CHAPTER

CENTROID

AND

MOMENT

OF

INERTIA

Under this topic first we will see how to find the areas of given figures and the volumes of given
solids. Then the terms centre of gravity and centroids are explained. Though the title of this topic
do not indicate the centroid of line segment, that term is also explained, since the centroid of line
segment will be useful in finding the surface area and volume of solids using theorems of Pappus
and Guldinus. Then the term first moment of area is explained and the method of finding centroid
of plane areas and volumes is illustrated. After explaining the term second moment of area, the
method of finding moment of inertia of plane figures about x-x or y-y axis is illustrated. The term
product moment of inertia is defined and the mehtod of finding principal moment of inertia is
presented. At the end the method of finding mass moment of inertia is presented.

2.1

DETERMINATION OF AREAS AND VOLUMES

In the school education methods of finding areas and volumes of simple cases are taught by
many methods. Here we will see the general approach which is common to all cases i.e. by the
method of integration. In this method the expression for an elemental area will be written then
suitable integrations are carried out so as to take care of entire surface/volume. This method is
illustrated with standard cases below, first for finding the areas and latter for finding the
volumes:

A: Area of Standard Figures

(i) Area of a rectangle

Let the size of rectangle be b d as shown in Fig. 2.1. dA is an
elemental area of side dx dy.
Area of rectangle, A =

z z

= x

dx dy
b/2

b 2 d 2

b2
b 2

b/2

Fig. 2.1

d2
d 2

= bd.
70

dy
x

O
d/2

b2 d2

dA =

dx
d/2

CENTROID

AND

MOMENT

OF INERTIA

71

If we take element as shown in Fig. 2.2,

d2

A=

d/2

d2

dA =

d 2

= b y

d 2

d/2

d2
d 2

= bd

Fig. 2.2

(ii) Area of a triangle of base width b height h. Referring to

Fig. 2.3, let the element be selected as shown by hatched
lines
Then

dy
y

b dy

y
h

dy

y
dA = bdy = b dy
h

b
b

y
A = dA = b dy
h
0
0

Fig. 2.3

b y2
bh
=
h 2
2
0

(iii) Area of a circle

Consider the elemental area dA = rddr as shown in Fig. 2.4. Now,
dA = rd dr
r varies from O to R and varies from O to 2

zz
z LMN
z

2 R

A=

rd dr

0 0

r2
2

OP
Q

rd

r d

R
d
2

R2

dr

2
0

R2
2
Fig. 2.4
. 2 = R
2
In the above derivation, if we take variation of from 0 to , we get the area of semicircle as
R 2
R 2
and if the limit is from 0 to / 2 the area of quarter of a circle is obtained as
.
2
4

72

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

(iv) Area of a sector of a circle

Area of a sector of a circle with included angle 2 shown in Fig. 2.5 is to be determined. The
elemental area is as shown in the figure
dA = rd . dr
y
varies from to and r varies from O to R

A=

z zz
z LMN OPQ z
R

dA =

r d dr

r2
2

L R OP
= M
N2 Q
2

d =

R2
d
2

dr
rdG

r
dG

O a

a f

R2
2
2 = R
2

(v) Area of a parabolic spandrel

Two types of parabolic curves are possible
(a) y = kx2
(b) y2 = kx

Fig. 2.5

Case a: This curve is shown in Fig. 2.6.

The area of the element
dA = y dx
= kx2 dx

z
a

A=

dA =

Lx O
= kM P
N3Q
3

kx dx

y = kx

ka
=
3

h = ka2 or k =

x=a

h
a2

dx

Fig. 2.6

ka 3
h a3
1
1
= 2
= ha = rd the area of rectangle of size a h
3
3
3
a 3
Case b: In this case y2 = kx
Referring to Fig. 2.7

A=

dA = y dx =

z
a

A=

y dx =

We know, when x = a, y = h
i.e.,

kx dx

z
a

kx dx

CENTROID

LM
N

2
3

k x3 2

OP
Q

2 32
a
3

AND

MOMENT

OF INERTIA

y
2

y = kx

We know that, when x = a, y = h

Hence

h2 = ka
A=

h2
k=
a

or

73

2
. . a3 2
a 3

x=a

dx

Fig. 2.7

2
2
ha = rd the area of rectangle of size a h
3
3
(vi) Surface area of a cone
Consider the cone shown in Fig. 2.8. Now,
i.e.,

A=

x
R
h
Surface area of the element,
y=

dA = 2 y dl = 2
= 2

A=

x
R dl
h

x
dx
R
h sin

LM OP
N Q

x2
2 R
h sin 2

dl
R
y

a
x

dx

Fig. 2.8

Rh
= Rl
=
sin
(vii) Surface area of a sphere
Consider the sphere of radius R shown in Fig. 2.9. The element considered is the parallel
circle at distance y from the diametral axis of sphere.
dS = 2 x Rd
= 2 R cos Rd, since x = R cos

S = 2 R2
= 2 R
= 4 R2

cos d

sin

2
2

dy

x
y

Fig. 2.9

Rd

74

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

B: Volume of Standard Solids

(i) Volume of a parallelpiped.
Let the size of the parallelpiped be a b c. The volume of the element is
dV = dx dy dz

zzz
abc

V=

dx dy dz

000
a
0

= x

c
0

= abc

(ii) Volume of a cone:

Referring to Fig. 2.8
dV = y2 . dx =

V=

h2

x
x2 2
R dx , since y = R
2
h
h

x dx =
2

h2

LM x OP
N3Q
3

2 h
R h
=
R
2
h
3
3
3

(iii) Volume of a sphere

Referring to Fig. 2.9
dV = x2 dy
But

x2 + y2 = R2
x 2 = R2 y2

i.e.,

dV = (R 2 y2)dy

j
L y OP
= MR y
3 PQ
MN
L
R| a Rf
R
S R
= MR R
3
3
MN
|T
L 1 1O 4 R
= R M1 + 1 P =
N 3 3Q 3
R

V=

R2 y 2 dy

U|OP
V|P
WQ

The surface areas and volumes of solids of revolutions like cone, spheres may be easily found
using theorems of Pappus and Guldinus. This will be taken up latter in this chapter, since it needs
the term centroid of generating lines.

CENTROID

2.2

AND

MOMENT

OF INERTIA

75

CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND CENTROIDS

Consider the suspended body shown in Fig. 2.10a. The self weight of various parts of this body
are acting vertically downward. The only upward force is the force T in the string. To satisfy the
equilibrium condition the resultant weight of the body W must act along the line of string 11.
Now, if the position is changed and the body is suspended again (Fig. 2.10b), it will reach
equilibrium condition in a particular position. Let the line of action of the resultant weight be 2
2 intersecting 11 at G. It is obvious that if the body is suspended in any other position, the line
of action of resultant weight W passes through G. This point is called the centre of gravity of the
body. Thus centre of gravity can be defined as the point through which the resultant of force of gravity of
the body acts.

T
1

w1

G
W

1
2
W = w1

W = w1

1(a)

(b)

Fig. 2.10

The above method of locating centre of gravity is the practical method. If one desires to locating centre of gravity of a
body analytically, it is to be noted that the resultant of weight
of various portions of the body is to be determined. For this
Varignons theorem, which states the moment of resultant
force is equal to the sum of moments of component forces,
can be used.
Referring to Fig. 2.11, let Wi be the weight of an element in
the given body. W be the total weight of the body. Let the
coordinates of the element be xi, yi, zi and that of centroid G
be xc, yc, zc. Since W is the resultant of Wi forces,
W = W1 + W2 + W3 . . .

G
Wi
yi

yc
zi

zc

xi
xc
z

Fig. 2.11

= Wi
and

Wxc = W1x1 + W2x2 + W3x3 + . . .

Wxc = Wixi = xdw

Similarly,

Wyc = Wiyi = ydw

and

Wz c = Wizc = zdw

U|
V|
W

Eqn. (2.1)

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

76

If M is the mass of the body and mi that of the element, then

M=

W
g

and

mi =

Wi
, hence we get
g

z
z
z

Mxc = mixi =
Myc = miyi =

xidm
yidm

U|
V|
W

Eqn. (2.2)

U|
V|
W

Eqn. (2.3)

and
Mzc = mizi = zidm
If the body is made up of uniform material of unit weight g, then we know Wi = Uig, where U
represents volume, then equation 2.1 reduces to
Vxc = Vixi =
Vyc = Viyi =

z
z

xdV
ydV

Vzc = Vizi= zdV

If the body is a flat plate of uniform thickness, in x-y plane, Wi = g Ait (Ref Fig. 2.12). Hence
equation 2.1 reduces to
Axc = Aixi =
Ayc = Aiyi =
y

z
z

x dA
y dA

UV
W

Eqn. (2.4)

W
z

Wi

xc
yc

dL

(xi, yc)

Wi =  A dL

Fig. 2.12

Fig. 2.13

If the body is a wire of uniform cross section in plane x, y (Ref. Fig. 2.13) the equation 2.1
reduces to
Lxc = Lixi =

z
z

x dL

UV
W

Eqn. (2.5)
Lyc = Liyi = y dL
The term centre of gravity is used only when the gravitational forces (weights) are considered.
This term is applicable to solids. Equations 2.2 in which only masses are used the point obtained
is termed as centre of mass. The central points obtained for volumes, surfaces and line segments
(obtained by eqns. 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5) are termed as centroids.

2.3

CENTROID OF A LINE

Centroid of a line can be determined using equation 2.5.

Method of finding the centroid of a line for some standard
cases is illustrated below:
(i) Centroid of a straight line:
Selecting the x-coordinate along the line (Fig. 2.14)

dx
O

x
L

Fig. 2.14

CENTROID

Lxc =

x dx =

LM x OP
N2Q
2

=
0

MOMENT

AND

OF INERTIA

77

L2
2

L
2
Thus the centroid lies at midpoint of a straight line, whatever be the orientation of line (Ref.
Fig. 2.15).

xc =

L
G

G
O

L
2

L
2

L cos
2

G
L
sin
2

Fig. 2.15

(ii) Centroid of an Arc of a Circle

Referring to Fig. 2.16,
L = Length of arc = R 2
dL = Rd
Hence from eqn. 2.5

z
z

xcL =
xc R 2 =

xdL
O

xc =

and

yc L

R cos . Rd

(i)

R sin
R 2 2 sin
=

2 R

y dL =

Rd

= R2 sin

i.e.,

Fig. 2.16

R sin . Rd

= R2 cos

(ii)

=0

yc = 0
From equation (i) and (ii) we can get the centroid of semicircle shown in Fig. 2.17 by
putting = /2 and for quarter of a circle shown in Fig. 2.18 by putting varying from zero to
/2.

78

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

G
R

R
G

Fig. 2.17

Fig. 2.18

2R

yc = 0
For quarter of a circle,
For semicircle

xc =

2R

2R
yc =

(iii) Centroid of composite line segments:

The results obtained for standard cases may be used for various segments and then the
equations 2.5 in the form
xc =

xcL = Lixi
ycL = Liyi
may be used to get centroid xc and yc. If the line segments is in space the expression
zcL = Lizi may also be used. The method is illustrated with few examples below:
Example 2.1 Determine the centroid of the wire shown in Fig. 2.19.
D

G3

30

m
m
45

200 mm

G2
G1
A

B
600 mm

Fig. 2.19

CENTROID

AND

MOMENT

OF INERTIA

79

Solution. The wire is divided into three segments AB, BC and CD. Taking A as origin the coordinates of the centroids of AB, BC and CD are
G1(300, 0); G2(600, 100) and G3(600 150 cos 45; 200 + 150 sin 45)
i.e.

G3(493.93, 306.07)
L1 = 600 mm, L2 = 200 mm, L3 = 300 mm
L = 600 + 200 + 300 = 1100 mm

Total length

From the eqn. Lxc = Lixi, we get

1100 xc = L1x1 + L2x2 + L3x3
= 600 300 + 200 600 + 300 493.93

Ans.

xc = 407.44 mm
Lyc = Liyi

Now,

1100 yc = 600 0 + 200 100 + 300 306.07

Ans.

yc = 101.66 mm
Example 2.2 Locate the centroid of the uniform wire bent as shown in Fig. 2.20.
G2
D

250
150

G1
B

30

G3

400 mm
All dimensions in mm

Fig. 2.20

Solution. The composite figure is divided into 3 simple figures and taking A as origin coordinates
of their centroids noted as shown below:
ABa straight line
L1 = 400 mm,
G1 (200, 0)
BCa semicircle
L2 = 150 = 471.24,

FG
H

2 150

i.e., G2 (475, 92.49)

G 2 475 ,

IJ
K

CDa straight line

L3 = 250; x3 = 400 + 300 +

250
cos 30 = 808.25 mm
2

y3 = 125 sin 30 = 62.5 mm

Total length
L = L1 + L2 + L3 = 1121.24 mm

Lxc = Lixi

gives

1121.24 xc = 400 200 + 471.24 475 + 250 808.25

Ans.

xc = 451.20 mm
Lyc = Liyi

gives

80

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

1121.24 yc = 400 0 + 471.24 95.49 + 250 62.5

Ans.

yc = 54.07 mm

Example 2.3 Locate the centroid of uniform wire shown in Fig. 2.21. Note: portion AB is in x-z
plane, BC in y-z plane and CD in x-y plane. AB and BC are semi circular in shape.
z

r = 140
C

45

r=

10
0

A
x
D

Fig. 2.21

Solution. The length and the centroid of portions AB, BC and CD are as shown in table below:
Table 2.1
Portion

Li

xi

yi

zi

AB

100

100

2 100

BC

140

140

2 140

CD

300

300 sin 45

280 + 300 cos 45

= 492.13

L = 100 + 140 + 300 = 1053.98 mm

From eqn. Lxc = Lixi, we get

1053.98 xc = 100 100 + 140 0 + 300 300 sin 45
Ans.

xc = 90.19 mm
Similarly, 1053.98 yc = 100 0 + 140 140 + 300 492.13

and

2.4

yc = 198.50 mm

Ans.

200
2 140
+ 140
+ 300 0

z c = 56.17 mm

Ans.

1053.98 zc = 100

FIRST MOMENT OF AREA AND CENTROID

From equation 2.1, we have

xc =

W i xi ,
W

yc =

Wi y i
W

and

zc =

W i zi
W

CENTROID

AND

MOMENT

OF INERTIA

81

From the above equation we can make the statement that distance of centre of gravity of a
body from an axis is obtained by dividing moment of the gravitational forces acting on the
body, about the axis, by the total weight of the body. Similarly from equation 2.4, we have,
xc =

Ai xi

, yc =

Ai y i

A
A
By terming Aix: as the moment of area about the axis, we can say centroid of plane area from
any axis is equal to moment of area about the axis divided by the total area. The moment of area
Aix: is termed as first moment of area also just to differentiate this from the term Aix E , which
will be dealt latter. It may be noted that since the moment of area about an axis divided by total
area gives the distance of the centroid from that axis, the moment of area is zero about any
centroidal axis.

Difference between Centre of Gravity and Centroid

From the above discussion we can draw the following differences between centre of gravity and
centroid:
(1) The term centre of gravity applies to bodies with weight, and centroid applies to lines, plane
areas and volumes.
(2) Centre of gravity of a body is a point through which the resultant gravitational force (weight)
acts for any orientation of the body whereas centroid is a point in a line plane area volume
such that the moment of area about any axis through that point is zero.

Use of Axis of Symmetry

Centroid of an area lies on the axis of symmetry if it exits. This is useful theorem to locate the
Y
centroid of an area.
This theorem can be proved as follows:
Axis of
symmetry
Consider the area shown in Fig. 2.22. In this figure y-y is the axis
of symmetry. From eqn. 2.4, the distance of centroid from this axis is
x
x
given by:

Ai xi

A
Consider the two elemental areas shown in Fig. 2.22, which are
equal in size and are equidistant from the axis, but on either side.
Now the sum of moments of these areas cancel each other since the
Fig. 2.22
areas and distances are the same, but signs of distances are opposite.
Similarly, we can go on considering an area on one side of symmetric axis and corresponding image area on the other side, and prove that total moments of area
(Aixi) about the symmetric axis is zero. Hence the distance of centroid from the symmetric axis
is zero, i.e. centroid always lies on symmetric axis.
Making use of the symmetry we can conclude that:
(1) Centroid of a circle is its centre (Fig. 2.23);
b
d
(2) Centroid of a rectangle of sides b and d is at distance
and
from the corner as shown
2
2
in Fig. 2.24.

82

ENGINEERING MECHANICS
b
b/2

d
d/2

Fig. 2.23

Fig. 2.24

Determination of Centroid of Simple Figures From First Principle

For simple figures like triangle and semicircle, we can write general expression for the elemental
area and its distance from an axis. Then equations 2.4

y =

x =

z
z

ydA
A
xdA

A
The location of the centroid using the above equations may be considered as finding centroid
from first principles. Now, let us find centroid of some standard figures from first principles.

Centroid of a Triangle
Consider the triangle ABC of base width b and height h as shown in Fig. 2.25. Let us locate the
distance of centroid from the base. Let b1 be the width of elemental strip of thickness dy at a
distance y from the base. Since DAEF and DABC are similar triangles, we can write:

b1
hy
=
b
h
b1 =

FG h y IJ b = FG 1 y IJ b
H h K H hK

dy
F

E
b1

Area of the element

= dA = b1dy

FG
H

= 1
Area of the triangle
From eqn. 2.4

IJ
K

Fig. 2.25

1
A = bh
2

y =

Movement of area
=
Total area

Now,

y
b dy
h

FG
H

IJ
K

ydA = y 1 h b dy
0

ydA
A

CENTROID

z FGH
h

AND

MOMENT

OF INERTIA

83

I
JK

y2
b dy
h

L y y OP
= bM
MN 2 3h PQ
2

y =

y =

bh
6
ydA

bh 2
1

1
6
bh
2

h
3

Thus the centroid of a triangle is at a distance

2h
h
from the base (or
from the apex) of
3
3

the triangle where h is the height of the triangle.

Centroid of a Semicircle
Consider the semicircle of radius R as shown in Fig. 2.26. Due to symmetry centroid must lie on y
axis. Let its distance from diametral axis be y . To find y , consider an element at a distance r
from the centre O of the semicircle, radial width being dr and bound by radii at and + d.
Area of element = r ddr.
Y

Its moment about diametral axis x is given by:

rd dr r sin = r2 sin dr d
Total moment of area about diametral axis,

zz

R
00

Lr O
sin dr d = z M P
N3Q

sin d

dq
r

cos 0
3
3
R3
2R
1+ 1 =
=
3
3
1 2
Area of semicircle
A = R
2

dr

X
R

Fig. 2.26

2R 3
Moment of area

3
=
y =
1 2
Total area
R
2
4R
=
3

Thus, the centroid of the circle is at a distance

4R
from the diametral axis.
3

84

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Centroid of Sector of a Circle

Consider the sector of a circle of angle 2 as shown in Fig. 2.27. Due to symmetry, centroid lies
on x axis. To find its distance from the centre O, consider the elemental area shown.
Area of the element

= rd dr

Its moment about y axis

= rd dr r cos

= r cos drd
2

dr

Total moment of area about y axis

zz

r cos drd
2

Lr O
= M P
N3Q
3

sin

d

2

G


R3
2 sin
3

Total area of the sector

Fig. 2.27

zz
z LMN

rdrd

r2
2

2
= R 2

OP
Q

d
0

\ The distance of centroid from centre O

=

Moment of area about y axis

Area of the figure

2R 3
sin
2R
3
=
sin
=
2
3
R
Centroid of Parabolic Spandrel
Consider the parabolic spandrel shown in Fig. 2.28. Height of the element at a distance x from
O is y = kx2

CENTROID

Width of element

= dx

Area of the element

= kx2dx

AND

MOMENT

OF INERTIA

85

Total area of spandrel =

kx 2dx

LM kx OP
N3Q

3 a

ka 3
3

y = kx

Moment of area about y axis

z
z
a

G(x,
y)
O

kx 2 dx x

0
a

kx 3 dx

Fig. 2.28

L kx OP
= M
N4Q
4

ka
4

z
z

Moment of area about x axis =

dAy 2

0
a

kx 2
= kx dx
=
2
0

x =
y =

From the Fig. 2.28, at x = a, y

h = ka2 or k =

y =

Thus, centroid of spandrel is

z
a

k2x4
dx =
2

k 2 a5
10
ka 4 ka 3 3a

=
4
3
4
2 5
3
k a
ka
3
ka 2

=
10
3
10
=h

dx

LM k x OP
N25 Q

2 5 a

h
a2

3
3h
h
a2 =
10 a 2
10

FG 3a , 3h IJ
H 4 10 K

Centroids of some common figures are shown in Table 2.2.

86

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Table 2.2. Centroid of Some Common Figures

Shape

Figure

Area

h
3

bh
2

4R
3

R2
2

4R
3

4R
3

R2
4

2R
sin a
3

R 2

3h
5

4ah
3

3a
8

3h
5

2ah
3

3a
4

3h
10

ah
3

Triangle

y
Semicircle

x
y

Quarter circle

x
R
y

Sector of a circle

2

Parabola

G
x

2a

Semi parabola

y
h

Parabolic spandrel

Centroid of Composite Sections

So far, the discussion was confined to locating the centroid of simple figures like rectangle,
triangle, circle, semicircle, etc. In engineering practice, use of sections which are built up of many
simple sections is very common. Such sections may be called as built-up sections or composite
sections. To locate the centroid of composite sections, one need not go for the first principle
(method of integration). The given composite section can be split into suitable simple figures and
then the centroid of each simple figure can be found by inspection or using the standard formulae
listed in Table 2.2. Assuming the area of the simple figure as concentrated at its centroid, its
moment about an axis can be found by multiplying the area with distance of its centroid from the

CENTROID

AND

MOMENT

OF INERTIA

87

reference axis. After determining moment of each area about reference axis, the distance of
centroid from the axis is obtained by dividing total moment of area by total area of the composite
section.
Example 2.4 Locate the centroid of the T-section shown in
the Fig. 2.29.
Solution. Selecting the axis as shown in Fig. 2.29, we can
say due to symmetry centroid lies on y axis, i.e. x = 0.
Now the given T-section may be divided into two rectangles A1 and A2 each of size 100 20 and 20 100. The
centroid of A1 and A2 are g1(0, 10) and g2(0, 70) respectively.
The distance of centroid from top is given by:

y =

100

A1

X
20

g1

100

g2

100 20 10 + 20 100 70
100 20 + 20 100

A2

= 40 mm
Hence, centroid of T-section is on the symmetric axis at a
distance 40 mm from the top.
Ans.

20
Y
All dimensions in mm

Example 2.5 Find the centroid of the unequal angle 200

Fig. 2.29
150 12 mm, shown in Fig. 2.30.
Solution. The given composite figure can be divided into two rectangles:
A1 = 150 12 = 1800 mm2
A2 = (200 12) 12 = 2256 mm2
Total area
A = A1 + A2 = 4056 mm2
Selecting the reference axis x and y as shown in Fig. 2.30. The centroid of A1 is g1 (75, 6)
and that of A2 is:

LM
N

g 2 6 , 12 +
i.e.,

g2 (6, 106)

x =
=
=

y =
=
=

1
200 12
2

fOPQ

12

Movement about y axis

Total area
A1 x1 + A2 x2
A
1800 75 + 2256 6
= 36.62 mm
4056
Movement about x axis
Total area
A1 y 1 + A2 y 2
A
1800 6 + 2256 106
= 61.62 mm
4056

150

g1
G

200

A1

g2
A2

12
Y
All dimensions in mm

Fig. 2.30

Thus, the centroid is at x = 36.62 mm and y = 61.62 mm as shown in the figure

Ans.

88

ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Example 2.6 Locate the centroid of the I-section shown in Fig. 2.31.
Y
100
g1

A1

20

20
A2
100

g2
G

y
g3

A3

30

150

All dimensions in mm

Fig. 2.31

Solution. Selecting the co-ordinate system as shown in Fig. 2.31, due to symmetry centroid must
lie on y axis,

x =0

i.e.,

Now, the composite section may be split into three rectangles

A1 = 100 20 = 2000 mm2
Centroid of A1 from the origin is:

20
= 140 mm
2
A2 = 100 20 = 2000 mm2
y1 = 30 + 100 +

Similarly

100
= 80 mm
2
A3 = 150 30 = 4500 mm2, and
y2 = 30 +

30
= 15 mm
2
A y + A2 y 2 + A3 y 3
y = 1 1

A
2000 + 140 + 2000 80 + 4500 15
=
2000 + 2000 + 4500
= 59.71 mm
Thus, the centroid is on the symmetric axis at a distance 59.71 mm from the bottom as shown in
Fig. 2.31.
Ans.
y3 =