Politicalpressure
combinedwithaheavydoseofpersonalcouragehelpedtopasstheCivilRightsActof1964andtheVoting
RightsActof1965.Thesehistoricpiecesoflegislationextendedequalityevenfurther.Segregation,
discriminationandprejudicewouldnolongerbeaccepted.Votingrightswouldbeprotected.Rulesto
suppressblackpoliticalparticipationlikeliteracytestswereoutlawed.Americawasmovingclosertoits
promiseofequalityforall.

Affirmativeactionprogramswereputinplacetoofferracialminoritiesachancetocatchupforpast
discrimination.Thispreferentialtreatmenthasnotgoneunnoticed.Thecivilrightsmovementcontinuesas
thefightforequalityisnotover.

AfricanAmericanswerenottheonlymarginalizedgroupstowinpoliticalvictoriesinthewakeofthecivil
rightsmovement.OneofthemorenotablevictoriesoccurredforwomenwithTitleIXoftheEducation
Amendmentsof1972.Thisprohibitedanyformofdiscriminationonthebasisofgenderinanyeducation
programoractivity.


Todayanyprogramoractivitythatcontinuestodiscriminatemustpassthestrictscrutinytest.On
occasionourSupremeCourtallowsforinstancesofdiscrimination.Forinstance,womenhaveusually
beenheldoutofdirectcombatroleswhenservinginthemilitary.Suchdiscriminationhasbeenpermitted
usingthestrictscrutinytestbaseduponacompellingstateinterest.Increasinglyourjudiciaryhasbeen
askedtoextenddueprocessnotonlyprocedurallybutsubstantivelyaswell.Proceduraldueprocess
assuresfairandimpartialtreatment.SubstantivedueprocessempowerstheCourttoidentifythoseprivate
choicesthatarebeyondgovernmentrestriction.FuturecivilrightsvictoriesrestintheCourtprotecting
thesesubstantiverights.

10.DescribehowtheFourteenthAmendmenthasbeenusedto
changetheroleplayedbythecentralgovernmentinprotectingcivilrights.

OurcivillibertiesareprotectedbytheBillofRights.Civilrightsguaranteesequalprotectionunderthelaw.
The14thAmendment,moresothenanyotheractofgovernment,hasadvanceddueprocessandequal
protectionforall.Civillibertieslimitgovernmentactionwhilecivilrightsprotectusfromdejureactsof
segregation.Thelawcannotpermitactsthatdenyequalitytoall.Forgedintime,theprotectionofourcivil
rightshasnotbeeneasy.Intheendthecentralgovernmenthasexpandeditsauthorityasithasbeen
askedmoreandmoretosafeguardourmostcherishedrights.

ThomasJeffersonspromissorynote,recordedinourDeclarationofIndependence,claimed:Weholdthese
truthstobeselfevident,thatallmenarecreatedequal.FurthermoreLincolnfoughttoholdourUnion
togetherbypromisinganewbirthoffreedom.Ashistoryhasproved,freedomandequalitydonotcome
easy.Thereisacosttobear.Eachgenerationmusttakeontheexampleofourforefathersandstandup
whencalledupontodefendtheprinciplesweallholddear.

JamesMadisonwrote,Theverysuccessofdemocracydependsupontheknowledgeandskillsofits
citizens.Inreviewingourfoundationsyouaretakinganimportantstepinassuringthatsuccess.
Throughouttheremainingweeksofthissemesteryouwillfindthree(3)primarymetanarrativesthatcoexist
todaywhenstudyingAmericangovernmentandpolitics.Lookforexamplesasweprogressthroughthe
semester.Thesegrandnarrativesare:

1.Aneverexpandingandcentralizingnationalgovernment.ThestoryofAmericangovernmentisa
storyoffederalaggrandizement.

2.TheincreasingdemocratizationoftheAmericanpolity.Traditionalrepublicanismandits
inherentelitismhaveincreasinglybeentransformedintoamorepluralisticandpopulistdemocracy.

3.Ourmotto,EPluribusUnum,undersiege.TheUnumiseverchallengedbyourPluribus.
Partisanpoliticsandaneverincreasingpluralisticcultureapplyconstanttensionthreateningthe
foundationsofourpoliticalefficacy.

Americanfoundationsultimatelyarebuiltonhope.RalphWaldoEmersoncalledAmericaacountrybuilt
ontomorrow.WehereatCitizenUagree.Thereisalwaysroom2Bagoodcitizen.Nobettertimetostart
thennow.SorenKierkegaardsaid,Lifeisunderstoodlookingbackwardsbutitmustbelivedlooking
forwards.

WhenstudyingfoundationsourgazeuponthepastisreallyaninternalGPShelpingusorientourselvesto
thefuture.Welcomeaboard.Youareallframersnow.