National Conference On Advances in Armament Technology

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PROCEEDINGS
NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ADVANCES IN ARMAMENT TECHNOLOGY
21-22 Nov 2008
Armament Research & Development Establishment

Pashan, Pune - 411 021
INDEX
Paper Author Title
S1 Aerodynamics & Structures and Inbore, External & Terminal Ballistics
S1.1 Peyada NK, Sen A, Dutta GG, Singhal A, Effect of Mach Number on Supersonic
Rajan KM, Joshi DK, Ghosh AK Wrap Around Fin Aerodynamics
S1.2 Sonawane PD, Dr. Singh Amarjit Slender Aerodynamic Bodies for High
Speed Armaments
S1.3 Misra A, Ghosh AK, Ghosh K Stability & Control of Aircraft Bombs at
High Angle of Attack using Cascade Fins
S1.4 Chand KK Understanding Trajectory Modeling via

Error & Uncertainty Analysis
S1.5 Giri SN, Chand KK Role of Applied Physics & Ballistics in

Armaments : A Review
S1.6 Raj Venkatnarayan, Varadrajan S Weapon Locating Radar
S1.7 Gite LK, Padmanabham M, Joshi DK Parameter Estimation Techniques :

Application to Prediction Algorithm for
Weapon Locating Radar
S1.8 Padmanabham M, Joshi DK, Gite LK Ballistic Needs for Weapon Locating
Radar
S2 Warheads and Non Lethal Weapons
S2.1 Rajeev Prakash Non Lethal Weapons : Naval Perspective
S2.2 Anguswamy V, Sahu AC Dual Type Fragmentation Warhead

for Hard/Soft Targets
S2.3 Brig. HSN Sastry (Retd) Non Lethal Weapons : Concepts,

Technologies & developments
S2.4 Dhote KD, KPS Murthy Velocities of Pre-made Fragments in

Multi-Layers
S2.5 Harikrishnan S, KPS Muthy, Design & Evaluation of a Light Weight

Surendra Kumar Blast Barrier for Tandem Warhead of a
Third Generation Anti Tank Missile
S2.6 Mohammadali Partanian, Analysis of Jet Penetration of Hollow

Pralhad RN Charge from Concept of Hydrodynamic
Theory & Fracture Mechanics
S2.7 Padhan PK, Biswas PP, Dayanad, An Overview on End Game for Surface to
Bhattacherjee RN Air Missile (SAM)
S2.8 Kamlesh Kumar, Satwinder Singh, Thermobaric Warhead for Under-Ground

KPS Murthy Targets
NCAAT 2008 I
Paper Author Title
S3 Weapons, Launch Technology, SAM, Fuze & Armament Electronics
S3.1 Sen A, Subrahmanyam S, Wahi P, Five-Degree of Freedom Dynamic Wind

Ghosh AK Tunnel Test Rig for Estimation of Dynamic
Derivatives of Scale Down Models
S3.2 Rao MV, Mahalingam VS Pinaka Weapon System Integration With

ACCCS : Challenges & Solutions
S3.3 Salutagikar CS, Mukane SB, Pravker RC Enhancing Accuracy of Free Flight Rocket
Pawale SO, Rojatkat PT, Rajan KM By Minimizing Dynamic Unbalance :
A Case Study
S3.4 Mahmoud Zarrini & Pralhad RN Estimation of Shock Velocity & Pressure
for the Bullets Impacting on Human Body
S3.5 Pandey RP, Verma Gaurav, Dixit Aishwarya, Lethality Assessment of Small Arms
Gade SV, Datar AM Ammunition
S3.6 Pandey RP, Verma Gaurav, Dixit Aishwarya, Effect of Small Arms Bullet Construction
Gade SV, Datar AM on Penetration of Hard Targets
S3.7 Khilare TB Enhancement of Lethality of Rocket

Assisted Bomb Over Standard
HE Mortar Bomb
S3.8 Saini Vaibhav, Kumar Vinay, Saini DS, Integrated G-hardened Telemetry System
Rana SC, Kapil Deo for Cannon Launched Munition
Flight Testing
S3.9 Saha PK, Sahu BK, Dhande P, Application of Wireless Sensor Network in
Ms Mahajan CP the Selective & Intelligent Actuation of
Scattered Munition
S3.10 Dhande P, PK Saha, BK Sahu Remote Time Data Setting for Munitions
Vaishnavi Sharma, Ms Mahajan CP
S3.11 Ms Savita, Ms Patel Prachi, Dhande Pramod, Study of Frequency Selection for
Saha PK, Ms Mahajan CP Communication with Underground
Munitions
S3.12 Deodhar KD, Kharat DK Hybrid Composite Technology For Gun

Barrel
S3.13 Sachin Sood, Narasimha Rao G, Development Testing, System Integration

Chandramouli G, Panyam RR & Evaluation of Indigenous Surface to
Air Weapon System
S4 Test & Evaluation and Guidance & Control
S4.1 Kolhe JP, Shaik JB, Bokil GA, Talole SE Robust Roll Autopilot Design
S4.2 Bommu Mallikarjuna, Venkata Rama Missile Autopilot Design Using Dynamic
Subbaiah B, B Srinivas Kalyan, Inversion and Fuzzy Logic Control
C Arjun Rao, Talole SE
NCAAT 2008 II
Paper Author Title
S4.3 Singh VK, Sharma IS, Dayal Arun and Inferencing from Limited Trials in
Rajiv Gupta Weapons Evaluation
S4.4 Nayak Navin, Bisval TK High Speed Imaging & Radar Based
Measurements for Performance Evaluation
of Armaments
S4.5 Bisval TK, Nayak Navin Dynamic Test & Evaluation Methodologies
for Measurement of Critical Test
Parameters of Armaments : Case Studies
S4.6 Saha Subhas, Kolhatkar DR Next Generation of Environmental Testing
S4.7 Bhange Niteen P, Ghosh AK Analytical Method for Predicting Sabot

Discard Phenomena
S4.8 Lakra S, PK Das Gupta, V Anguswamy Study of Gun Dynamics Using Data Mining
S4.9 Dr. Fleming R, Dr Gorge McConnell Advanced Miniature Precision Effectors
S4.10 Jha PK, Kumar Krishna Guidance for Perpendicular Hit for
Shaped Charge Warhead
S4.11 Shaikh AD, Salkar YB, Parate DA, Testing & Revalidation of Imported
Dr. Virendra Kumar, Dr. Kharat DK Cartridge PDO for Su-30 Fighter Aircraft
S4.12 Katare RV, Ravidas Rakesh Testing & Evaluation of Canopy Severance
System for Tejas Trainer Aircraft
S4.13 Mathew T, Chandel P, Rajeev Kumar, Impact Studies on Spaced Armour

Athwal M, Sewak KB
S5 Modeling & Simulation and Safety, Quality & Reliability
S5.1 Sharma IS, Singh VK, Dayal Arun, Modeling Weapon Effectiveness in
Rajiv Gupta Integrated Combat Scenario
S5.2 Singh SK, Kumar Manoj, Sharma VK, Mathematical Modeling for Earth
Srinivasa Rao HV Penetrating Bomb
S5.3 Kamble AD, Guru Prasad, Gandhi Vandana Design of MIL - STD - 1553B
Communication Interface Protocol &
Computer Models for a RTOS Based
Distributed Mission Critical
Electro - Hydraulic Control System
S5.4 KKK Sanyasi Raju, D Chakraborti Swarm Intelligence Based Algorithms for
Design Optimization of Stiffened
Cylindrical Shells for Underwater Weapons
S5.5 Deodhar RS, Anupam Anand Evaluation of Probability Grid Using

Simulation of Fragmentation
Pattern on Ground
S5.6 Philppe Ecolivet Development of Fuzes, Safe/Arm System

& Seekers
NCAAT 2008 III

Paper Author Title
S5.8 Sunil Kumar K. Surya Kiran CH, Jaya Modeling & Simulation on Explosive
Ramiah M, Vara Prasad Rao S, Sekharan VG Dynamics Phenomena during Stage
Separation Mechanism
S5.9 Dr. Rajagopal Chitra Ammunition Storage and Safety Regime

in India. Comparison with Other Countries.
S5.11 Mishra GK Disposal of Life Expired and Regiime

in India : Comparison with other Countries
S5.12 Wadhawa KC Fire Safety Aspects of

Armaments & Ammunition
S5.13 Aguru NK Enhancement of Explosive safety in

Indian Army & Reduce Land Requirement
by Converting Ammunition of un Hazard
Division 1.1 To 1.2
S5.14 Bhupinder Sewak, Sharma AC, Numerical Simulation on Explosively

Saroha DR, Singh M Formed Projectile
S6 Explosives, Propellants, Pyrotechnics and Propulsion Technology
S6.1 Prof. Barpande Girish, Dr. Singh Amarjit CFD Simulation and Analysis of Flow
Through a Supersonic Combustor
S6.2 Sanghavi RR, Shelar SD, Tope BG, Studies on Effect of Picrite on
Chakraborthy TK, Singh Amarjit, Insensitive Nitramine Gun Propellants
A Subhananda Rao
S6.3 A Sudheer Babu Prediction of Impact Sensitivity of

CaHbNcOdExplosives Using Artificial
Neural Networks
S6.4 Saji J, Vishwakarma AK, Roy S, Apparao A Development of Aluminised Explosive

Composition for Thermobaric Warhead
Applications
S6.5 Daniel R, Danali SM, Kohadkar MJ, Development of Laser Initiated

Raha KC, A Subhananda Rao Pyrodevices for Futuristic Defence
Applications
S6.6 Danali SM, Swarge NG, Gaikwad VD, Experimental Studies on Accuracy
Kohadkar MJ, Raha KC Improvement of Pyrotechnic Delays
S6.7 Palaiah RS, Soman RR, Thakur BR, High Intensity Illuminating Flares
Kohadkar MJ, Raha KC, Based on Energetic Binder
A Subhananda Rao
S6.8 Debnath S, Rohit, VP Ambekar, Studies on Thermal and Structural

PM Deshmukh, Danali SM, Analysis of Pyrotechnic Thermite System
V Ramaswamy, Raha KC Designed for Fast Melting of Metals
S6.9 Swami Umesh, Pralhad RN Estimation of Flow Parameters of

Explosion at Shock Front for Different
Explosives
NCAAT 2008 IV
Paper Author Title
S7 Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Techniques
S7.1 Ramakrishna B, Mishra B, Madhu VT, Perforated Armour : Improving

Balakrishna Bhat The Ballistic Efficiency of HH Armour Steel
S7.2 I Nithiya Priya, HH Kumar, DK Kharat Rheological study of Aqueous PZT slurry
for Tape Casting
S7.3 Premkumar S, B Praveen Kumar, Characteristics of 3-3 porous PZT

HH Kumar, DK Kharat Composites Evaluated by Finite Element
Analysis
S7.4 Kolhe SM, HH Kumar, Koparkar PV, Piezoelectric Polymer 0-3 Composite
Lonkar CM, DK Kharat for Power Harvesting Application
S7.5 Chakradeo NM, Dighe NA Use of CAD/CAM Technology for

Manufacture of Critical Armament
Components
S7.6 Chakradeo NM, Dighe NA Manufacturing of Barrel for "Under

Barrel Grenade Launcher" (UBGL)
S7.7 Dharia CJ Advances in Spring Materials for

Armament Application
S7.8 B Murlidhar, SM Nirgude, Effect of Fracture Toughness & Charpy

M Ashok Kumar Impact Value on Inbore Structural
Integrity of KE Projectiles
S7.9 Jadhav SC, Parate BA, Moon LC, Design of Cartridge Signal Flare 26mm
Dr. Virendra Kumar by using Aluminum Case
S7.10 Das T, Das PS, Chakraborty A, Ti-based Gate Dielectrics on

Majhi B, Hota MK, Mallick S, Verma S, Si-passivated n-GaAs for MOSFET
Maiti CK Applications
NCAAT 2008 V
S1
Aerodynamics & Structures
Inbore, External & Terminal Ballistics
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EFFECT OF MACH NUMBER ON SUPERSONIC WRAP AROUND

FIN AERODYNAMICS
Peyada NK, Sen A, Dutta GG, Singhal A, Ghosh AK
IIT Kanpur – 208 016
Rajan KM, Anand Raj
Armament Research & Development Establishment, Pune 411 021
ABSTRACT
Wrap around fins (WAF) have been used on tube launched missiles and dispenser launched projectiles. Modern
advances in stealth technology have made the use of missiles equipped with WAFs desirable because they can be stowed to
reduce the radar cross section of the aircraft. Recent studies have identified several roll – and pitch – moment instabilities.
The rolling moment of the WASF is positive at subsonic velocities (defined here to means that the missile rolls towards the
concave side of fin). A roll reversal occurring at M = 1.0 indicates that the magnitude of the rolling moment decreases with
increasing Mach number and that a second rolling moment reversal may occur at high supersonic speed. Tilman et al and
Bowersox examined experimentally and numerically the flow structure in the vicinity of a single fin mounted onto blended
cylindrical body at Mach 3.0 and 5.0 Those studies indicated that the flow field was highly asymmetric about WAF, with a
stronger bow – shock structure on the concave side of the fin. This resulted in creating a very high-pressure region between
the fin and its center of curvature, which resulted in relatively high surface pressures near the mid span of the fin. In contrast,
on the convex side of the fin, surface pressure was relatively independent of location along the span.
This resulted in asymmetric pressure loading on the fin, which caused generation of out-of-plane moment at angle of
attack, it is suspected that this side moment is symptomatic of WAF configurations. When testing such configurations, the test
engineer should ensure that this side moment is obtained and stability boundaries are computed. This side moment can have a
dramatic effect on trajectory computation based on the conventional aerodynamic coefficients and derivatives.
Experiments have been conducted to study the effect of fin shapes on generation induced rolling moment and out-
of-plane moment coefficients. Four sets of WAF configuration were tested. The results were then compared with the flat fin
configuration.
It was observed that addition of back sweep helps in reducing rolling moment as well as out of plane moment
substantially at supersonic Mach numbers.
1. INTRODUCTION
Wrap around fins (WAF) have been used on tube launched missiles and dispenser-launched projectiles. Modern
Advances in stealth technology have made the use of missiles equipped with WAF's desirable because they can be stowed to
reduce the radar cross section of he aircraft1. Recent studies have identified several roll – and – pitch – moment instabilities2.
The roll reversal at transonic conditions is the most recognized instability. The rolling moment of the WAF is positive at
subsonic velocities (defined here to means that the missile rolls towards the concave side of fin)1. A roll reversal occurs at M
= 1.0 have indicated that the magnitude of the rolling moment decreases with increasing Mach number and that a second
rolling moment reversal may occur at high supersonic speed. Tilman et al3 and Tilman and Bowersox4 examined
experimentally and numerically the flow structure in the vicinity of a single fin mounted onto a blended cylindrical body at
Mach 3.0 and 5.0. Those studies indicated that the flow field was highly asymmetric about WAF, with a stronger bow – shock
structure on the concave side of the fin. This resulted in creating a very high-pressure region between the fin and its center of
curvature, which resulted in relatively high surface pressures near the mid span of the fin.
In contrast, on the convex side of the fin, surface pressure is relatively independent of location along the span.
This resulted in asymmetric pressure loading on the fin. This asymmetric pressure loading caused generation of out-of-plane
moment at angle of attack, It is suspected that this side moment is this side moment is symptomatic of WAF configurations,
when testing such configurations, the test engineer should ensure that this side moment is obtained and stability boundaries
are computed. Designers of such configurations should also consider the possibility of this side moment because it can have a
dramatic effect on trajectory computation based on the conventional aerodynamic coefficients and derivatives5.
NCAAT 2008 PROCEEDINGS S1.1 / 1

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2. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Experiments have been conducted to study the effect of fin shapes on generation induced rolling moment and out-
of-plane moment coefficients. Four sets of WAF configurations were tested. The results were then compared with the flat fin
configuration. Configurations of the fin tested are shown in Fig. 1.
Configuration - I Configuration -II
Fig. 1 : Fin shapes tested for lateral characteristics
It is observed that addition of trailing edge sweep helps in reducing induced rolling moment as well as out of plane
moment substantially at supersonic Mach numbers. Figure 1 and 2 present comparison of induced rolling moment and out of
plane moment coefficient for these configurations. It is clearly seen that the fin with a larger back sweep resulted in lesser
Cl , Cy and Cna at supersonic Mach number. These values of Cn play important role in establishing dynamic stability. A
a
preliminary study shows that the design of fin must ensure lower value of C na (£ 6)
Fig. 2 : The comparative variation of Cl , Cy and Cn a

as function of Mach Number

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3. RESTRICTED VALIDATION BY FLIGHT TEST

Three sets of rockets having 20 degrees trailing edge sweep were fired. The trajectory coordinates (x, y, z, V) of
these rockets in flight were acquired by Doppler radar. The trajectory variables were used to estimate drag coefficients using
method proposed in Ref. 5. The trajectory variables used for estimation of CD is presented in Fig 3.
Fig. 3 : Trajectory variables used for estimation of CD

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Estimated values of CD are graphically presented in Fig. 4
Fig. 4 : Estimated value of CD as function of Mach Number
It could be appreciated that the estimated CD is almost 8 – 12% higher tan the wind tunnel estimation. This information may
help in tuning the trajectory model for field Application.

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4. CONCLUSION
The introduction of trailing edge sweep helps in reducing induce roll and out-of-plane moment coefficient. Such an
approach may help in avoiding any possibilities of dynamic instability associated with WAF rocket at supersonic speeds. The
estimation procedure presented in Ref. 6 may be used to estimate overall drag coefficient of the rocket using measured flight
data.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The numerous suggestions provided by Shri D.K. Joshi, Joint Director, ARDE, Pune is highly acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1.Mc Intyre T.C., Bowersox, R.D., and Larry, P.G., “Effects of Mach number on Supersonic Wrap Ariound Fin
Aerodynamics,” Journal of Space craft and Rocket, Vol. 35, No. 6, Nov – Dec 1998.
2.Abate, G.L. and Winchenbach, G.L., “Aerodynamic of Missiles with Slotted in Configurations,” AIAA paper 91-
0676 January 1991.
3.Tilmann, C.P., Huffman, R.E., Jr Buter, T.A. and Bowersox, R.D.W., “Experimental Investigation of the flow
structure Near a Single Wrap Around Fin,” Journal of Spacecraft and Rocket, vol. 34, No. 6, 1997.
4.Tilman, C.P. and Bowersox, R., “Characterisation of the flow field near a wrap around fin at Mach number 4.9,”
AIAA paper 98-0684, January 1998.
5.Winchenbach, G.L. and Randy, S.B., Whyte, T.A. and Hathway, W.H., “Subsonic and Transonic Aerodynamics of
a Wrap Around Fin configuration,” Journal of Guidance. Vol. 9, No. 6, Nov – Dec 1986.
6.G.G. Dutta, Ankur Singhal and A.K. Ghosh, "Estimation of Drag Coefficient using Real Radar Tracked Data of an
Artillery Shell," Proceedings AIAA, Paper No. 2006-6149, AIAA Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference and Exhibit-
06, Keystone, Colorado21-24 Aug, 2006.

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SLENDER AERODYNAMIC BODIES FOR

HIGH SPEED ARMAMENTS
Pushkaraj D. Sonawane
Vishwakarma Institute of Information Technology, Pune
Dr. Amarjit Singh
Defence Institute of Advanced Technology, Pune
ABSTRACT
The requirement of defense against ballistic missiles has led to a renewed interest in the aerodynamics of slender,
blunt-nosed, conical bodies for high speed armaments. Different slender aerodynamic bodies which can be used for the high
speed armaments are as follows:
Slender Bodies:
Jorgensen has shown that there are distinct aerodynamic advantages in using elliptic cones rather than circular
cones. Reggiori has demonstrated that a cone with anhedral wings can provide good high lift characteristics at high angles of
attack in hypersonic speeds.
Singh, Kumar, and Tiwari conducted a parametric study to determine the effects of nose bluntness on the entire flow-
field over slender bodies (blunted cones and ogives) under different hypersonic free stream conditions. Specific results
obtained for spherically-blunted cones and ogives demonstrate that there are significant differences in flow-field and surface
quantities between sharp and blunted bodies. Jorgensen investigated the aerodynamic advantages of elliptic cones over
circular cones experimentally to determine the force and moment characteristics for elliptic cones at high Mach numbers.
Power Law Bodies
Power-law bodies can be an alternative to the blunted cone configurations because a power-law body has a greater
internal volume than a blunted cone of same fineness ratio and secondly, various theories predict that a power-law body
represents the minimum drag at hypersonic speeds.
Spencer et al found from experiments on a series of 2/3-power law-wave-drag bodies at high Mach numbers that
increase in the lift, drag, and pitching moment coefficients and lift-drag ratios at positive angles of attack and at all test Mach
numbers.
Jorgensen et al performed an experimental investigation to determine the effects of side strakes on the aerodynamic
characteristics of a body of revolution, at High Mach Numbers and incidences from 0° to 58°. The data demonstrated that the
aerodynamic characteristics for a body of revolution with side strakes can be significantly affected by changes in nose
fineness ratio, nose bluntness, Reynolds number, Mach number and angle of attack.
Amarjit Singh performed the force measurements for a one-half-power-law body and found that the lift, drag and
pitching moment coefficients increased smoothly with incidence. The strakes were found to improve the L/D ratio of the
configuration without any significant change in the pitching moment characteristics.
Conclusions:
Bodies with elliptic cross-section exhibit higher lift to drag ratios than those of circular cross-section of the same
fineness ratio and volume. Power-law bodies can be an alternative to the blunted cone configurations because a power-law
body has a greater internal volume than a blunted cone of same fineness ratio and represents the minimum drag case at
hypersonic speeds. The additions of strakes to the slender bodies are found to improve the L/D ratio of the slender bodies
configuration without any significant change in the pitching moment characteristics.
NOMENCLATURE
M8 free-stream Mach number

Re8 free-stream Reynolds number
L lift
D drag
Cl lift coefficient based on body planform area
Cd drag coefficient based on body planform area

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Cm pitching moment coefficient based on body length and planform area

Y the local radius of the body
Rb body base radius
d diameter
X axial distance from the nose
l body length
n the power exponent.
á incidence angle
1. INTRODUCTION
The requirement of defence against ballistic missiles has led to a renewed interest in the aerodynamics of slender,
blunt-nosed, conical bodies flying at hypersonic speeds. In hypersonic flows, nose bluntness for leading edges of the aerofoil
is extremely useful to reduce stagnation heating. Many aerospace vehicles use blunt noses and leading edges not just because
it will be very difficult to keep them sharp in hypersonic flow but also because of the added advantage of reduced
aerodynamic heating and increased internal space. Theoretical and experimental investigations(1,2) have shown that an
elliptical cone may have significantly higher lift to drag ratios than a circular cone of the same cross sectional area per unit
length.
2. SLENDER BODIES
Jorgensen(2) has shown that there are distinct aerodynamic advantages in using elliptic cones rather than circular
cones. Reggiori(3) has demonstrated that a cone with anhedral wings can provide good lift characteristics at high angles of
attack in hypersonic speeds. Singh, Kumar, and Tiwari(4) conducted a parametric study to determine the effects of nose
bluntness on the entire flow-field over slender bodies (blunted cones and ogives) under different hypersonic free stream
conditions. Specific results obtained for spherically-blunted cones and ogives demonstrate that there are significant
differences in flow-field and surface quantities between sharp and blunted bodies. Depending upon the flow conditions and
geometry, the differences are found to persist as far as about 300 nose radii downstream. For different angle of attacks and
nose bluntness the post shock flow field is studied(5) in detail from the contour plots of Mach number, density, pressure, and
temperature. The effect of nose bluntness for slender cones persists as far as 200 nose radii downstream.
Jorgensen(6) investigated the aerodynamic advantages of elliptic cones over circular cones experimentally to
determine the force and moment characteristics for elliptic cones at high Mach numbers. Results showed that bodies of
elliptic cross-section exhibited higher lift to drag ratio than those of circular cross-section.
3. POWER-LAW BODIES
Power-law bodies can be an alternative to the blunted cone configurations because a power-law body has a greater
internal volume than a blunted cone of same fineness ratio and secondly, various theories predict (7-8) that a power-law body
represents the minimum drag at hypersonic speeds. Spencer et al(9) found from experiments on a series of 2/3-power-law
wave-drag bodies at high Mach numbers that increase in the lift, drag, and pitching moment coefficients and lift to drag ratios
at positive angles of attack and at all test Mach numbers. The successive increases in major-to-minor axis ratio, with the major
axis horizontal, resulted in gains in lift-curve slope for bodies of the same fineness ratio.
The surface co-ordinates of a power-law body (Figure 1) are given by Y/Rb = (X/l)n, The n = 1 value represents a
sharp cone and a reduction in the value of n from 1 to 0
continuously increases the bluntness of the body. In general nose bluntness is useful to reduce the stagnation heating as well
as to increase the volume for a given fineness ratio (l/d) body.
Fig. 1 : Surface contour of power-law bodies

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Spencer and Fox(10) compared the aerodynamic characteristics of power-law bodies, of circular and elliptic cross-
section with that of a body of minimum-wave drag shape determined under the constraint of prescribed body length and
volume. They found that the increase in the ellipticity ratio for a given power-law or the theoretical minimum-wave-drag
body results in an almost constant incremental increase in maximum L/D ratio, independent of body longitudinal contour.
Ashby(11) obtained experimental data for power-law bodies found that at the highest Reynolds number, the power-
law body for minimum drag is blunter (exponent n lower) than predicted by inviscid theory (n approximately 0.6 instead of n
= 0.667). Westby and Regan(12) conducted an experimental investigation of the longitudinal aerodynamic characteristics of
power-law bodies of revolution in a gun-tunnel also found the same reults.
4. SLENDER BODIES WITH STRAKES

Jorgensen et al(6) performed an experimental investigation to determine the effects of side strakes on the aerodynamic
characteristics of a body of revolution, at High Mach Numbers and incidences from 0° to 58°. The data demonstrated that the
aerodynamic characteristics for a body of revolution with side strakes can be significantly affected by changes in nose
fineness ratio, nose bluntness, Reynolds number, Mach number and angle of attack. Removing the strakes from the
cylindrical after section greatly decreased the lift and moved the center of pressure forward.
Levinsky et al(13) showed theoretically and experimentally that relatively large increases in lift with even the smallest
stakes sizes, i.e. 10% of the body radius, are possible.
Amarjit Singh(15) performed the force measurements for a one-half-power-law body is found to be in good agreement
with the other existing results. The lift, drag and pitching moment coefficients are found to increase smoothly with incidence.
The strakes are found to improve the lift to drag ratio of the configuration without any significant change in the pitching
moment characteristics.
Kontis et al(17) performed experiments and collected data for two pairs of elliptic cones with and without strakes at Mach
number 8.2 and unit Reynolds number 9.3 x 106 /m. The strakes produced a significant increase in the lift and drag
coefficients, in the incidence range of 0° to 20°. The addition of strakes moved the centre of pressure slight forward for the
right elliptic model and backwards for the power-law body at all incidences tested.
Both experimental and computational studies(18) showed that the addition of strakes caused a reduction of pressure on the
leeward side and an increase of pressure on the windward side. The paper concludes with suggesting that, in the design stage,
CFD can be used to identify important areas and important flow conditions before the model is cut, which can save
unnecessary waste in the experimental tests. After data collection from the experiments, detailed numerical simulation can be
conducted for the experimental conditions.
5. EXPERIMENT
Experiments(15) were conducted to obtain lift, drag and pitching-moment coefficients for a one-half-power-law
body at the College of Aeronautics gun tunnel by one of the authors. The axisymmetric nozzle provided a useful jet of 15 cm
diameter at M8 of 8.2 and Re8 equal to 9.35 x 106/m. A three-component strain gauge balance was used to measure axial, and
normal forces and pitching moment. The balance was calibrated using a locally made test rig. The calibration of the balance
was repeated many times and showed insignificant difference.
Fig. 2 : Power-law elliptic body model with and without strakes

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Figure 2 shows the basic dimensions of the wooden models. These models were187.5 mm long. The strakes are
approximately 1.67 mm square at the base. Dead weights were used at the base of the models to get the C. G. position at about
26 mm from the base. The mass of the models was 56 grams and 33 grams with and without strakes respectively. The models
had an elliptical cross section and a one half-power-law contour along the length. The models were rigidly screwed on to the
balance sting and fixed at zero roll angle.
6. NAVIER STOKES COMPUTATIONS

A commercial solver has been used to calculate the flow field around the half-power-law elliptic body shown in
figure 2. Flow field results for incidence angle á = 0 , 30, 60, 90, 120,150 are obtained assuming a perfect gas and a laminar
0
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boundary layer over the full length of the body. The free-stream conditions used are M8 = 8.2 and Re8 = 9.35x10 / m.
Approximately 800000 polyhedral cells are used for discretization of the flow field. The Navier-Stokes solution converged to
the experimental shock position after about 16,000 iterations on a Quadra core Linux workstation. Figure 3 shows the Mach
number contours which are reasonably good in agreement with the experimental results(15) . Model without strakes has been
run and model with strakes will be run soon to optimize the shape size and location of strakes to obtain maximum lift to drag
ratio without affecting the pitching moment characteristics.
Fig. 3(a) : Mach number contours of a half-power-law elliptic body

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Fig. 3(b) : Mach number contours of a half-power-law elliptic body

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7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Lift Coefficient
Figure 4 (a) shows the variation of lift coefficient with incidence. The computational results compare reasonably
well with the experimental values. The experimental values are slightly above the computational values. The gap widens
above = 5, the angle around which the leeward flow is expected to separate forming counter rotating leeward vortices.
Fig. 4(a,b,c) : Lift, Drag, Moment Coefficient vs Incidence angle

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Drag Coefficient
Figure 4 (b) compares the drag values. The computational values are lower than the computational values. As the
incidence angle is increasing the variations in the results is more.
Pitching Moment Coefficient

The variation in pitching moment coefficient, figure 4 (c), follows the experimental results at lower incidences. At
higher incidences the difference in experimental results and the computational results is significant due to effect of base flow
and effect of balance string has not been modeled in the computational results.
Lift to Drag Ratio

The computational L/D ratio shows improvement over the experimental above 7 incidence due to increased suction
over the leeward side, figure 4 (d).
Fig. 4(d,e) : L/D ratio and Xcp/L vs Incidence angle

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8. CONCLUSION
1. Bodies with elliptic cross-section exhibit higher lift to drag ratios than those of circular cross-section of the same
fineness ratio and volume.
2. Power-law bodies can be an alternative to the blunted cone configurations because a power-law body has a greater
internal volume than a blunted cone of same fineness ratio and represents the minimum drag case at hypersonic speeds.
3. The additions of strakes are found to improve the L/D ratio of the configuration without any significant change in the
pitching moment characteristics.
4. Mach number, lift and the pitching moment characteristics of for the computational and experimental results of a half-
power-law body gave a reasonably good agreement .However, the agreement is not so good for the drag and pitching
moment as effect of base flow and effect of balance string has not been modeled in the computational results.
REFERENCES
1. Fraenkel, L. E. , “Supersonic flow past slender bodies of elliptic cross-section”, ARC A&M 2954, 1955
2. Jorgensen, L. , “Elliptic cone alone and with wings at supersonic speeds”, NACA TN-4045, 1957
3. Reggiori, A., “Lift and drag of wing-cone configuration in hypersonic flow”, AIAA Journal, vol. 9, No. 4 , April 1971,
pp 744-745.
4. Tiwari, S. N., Singh, D. J., Sehgal, A. K., “Combined effect of nose bluntness and angle of attack on slender bodies in
viscous hypersonic flow”, AIAA Paper 92-0755, January 1992.
5. Ashby, G. C., and Cary, A. M., “A parametric study of the aerodynamic characteristics of nose-cylinder-flare bodies at
Mach number of 6.0”, NASA TN D-2854, June 1965.
6. Jorgensen, L. H. , Nelson, E. R., “Experimental aerodynamics characteristics for a cylindrical body of revolution with
side strakes and various noses at angles of attack from 0° to 58° and Mach numbers from 0.6 to 2.0”, NASA TM X-
3130,1975
7. Eggers, A. J., Resnikoff, M. M., and Dennis, D. H., “Bodies of revolution having minimum drag at high supersonic
speeds”, NACA Report 1306, 1957.
8. Cole, J. D., “Newtonian flow theory for slender bodies”, Journal of Aeronautical sciences, vol. 24, no. 6, pp 448-455,
June 1957.
9. Spencer, B., Phillips, W. P. , “Supersonic aerodynamic characteristics of a series of bodies having variations in fineness
ratio and cross-section ellipticity, NASA TN D-2389, 1964.
10. Spencer, B., and Fox, C. H., “Hypersonic aerodynamic performance of minimum wave-drag bodies”, NASA TR R-250,
November 1966.
11. Ashby, G. C., Jr., “Longitudinal aerodynamic performance of a series of power-law and minimum wave drag bodies at
Mach 6 and several Reynolds numbers”, NASA-TM-X-2713, August 1974.
12. Westby, M. F., and Regan, J. D., “The aerodynamic characteristics of power-law bodies in continuum and transitional
hypersonic flow”, RAE Technical Memorandum Aero 2164, August 1989.
13. Levinsky, E. S., Wei, M. H. Y., “Non-linear lift and pressure distribution of slender conical bodies with strakes at low
speeds”, NASA CR-1202, 1968.
14. Singh, Amarjit, “Force measurement on a one-half-power-law elliptic cone with and without strakes”, Cranfield
University, College of Aeronautics Report No. 9505, August, 1995.
15. Singh, Amarjit, “Experimental study of slender vehicles at hypersonic speeds”, PhD thesis, Cranfield University, 1996.
16. Singh, Amarjit, Chauhan, Y. S., “A study of the effect of strakes on the aerodynamic characteristics of a power-law body
of elliptical cross-section at hypersonic speeds”, Proceedings of 51st AGM and Seminar on Advances in Aerospace
Technologies, Jan 21-22, 2000.
17. Kontis, K., Stollery, J. L., Edwards, J. A., “Hypersonic effectiveness of slender lifting elliptic cones with and without
strakes”, AIAA 97-521, pp1-11,1997.
18. Kontis, K., Qin, N., Stollery, J. L., “Computational and experimental investigation of hypersonic performance of a
lifting elliptic cone with and without strakes”, AIAA 97-2252, pp1-11, 1997.
19. Kontis, K., “Flow control effectiveness of jets, strakes, and flares at hypersonic speeds” Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part G:
J. Aerospace Engineering, pp 585-603, 2008.
20. Sonawane, P. D., Singh, Amarjit, Bhatkar, V. W. and Oak, S. M., “ CFD Analysis of Hypersonic Flow around a Power
Law Body” Engineering Design 2007 Conference, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Aug 09-11, 2007.
21. Sonawane, P. D., Mittal, Nitika, Barpande, G. S., Jaware, V. B., Singh, Amarjit, “Slender Bodies at Hypersonic
Speeds”, IDST-MSAT 2007, Missile Complex, DRDL, Hyderabad, Oct 26-27, 2007.
22. Bertin J. J., “Hypersonic aerothermodynamics”. AIAA education series, 1994.
23. Cox, R. N. and Crabtree, L. F., “Elements of hypersonic aerodynamics”, Academic Press, New York, 1965.
24. Rasmussen, M., “Hypersonic Flow”, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1994.

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STABILITY AND CONTROL OF AIRCRAFT BOMBS AT

HIGH ANGLE OF ATTACK, USING CASCADE FINS
Misra A, Ghosh AK, Ghosh K
IIT, Kanpur 208016
ABSTRACT
Most guided bombs use planar fins that are mounted parallel to the body axes. These fins rotate back and forth to
generate forces in the horizontal and / or vertical planes that cause the bomb to yaw right and left, pitch up and down, or
roll as the bomb maneuvers towards the target.
Lattice or grid fins are a relatively new Aero-mechanical technology for tail controlled ordnances. One of the
advantages of grid fins is their capability to produce effective aerodynamic control forces at high angle of attack. Unlike
conventional planar fins, grid fins do not experience classical “stall” at high angle of attack. These characteristics lead to more
effective stability and control at intermediate and large angles of attack. In addition, the hinge moments produced by grid fins
are very small due to small chord. This leads to requirement of very small actuators for deflecting these fins. This advantage
becomes more and more significant as the bomb size increases. The major disadvantage of grid fins is high drag leading to
lower aerodynamic efficiency compared to conventional planar fins.
In order to address the issue of low aerodynamic efficiency of grid fins, a new category of fins called cascade fins is
proposed. Cascade fins consist of planar members placed parallel to each other at optimized gap to chord ratio. Unlike grid
fins, no cross members are present, only a base plate and an optional end plate (EP) is present. Planar members, in cascade fins,
are of symmetric airfoil cross section. Due to cascade effect the lift increases with increase in number of planar members for a
given angle of attack. These could also be flat plates. These fins produce lesser drag as compared to grid fins (better CL/CD).
Absence of cross members in a cascade fin does not alter its stall prevention characteristics. Cascade fins preserve both the
basic advantages of grid fins, namely delayed stall, and very low hinge moments. Flat plate cascade fins provide more stability
and better restoring moments, whereas Aerofoil cascade fins provide superior aerodynamic efficiency.
Some of the parameters affecting the aerodynamics of cascade fins are gap to chord ratio, number of planar members,
presence of end plate and the cross section shape of the planar members.
1. INTRODUCTION
Most guided missiles use planar fins that are mounted parallel to the body axes. These fins rotate back and forth to
generate forces in the horizontal and / or vertical planes that cause the vehicle to yaw right and left, pitch up and down, or roll
as the missile maneuvers towards the target. These moving control fins are located aft of the weapon's center of gravity (C.G.)
in a tail control layout. At the CG in a wing control format, or forward of the CG in a canard control configuration. Missile
concepts with forward control fins or canard, have been used for many years. However, previous studies have shown that
concepts with canards can suffer from adverse induced rolling moments1-5.
Lattice or grid fins are a relatively new aero-mechanical technology for tail controlled missiles. The design of these
grid fins allows an effective aerodynamic control device stowed along with the body of a missile without increasing the
overall dimensions. Therefore, the fin configuration promises good stow ability for potential tube-launched and internal
carriage dispenser-launched applications. The internal grid structure, which forms webbing for a tail fin, provides a high
strength to weight ratio compared to planar fins that can be quite large. This in-turn, allows for the fins to have advantage of a
low hinge moment due to smaller chord and hinge control effectiveness. Therefore, small and light actuators can be used for
missiles with Grid / Lattice fin controls. The use of grid fins or “lattice controls”, for the tail control surfaces instead of
conventional planar fins was proposed by the U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command (AMCOM) personnel as a possible
remedy for the roll control problem5.
A grid fin is an unconventional lifting and control surfaces of small chord6. One of the advantages of grid fins is their
capability to produce effective aerodynamic control forces at high angle of attack over wide Mach number ranges. Unlike
conventional planar fins, grid fins do not experience classical “stall” at higher angle of attack. These characteristics lead to
more effective stability and control characteristics at intermediate and large angles of atatck7. Grid fins are normally mounted
transverse to the longitudinal axis of the missile so that the flow passes through the grid numbers. The angle of attack of the fin
is achieved by simple rotation of the fin about its horizontal axis in much the same way a conventional fin control surface is
deflected. Although there is evidence8,9 that the lattice control concept has been around for some time, there use as missile

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stability and control surfaces is a fairly recent innovation. Russian federation armed forces already use grid fins on the AA-12
medium range air-to-air missile. This missile is understood to be equivalent to the US AMRAAM. Grid fins are also used on
various ballistic missiles of the former Soviet Union and have even been used as emergency drag brakes on the SOYUZ TM-
22 spacecraft. United states uses grid fins on Massive Ordnance Air Blast (MOAB) bomb10,11. Thus, grid fine have found a
number of applications within the sphere of missile aerodynamics
The Research Development and Engineering Center of U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command, Huntsville,
Alabama has investigated the aerodynamics of the grid fins since 1985. A total nine wind tunnel tests have been conducted in
order to gain greater insight into the aerodynamic characteristics of grid fins for Mach numbers ranging from 0.3 to 3.5. The
grid fin is a unique device that can be used as either an aerodynamic stabilizer or a control surface. It's unique design and
aerodynamic characteristics separate it from conventional planar fins.
Planar fins can generally be described with information about the root chord, tip chord, span, and thickness. Grid
fins require additional geometric parameters namely height, cell spacing element thickness12. The team continued their
research and tested the leading edge profiles (flat, convex and concave) with respect to the free stream directions and found
that effects of the curvature on the grid fin aerodynamics were negligible12. Next, the effect of frame cross-sectional shape as
well as web-thickness on the drag and other forces were studied12. Their tests results yielded significant changes in drag
characteristics at all Mach numbers tested, but the normal force (Lift) and hinge moment characteristics showed small
changes.
In early 1989, wind tunnel tests by Rockwell International Missile System Division, Georgia demonstrated several
interesting trends12. The results showed that horizontal slat configuration tend to provide higher normal-force characteristics
than open geometries13. Complex grid-like inner fin arrangements provided increase in normal force over open geometries
and comparatively larger axial force. The cross fin configurations produced roughly the same normal force as the single slat
fin. It was realized that the same fins because, of their low hinge actuators requirements, might be efficient as lifting surfaces
when flown in the normal transverse direction but could also be used as drag brakes if turned to a horizontal position13.
Interest in grid fins is primarily based on its potential use on highly maneuverable munitions due to their advantages
over conventional planar controls at high angle of attack and high Mach number. The fin design yields favorable lift
characteristics at high angle of attack and near zero hinge moments, which allow the use of small and light weight actuators1,2.
Aerodynamics of grid fins has been investigated since 1985 by the U.S. Army Missile Research and Development Center
(MRDEC). These investigations indicated that one of the advantages of grid fins is their ability to maintain lift at high angle of
attack since they do not have the same stall characteristics as those of conventional planar fins. The main disadvantage was
indicated to be higher drag compared to that of planar fins, although some techniques for minimizing drag by altering the grid
fin frame cross sectional shape were demonstrated. Any modification of grid fin configuration must necessarily provide
adequate lift at high angle of attack. This is possible if the stall is delayed and / or is of mildness nature compared to planar fin.
The drag reduction of a grid fin configuration could be achieved, to the some extent, by altering the grid fin cross sectional
shape. For performance enhancement such a configuration needs to generate higher values of aerodynamic efficiency.
Undamentally the delay in stall could be linked to delayed separation which could be further attributed to the cascade effect14.
A typical grid fin with criss cross members can be approximated as consisting of orthogonal slats4 (Fig. 1). One of the
important parameter effecting stall could be the gap to chord ratio of the lifting members of the grid fin14. A typical cruciform
configuration of grid fins as shown in Fig. 1 consists of two pairs.
Fig. 1: Schematic of the model used for design evaluatin and testing fo fgrid fins
One in elevator position and other in rudder position. In elevator position the lift producing members are horizontal
and cross members are vertical. In rudder position the lifting members are vertical and cross members are horizontal. The
cross members a part from providing structural rigidity to some extent, contribute to drag. In addition, elevator fins' cross
members contribute to directional stability and rudder fins' cross members contribute to pitch stability. The cross members do
not provide control in any case. In order to maximize we propose a new category of grid fins called cascade fins. The present
work is a study of such cascade fins which do not have cross members as is the case with grid fins. A cascade fin has fins
parallel to each other placed at optimized gap to chord ratio (g/c), forming a cascade of flow.
Most of the grid fins configurations available in open literature addresses issues related to grids fins with high aspect
ratio. The low aspect ratio fins, although induce large drag, are better suited for high angle of attack maneuvers. The selection
of test configurations was also influenced by the immediate requirement of a lattice fin tail unit for an existing aircraft bomb.

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Accordingly the aspect ratio chosen for the planar member of cascade fin was 2.0. Further, to investigate the effect of cross
sectional shape of planar members, two cross sectional shapes, namely Flat Plate and Symmetrical aerofoil (NACA 0012)
were chosen. In order to eliminate any body fin interference, these cascade fins were tested in fin alone configuration with out
body.
In order to study the effect of number of planar members of a cascade fin on its aerodynamics the number of such
planar members selected was 1, 3, 4 & 5. Here 1 planar member configuration refers to a single conventional planar fin.
Another important parameters to be studied was gap to chord ratio of a cascade fin. Five different gap to chord ratios
were tested (g/c = 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9). A full scale model was tested at Re = 308,000. A sting (to mount the model in wind
tunnel) available in the tunnel was unsuitable to simulate high angle of attack in vertical plane. This was overcome by
mounting the cascade model on the floor of the wind tunnel as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Cascade fin without and with end plate (Rear View at = 0)
0 0
The angle of attack range (0 to 50 ) was simulated in the horizontal plane by rotating the base turn table. A shroud
was placed over the balance front and rear end adapter to isolate the balance from direct wind loads.
A six component balance, mounted vertically on the floor, was used to measure the aerodynamic forces and
moments (CN, Cy, Cm, Cl, Cn). Both dry and wind runs were made in order to asses the value of the offset to be removed from the
measured data. The data obtained through these tests were processed to get numerical values of force and moment
coefficients. The reference area of 0.02 m2 and chord length of 0.1 m were used for nondimensiolizing the force and moment
coefficients.
As stated earlier, in order to address the issue of low aerodynamic efficiency of grid fins, a new category of fins
called cascade fins is proposed14. Cascade fins consist of planar members placed parallel to each other at optimized gap to
chord ratio. Unlike grid fins, no cross members are present, only a base plate and an optional end plate (EP) are present. Planar
members, in cascade fins, are of symmetric airfoil cross section. These could also be flat plates. These fins produce lesser
drag as compared to grid fins (better CL/CD). Absence of cross members in a cascade fin does not alter its stall prevention
characteristics. Cascade fins preserve both the basic advantages of grid fins namely delayed stall and very low hinge
moments.
Some of the parameters affecting the aerodynamics of cascade fins are gap to chord ratio, number of planar
members, presence of end plate and the cross section shape of the planar members. Exhaustive wind tunnel tests were
conducted to quantify the effect of these parameters on cascade aerodynamics. A brief discussion on the wind tunnel tests is
described next. The effect of gap to chord ratio and end plate effect has been documented in Ref 14. This paper briefly
presents the effect of number of planar member and cross sectional shape of planar member or cascade aerodynamics.
2. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Figure 3 shows the effect of number of planer members in a cascade fin. As expected the lift increases with increase
in number of planar members for a given angle of attack. However, this increase in lift is not linear. This is due to cascade
Effect. It can be seen referring Fig. 3 that there is significant increase in the stall angle of the cascade fin. The stall angle for
single flat plate is found to be around 12 degrees. Whereas for cascade fins it lie near 22 degrees. The stall angle could easily
be increased by reducing the gap to chord ratio14-. The cascade fins could be used for high angle of attack operation without
facing conventional problems of stall.

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Fig. 3 CL vs. Alpha for different n (n=no. of planar members); g/c = 0.5 (WT Data)
Next issue was to increase CL/CD of the cascade fins. One approach followed was to replace flat plate cascade by
aerofoil cascade. Figure 4 compares the aerodynamic characteristics of Flat Plate Cascade (FPC) and Aerofoil Cascade
(AFC). The lift curves show that upto 20 degrees angle of attack, FPC gives marginally higher lift. From 20 degrees to 30
degrees angle of attack, AFC gives marginally more lift. Around 32 degree angle of attack, AFC's lift drops abruptly. The drag
curves show that AFC is superior than FPC throughout the angle of attack range of 0 to 53 degrees. The aerodynamic
efficiency (CL/CD) of AFC is significantly higher than FPC from 4 to 32 degrees angle of attack. For bombs whose operable
range of angle of attack lie within 4 to 32 degrees, an AFC tail unit is a betterchoice from aerodynamic efficiency point of
view.
The pitching moment characteristics of the two cascades show that the pitch stiffness provided by AFC is nearly
constant upto 22 degrees angle of attack. Beyond 22 degrees there is a sudden drop in pitch stiffness. FPC, on the other hand,
provides higher stiffness than AFC upto 20 degrees. Beyond 20 degrees angle of attack, upto 40 degrees, AFC gives
marginal stability. The reduction in pitch stiffness of cascade fins at higher angle of attack can advantageously be utilized to
design the suitable controller for highly maneuverable missiles / aircraft bombs.

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Fig 4: Comparison of Flat Plate and Aerofoil Cascades' Aerodynamics
REFERENCES
1. Allen, J.M., Blair, A.B., Jr., “Comparison of Analytical and Experimental Supersonic Aerodynamics Characteristics
of a Forward Control Missile,” Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, 1982, 19(2), pp 155-159.
2. Blair, A.B., Jr., Dillon, J.L., Jr., Watson, C.B., “Experimental Study of Tail-Span Effects on a Canard-Controlled
Missile,” Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, 1993, 30(5), pp 635-640.
3. Blair, A.B., Jr., “Supersonic Aerodynamics Characteristics of Maneuvering Canard Controlled Missile with Fixed and
Free-Rolling Tail Fins,” SAE paper 90-1993, Society of Automotive Engineers: Warrendale, PA, October 1990.
4. Burt, J.R., Jr., “The Effectiveness of Canards for Roll Control,” RD-77-8, U.S. Army Missile Command, Red Stone
Arsenel, AL, 1976.
5. James De Spirito, Milton E., Vaughn, Jr., and W. David Washington, “Numerical Investigation of Aerodynamics of
Canard-Controlled Missile using Planar and Grid Fins,” Part II: Subsonic and Transonic Flow, ARL TR 3162, March
2004.
6. Washington, W.D., Miller, M.S., “Grid Fins A New Concept for Missile Stability and Control ,” AIAA paper 93-0035,
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Reston, VA, January 1993.
7. Washington, W.D., Miller, M.S., “Experimental Investigation of Grid Fin Aerodynamics: A Synopsis of Nine Wind
Tunnel and Three Flight Tests,” Symposium on “Missile Aerodynamics”, Sorrento, Italy, 11-14 May, 1998.
8. Belotserkovskiy, S.M., etal, “Wings with Internal Frame Work,” Machine Translation, FTD-ID (RS)-1289-86,
Foreign Technology Division, February 1987.

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9. Simpson, G.M. and Sadler, A.J., “Lattice Controls: A Comparison with Conventional Planar Fins,” Symposium on
Missile Aerodynamics, RTO-MP-5, Italy, 11-14 May 1998.
10. Drab, J., and Patterson, B.C., “Massive Ordinance Air Blast Weapon Development,” AFRLS, Munition Directorate,
Elgin, AFBFL, 2004.
11. Fulghum, David A., “It is a Big One (MOAB Actually Fits in a B-2,” Aviation Week and Space Technology, March 16,
2003.
12. Washington, William D. and Miller, Mark S., “Curvature and Leading Edge Sweep Back Effects on Grid Fin
Aerodynamics Characteristics”, AIAA paper 93-3480, Applied Aerodynamics Conference, Monterey, CA, August
1993.
13. Miller, Mark S. and Washington, William D., “An Experimental Investigation of Grid Fin Configurations,” AIAA
paper 94-1914-CP, WL Technical Library.
14. Misra A., Ghosh A.K. and Ghosh K., “Cascade Fins - An Alternate Tail Stabilization Unit”, AIAA conference,
Hawaai, Aug 18-20,2008.

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UNDERSTANDING TRAJECTORY MODELLING VIA

ERROR AND UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
KK Chand
Proof & Experimental Establishment, Chandipur, Balasore, Orissa- 756 025
ABSTRACT
Trajectory modeling and simulation has been addressed in many contexts by researches and scientists in many
disciplines in its broad applications and usefulness. It is a computational tool to calculate the flight path of projectiles and its
elements. There is a wide span of trajectory modeling and computations differing with respect to their performance and
fidelity characteristics, which are used throughout the life cycle of a weapon system to improve the understanding of various
aspects for a variety of tasks. Trajectory modeling of a projectile system is a process and its important characteristics lie in its
mathematical representations. The applicability of a model is limited by the assumptions and the uncertainties in the
evaluation data, understanding the judgments associated with the modeling process. Its analysis under uncertainty
environments is an engineering discipline, and a powerful tool in any weapon systems developmental programmes. A
fundamental understanding is necessary to comprehend the factors that influence accuracy and how to account for them in the
determination of firing experimental data. Growing international competition in the technological and industrial applications
has necessitated that armament designers, managers and practitioners ensure a level of performance of their products before
releasing them for service use. The rational treatment of uncertainties in trajectory modeling has received increasing
attention in recent years. Loading and boundary conditions, material properties, geometry and various other parameters show
in some cases considerable variations at macro-scale or at micro-scale in a multi-levels physical context.
Observations and measurements of physical processes as well as parameters at different scales clearly indicate their
random characteristics. Uncertainty analysis has been an established engineering methodology, but is relatively new to
epidemiology for the quantitative assessment of biases, hence the ballistician's interested to apply it to the armament field too.
A systematic uncertainty analysis also provides insight into the degree of confidence of a measurement or experimental
results in the existing data and models to assess how various possible model estimates should be weighed. In view of above,
this paper will consist of two sections. Section one will discuss various types and sources of errors and uncertainties in
projectile trajectory modeling from physical, mathematical, experimental and computational aspects. Section two will
discuss a systematic approach to quantifying various parameters from a case study.
1. INTRODUCTION
In our physical world, motion is ubiquitous and controlled by the application of two principal ideas, force and
motion. The study of these ideas is called dynamics. Through the study of dynamics, we are able to calculate and predict
the trajectory of a projectile system. Trajectory modelling is the process of identifying the principal physical dynamic
effects by analyzing a system, writing the differential and algebraic equations from the fundamental laws. Modelling
projectile motion and its simulation is nothing but as a computational tool to calculate the flight path and its
characteristics. There is a wide span of trajectory modelling and simulation differing widely with respect to their
performance and fidelity characteristics, such as specifying ammunition performance requirements, designing
ammunitions, optimizing the design parameters, assessing ammunition performance, teaching users the correct use of
weapon and fire control system.
The study of projectile motion is called ballistics, that is, it is, in essence, the study of projectile motion and the
conditions that influence that motion. As an applied and complex fields of science, ballistics has a wide meaning and a
wide scope of subjects, ranging from the behaviors of projectile inside a gun barrel (Internal Ballistics), the flight of
projectile through the air (External Ballistics) and the interaction between projectile and targets (Terminal Ballistics),
which shown in Figure 1. Its development is very much related to the evolution of military technology and particularly
in artillery projectile trajectory modeling system.
Similarly, the science of investigating projectile trajectory modeling and computation in space is known as external
ballistics or the science of flight dynamics. It existed for centuries as an art before its first beginnings as a science. For
understanding the inflight behaviour of the projectile system is to develop the mathematical models that can predict all
elements of the trajectory from launch to target. External ballistics variations are the main concern for artillery projectile
NCAAT 2008 PROCEEDINGS S1.4 /1

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system in the field. Figure 2 depicts an exterior ballistics environment of a projectile system. Figure 3 depicts the global
motion of a projectile system in space.
Recent involvement in designing and developing a trajectory and simulation model to allow interaction between
physical, mathematical and computational processes has also led to interest in error and uncertainty propagation. The
effectiveness of a trajectory modelling is closely linked to the accuracy to which it may be delivered to the intended target
area. The trajectory of a projectile depends upon many factors, such as the components of initial/launch velocity, launch
Figure 3: Global Motion of a Projectile System

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angle of the projectile, its mass/weight, shape, size, rate of spin, drag characteristics, the density and temperature of the air, the
direction and velocity of the wind at various altitudes, rotation-of-earth effects, forces and moments induced by projectile spin, and
the latitude of the gun and the azimuth of fire etc. Various models may be used, with varying complexities, to incorporate any of the
above effects. The main classes of trajectory models are known as: in-vacuo, point-mass, modified point-mass and six-degree-of-
freedom, universal and artificial neural networks.
In development of models, we often combine many parameters together to produce models with hundreds and even
thousands of parameters. The uncertainty in these models arises not only from the uncertainty in the model inputs but also due
to other more fundamental problems associated with our ability to model complex systems. Often in presenting model outputs
we fail to adequately represent these uncertainties. In this paper we intend to explore some of the issues associated with
uncertainty in projectile trajectory modelling.
Random firing vibration resulting projectile's initial disturbing having random error, which is got at the moment when they
fly out of the muzzle. Thereby, projectile deviate the predicted trajectory, which resulted in dispersion of a series of, fired projectiles.
So, dispersion of projectiles is decided by a few random elements. The following equation for muzzle velocity variation (MVV) is
valid for our purposes:
MVV (m/s) = Shooting Strength of Weapon + Ammunition Efficiency +Round to Round Variation;
Random nature of various parameters in ballistic test and evaluation demands probabilistic approach, which provides the
mathematical basis for evaluation of projectile's trajectory system performance via prediction of overall projectile's dispersion
accuracy or consistency, which are random variable and assumed a normal multidimensional distribution. It is essential parameters
for a projectile-weapon-ammunition system, which affect performance to simulate the firing process and predicting dispersion
accuracy.
In this paper, a general methodology for uncertainty analysis is presented that combines modeling, simulation and
experimental techniques for an understanding of projectile's trajectory modeling system performance and is in accordance to the
principles of the GUM. In view of the above, first, this paper discusses various types of errors and uncertainties, and its
classifications in general. In second, a case study has been discussed for quantifying various parameters from a test firing system.
Projectile Motion As A Dynamical System

A projectile is defined as “an object, projected by an applied exterior force or impulse and continuing in motion by virtue of
its own inertia over a very short period of time”. A projectile with its weapon and ammunition form a projectile system. It is term that
emerges from many disciplines and domains and has many interpretations, implications and problems associated with it. Generally,
modern artillery projectile systems have many features in common, which include a fuze, ogive, bourrelet, and rotating band.
Figure 4 shows the concept of a simple projectile system.
Similarly, linked with projectile motion, a trajectory can be defined as an imagined trace of positions followed by an object
moving through space. A projectile system, when subjected to propelled, fired, shot, launched, or thrown through space by the
exertions of a force by a suitable means, behaves dynamically. This is a dynamic system, because the level of the elements changes
in time. Mathematically the term trajectory refers to the ordered set of states (as a function of the time), which are assumed by a

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dynamical system over time. Mathematically a trajectory may be described either by the geometry of the path (i.e. the set of
all positions taken by the object), or as the position of the object over time.
To describe a trajectory completely it is sufficient to specify the x, y and z coordinates of the center of gravity of the
projectile at any time t after the release by the projecting mechanism; in other words, a trajectory is regarded as defined by: x =
x(t); y = y(t); z = z(t); where x(t), y(t) and z(t) are functions of the time t which are equal to zero when t = 0. The trajectory is
determined by: (a) the position of the origin; (b) the conditions of projections;(c) the ballistic characteristics of the projectile;
(d) the characteristics of the air through which it passes;
Projectile Trajectory Modeling And Simulation

Trajectory modeling and simulation, in the present context, means computing the flight path and other parameters,
such as range, deviation, orientation, and angular rates of a projectile system from the start to the end of its motion. Trajectory
modelling deals with mathematical models of the behavior of projectile and its subsystems (if any) during its test &
evaluation and operations. The equations of motion determine the acceleration, velocity and position (range & deviation) of
the projectile resulting from forces and moments due to gravity, thrust and aerodynamics. If all characteristics of a projectile,
together with atmospheric conditions are exactly equal to a set of predicted values, the projectile will fly on a known
trajectory. This trajectory is called nominal trajectory. In practice, there are always some differences between the real and
predicted values. These differences make the projectile not to fly exactly on its nominal trajectory. Therefore, there are
always some errors between the positions of a desired and real impact point. Estimation of these errors is very important from
the operational point of view. Also, investigation of the error sources and their effects can help a projectile designer to
optimize design parameters for the lowest impact point error. The guidance and control models account for subsystems such
as the control system in case of a missile system.
Particularly trajectory simulation requires a customized approach. The level of sophistication of simulations varies
greatly depending on the applications ranging from unsophisticated two-dimensional models to very detailed six-seven
degree of freedom models as per shapes and sizes of projectile systems. The requirements of a given trajectory simulation are
derived from the objectives of the intended users requirements like, analysis, development, procurement and operation. The
modeling phase is a decisive stage because the analysis of the model depends strongly on the model. The choice of the model
depends on several criteria, the most important ones are; (i) data of the modeled system, (ii) system's complexity, (iii)
availability of a computer tool implementing the model, (iv) compatibility of the model with the analysis leading to expected
result.
Mathematical Modeling
Let us first consider 2-D (3-DOF) case, the projectile as a particle and the motion of the projectile of mass m influenced by
gravity g and air resistance. Therefore the trajectory modelling of the projectile motion is described by:
d 2x d2y
ax = =
-
(1 / m ) F
× ×
cos a
q x = (1 / m) ×
=
- ( FD ×
sin q
+g ) (1)
m×
dt 2
D
dt 2
Where , and
v=
v +
v tan (
u= 2
x
v / vx )
2
y FD =
0.5 ×
r×
-
1
v2 ×
A×
yCD
by incorporating following basic limitations/assumptions:
(a) Ignoring of the earth's curvature or earth's flatness;

(b) Planar Motion of the projectile;
(c) No wind speed;
(d) Constancy of drag index and projectile's mass;
(e) Proportionality of drag force to squared velocity of the projectile;
(f) Constancy of drag coefficient and air density;
(g) Constancy of drag force or altitude independency of drag force;
(h) Neglecting of centrifugal, coriolis, magnus forces and its cross-effects;
The above equations are solved subject to the following state or initial conditions:
u=
dx / dt =
v0 cos q
0;v =
dy / dt =
v0 sin q
0 v =
v0 ; x =y =0; at t = 0 (2)

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Where the drag force FD acting on the projectile depends on air density ñ, velocity v, cross-section area
A= ð×r2, radius of the projectile r, and drag coefficient CD. If the drag force is neglected, the calculation of the projectile
trajectory becomes trivial. If however the drag force is taken into account, the analytical solution is not soluble due to
the drag dependency on the square of the velocity and presence of angle as argument of trigonometric functions.
Target Density Parameters

n
2
åY)
(D i
(i) Elevating probability error, Ba =
0.6745 1
n-
1
n
2
(ii) Azimuth probability error, å
(D
1
Z) i
Bb =
0.6745
n-
1
Where, Yi elevation coordination deviation from the center of clustering (meter), Yi=Yi - YcP ;, Zi azimuth
coordination deviation from the center of clustering (meter), Zi=Zi - ZcP ; YcP , ZcP clustering coordinate (meter)
n n
å Y
1 i
å Z , n - the number of the projectile; Yi and Zi elevation, azimuth coordinate of each projectile.
1 i
YcP = Z cP =
n n
2. GOAL OF UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS/PROPAGATION
Uncertainty is an integral part of almost every real-world problem due to its complex nature of the physical process.
The objective of uncertainty analysis or propagation is to characterize the uncertainties in the system output given some
knowledge of the uncertainties associated with the system parameters together with one or more computational models or
experimental data. For realistic systems one must include uncertainties of various types in the mathematical model of the
system. Therefore, researchers and scientists attempting to have a better understanding of the process have devoted
tremendous efforts. The appropriate incorporation of uncertainty into the analyses of complex systems is a topic of
importance and widespread interest. The particular context under consideration is shown in Figure 5.
Projectile trajectory modelling system analyses and designs uncertainties can arise from the various sources
including environmental uncertainties, model uncertainties, parameter uncertainties, data uncertainties, and operational
uncertainties. Environmental uncertainty is associated with the inherent randomness of environmental processes such as the
occurrence of wind speeds and humidity. A model is only an abstraction of the reality, which generally involves certain
degrees of simplifications and idealizations. Model uncertainty reflects the inability of a model or design technique to
represent precisely the system's true physical behavior. Parameter uncertainties resulting from the inability to quantify

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accurately the model inputs and parameters. Parameter uncertainty could also be caused by change in operational
conditions of system structures, inherent variability of inputs and parameters in time and in space, and lack of sufficient
amounts of data. Data uncertainties include (1) measurement errors, (2) inconsistency and non-homogeneity of data, (3)
data handling and transcription errors, and (4) inadequate representation of data sample due to time and space limitations.
Operational uncertainties include those associated with construction, manufacture, deterioration, maintenance, and human.
Uncertainty analysis of measurement results is not a deterministic, but rather holistic and probabilistic in nature. Its
complexity and ambiguity contributes that the uncertainty analysis is often misunderstood, misrepresented or even avoided.
The process of developing uncertainty budgets requires a manufacturer to first find the causes of measurement uncertainty
and quantify them. A manufacturer or designer or evaluator must understand the measuring process being evaluated, and a
certain amount of experience, to identify and quantify uncertainty contributors. There are a couple of techniques that can
help in systematically searching for uncertainty contributors. When collecting uncertainty contributors, it is important to
know the areas where they may be lurking. These 10 areas are the most common a designer should use in looking for
uncertainty contributors. The "circle of contributors" (Figure 6) technique involves using a list of areas where uncertainty
contributors may be lurking as an aid in searching for them.
The process of generating and propagating the simulation values is shown in Figure 7. For each actual measured
coordinate point, (Xi, Yi, Zi), the associated errors, (Xi, Yi, Zi), are generated by sampling from the appropriate estimated
distribution. This process creates a set of new measurement points, (, which are then evaluated by the trajectory computation
software according to the feature being measured. Figure 7 shows an example of a trajectory path being measured; is the
final calculated trajectory of the projectile, and the function f represents the algorithm used to calculate the trajectory path
from the set of n data points. This process will be repeated a number of times according to how the experiment is designed,
and the statistics for will be used to estimate the combined standard uncertainty for the measurement of the trajectory path.
Definition Of Error And Uncertainty

The performance of a trajectory modelling system is adversely affected by error and uncertainty. According to the
scope of the Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM), the error and uncertainty can be defined as:
(a) Error: A recognizable deficiency that is not due to lack of knowledge.
(b) Uncertainty: A potential deficiency that is due to lack of knowledge.
These two definitions imply that error is deterministic in nature and uncertainty is stochastic or non-deterministic in nature.

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Types of Errors
Errors can be classified as either "acknowledged" or "unacknowledged":
(A) Acknowledged errors are those, which have been identified in a simulation, but the analyst decides not to
remove them because the results are adequate for the job requirements and budget (examples include round-off error and
discretization error, and convergence error in an iterative numerical scheme).
(B) Unacknowledged errors in a simulation are those the analyst is unaware of but they are recognizable. They
have no foolproof procedures for finding them but they may be detected by redundant procedures and double-checking
(examples are computer programming errors, or usage errors, including mistakes and blunders).
Our knowledge of how the physical system works is limited by at least five kinds of uncertainty: (1) inadequate
knowledge of all the factors that may influence something, (2) inadequate number of observations of those factors, (3)
lack of precision in the observations, (4) lack of appropriate models to combine all the information meaningfully, and (5)
inadequate ability to compute from the models. It is the incompleteness of the knowledge of the value of the measurand
associated with the given result of a measurement. It is an interval within which a true value of a measurand lies with
given probability.
The reasons responsible to introduce uncertainty in a model may be:

(a) The model structure, i.e., how accurately does a mathematical model describe the true system
for a real-life situation;
(b) The numerical approximation, i.e., how appropriately a numerical method is used in
approximating the operation of the system;
(c) The initial / boundary conditions, i.e., how precise are the data / information for initial and /
or boundary conditions;
(d) The data for input and/or model parameters;
Types of Uncertainties
The following three types of uncertainties can be identified:
Type-I: Uncertainty due to variability of input and/or model parameters when the characterization of the variability is
available (e.g., with probability density functions, (pdf ))
Type-II: Uncertainty due to variability of input and/or model parameters when the corresponding variability
characterization is not available;
Type-III: Uncertainty due to an unknown process or mechanism;
Type I uncertainty may be referred to as “aleatory” or “quantitative” (i.e., dependent on chance) or “random” or
“stochastic” or "inherent" or "irreducible" uncertainty. It can be expressed using numerical values. It is not due to a lack of
knowledge and cannot be reduced. Aleatory uncertainty, however, generally characterizes due to random processes or effects,

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such as the wind speed and direction at an arbitrary point in space as a flying projectile passes.
Type II and III are referred to as epistemic or qualitative uncertainties. It can be expressed using qualitative terms and used
when the sources of uncertainty cannot be estimated precisely using numerical values. Epistemic uncertainty deals with our
state-of knowledge about portions of our model. This uncertainty has been called “subjective,” or "parameter," or “state-of-
knowledge” or "reducible" uncertainty. Examples are such things as inaccuracies and measurement error in the physical
burn-rate parameters characterizing a propellant. Epistemic uncertainty can be reduced or eliminated by an increase in
knowledge about the system being analyzed or measurement of the parameters.
Quantification of Uncertainty
It often happens in real life applications that all three types of uncertainties are present in the systems under study. The
goal of uncertainty quantification is to assign an appropriate mathematical model to real-world situation with respect to
objective and subjective uncertainty. The choice of an appropriate uncertainty model primarily depends on the
characteristics of the available information. That is, the underlying reality with the sources of the uncertainty dictates the
model. In each particular case this information must be analyzed and classified to be eligible for quantification.
Quantification or evaluation of uncertainties is very judgmental process, based on full scientific understanding,
knowledge and experience of measured quantities, properties and characteristics of instrumentation used, measurement
processes and procedures, and the data reduction procedures used to obtain the final measurement result.
Uncertainty quantification intends to work toward reducing type II and III uncertainties to type I. The quantification
for the type I uncertainty is relatively straightforward to perform. Techniques such as Monte Carlo are frequently used. Pdf
can be represented by its moments (in the Gaussian case, the mean and covariance suffice), or more recent techniques. To
evaluate type II and III uncertainties, the efforts are made to gain better knowledge of the system, process or mechanism.
Methods such as fuzzy logic or evidence theory are used.
In the planning phase of an experimental program, one focuses on the general or overall uncertainties. Consider a
general case in which an experimental result, f, is a function of n measured variables Xi:
f = f ( X , X ,... X ) (3)
1 2 n
Equation (3) is the data reduction equation used for determining f from the measured values of the variables Xi. The overall
uncertainty in the result is then given by
2
U2 =
æ
ç÷
¶f ö æ
U2 +
ç÷
¶f ö
U2 +
æ
¶f ö
ç÷
... + U2
(4)
f ç
X1 ÷
¶
x1 ç
X2 ÷
¶
x2 ç
Xn ÷
¶
xn
è ø è ø è ø
where are the uncertainties in the measured variables Xi. It is assumed that the relationship given by Eq.(3) is
continuous and has continuous derivatives in the domain of interest, that the measured variables Xi are independent of one
another, and that the uncertainties in the measured variables are also independent of one another.
Uncertainties In Projectile's Trajectory Modeling Process

Uncertainty in projectile trajectory modelling system has become of interest in recent years and emerged from a
combination of various computational aspects in interior or exterior or terminal ballistics models. Decision-makers have also
expressed a desire to have probabilities assigned to each scenario so that there is a better sense of whether certain scenarios are
more likely than others. Difficulty in assigning probabilities to scenarios can stem from "epistemic" or "stochastic" sources of
uncertainty. Epistemic sources of uncertainty are those that can be reduced by further study of the system, improving various
states of knowledge, etc. Stochastic sources of uncertainty are those that are considered "unknowable"items such as variability
in the system, the chaotic nature of the projectile system, and the indeterminacy of human systems.
Generally, uncertainties in projectile trajectory modelling are considered are mainly attributed to ambiguity and
vagueness in defining the variables and parameters of the systems and their relations. The ambiguity component is generally
due to noncognitive sources, which include (a) physical randomness; (b) statistical uncertainty due to the use of limited
information to estimate the characteristics of these parameters; and (c) model uncertainties that are due to simplifying
assumptions in analytical and prediction models, simplified methods, and idealized representations of real performances.
Similarly, the vagueness-related uncertainty is due to cognitive sources that include (a) the definition of certain variables or
parameters, e.g., structural performance (failure or survival), quality, deterioration, skill and experience of construction
workers and engineers, environmental impact of projects, conditions of exiting structures; (b) other human factors; and (c)
defining the interrelationships among the parameters of the problems, especially for complex weapon systems.
The accuracy of a projectile's trajectory modelling system firing such as most tank or artillery systems relies on
understanding numerous sources of error and correcting for them. Random errors are addressed through projectile and its
ammunition design, quality production, effective maintenance, and firing processes that minimize the magnitude of these
error sources. Bias errors are different because their magnitude and direction can often be estimated and then compensated
for while aiming the weapon.

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Characterizing Uncertainties Parameters

A common feature of engineering models is the need to provide values for model parameters that define properties,
or parameters, which appear in boundary or initial conditions. For example, according to drag law the combined effects of air
resistance can be reduced to a drag co-efficient for a projectile. It states that the drag force is proportional to the cross-
sectional or reference area of the projectile, air density in which the projectile moves and its velocity squared. The
proportionality constant is known as a drag coefficient (CD(a ) or CD(M )), which is widely used to represent a projectile's
aerodynamic efficiency. Its value depends on a function of the angle of attack, a or Mach number, M. Mathematically, it can
be written as Fdrag = CD(a) or CD(M )A(½ r V2), where CD(a ) or CD(M )= the coefficient of drag,;
A = cross-sectional or reference
area of the projectile; r = the density of air (~1.2 Kg/m3);and V = the velocity of the projectile relative to the air. The value for
this model parameter i.e. drag coefficient is estimated using experimental techniques utilizing samples of the projectiles. In
practical terms the drag co-efficient is a function of velocity, usually represented as the Mach number (M) that varies with air
temperature, which in turn reduces with altitude. The drag co-efficient is estimated during ammunition design, or since
computer simulations became possible, it can be modelled. These estimates can then be confirmed or adjusted from 'range &
accuracy' firing. Another widely used data is the ballistic co-efficient (CB), which reflects the rate at which velocity is lost as
the projectile penetrates air. The ballistic co-efficient is sometimes called the 'carrying power' of a shell, meaning how far a
given muzzle velocity will 'carry' it. It is expressed as CB=m/nd2, where CB = carrying power, m = projectile mass, d =
projectile diameter and n = êóô, where ê (kappa) is the co-efficient of shape, ó (sigma) the co-efficient of steadiness and ô
(tau) the co-efficient of air density. This means that mass is the main determinant of carrying power and is the reason that
artillery shells go further than rifle bullets even when the latter are fired at higher velocities. For a particular muzzle velocity
and firing elevation angle the heavy shell will always go further (unless its shape and steadiness are significantly inferior).
Generally, the parameters and co-efficients in models are not constant. The drag co-efficient varies with projectile velocity.
Particularly, important parameter, the density of the atmosphere varies with altitude. In flight, a projectile's velocity
decreases with gravity and air resistance until vertex is reached, when air resistance continues but gravity accelerates the
projectile as it descends (hence the elliptic trajectory). The rate of spin (revolutions per second) also decreases with velocity
throughout the shell's flight, which affects its stability. Gravity is not constant either; it decreases with distance from the
earth's surface (which is uneven).
Unfortunately, the methods used to characterize drag coefficient will always lead to errors in the measured coefficient due to
experimental technique and equipment, due to uncertainty associated with uncontrolled environmental conditions, and due to
uncertainty associated with variability from projectile to projectile because of the manufacturing process. A key question is
how do we quantitatively characterize the sources and nature of this uncertainty.
Looking at the parameters affecting a trajectory modelling, simulation and its analysis, six main categories can be
differentiated as:
(a) Parameters directly affecting the initial conditions or Fire Control: gun position, gun
height, muzzle velocity, azimuth and elevation or launch angle;
(b) Parameters indirectly affecting the initial conditions: propellant temperature and barrel
abrasion or wear;
(c) Parameters directly affecting the projectile: in flight containing all atmospheric properties
depending on height (temperature, air density, air pressure, wind, speed of sound) and all
projectile depending coefficients (drag, lift, Magnus and Coriolis forces, spin and yaw);
(d) Parameters indirectly affecting the projectile: case thickness, case strength and explosive
weight;
(e) Parameters directly affecting the target: impact angle, velocity, location, and angle-of-
attack;
(f) Parameters indirectly affecting the target: thickness and strength;
From a measurement point of view, all these parameters are error afflicted and therefore, every parameter can be
quantified by its mean and standard deviation. When we develop mathematical or simulations models we sometimes deal
with systematic uncertainties, which can originate from biases in measurements or biases in solutions methods. Examples of
systematic uncertainties include:
(a) Instrumentation system error when measuring gun tube elevation and azimuth angles;
(b) GPS error in target location;
(c) Measurement error in depth of penetration, range and deviation data;
(d) Prediction error because a physical phenomena is not accounted for in the model equations;
The gun itself also affects the projectile's flight due to 'droop' and 'jump'. When the axis of the bore at the breech
differs slightly from the axis of the bore at the muzzle the 'droop' generates. Similarly, the movement of the projectile's 'whip-
action', that means when the projectile leaves the axis of the bore at the muzzle (in the vertical plane) differs to its axis before

N
firing, the 'jump' generates. Similarly, a difference in height between a gun and its target also affects the trajectory.
Therefore, the angle of sight has to be added to or subtracted from the gun's firing elevation angle. However the slant range
to the target is greater than the horizontal range and applying the angle of sight does not compensate for this, which is called
non-rigidity of the trajectory is shown in Figure 8. The size of the correction for this depends on the difference in height
between the target and the gun, and the shell's angle of descent. The gun's muzzle velocity and the range to the target in turn
determine this angle. Furthermore, altering the elevation angle also puts the trajectory through a different 'slice' of the
atmosphere, where air resistance may be different. This leads to the subject of 'Ballistic Angles', or perhaps more correctly
'Gunnery Angles', the various elevation angles related to a barrel and a shell fired from it. At the other end of the trajectory
the Angle of Descent was the angle at the point of impact between the Angle of Sight and the tangent of the trajectory which
shown in Figure 9.
-
x sx
In measurement theory basically all measurands are error afflicted. These errors are quantified by two characteristic
values: mean value of the sample ( ) and standard deviation of the sample ( ). All errors afflicted measurands are assumed
Gaussian distributed. Trajectory modelling effects are inherently probabilistic in nature. Random and systematic
uncertainties exit in every phase of a projectile-weapon-target engagement.
A Case Study
The trajectory modeling used in this study has been applied to the 105mm caliber artillery projectile dynamics.
Table 1 shows a list of ten uncertainty parameters that have been used in this work. Therefore, in this present work, for the
sake of computational difficulty, the simple model with 3-DOF concepts is proposed to simulate the projectile trajectory
motion and efforts focused to find out the errors associated with the other parameter uncertainties. The limits of
uncertainties presented in Table 1 are biased on a set of known observations and measurements. The simulated and
experimental results of the projectile trajectory modeling with its accuracy are shown in Table 2.
Table 1: Uncertainty Parameters and Ranges

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3. CONCLUSION
In general uncertainty due to inherent randomness of a trajectory modeling processes cannot be eliminated. So,
understanding trajectory modeling is one thing, applying it in the field to predict a required trajectory elements is a different
matter altogether. Combining these to predict the required trajectory modeling is the challenge. Various trajectory models
have been developed, solved and refined by available state-of-the-art mathematical and computational techniques. The first
step is a mathematical model, a set of equations of motion, to describe a projectile's trajectory and allow the variables to be
represented. On the other hand, uncertainties such as those associated with lack of complete knowledge about the process,
models, parameters, data and etc can be reduced through research, data collection and careful test and evaluation and
manufacturing processes. Given the complexities and uncertainties involved, combined with difficulties in getting accurate
data, these models and their data contained many approximations and simplifications. The second step is to derive methods
and data from these models that can be used in the field.
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is grateful to Maj Gen Anoop Malhotra, Director, Proof and Experimental Establishment (PXE),
Balasore, for his consent to publish this paper.
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ROLE OF APPLIED PHYSICS AND BALLISTICS IN ARMAMENTS:

A REVIEW
SN Giri, KK Chand
Proof & Experimental Establishment, Chandipur, Balasore, Orissa - 756 025
ABSTRACT
Applied Physics, a generic term, is intended for various engineering and technological applications, which deals
with the properties and interactions of matter and energy, space and time. Discovery via experiment provides an essential link
between physics and engineering system problems. "Applied" is distinguished from "pure" by a subtle combination of
factors such as the motivation and attitude of researchers and the nature of the relationship to the technology or science. It
usually differs from engineering in that an applied physicist may not be designing something in particular, but rather is using
physics or conducting physics research with the aim of understanding or developing new technologies or solving engineering
problems. This approach is similar to that of ballistics, which is the name of the applied scientific field. Competence in
Applied Physics and Ballistics (APB) is important interdisciplinary research areas in armaments. Because of their
interdisciplinary nature, the APB is inseparable from physical, mathematical, experimental and computational aspects. In
this context, this paper will provide a brief review into the APB, their important role in the armament research and also
summarize some of the current APB activities in academia, armament research institute and industry.
INTRODUCTION
Objectives And Scopes
Applied Physics is a branch of physics that concerns itself with the applications of physical knowledge to other
domains. It is the discipline that deals with concepts such as matter and energy, space and time. It is the most fundamental
science, and enabling discipline underpinning much of our engineering and technology. Applied (or perhaps Applicable)
Physics and Ballistics consist of physical laws and experiments and results, including those from "pure" physical areas which
are used to assist in the investigation of problems or questions originating outside of physics. Applied Physics and Ballistics
(APB) are closely related disciplines, with ballisticians using physical principles to understand various ballistics problems in
armaments. Studying applied physics is important in weapon technology undergoing rapid technological change, and
requiring innovative problem solving. This is because applied physics studies develop critical thinking skills and the
understanding of fundamental scientific principles of wide applications and lasting value.
As over the last two millennia, physics has sometimes been synonymous with philosophy, chemistry and certain
branches of mathematics and biology but it emerged as a modern science in the 16th century as an applied physics. Applied
physics is now generally distinct from these other disciplines, even though its boundaries remain difficult to define
rigorously, especially in areas such as mathematical physics, computational physics, experimental physics, numerical
physics, biophysics, chemical physics, engineering physics and so on.
Applied Physics and Ballistics are both significant and influential in part, because advances in its understanding
have often translated into new technologies in armaments, but also because new ideas in applied physics often resonate with
the other sciences, mathematics, chemistry, computer science and biology. For example, advances in the understanding of
electromagnetism led directly to the development of new products that have transformed armament field (including
electromagetic gun, high speed computers and so on); advances in thermodynamics led to the development of advanced
electrothermal gun and high energy matereials or propellant; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of the
various trajectory modelling, and so on.
Similarly, the understanding and use of acoustics principle will result in better blast wall for safe testing
environment ; similarly, the use of optics creates better optical devices like high speed cameras. An understanding of applied
physics makes for more realistic trajectory modelling simulators, as well as in forensic investigations (what do we know and
when do we know it; what did the subject know and when did the subject know it).
Studying a multidisciplinary field is challenging. Not only must we learn more than one discipline, we must also
work with the separate languages and styles the different disciplines. In particular, our objective is to study and develop

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various physical systems and its mathematical models e.g. thermodynamics system for high energetic materials like
propellant or gyroscopic system for stability behavior of projectiles and so on. In view of above, this paper discusses a review
of various aspects of role of Applied Physics and Ballistics in armaments.
Disciplines Of Applied Physics In Ballistics

There are many fields of Applied Physics which have strong branches, as well as many related and overlapping fields from
other disciplines that are closely related to Ballistics.
· Acoustics, the study of sound waves, is used for various shock wave phenomenon of a projectile system, and
muzzle devices for intermediate ballistics;
· Biophysics is the interface of biology and physics for studying various wound ballistics phenomena;
· Chemical physics studies the structure and dynamics of ions, free radicals, polymers, clusters, and molecules,
using both classical, chemical and mechanical viewpoints for internal ballistics;
· Engineering physics such as optics, nanotechnology, control theory, aerodynamics, or solid-state physics for
various ballistic intrumentations;
· Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids (liquids and gases) at rest and in motion. The Navier-Stokes equations are
used in supercomputers to model internal ballistics phenomena;
· Aerophysics is study of the properties and charactristics and the forces exerted by air in motion over a body.
· Lasers and radar are used for various projectiles tracking purposes;
· Materials science is the systematic study of the properties of materials for terminal ballistics;
· Medical physics includes the standards for radiation exposure and infrastructure for radiology for wound ballistics;
· Nanotechnology studies the creation of machines less than a micrometer in size for advance weapon systems;
· Optoelectronics creates devices which use light rather than current for development of ballistic instruments;
· Physics of computation used for solving of various nonlinear problems of internal, intermediate, external, terminal
and wound ballistic phenomena;
· Solid state physics, including the material properties of semiconductor devices and integrated circuits for
development of ballistic instruments;
2. BASIC CONCEPT OF BALLISTICS

Ballistics, as a science, that deals with the motion, behavior, and effects of projectiles. It relates to a great variety of
phenomena that occurs from the moment as object (projectile) is fired until its effects are observed on a target. A ballistic body
is a body which is free to move, behave, and be modified in appearance contour, or texture by ambient conditions, substances,
or forces, as by the pressure of gasses in a gun by rifling in a barrel, by gravity, by temperature, or by air particles. Ballistic
studies include applications as varied as the study of the structural and control behaviour of rockets and satellites; strikes on
aircraft, terrorist attacks and automobile crashworthiness modeling, to name but a few. Many of the basic problems of
ballistics are similar to those in other fields of applications, such as combustion, heat conduction, in-flight structural
behaviour, trajectory related issues, contact, impact, penetration, structural response to shock waves and many others.
Ballistics as a human endeavor has a long history. Ballistics, rooted as it is in the study of motion and indispensable
as it has become in the affairs of nations, has held the interest of scientists, engineers, generals, and rulers. From the earliest
developments of gunpowder in China more than a millennium ago, there has been an intense need felt by weapon developers
to know how and why a gun works, how to predict its output in terms of the velocity and range of the projectile it launched,
how best to design these projectiles to survive the launch, fly to the target and perform the functions of lethality, and the
destructions intended. Physicists and mathematicians have made fundamental contributions to this science, including many
of the most significant contributions.
Ballistics is inherently a branch of engineering physics. Not only are there a distractingly large number of physical
factors present in the problem, but the number of independent variables that are actually taken into account in firing is so
large, and these variable factors are to a great extent so uncontrollable, that simple accurate formulae are universally regarded
as out of the question. Rules based on the normal probability curve are used in actual field conditions, and the numerical
tables upon which original computations are constructed are themselves obtained by statistical methods involving more or
less arbitrary assumptions. The only methods used in the past have been to relegate the less important variations to a
secondary place (not to be ignored, but to be treated as linear differential perturbations) and to incorporate only the most

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important features into the fundamental differential equation' for a trajectory. What this equation is, depends in part on the
particular problem, but is in no case as simple today as it was before the World War. In the sense of "rational mechanics", there
is no rational ballistics.
For ballistics, as for every other developing branch of engineering, there is a group of present-day problems
involved on the one side in seeking to test present-day assumptions, and if possible to establish these on a rational basis, and
on the other side in devising means for application of these accepted principles with an accuracy consistent with the data and
yet with the greatest possible simplification concordant therewith.
An excellent survey of the history of ballistics, replete with illustrative comparisons, explicit data, and critical
comments on physical assumptions, is given by the long classical work of C. Cranz. The only criticism is that despite
supplementary notes in later editions, the work closes essentially with the period before the World War, which changed the
perspective even on old problems.
The discipline over the centuries, ballistics has divided itself into three natural regimes internal ballistics, external
ballistics and terminal ballistics, but subsequently it is added with transitional ballistics, wound ballistics or forensic
ballistics and hydro or underwater ballistics as per understanding and various applications and usefulness. Let us discuss each
branch of its physical concept briefly as:
Physics of Interior Ballistics

Interior ballistics deals with the temperature, volume, and pressure of the gases resulting from combustion of the
propellant charge in the gun; it also deals with the work performed by the expansion of these gases on the gun, its carriage, and
the projectile, which is shown in Figure 1. Some of the critical elements involved in the study of interior ballistics are the
relationship of weight of charge to the weight of projectile; the length of bore; the optimum size, shape, and density of the
propellant grains for different charge system in guns; and the related problems of maximum and minimum muzzle energy.
Gun system, which is one of the propulsion units, has remarkable capacity to accelerate projectile by supersonic
velocity instantaneously. In gun systems, a projectile is propelled by pressurization of the chamber caused by combustion of
solid propellant. For this analysis, the interior ballistics has been used. The interior ballistics predicts the phenomena in gun
firings by means of physical modeling and simulations of solid propellant combustion and gas generation. The calculation
starts with ignition of solid propellant, and the end of calculation is the time when a projectile reaches the gun muzzle. These
phenomena in gun system should be analyzed on the basis of fluid dynamics, thermodynamics, thermo chemistry and
kinematics.
Figure 1: Interior Ballistics Environment
Physics of Transitional Ballistics

Transtional Ballistics, also known as intermediate ballistics, is study of a projectile's behavior from the time it leaves
the muzzle until the pressure behind the projectile is equalized, so it lies between internal ballistics and external ballistics,
which is shown in Figure 2. Transtional ballistics is a complex field that involves a number of variables that are not fully
understood; therefore, it is not an exact science. What is understood is that when the projectile leaves the muzzle, it receives a
slight increase in muzzle velocity from the expanding propellant gases. Immediately after that, its muzzle velocity begins to
decrease because of drag.

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Figure 2: Transitional Ballistics Environment

Physics of External Ballistics
Exterior Ballistics is a generic term used to describe a number of natural phenomena, which is founded on the
physics of a projectile, that tend to cause the projectile in flight to change direction or velocity or both as it moves through air,
which is shown in Figure 3. In external ballistics, elements such as shape, caliber, weight, initial velocities, rotation, air
resistance or drag, gravity, wind, drift (when considering spin-stabilized weapons) and Coriolis effect help determine the
path of a projectile from the time it leaves the gun until it reaches the target. These phenomena are gravity, drag, wind, drift
(when considering spin-stabilized weapons) and Coriolis effect.
Figure 3: External Ballistics Environment

Physics of Terminal Ballistics
Terminal ballistics, a special domain of the third branch/a sub-field of ballistics, is the study of the behaviour of a
kinetic energy projectile-when it impacts with its target. Terminal ballistics is relevant for both small caliber projectiles as
well as for large caliber projectiles. The study of extremely high velocity impacts is still very new and is mostly applied to
spacecraft design. The study of the bullet that causes impact is the main aim of this branch of ballistics. There are three basic
classes of bullet: one that are designed for maximum penetration of the target, one that are designed to penetrate a specific
depth and stop, and one that are designed specifically for short range target shooting. It involves many empirical formulae.
Theoretical investigations and experiments, however, are carried on in penetration, fragmentation, detonation, shape of
charge, and related blast phenomena, including combustion and incendiary effects. Ballisticians derive the principles
governing the elements such as number, size, velocity, and spatial distribution of fragments produced by detonations of cased
high-explosive charges, which is shown in Figure 4.

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Figure 4: Terminal Ballistics Environment (Hard Target: Amours)

Physics of Wound or Forensic Ballistics
In broad terms, Wound or forensic ballistics is the study of the interaction of wounding agents (such as bullets and
fragments from explosive weapons) with tissue. The laboratory aspect of wound ballistics is the simulated and measurable
physical interaction of wounding agents with tissue. Ballistic trauma, which overlaps with wound ballistics, includes the
pathophysiological reaction of the body to the physical process, which is shown in Figure 5. Therefore, ballistic trauma
includes blood loss, shock, wound infection and death.
Figure 5: Wound Ballistics Environment (Soft Target: Tissue)
Physics of Hydro or Underwater Ballistics

Hydro or Underwater ballistics is a branch of continuum mechanics, which deals with the laws of motion of an
incompressible fluid and of the interaction of the fluid with its boundaries in systems of water-borne vehicles like ships, boats
and submarines. Because of scientific curiosity, the subject has achieved at high state of practical, analytical and
computational developments, which is shown in Figure 6.

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Figure 6: Hydro or Underwater Ballistics Environment
Physics of Ballistic Measurements

The development of high-speed photography and other imaging and measuring devices have led to greater
understanding in all six branches of ballistics. By means of such devices quantitative and qualitative behaviors of any
projectile can be photographed and measured in flight, thus permitting accurate studies not only of its position to study and
determine degree of stability and integrity and even of the shock waves it produces, which is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Shockwave of a Projectile by High Speed Imaging
In few decades, the most important recent development in ballistics is the use of computers and the state-of-the-art
computational techniques. The calculus of exterior ballistics generally involves sets of second-order partial differential
equations. Solving such a set of equations typically involves hundreds of thousands of computations. To find the position of
the projectile at various points along the trajectory, dozens of such solutions are required. For each of various elevations of the
gun, the entire process must be repeated. Even with the aid of slide rules and ordinary calculating machines, such an operation
would take a mathematician an inordinate amount of time. Electronic computers compile complete solutions within a few
seconds. Computers are used also for simulation of missile flights.
The design, development, and calibration of a wide variety of highly specialized optical and electronic equipments
in recent years have furthered considerably the advance of all ballistics research, particularly with respect to the performance
of guided projectiles and missiles. Examples of these instruments are long-focus tracking telescopes, photogrammetric
cameras, and miniature radio transmitters and receivers installed in projectiles and missiles.

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It is well established that mathematical models and simulation techniques along with the high speed imaging
techniques is able to offer cost effective quantitative and qualitative solutions to a multitude of various internal, intermediate,
external, terminal ballistic requirements, retaining and often improving competency levels whilst reducing design costs. At
the heart of any simulation are the simulation-processing methodologies (not the CPU, but the reality models and processing
engine that process all inputs and transform to meaningful outputs in time). This is the domain of the computational physicist.
The modeling of real world systems requires the ability to formulate the numerical or analytical equations/solutions required
to describe the system being simulated to the level of fidelity required. Simulations will one day be the norm for the research
and development that develop complex and expensive systems which are required to interact within complex environments.
3. TRENDS IN DEVELOPMENTS OF APPLIED PHYSICS AND BALLISTICS

There is a tendency to insist on the affinity between these two sciences and still more an idea of utilizing them
together in a sort of collaboration. These ideas are recent, owing their rise essentially to the various applications and to the
consequent diffusion of ballistical knowledge among physicists or related technical people. From a scientific point of view, it
is enough to enunciate the idea of such a comparison to understand the possibilities opened up. Ballistics is a science
hundreds of years old and during its long life it has accumulated a valuable stock of theoretical and experimental materials.
This has now to be considered under a new aspect and placed at the disposal of a new science which has not much material of
its own because, in former times, there was not much interest in making physical experiments, computer simulation and also
because the knowledge of applied physics was mathematical rather than physical.
The subject of Ballistics draws upon several multi facets scientific disciplines for its developments. "Ballistics" is
meant that part of the subject, which deals with the application of physical concepts along with its physical models to the
solution of various ballistics problems. By its very definition, therefore, applied physics may fairly and closely related to
Ballistics. Let us discuss this a little more elaborately.
One of the various applications of applied physics is ballistics where the concepts and methods of physics are used to
develop and analyse the fields of ballistics. Further information on this application of applied physics can be obtained from
the armament related laboratories and organizations. The kind of information needed to explore the flight of a projectile
crosses several scientific disciplines. One is the classical dynamics of Isaac Newton; another is the field of fluid dynamics,
more specifically aerodynamics. Ballistics is the name of the specific scientific field that encompasses the areas of science
that we need to address.
Before doing so it might perhaps be helpful to consider a preliminary question, what should be the physical and its
mathematical characteristics and its computational aspects of a subject in order that it be treated as a proper branch of applied
physics? Is the mere fact that some physical and mathematical models (mathematical physics) in applied physics are
employed in the formulation and solution of some of its problems sufficient to label a subject as "applied physics"? Applied
Physics, for all its extensive employment of a variety of physical concepts along with mathematical models and its techniques
is still "Applied Physics" and one would not like to think of it as "Mathematics" of any kind. Similarly, classical mechanics,
starting from the problem of determining the trajectory of a given dynamical system, has led to the extensive mathematical
theory of differential equations and the associated theories transformations, etc. Many more such related examples can be
given in support of the criterion stated above, viz. a subject can qualify as a branch of applied physics only if it is capable of
generating problems which are of significance physically as well as mathematically. The thought of ballistics should
therefore be looked at from this point of view.
As in all applications of physical and its mathematical models to concrete problems, we can discern three stages of
developments. First, with non-availability of reliable experimental data, empirical methods suffice to yield crude
approximations to the desired solutions. Second, with the accumulation of more and more data and a better understanding of
the phenomena, more sophisticated physical and mathematical models with its computational methods are invoked leading
to more satisfactory solutions. Third, the subject has reached a level of maturity where it throws up genuine physical
problems, which may lead to new developments in applied physics itself.
This is well illustrated in the developments of applied physics. Indeed we can discern a strong parallel between

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applied physics and ballistics in this regard. While both are intensely practical subjects, professional physicists have been
primarily responsible for the theoretical developments in both the subjects.
The principal problem of ballistics (whether internal or intermediate or external or terminal or wound or hydro) is
the solutions of a system of nonlinear differential equations, not merely a solution but a whole family of solutions
corresponding to a. range of values of the occurring parameters (propellant parameters, gun dimensions, M.V., ballistic
coefficient, Met. conditions etc.). The entire emphasis in the application of physical concepts and its mathematical models
has therefore been on the development of suitable approximation procedures for reducing the labour of computing such
extensive tables of solutions.
The advent of the high-speed computer has done away with the necessity of making such simplifying assumptions
and has even radically altered the structure of the numerical computation procedure itself. The computer can turn out in a very
short time thousands of solutions corresponding to a large variety of prescribed conditions. The ultimate in this line of
development is the guided missile equipped with guidance and control systems, which provide mid-course corrections again
with the help of the computer to keep the missile on a collision trajectory. It is clear that sophisticated mathematical methods
are no longer as relevant as before for providing ballistic solutions. The present day ballistician will look to the physicists
with computer background rather than to the mathematician to solve his problems.
A classic example, going back to the very beginnings of ballistics, is provided by Lagrange's ballistic problem, viz.
the determination of the pressure and density distribution in the moving mass of gas behind the shot in its motion along the
gun barrel. Various approximate solutions to this problem based on more or less arbitrary assumptions have been proposed
and used with appropriate empirical corrections, but the basic gas-dynamic problem of the coupled motion of the gas and
shot, taking into account the presence of the rarefaction wave, the reflected shock waves and the boundary layer at the wall, is
a physical problem which, we think, still awaits a complete theoretical analysis. A generalization of the above problem is
obtained if we replace the combustion process by a detonation process.
The motion of a supersonic projectile after it leaves the gun barrel gives rise to a similar flow problem, viz. the
analytical determination of the resulting flow pattern at the base of the projectile and a turbulent wake of nearly constant
cross-section, there is an attached curved front shock and a main rear shock which possibly arises by the running of several
shocks. The mathematical analysis of such a complex shock system and the derivation of an expression for the drag is a most
fascinating problem, which has been studied, by different scientists, physicists and others. The extension of this work to
include the effects of gravity and to the region of hypersonic velocities constitutes interesting physical and mathematical
problems.
The problem of computing the trajectory of a projectile is the central problem of external ballistics. The problem of
the dynamics of a spinning artillery shell has a famous counterpart in classical dynamics - the motion of the spinning top. The
motion relative to the C.G. of the spinning shell is a natural generalization of the spinning top problem, with the addition of
new forces and moments (of Magnus type), the forces and moments all being dependent on the instantaneous state of motion.
Various mathematical models like point mass, modified point mass, six-degree of freedom and universal models have been
developed by different academicians and ballisticians for such problems. The motion of the C.G. itself is far more
complicated than in the case of the spinning top moving on a smooth horizontal plane, it will be recalled that even in the latter
case the equations can be integrated only in terms of hyper elliptic functions. Apart from constructing approximate particular
solutions and deriving criteria of stability, it would be of interest to investigate general theorems.
Apart from determining the trajectory, the shape of the projectile itself has been the subject of mathematical
investigation. The problem is the determination of the optimum shape of projectile, viz. to determine that projectile contour
which minimizes the total drag. Many studies of shapes of minimum drag using the techniques of the calculus of variations
have been carried out and even extended to the region of hypersonic flight. The calculus of variations has also been used in the
study of the optimal design of multistage rockets. These new applications of a classical discipline give promise of a rich
harvest of results not only regarding the specific problems but also in regard to the mathematical technique itself.
Another interesting problem that may be mentioned, here is that of "Scabbing" of a plate by an impulsive load
applied on one face of the plate. The compression wave produced by the applied load when reflected at the opposite face gives
rise to a tension wave and as a result of the interaction of the two wave systems, the tensile stress along a certain surface within
the plate may fall below the critical yield stress of the material. A corresponding portion of the plate is then thrown off as a
'scab'. Different national and international experts have carried out the complete analysis of the elastic wave-system

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generated in the plate by the applied load.

In case of forensic science, wound ballistics is very important in the criminal investigation of an offence that
includes the use of firearms. With wound ballistics one can study those emerging trends of the firearms use, nature of
firearms, different aspects of a firearm that causes destructions etc. In ballistics one can study those emerging trends of the
firearms use, nature of firearms, different aspects of a firearm that causes destructions etc. This helps a lot in the criminal
investigations as it finds out the type of firearm used by the offender, nature of its impact etc specially when the firearm in
question is not located or has been hidden by the offender, it also helps in the determination of the range of fire, from which
angle the trigger has been pulled, when was the shot fired, what kind of bullet was used etc. These things can also be found out
by studying the wounds of the target or the victim. The evidence related to firearms offences usually centers around fired
bullets and shells, which are examined by wound ballistics for the purpose of determining the type or make of the guns from
which they fired, or for the determining whether or not they were fired from a particular weapon. Apart from this, with
ballistics studies one can even improve the quality of the firearms by improving certain aspects of interior and terminal
ballistics.
Similarly, by referring to the subject of hydro or underwater ballistics, viz. the problem of the underwater trajectory
of a projectile accompanied by its cavitations bubble. The size and shape of the bubble are determined by the motion of the
projectile' and on the other hand the motion of the projectile is itself profoundly affected by the accompanying bubble. The
cavitations: bubble has already been the subject of some high-grade mathematical research. But the dynamical problems of
the projectile motion under water such as those of cavitational and fully wetted motion, conditions for ricochet etc. have
hardly been touched upon, except under drastically restrictive assumptions.
Possibilities and Limits of Ballistics Simulations

The outstanding development of the computing techniques allowed not only the description of the behavior of
physical systems in different conditions, but also the simulation of some physical and technical processes produced in special
(difficult) conditions. Because this method allows a considerable decrease of the expenses necessary to experiment various
technical models, as well as the simulation of some phenomena produced in inaccessible conditions, it presents a
considerable interest both from the didactic and technical point of view. Taking into account the future improvement of the
computing abilities by means of the parallel computers, there appeared also some special simulation techniques as the Local
Interaction Simulation Approach, intended especially to such computing techniques. The main difficulty met by the
simulation techniques refers to the appearance of some numerical phenomena: instability, divergence, and dispersion,
distortions, which lead sometimes to considerable inaccuracies of some obtained numerical simulations.
Among these numerical phenomena, we consider that the most misleading is that of pseudo convergence, because it leads to
apparently correct simulations (their shape is even qualitatively correct), but considerably wrong from the quantitative point
of view. That is why the present work considers that the numerical simulations must be studied in strong connection with the
basic results of the data processing of the experimental results. A correlation between computational aspects of applied
physics and ballistics is shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8: Correlations between Applied Physics and Ballistics

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Applied Physics and Ballistics: Interdisciplinary Studies

Applied Physics is a relatively young discipline than ballistics. During the last few decades, researchers in the
academic field of applied physics and computing have brought together a varierty of scientific disciplines and
methodologies. The resulting science i.e. applied physics, offers a variety of unique ways of explaining phenomena, such as
computational physics or computational ballistics.
"Interdisciplinary studies" is an academic programme or process seeking to synthesize broad perspectives,
knowledge, skills, interconnections, and epistemology in an educational setting.
Although interdisciplinary and interdisciplinarity are frequently viewed as twentieth century terms, the concept has
historical antecedents, most notably Greek philosophy. Julie Thompson Klein attests that "the roots of the concepts lie in a
number of ideas that resonate through modern discourse-the ideas of a unified science, general knowledge, synthesis and the
integration of knowledge" to further understand their own material.
Interdisciplinary programmes sometimes arise from a shared conviction that the traditional disciplines are unable or
unwilling to address an important problem. For example, social science disciplines such as anthropology and sociology paid
little attention to the social analysis of technology throughout most of the twentieth century. As a result, many social scientists
with interests in technology have joined science and technology studies programs, which are typically staffed by scholars
drawn from numerous disciplines. They may also arise from new research developments, such as nanotechnology, which
cannot be addressed without combining the approaches of two or more disciplines. Examples include computational
ballistics, an amalgamation of applied physics and ballistics combining fluid dynamics with computer science.
Possibilities of Futuristic Emerging Principles and Trends in Applied Physics and Ballistics
Due to advancement of various multidisciplinary fields or interdisciplinary fields globally, it has been realized that
the understanding of the following subjects are primary need to study the various ballistic problems via applied physics for
futuristic armament programmes.
(a) Principles, Ideas and Methods in Mathematical Modelling (b) Fundamentals of Aero-ballistics design (c) Principles of
combustion processes (d) Design philosophy of long rod penetrators (e) Qualitative studies of effective lethality and (f)
Understanding of uncertainty models.
In addition to above, the understanding of following topics are necessary:
(a) Conservation of mass, energy (kinetic and heat);
(b) Conservation of linear and angular momentum;
(c) Continuum relations for the motion of fluid/gas;
(d) Equation of State of the fluid/gas;
Due to increasing of complex nature of information networking warfare strategies, the following emerging
principles are to be considered.
(a) Conventional Principles - It has been to increase weapon power to increase lethality;
(b) Peripheral Principle - Here one destroys population by enemy like groups (militants), economics and natural
resources;
(c) Select Target Principle - Here one defeats the enemy militarily and politically. Weapon systems are designed
which are precise to eliminate specific targets by zeroing on them and avoid collateral damage. The philosophies for
Select target principles are:
·Directed energy weapons;

·Precision automation;
·Energetic explosives;
·Super high-speed data processing;
·Electronic warfare equipments;
·Networking pace wars;

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Futuristic Problems In Applied Physics And Ballistics
Internal Ballistics
(a) Mathematical modelling of gas discharge and heat exchanges in a gun barrel after the
projectile leaves the barrel;
(b) Estimation of force constant, density function and instabilities of gas burning in an
ETC gun;
(c) Development and mathematical modelling of insensitive high energy propellants for
advanced gun concepts;
(d) Development and mathematical models for high/ low pressure chambers;
(e) Identification of parameters affecting the accuracy in internal ballistics such as:
· chamber volume and shape;
· shape and location of ignition charge;
· shape and location of main charge;
· shot mass;
Launch Dynamics
(a) Development of mathematical models needed to estimate the structural parameters. (examples are extrusion
force, incision force, spin up force, normal force to the barrel wall, friction force and force due to curvature of the barrel,
forces acting on the subcomponents of the launcher).
(b) Development of mathematical models to study the sabot discard dynamics of the FSAPDS projectile fired from a
ETC gun, the sensitivity of motion due to change in muzzle velocity is quite significant and the effect due to it during
discarding phase is to be effectively parameterized.
Intermediate Ballistics
The state-of-the-art Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) models are the need to overcome the limitations to
increasing its accuracies levels in subsequent motions for implementation. Parametric estimation of aero-coefficients during
this flight is highly desirable.
External Ballistics
(a) Development of Modeling in FAE and FSAPDS (non-conventional aspects of ballistics);
(b) Free flight aspects in ICBM and space related bodies;
(c) Parametric estimation of aero-coefficients during flight trajectories;
(d) Projectile design along with booster for extended range;
(f) Development of Neural network models for trajectories modeling and range tables;
(g) Development of CFD for estimation of various aero-ballistic coefficients.
(h) High Speed Ballistic Computers for long rage range table complilation;
(i) Development of virtual reality modeling language for trajectory modeling and simulation;
Terminal Ballistics
(a) Multi point initiated chemical energy warheads;
(b) Flow parameters of a shape charge;
(c) Development of Hyper codes;
(d) Technology for HE warheads;
(e) Ceramic armours;
(f) Endgame Technologies;
4. CONCLUSION
If applied physics is a unique field separate from ballistics; if applied physics poses unique questions, comes up with
unique explanatory models, utilizes unique methods, and leads to unique realistic physical problems; then it is easy to argue
that those unique things are probably not answered in the philosophy of ballistics, hence, there is a need for field that
addresses those unique things- the philosophy of applied physics. The aim of the Master of Science like programme in

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Applied Physics and Ballistics is to give a broad and solid introduction to the theoretical, experimental computational and
physical concepts that is the basis for much of today's high armament technology. The philosophy of applied physics is an
important part of understanding. We should know what is applied physics, why it is necessary, what are various methods of
applied physics. From the above discussions we conclude that the applications of Applied Physics and Ballistics demonstrate
the potential for physicists for industrial benefits from such degree that is unique to a physics graduate. Also, we opine that:
“Applied Physics and Ballistics" is and will continue to be an active and fruitful branch of armaments as two sides of a coin.
This fascinating but difficult subject presents an open challenge to the applied physicists and ballisticians.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Maj Gen Anoop Malhotra, Director, Proof and Experimental Establishment (PXE),
Balasore, for his consent to publish this paper.
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WEAPON LOCATING RADAR – RELEVANCE AND ITS UTILITY FOR

ADVANCES IN ARMAMENT TECHNOLOGY
Raju Venkatanarayana, S Varadarajan
Electronics & Radar Development Establishment (LRDE), Bangalore – 560 093
ABSTRACT
The advent of long range weapon system and mechanization of land forces have extended the area of operation
much beyond the visual range. Deployment of electronic surveillance devices in the battlefield will serve as a force
multiplier to enhance the combat potential of our forces and optimize the effectiveness of our weapon systems. With the
advent of modern electronic means, enemy guns can be located with required accuracy and can be silenced or neutralized by
means of direction of own artillery fire.
Weapon Locating Radar (WLR) being phased array radar, has the capability of Electronic Beam Steering in both Azimuth
and Elevation, tracking the entire projectile trajectory.
The challenges faced by Radar are:
1. Detection and tracking of projectile with very low radar cross section in the background of other aerial objects, weather
and ground clutter.
2. Estimation of launch / impact point of projectiles fired in low and high angles accurately within a very short time from
detection of projectile in radar coverage.
This paper discusses how these objectives are met by the radar and also about how this radar will be useful for improving
armament technology. It will aid the designers of guns to refine the trajectory models and prepare highly accurate range tables
of weapons.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Field Artillery Weapon Locating Radar provides fast, automatic (without operator intervention) and accurate
locations of all Guns, Mortars and Rockets firing within its effective zone of coverage and will be able to handle
simultaneously multiple projectiles fired from different weapons at different locations. The system is also capable of
adjusting the fire of our own Artillery Weapon. Thus the equipment has two major goals to achieve
·Weapon Location for enemy Artillery
·Adjustment of Fire for our own Artillery
Optionally the system can also provide impact point of the enemy weapon in Weapon Location Mode and the launch
point of the friendly weapon in Adjustment of Fire mode with degraded accuracies. However the Weapon Location
and the Adjustment of Fire Modes are mutually exclusive and cannot be performed simultaneously.
The main functions to be performed by equipment in order to achieve the defined objectives are :
·Detection
·Tracking
·Classification as projectile / non-projectile targets
·Trajectory Estimation & Launch/Impact Point Estimation
·Height Correction for LP & IP
·Storing and displaying the trajectory / LP & IP data
·Communication with higher echelons (ACCCS/BSS)
The system operation as enemy weapon locating and as friendly fire adjustment is shown in fig. 1 & 2 respectively.
2. WLR CONFIGURATION AND DESCRIPTION

WLR configuration includes mainly two assemblies mounted on two different TATRA VVL vehicles, named as:
· Radar System Vehicle
·Power System Vehicle
Besides these two main assemblies, the following two optional elements/assemblies also form the composition of
WLR System:
·Radar Target Simulator
·Remote Radar Display (RRD)

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Figure 1 Operation of Radar in Weapon Locating Mode
Figure 1 Operation of Radar in Fire Direction Mode

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The Radar vehicle assembly comprises of a high mobility TATRA vehicle mounted with all the Radar subsystems.
The detailed block diagram of Radar and its functionality is explained in next section.
The WLR Power System Vehicle includes two (for redundancy) 75KVA/60KW, 50 Hz AC Diesel Generators along
with power conditioning equipment mounted inside an acoustic shelter.
System Built In Test Equipment (BITE) facility is provided mainly for System maintenance & functional testing.
Besides it can also be used for day-to-day system performance checks. It consists of a hundred feet mast with small radiating
horn and support-ropes and a BITE-rack containing associated electronics. All these items are mounted on a small-
containerized vehicle along with associated power and signal cables.
Functionally the Remote Radar display is similar to the Primary Radar Display. The system consists of a portable
rugged computer preinstalled with the operating system and associated application software. It is connected to Radar via a
300 meters long LAN (optical) cable.
Figure Configuration of WLR system

3. WORKING MECHANISM OF RADAR
The WLR radiates a search fence which is a set of beams radiated at specified azimuths and elevations decided based
on the terrain at deployed site either automatically using digital map or manually using some other means and entering the
data at radar console. The Radar Controller selects the next beam to be scheduled with user specified waveform and programs
Receiver-Exciter, Signal Processor, Beam Steering Unit & Analog Display subsystems with required beam parameters. The
Radar Controller also computes the phase gradients for the given azimuth and elevation angle incorporating pitch/roll
corrections at the specified frequency. The Beam steering Unit computes the phase of each PCM using the phase gradients
and the array geometry, and loads the corresponding phase commands for each PCM in accordance with the temperature at
different points within array. Once the Radar Controller issues the Switch Beam command at scheduled time, the Antenna
looks into the desired direction the Exciter generates the Radar Waveform which is pre-amplified by a Solid State Driver to a
suitable level before applying to TWT amplifier in the Transmitter. The Transmitter output illuminates the antenna through
feed horn and the Antenna concentrates the RF power into the direction where it is looking. Any object present in that
direction within Antenna beam widths reflects a part of the transmitted energy back towards Radar and a part of the reflected
energy is intercepted by the Antenna.

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TMU
BSU Array
Shaft
Encoder
Tx
Pitch/Roll
Front En d Sensor
Rx
Exciter
ALNS
IF Rx
SP RMU
ADSB Synthetic
Display
Radar
Computer
Remote Display
Fig. 4 : Block Diagram of WLR
This received energy is divided into three mono-pulse channels after passing through the multimode horn & mono-
pulse comparator which in turn is processed by the three identical gain-phase matched receivers. The Front-end Receiver
brings down the RF echo signals to IF level (C-Band to UHF to IF) and the IF receiver performs the matched filtering and I-Q
demodulation to give the Sum I-Q, Delta Azimuth I-Q and Delta Elevation I-Q signals to Signal Processor subsystem for
further processing. The Signal Processor subsystem digitizes these six analog inputs and passes it through MTI channels
(programmable 2 or 3 or 4 pulse/AMTI cancellers) before integrating (Linear/Binary) all the pulses of the dwell and going
for CFAR (Cell averaging, GO, SO) processing. For Track Dwells normalization (D/S) of difference channels (Delta
Azimuth and Delta Elevation) is done and the normalized difference signals (D/S) are smoothed over the number of pulses in
the “dwell” before being used to extract the off axis angular offset. Operation is performed in sine space co-ordinates based
on scan invariance property of the D/S function. Finally for every Radar Dwell, the output of the signal processor is collated
from various channels and Radar Dwell reports are prepared and sent to the Radar Computer. The Radar finds its own north
and pitch and roll of deployment are measured automatically in addition to its own location.
At Radar Computer these reports are processed by Radar Data Processing CSCI for tracking function. The tracker
uses a seven state Extended Kalman Filter with drag (unknown parameter to be estimated) as the seventh state. For all the
targets classified as projectile, the Weapon Locating Processor uses the stored measurement data of the tracking phase to
compute the drag and finally the Launch/Impact point of the projectile. A projectile model is run backwards till the initial
measurements captured, and then the Point Mass model is used for extrapolating the trajectory till the altitude of the projectile
matches that of the Radar.
To facilitate the online monitoring of the Radar performance, Analog Display is provided which displays the
scanned area with Raw/CFAR video super imposed on the screen in different form viz. Sector PPI, B-Scope, RH-Scope & E-
Scope. Target data after filtering and extrapolation is displayed along with Launch/Impact points on synthetic display which
supports different display modes including 3-D display and 2-D Map overlay for sector PPI mode. Height correction on the
extrapolated LP/IP is performed by synthetic display using the 3-D Map data. Synthetic Display also acts as the Human
Machine Interface for setting up the Radar and monitoring the Radar subsystems health status.
To validate the complete signal and data chain of the Radar, the ADSB subsystem generates simulated multiple
target triggers moving radially with programmable parameters like start range, speed, Doppler, number of targets etc. These

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triggers are up converted at exciter and is fed to either RF front end (called as RF BITE) or fed to a horn in the bite mast (called
as field BITE) from where it is received through the antenna.
4. SALIENT FEATURES OF WLR WITH SPECIFIC RELEVANCE TO ARMAMENT TECHNOLOGY

It is clear from the previous paragraphs that the prime function of WLR is to detect and track the projectiles. In its
role as WLR, the measured data is used for computing the ballistics of the projectile to get the launch/impact point.
On the other side, in Armaments we develop, the projectiles to strike deep behind the enemy's frontline from a standoff range
with the main focus on 'surgical strike' (accuracy with consistency) capability.
During the development phase of such projectiles the WLR can play a vital role in characterising the projectile
behaviour wherein one can have the complete trajectory as actually traversed by the projectile at desired data rate (up to 20
Hz) from close to the barrel nose and till impact. Rocket Trajectories from boost phase onwards can also be captured using
WLR. This will help in understanding the power phase characteristics of different rockets.
In addition, effect of MET parameters on trajectory motion can also be studied in depth. The parameters recorded
by the radar are positional measurements and filtered positional, velocity & drag parameters. Hence in a nut shell, the
valuable information provided by the radar will be very useful for designing the ballistic trajectory models for various
weapon calibres.
The fire direction mode of operation can be very useful for establishing the impact point of the projectile and
subsequently applying the necessary corrections to home our ammunition towards the desired location very accurately.
5. RADAR PERFORMANCE
The radar is capable of tracking trajectories up to 15-20 Km altitude and 30 Km of range. If the terrain permits it is
possible to capture the full trajectory from almost launch to impact point. If full trajectory capturing is not desired, facility is
available to capture the desired segment. The trajectories can be viewed in various display modes namely
1. PPI – Plan position indicator

2. RHI – Range Vs Height
3. Time Vs Height
4. 3D plot
Snapshots of actual projectile trajectories of various calibres as captured by the radar are shown in fig. 5
6. INFORMATION AVAILABLE FROM RADAR

The information of trajectory available from radar are measured positions (Range, Azimuth and Elevation) with
respect to radar at every 100 milliseconds. This can be given at every 50 milliseconds if the object of interest is a single
trajectory at a time. In addition filtered trajectory data in terms of position, velocity and drag estimates (X, Y, Z, VX, VY, VZ,
drag) are also available. There is a facility for logging the trajectory data in real time which can be extracted for all the
information mentioned above. The logged data can be replayed. In improving the armament technology this feature of the
radar can be exploited to the maximum. Snapshots of data captured are given below.
Measurement data available :

Range Azimuth Elevation Time SNR
11.85 110.56 10.39 3968.674 37.886
11.83 110.7 10.61 3968.878 38.742
11.82 110.71 10.78 3968.974 39.013
11.82 110.8 10.94 3969.082 41.537

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155mm Bofors Shell (Range Vs Height)

GRADBM 21 Rocket (Time Vs Height)
3D – Plot
105mm Shell - (Time Vs Height)
Pinaka Rocket (Range Vs Height)

81mm mortar (Time Vs Height )
Fig.5 : Actual Projectile Trajectories of various calibers as captured by RADAR

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Filtered data available :
X Y Z VX VY VZ Drag Time
10830.295 -4072.97 2279.67 -125.18 41.08 279.38 2 4055.626
10818.638 -4069.07 2308.73 -123.77 40.67 277.28 2.00 4055.734
10806.912 -4064.11 2333.24 -123.52 41.52 274.33 2.000135 4055.83
10794.409 -4059.51 2357.41 -124.05 42.09 271.03 2.00035 4055.926
7.CONCLUSION
The radar has been evaluated for different kind of projectiles at different firing angles and firing ranges. The logged
data of tracking (both raw and filtered) at data rate of better than 10Hz rates with high level of accuracy are expected to aid /
refine modeling of the trajectories, which will be helpful in characterizing the projectile behavior under various conditions
REFERENCES
1.Introduction to Radar System by Skolnik.I.Merrill
2.Radar Handbook by Skolnik.I.Merrill
3.Radar – Principles, Technology, Apllications by Byron edde
4.Project Documents

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PARAMETER ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES :

APPLICATION TO PREDICTION ALGORITHM FOR WEAPON
LOCATING RADAR
LK Gite, M Padmanabhan, DK Joshi
Armament Research & Development Establishment, Pune- 411021
ABSTRACT
Weapon Locating Radars are one of the primary means of locating enemy indirect fire systems. The functionalities
include generating artillery target intelligence and fire missions, registering and adjusting friendly artillery fires and
validating the location of friendly fires. They play a critical role in battlefield by contributing effectively in the fire finder
mission of targeting process methodology to aid in decision making.
Parameter estimation for non-linear motion model of a foreign ballistic target involves higher degree of uncertainty
due to noise in system and measurements. Accurate determination of the transient parameters will aid in improved tracking
and hence measurements and vice-versa. The accuracy in estimate dictates prediction probability during forward and
backward extrapolation. A study of parameter identification and estimation carried out for the bimodal operational
environment of weapon locating radar is reported here. Various parameter estimation techniques were explored and
evaluated on the basis of their appropriateness to system dynamics, accuracy of prediction, rate of convergence and
robustness.
The investigation includes approaches based on drag coefficient and ballistic coefficient. An augmented Extended
Kalman Filter with Dual Traversal, coupled with a MET scheme led to accurate ballistic parameter estimation. Multiple
estimates computed are evaluated for degree of appropriateness, using correlation filter on measured and computed
trajectories. The estimate with highest correlation peak qualifies for predicting forward impact point and backward launch
point. Results showed that prediction probabilities obtained were 90% for high angle trajectories and 80% for low angle
trajectories. Possible enhancements to the algorithm using particle filters are likely to minimize the quantitative
requirement on measurements and might offer better estimates in near real time.
1. INTRODUCTION
Artillery indirect fire systems offer combat and cover operations in battlefield scenario. Weapons locating radars
(WLR) are one of the primary means of locating enemy indirect fire systems. The functionalities of WLRs include
generating artillery target intelligence and fire missions, registering and adjusting friendly artillery fires and validating the
location of friendly fires. Indirect fire is achieved by deployment of artillery weapon systems like Mortars, Field guns and
Rocket launcher systems. The projectiles fired from these systems are characteristically distinct from other objects due to
their negligibly smaller radar signatures and ubiquitous non-stationary noise patterns. WLR Plays a critical role in battle
field by contributing effectively in the fire finder mission of targeting process. The radar signature qualifies for the detection
of the projectile in space. The radar measurements include the spatial coordinates of the present position of the object in
space , the time stamp and characteristic velocity derivatives. The real time data is processed for predicting the future course
of motion of the projectile. Successive data obtained over a period of time constitute a time series data of the projectile
trajectory. Further processing of the time-series data using an underlying dynamic representation of the projectile dynamics,
followed by parameter estimation and backward or forward extrapolation leads to launch point or impact point.
2. DESCRIPTION AND DETAILS
Simulation
Processing of the data involves simulation of the dynamical phenomena using a mathematical model and
estimation of appropriate parameter characterizing the particular situation. Simulation of real-life phenomena through
mathematical models is important for analysis of system behavior, optimization and simulation of extreme situations. These
mathematical models are often nonlinear, non-Gaussian and non-stationary. In most cases ubiquitous and noisy
measurements of the system at discrete time interval over limited duration are the only available information on system
observation. The model driven inverse problem which is generally insolvable can be reduced to numerical data fitting of

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experimental data on relaxing the problem using iterative methods like Least Mean Square Estimate( LMSE ). LMSE
approach is weak for systems of physical world as it cannot tolerate noise. If the system is very noisy then the resulting fit
may be far from the real model. Further more if the objective function has many local minima the optimization process will
be very sensitive to initial values. Standard least squares algorithms compute local optimum, whereas the real interest
surrounds in finding a global optimum, for which adoption by LMSE would require the examination of the entire feasible
set. A possible approach to overcoming ill-posed ness lies in regularization methods, yielding smooth solutions. For
nonlinear inverse problems, these techniques are based on global optimization. However, it is in general difficult to provide
indicators of reliability for solutions. A possible approach will be the data driven inverse problem, which considers
measurement data errors with some prior error bounds and a general model fairly representing the system. Then the problem
simplifies to finding the parameters in the which characterize the system. Uncertainties develop and grow in greater strength
due to factors like inadequacies prevailing in obtaining accurate measurement data, assumptions and approximations
considered in modeling the system and impreciseness in understanding, handling and processing of the data and the model.
Generally for nonlinear parameter estimation problem, no exact solution can be obtained, or the solution is infinite-
dimensional, and hence various numerical approximation methods come in to address the intractability. In this case motion
model based on force dynamics and ballistic parameter estimation is adopted.
Mathematical Models
Mathematically the problem can be represented as a discrete time system. State-space and frequency domain
approaches are two major approaches for discrete- time system modeling. The requirement is to adopt a discrete-time
filtering model so as to make one step prediction and parameter estimation. The Generic stochastic filtering problem in a
dynamic state-space form can be given by
xt = f (t, xt, ut, dt) … state equation

yt = g(t, xt, ut, vt) … measurement equation
and xt represents the state vector, yt is the measurement vector, ut represents the system input vector (as driving
force) in a controlled environment; f : RNx _? RNx and g : RNx _? RNy are two vector valued functions, which are
potentially time-varying; dt and vt represent the process (dynamical) noise and measurement noise respectively, with
appropriate dimensions. As the radar measurement data is a time-series data a more practical discrete time form is ideal for
the situation.
Discrete-time filtering problem in a dynamic state-space form
xn+1 = f (xn, dn) … state equation

yn = g(xn, vn) … measurement equation
where xn, yn represent the measurement vectors and dn and vn are white noise random sequences with unknown
statistics in the discrete-time domain. The state equation characterizes the state transition probability p(xn+1|xn), whereas
the measurement equation describes the probability p(yn|xn) which is further related to the measurement noise model.
These equations reduces to the following special case on considering a linear Gaussian dynamical system :
xn+1 = Fn+1,nxn + dn
yn = Gnxn + vn
the analytic filtering solution is given by the Kalman filter, in which the sufficient statistics of mean and state-error
correlation matrix are calculated and propagated. In the above equations , Fn+1,n, Gn are called transition matrix and
measurement matrix, respectively.
Problem Nature
The filtering problem which is a conditional posterior distribution (density) estimation problem, which is known to
be stochastically ill posed especially in high-dimensional space. Filtering problem is an Inverse problem, in the sense that
given a set of collected yn at discrete time steps (hence y0:n), provided f and g are known, one needs to find the optimal or
suboptimal ˆxn. This inversion learning problem is one-to-many since the mapping from output to input space is generally
non-unique. In this context, filtering problem is an ill-posed problem. Since the ubiquitous presence of the unknown noise
corrupts the state and measurement equations given limited noisy observations, the solution is non-unique.

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Some Important Terminologies
Kalman Filtering
Kalman Filter consists of an iterative prediction-correction process. In the prediction step, the time update is taken
where the one-step ahead prediction of observation is calculated; in the correction step, the measurement update is taken
where the correction to the estimate of current state is calculated. In a stationary situation, the matrices An, Bn, Cn, Dn ,
Kalman filter is precisely the Wiener filter for stationary least-squares smoothing. In other words, Kalman filter is a time-
variant Wiener filter. Kalman filter is also optimal in the sense that it is unbiased E[ˆxn] = E[xn] and is a minimum variance
estimate. In Bayesian interpretation Kalman filter reduces to a MAP solution. The derivation is somehow similar to the ML
solution. For simplicity, it can be assumed that the dynamic and measurement noises are both Gaussian distributed with zero
mean and constant covariance. In order to use the Kalman filter to estimate the internal state of a process given only a
sequence of noisy observations, one must model the process in accordance with the framework of the Kalman filter. This
means specifying the matrices Fk, Hk, Qk, Rk, and sometimes Bk for each time-step k as described below.
Model underlying the Kalman filter. Circles are vectors, squares are matrices, and stars represent Gaussian noise
with the associated covariance matrix at the lower right.
The Kalman filter model assumes the true state at time k is evolved from the state at (k - 1) according to
where
Fk is the state transition model which is applied to the previous state xk-1;
Bk is the control-input model which is applied to the control vector uk;
wk is the process noise which is assumed to be drawn from a zero mean multivariate normal distribution
with covariance Qk.
At time k an observation (or measurement) zk of the true state xk is made according to
where Hk is the observation model which maps the true state space into the observed space and vk is the observation
noise which is assumed to be zero mean Gaussian white noise with covariance Rk.
The initial state, and the noise vectors at each step {x0, w1, ..., wk, v1 ... vk} are all assumed to be mutually
independent.Many real dynamical systems do not exactly fit this model; however, because the Kalman filter is designed to
operate in the presence of noise, an approximate fit is often good enough for the filter to be very useful. Variations on the
Kalman filter described below allow richer and more sophisticated models.
Filtering is an operation that involves the extraction of information about a quantity of interest at time t by using
data measured up to and including t.
Prediction is an a priori form of estimation. Its aim is to derive information about what the quantity of interest will
be like at some time t + ô in the future (ô > 0) by using data measured up to and including time t. Unless specified otherwise,
prediction is referred to one-step ahead prediction in this paper.

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Smoothing is an a posteriori form of estimation in that data measured after the time of interest are used for the
estimation. Specifically, the smoothed estimate at time t_ is obtained by using data measured over the interval [0, t], where
t_ < t.
Sufficient Statistics is referred to a collection of quantities which uniquely determine a probability density in its
entirety.
Well-posed problem is one which satisfies three conditions: existence, uniqueness and stability, otherwise it is said
to be ill posed.
System Identification
System identification is an statistical inference problems. Sometimes, identification is also meant as filtering in
stochastic control realm, especially with a driving-force as input. However, the measurement equation can admit the
feedback of previous output, i.e. yn = g(xn, yn-1, vn). identification is often more concerned about the parameter estimation
problem instead of state estimation..
Regression
Filtering can be viewed as a sequential linear/nonlinear regression problem if state equation reduces to a random
walk. But, regression differs from filtering in the following sense: Regression is aimed to find a deterministic mapping
between the input and output given a finite number of observation pairs {xi, yi}_ i=1, which is usually off-line; whereas
filtering is aimed to sequentially infer the signal or state process given some observations by assuming the knowledge of the
state and measurement models.
Missing Data Problem is concerned about probabilistic inference or model fitting using limited data. Statistical
approaches (e.g. EM algorithm, data augmentation) are used to help this goal by assuming auxiliary missing variables
(unobserved data) with tractable (on-line or off-line) inference.
Density Estimation is a dependency estimation problem like filtering. Generally, filtering is nothing but to learn
the conditional probability distribution. However, density estimation is more difficult in the sense that it doesn't have any
prior knowledge on the data and it usually works directly on the state. Most of density estimation techniques are off-line.
Nonlinear Dynamic Reconstruction arise from physical phenomena in the real world. Given some limited
observations (possibly not continuously or evenly recorded), it is concerned about inferring the physically meaningful state
information. In this sense, it is very similar to the filtering problem. However, it is much more difficult than the filtering
problem in that the nonlinear dynamics involving f is totally unknown (usually assuming a nonparametric model to estimate)
and potentially complex (e.g. chaotic), and the prior knowledge of state equation is very limited, and thereby severely ill-
posed. Likewise, dynamic reconstruction allows off-line estimation.
Criteria For Optimality are a vital tool in evaluation of suitability of a filtering algorithms. The following are few
of them which have found widespread utility. Minimum mean-squared error (MMSE), which can be defined in terms of
prediction or filtering error (or equivalently the trace of state-error covariance) which is aimed to find the conditional mean.
Maximum a posteriori (MAP) is aimed to find the mode of posterior probability, which is equal to minimizing a loss
function. Maximum likelihood(ML) reduces to a special case of MAP where the priori is neglected. Minimax criteria is to
find the median. Minimum conditional inaccuracy, Minimum conditional KL divergence, and Minimum free energy are also
can be used for error estimation of prediction and filtering.
3. ALGORITHMIC DEVELOPMENT
There are many statistical approaches to algorithmic development and performance. Posterior (Bayes)
probabilities is an optimal form of information for decision making processes. Under some characteristic circumstances
these probabilities and related quantities can be estimated using probability and Maximum Likelihood theories. Algorithms
which deliver information which is of practical use only need to be used. The first rule of any algorithmic development
process is the specification of the required information that one wishes to obtain from the measurement data.
It's generally expected that once this information of choice has been obtained it will be used for further processing
and will act as the basis for subsequent action resulting from a decision based on this data. The decision process requires
complex evaluation of data. An optimal way of utilizing the data is always the question. The successful out come will be

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affected in two ways, first by a failure in the algorithmic process and the second an error in the data. As a consequence, an
algorithm must not only deliver an estimate of the measured data but also estimates of data reliability and estimate
reliability. Anything less than this information will make subsequent decision formation unreliable and inaccurate. And the
algorithm could then never form part of a practical system.
The most common form of such information is error covariance measures. computation and manipulation of these
quantities is very essential The most direct information regarding the successful outcome of a particular decision is the
posterior (Bayes) probability. This is defined as the probability that a particular event will be true given a particular
observation. Knowledge of Bayes probabilities of outcomes on a given a set of alternative states allows a direct assessment to
attempt alternative actions. Probability theory is regarded as the only self-consistent computational framework for all data
analysis and decision making.
It is therefore not surprising that it forms the basis of all statistical analysis processes. Compromises have to be
made, generally in assumptions about the statistical form of the processed data, and it is the adequacy of these compromises
which will determine the success or failure of a particular algorithm. Clearly, therefore, understanding these assumptions
and compromises is an important part of algorithmic development. We can conclude that algorithms which will work best on
a particular application will be those which model most closely the underlying statistics of the measurement process and
correctly propagate the effects of these through the output of the algorithm.
Algorithmic robustness goes hand in hand with getting this process correct and is something that can rarely be
compromised in the interest of computational speed. Two important concepts that has been widely used for parameter
estimation and target classification are bayes theorem and Maximum likelihood estimator.
Bayes Theorem
The basic foundation of probability theory follows from the following intuitive definition of conditional
probability.
P(AB) = P(A|B)P(B)
In this definition events A and B are simultaneous an have no (explicit) temporal order we can write
P(AB) = P(BA) = P(B|A)P(A)
This leads us to a common form of Bayes Theory,
The equation : P(B|A) = P(A|B)P(B)/P(A)
which allows us to compute the probability of the interpretation of an event in terms of observations and prior
knowledge.
Maximum Likelihood
Starting with Bayes theorem one can extend the joint probability equation to three and more events
P(ABC) = P(A|BC)P(BC)
P(ABC) = P(A|BC)P(B|C)P(C)
For n events with probabilities computed assuming a particular interpretation of the data Y (for example a model)
P(X0,X1,X2, ...Xn|Y )P(Y ) = P(X0|X1,X2, ...Xn, Y )P(X1|X2, ...XnY )...P(Xn|Y )P(Y )
Maximum Likelihood statistics involves the identification of the event Y which maximises such a probability. In
the absence of any other information the prior probability P(Y) is assumed to be constant for all Y. For large numbers of
variables this is an impractical method for probability estimation. Even if the events were simple binary variables there are
clearly an exponential number of possible values for even the first term in P(XY ) requiring a prohibitive amount of data
storage.
Parameter Estimation
Often describing the cost function for an algorithm is not the only part of the algorithmic solution. We also need a
way of searching a space of possible models in order to find one that optimises this function. If we take the view that the
parameters (or variables) in our system model correspond to unique, perhaps even physical, meaningful values then the
algorithmic goal becomes that of parameter estimation (along with the associated covariances so that we can make practical
use of the result). There are many parameter estimation techniques, the commonest being those that seek to optimise a well
behaved function E(a) subject to change in the model parameters a. A common approach here assumes that the functional
form of E(a) is approximately quadratic.
This type of a solution suggests an iterative update scheme for estimates of a close to a quadratic minimum and this
idea forms the basis of 'quasi-Newton' methods which provide iterative methods for approximating. The popular Kalman
filter is effectively an iterative form of such an algorithm which provides a mechanism for optimal combination of new data
into the current estimate of the parameters. These methods, and the associated 'conjugate gradient' scheme require accurate
derivative information which may not always be available. Under these circumstances methods which require only function

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evaluations such as the 'downhill simplex' method may be used. This method can be recommended as a starting point for
getting results quickly from a particular minimisation problem. Sometimes the minimisation function is not only badly
behaved but so too is the parameter space a. Under these circumstances the whole concept of functional optimisation needs to
be reconsidered. At this point algorithmic research switches from an evaluation of the best optimisation functions to
designing new optimisation methods. Such approaches are best typified by algorithms such as simulated annealing and
genetic algorithms. The main difference between these approaches is that the former operates on what are effectively single
point trials of the optimisation function while the latter operates with a set of interacting solutions. These interactions provide
a very useful means for controlling the range of locations searched by the algorithm which is lacking from simulated
annealing. These algorithms can cope not only with multiple, discontinuous functions and parameter spaces but also non-
stationary (even stochastic) evaluation functions. These properties are not however, obtained freely, the first obvious cost is
the computation requirement. The success of simulated annealing is heavily influence by the choice of a problem specific
annealing schedule. Genetic algorithms require that the parameters be cast in an appropriate representation (generally
binary), suitable for the processes of cross-over and mutation which will drive the search efficiently through variants of the
parameters in its search for the optimum. For these reasons these techniques are often looked upon as methods for solving
specific long standing problems rather than automatic algorithmic solution to a class of problem. The main point to be made
on the process of function minimisation is that the choice of minimization method (if adequate for the task) will not alter the
performance of an overall algorithm. The main effect on algorithmic performance in the final evaluation lies with adequate
definition of the cost function itself, which must have its roots in probability theory. If a set of data are insufficient to
determine a set of parameters with sufficient accuracy for the task in hand then changing the method of optimisation will not
improve the situation.
Ballistic Parameter Estimation and Point prediction

Parameter estimation for non-linear motion model of a foreign ballistic target involves higher degree of uncertainty
due to noise in system and measurements. An approach involving augmented Extended Kalman Filter(EKF) for kernel
smoothing enabling the prediction process and an appropriate trajectory model guiding the correction was adopted. The
enhanced accuracy was noticeable on fine tuning. Which has led to improved state estimates and measurement updates.
Accurate determination of the transient parameters by guiding Point Mass Model Trajectory Computation (PMMTC) has
aided in improved tracking and hence measurements and vice-versa. Seven state EKF with 3 -spatial coordinates, 3 velocity
components ,1- unknown state transition matrix, and a force dynamics matrix corresponding to a simple point mass rigid
body motion was considered. Difficulties in convergence and instabilities were noticed during coefficient of drag (CD) based
approach due to the characteristic nature of CD profile. Without loss of generality it can be assumed that the CD profile
uniquely characterises the projectile trajectory. The non-linear nature of which imposes inaccuracies in estimates for
trajectory segments which are not fairly close to the CD values of the tracked segment. Adding to the above the unknowns
like projectile geometry and mass parameters which are not decipherable from the negligible radar signature dominant with
noise.
An alternative approach based on ballistic and a lumped parameter( grouping all unknowns) model, which
estimates ballistic coefficient (C0 ), an in-variant parameter fairly approximating the projectile trajectory was employed. The
estimate is a factor of adjustment to a more generalized aero dynamic behaviour representing the air resistance experienced
by any projectile in motion. Ballistic coefficient (C0 ), being a constant for a trajectory, prediction of forward or rearward
trajectory based on radar track segment estimate more closely represents the case. The accuracy in estimate dictates
prediction probability during forward and backward extrapolation. Further improvements to the estimates to ballistic
coefficient (C0 ) were obtained by dual Traversal in the forward and rearward direction to ensure absorption of any variances
due to initial state, parameter assumptions which are likely to influence the convergence, stability, optimality and accuracy
considerations. The C0 estimated is corresponding to non-standard ( influenced by meteorological and other random
variations affecting the projectile path) trajectory segment, engulfing the variations. Multiple approaches based on
meteorological (MET) extraction from trajectory segment and inclusion of them during extrapolation were explored for
accuracy in point (Launch point, Impact point) predictions. An appropriate MET scheme was identified to yield relatively
closer estimates was implemented. Simulation and field trials revealed the dependability of point prediction, estimate
probability on estimate's deviation from the true value. Accuracy in estimation of C0 directly enhances the accuracy of point
prediction. Also the range of values assumed by the different projectile classes like Mortar bombs, Artillery shells and
Rockets was used for classification of tracked projectiles in to mortar bombs, artillery shells and rockets.
Further enhancements to accuracy was achieved by constructing multiple segments of the time-series data and
adopting the processing repeatedly to the track segments. Multiple estimates computed are evaluated for degree of
appropriateness, using correlation filter on measured and computed trajectories. The estimate with highest correlation peak

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was adopted for predicting forward impact point and backward launch point.

The algorithm was validated using simulation and field trials. The results showed prediction probabilities being
close to 90% and 80% for high angle trajectories and low angle trajectories respectively. Some results and cases illustrating
the algorithmic effectiveness are presented in the following sections.
Launch and Impact point estimation from tracked data

The WLR supposed to track ascending proton of trajectory. The maximum track duration is ten seconds. Using this
tacked data the launch and impact point are estimated by point mass dynamics based Extended Kalman Filter.
Launch Point Impact Point Tracked Segment
8000
6000
Height, m
4000
2000
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
Range, m
Ballistics coefficient Co from tracked data using EKF

To estimate the launch point the main difficulty was how to obtain the drag pattern. Here the grouping all
unknowns in one called ballistic coefficient (C0 ) of that trajectory is estimated from tracked data as seventh state. Following
fig shows the estimation of C0 as seven state in EKF conversing to actual C0 with in 6 to 8 seconds
Estimated Co Actual Co
3.7
3.6
3.5
Co
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time, sec

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Actual Launch point and estimated launch point in simulation

The simulation of typical run. Twelve trajectories on constant launch point. The 9 times launch point is predicted
within desired accuracy.
Simulation Summary
For every weapon the combination of charge (muzzle velocity), fire angle, azimuth and MET variable. Fire angle 10
to 30 deg considered as low angle and above 30 deg high angle. The nature of trajectory that is incoming or outgoing in Radar
direction are varied by changing co-ordinates of weapon and fire azimuth. The noise added to every trajectory is different.
Suitable MET conditions are used accordingly. For each case 1000 run has carried out. Following table summarized the
result.

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5. CONCLUSION
Possible enhancements to the ballistic algorithms for launch and impact point prediction using Unscented Kalman
Filters(UKF), particle filters are being studied and is hoped that investigations using other optimal methods like genetic
algorithms, network architectures will also cater to the increasing demand on accuracy of estimates arising due to faster and
higher computing and signal processing capabilities. Though the decreasing algorithmic efficiency in estimating launch
point from the descending part of the trajectory instead of ascending part and impact point estimation from the ascending
part in the absence of fire data brings forth limitations, such a situation is not generally expected in the battle field offers
some leniency. But the domain specific-ness of the algorithm is also one important reason requiring further studies and
algorithmic development. A more generic algorithm is likely to offer more flexibility with increased target acquisition
capability and is likely to minimize the quantitative requirement on measurements and might offer better estimates in near
real time.
REFERENCES
1. Kwakernaak, Huibert and Sivan, Raphael (1972). Linear Optimal Control Systems. First Edition. Wiley-
Interscience.
2. Sontag, Eduardo (1998). Mathematical Control Theory: Deterministic Finite Dimensional Systems. Second Edition.
Springer.
3. Roweis, S. and Ghahramani, Z., A unifying review of linear Gaussian models, Neural Comput. Vol. 11, No. 2,
(February 1999), pp. 305-345.
4. Bucy, R.S. and Joseph, P.D., Filtering for Stochastic Processes with Applications to Guidance, John Wiley & Sons,
1968; 2nd Edition, AMS Chelsea Publ., 2005.
5. Jazwinski, Andrew H., Stochastic processes and filtering theory, Academic Press, New York, 1970.
6. Kailath, Thomas, "An innovation approach to least-squares estimation Part I: Linear filtering in additive white noise",
IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 13(6), 646-655, 1968
7. Robert Grover Brown and Patrick Y. C. Hwang. Introduction to Random Signals and Applied Kalman Filtering, 3rd
Edition. Prentice Hall,1996.
8. K. Ito and K. Xiong. Gaussian filters for nonlinear filtering problems. Kazufumi Ito and Kaiqi Xiong, Gaussian Filters
for Nonlinear Filtering Problems, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, vol. 45, no. 5, pp. 910927, May 2000.
9. Joseph J. and LaViola Jr. A comparison of unscented and extended kalman filtering for estimating quaternion motion.
Proceedings of the 2004 American Control Conference, IEEE Press, 2190-2195, June 2004.
10. Simon Julier and Jeffrey Uhlmann. A new extension of the kalman filter to nonlinear systems. Int. Symp.
Aerospace/Defense Sensing, Simul. And Controls, Orlando, FL, 1997.
11. Simon Julier, Jeffrey Uhlmann, and Hugh Durrant-Whyte. A new approach for filtering nonlinear systems. Proceedings
of the 1995 American Control Conference, IEEE Press, June1995.
12. Ben Quine, Jeffrey Uhlmann, and Hugh Durrant- Whyte. Implicit jacobians for linearised state estimation in nonlinear
systems. Proceedings of the 1995 American Control Conference, IEEE Press, June 1995.
13. Rudolph van der Merwe and Eric Wan. The square-root unscented kalman filter for state and parameter-estimation.
Proceedings of the International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing (ICASSP), Salt Lake City,
Utah, May 2001.
14. Girish Chowdhary and Ravindra Jategaonkar. Aerodynamic parameter estimation from flight data applying extended
and unscented Kalman filter. Proceedings of the AIAA Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference and Exhibit ,
Keystone, Colorado, August 2006.
15. Text Book of Ballistics and Gunnery . HMSO Publications.

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BALLISTIC NEEDS FOR WEAPON LOCATING RADAR
M Padmanabhan, DK Joshi, LK Gite

ABSTRACT
Tracking and targeting is an important function in military decision making process. Field artillery target acquisition is
crucial in targeting. Weapon Locating Radars (WLR) are one of the primary means to achieve targeting. The process of
targeting, fire registration, adjustment and direction carried out successively neutralizes the target. Weapon locating mode,
the primary operational mode of WLR is the hostile mode operation, wherein WLR estimates enemy fire location-launch
point of indirect fire weapons like mortars, artillery weapons and rocket launchers.
The hostile mode operation requires radar to scan a larger terrain in order to ensure the capture of all penetrating
projectiles and acquire and track their flight to extrapolate the weapon location. Fire direction mode, the secondary
operational mode, is for registration of impact or burst points of friendly fire. The estimate for impact points needs to be
more accurate and timely than launch point since the fire prediction scenario is clearly known in the former case. An
optimization involving narrowed search fence and trajectory for improved parameter convergence rate leads to reduced
response time than the hostile mode. These two modes employed vis-à-vis enable the Fire Direction Centre in its mission.
This report stems out of the work carried out during the development process for WLR. The discussions here pertain to
ballistic aspects in various sub-modules such as tracker training, search fence narrowing, detection and identification,
tracking, estimation and prediction process. The role played by the peripheral value-added tools like position analysis,
diagnostics, run time testing and simulators is also described. The need and concepts involved in arriving at specification
and detection summaries, prediction probability and probability of location are also covered. Future extensions in
methodology and techniques for performance improvements of the WLR system with relevance to ballistics is briefly
reviewed.
1.INTRODUCTION
In any battle-field, mission success entirely depends on quality of decisions. Military decision making
process(MDMP) involves multiple steps. Mission analysis and Course of Action(COA) assessment are two major steps in
MDMP and involves acquisition and processing of vital information about enemy deployment. A knowledge of enemy's
deployment in terms of layout, expanse, content and strength is a backbone on which all steps and guidelines of MDMP are
built around. Acquiring information on hostile deployment is an essential gamut of operations carried out in every battle-
field. Battlefield visualization is the most important feature of Commander's Critical Information Requirements(CCIR) in
assessing the enemy's position and strength, in order to carry out covering and combat operations. Target tracking is an
essential activity for enemy location estimation. Tracking is a means to deduce the COA of the object. Targeting is a
process of selecting targets and matching the appropriate response to them, taking account of operational requirements and
capabilities.
Target tracking
The classical methods of target tracking are employable only to larger, slow-moving, active targets. The tracking filters
employed in these systems have been rudimentary, typically featuring fixed gain alpha-beta filters with nearest neighbour
association logic. This has been acceptable because cooperative targets carry beacons and transponders, and an operator is
available to resolve any problems. Where as the case is not the same in situations dealing with smaller, fast-moving, passive
targets. Sophisticated filtering algorithms are required for tracking these targets whose dynamics is non-linear, ubiquitously
noisy. The type of target tracking may call for dedicated data acquisition and processing systems which use refined
dedicated algorithms and may be implemented on special purpose high speed processors.
____________________________________
* Flight Dynamics Division, ARDE, Pune-411021

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Weapon Locating Radar

Weapon Locating Radars(WLR) are a kind of surveillance equipments belonging to the class of fire-finding systems.
WLRs have recently gained increased acceptance among artillery command control centers world over. These radars can
track multiple foreign ballistic targets which penetrate in to the region covered by radar beam scan, and offer timely
estimates on the launch location of the artillery shell with greater accuracy than conventional methods of target acquisition
and tracking. Apart from providing increased capability in target tracking and acquisition of hostile projectiles, they can also
track and predict the impact points of projectiles fired from own troops. Though this operational mode is secondary to the
hostile mode operation, it provides a means of accurate fire registration for friendly troops. Enhancements to fire direction
process achieved by procedural adoption of fire registration and fire adjustment, ensures timely annihilation of enemy
targets.
Role of WLR in Battle-field

Target acquisition and fire direction are two modes of operations that WLR carries out in coordination with Fire
Direction Centre(FDC). In the primary mode, electronically steered radar beams creates a screen like effect over the whole
terrain to ensure detection of any penetrating hostile projectile. On detection a verification beam is initiated. If verification
is positive the tracking beam is prompted to track further on. Measurements obtained are continuously used in an
appropriate parameterized mathematical model of the system. The estimated parameter will be used to back estimate the
target location (launch point) of indirect fire weapons like mortars, artillery weapons and rocket launching systems.
Availability of firing data in Direction Of Own Artillery Fire (DOOAF) mode enables appropriate trajectory prediction,
thereby providing a means to arrive at a fixed location in space, to initiate tracking of own artillery fire. DOOAF mode
tracking is to get prediction of the impact point. The estimate for impact points needs to be more accurate and timely than
launch point since, the fire prediction scenario is clearly known in the former case. Optimization obtained through
narrowing the search space enables allocation of maximal resources to hostile mode operation to achieve the fire-finding
mission .
General Problem
Target spectrum of WLR is restricted to mortar bombs, shells and rockets. Smaller surface area and higher speeds are
distinct characteristic features of this type of targets. Although non-maneuvering ballistic path of these projectiles likely to
provides some advantage, noisy measurements, non-availability of vital projectile data, the influence of meteorological
factors and aero-dynamical forces makes modeling projectile dynamics complex. Projectile dynamics can be completely
and accurately specified by Six-DOF Trajectory Models(6-DOFTM). Accuracy of these complex models essentially
depend on accuracy of aero-dynamic and other important parameters influencing the projectile motion. In the hostile mode
scenario essential parameters for computation are not available. Accurate estimation of the launch point of the projectile
using limited non-uniformly distributed radar tracked data, characterized by noise in measurements and system, imposes
great difficulties in appropriate system modeling for tracking and prediction. This prompts for robust and noise tolerant
tracking and parameter estimation algorithms. The discussions here focus on the fact that meeting the performance
requirement of WLR in turn translates to solving the inverse ballistic problem. Existing inherent intractability in the solution
process forces us to adopt an approach which looks in to the various ballistic aspects affecting individual sub-modules of
WLR.
2. BALLISTIC ASPECTS
Every rigid body of finite mass 'm' hurled in to space with a velocity 'v' and an elevation 'è' follows a parabolic path.
Analytic solutions exits only for, most simplest of representations to this problem. The complete description of projectile
motion (3-translatory and 3-rotational) assuming existence of gravitational, aerodynamic forces and their coupled moments
would require a 6-DOFTM. Even in the modest case, incorporating just the second order variations of aero-dynamic
coefficients in the model would necessitate accurate estimation of a dozen aerodynamic coefficients. Accurate and
complete characterization of projectile's aero dynamic parameters using flight-trials, wind tunnel, CFD are still to date,
constrained by infrastructure, time and cost. The 6-DOFTM is not robust, in the sense that any deficiencies due to lesser
number of coefficients or their accuracies will not be tolerated. Moreover computational time required is also
comparatively higher. All these factors force the modelers to adopt less complex, more reliable and fast models like
modified point mass trajectory model (MPMTM) or point mass trajectory model (PMTM). Calibration of these models
require accurate measurements of all trajectory elements from the muzzle to target. Well calibrated models only can be used
to arrive at accurate prediction. In the light of foreseen discussions we investigate the requirements and procedural aspects to
be adopted in the various sub-modules of WLR for achieving the required performance.

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3. WEAPON LOCATING RADAR SUB MODULES

The performance of WLR is entirely dictated by its ability in accurately predicting the location of the launch point (fire
source - weapon system) or the impact point (fire sink - intended target) using radar tracked data. The hostile mode
operation(fig-1) uses the ascending part of the trajectory to back calculate launch point. Whereas the friendly fire mode
tracks the descending part of the trajectory for impact point prediction(fig-2). It can be claimed that the WLR system
performance solely depends on Target Location Estimate(TLE).
Accuracy of TLE is in turn depends on efficiencies of individual sub modules. Each sub-module design should
consider the unique nature of the ballistic problem and envisage the effects of various factors influencing the projectile
dynamics. Failure to meet the minimum required performance criteria in any of these sub-modules may adversely affect the
sequence which produces the TLE.
Object Detection and Identification

Radar measurements R = {(R, è, Ø) / R-Radial range from radar to target, è Beam elevation, Ø Beam azimuth}
obtained at any instant of time denotes reflections from multiple objects illuminated by radar beams. From the moment of
projectile's penetration in to the “curtain of beams”( created by the rapid scanning of the terrain by the multiple beams), the
radar measurement is likely to contain a distinct signature pertaining to the target which will be absent in previous
measurements. This stage calls for the detection of the target. A general approach for detection would be by gradient
analysis of horizontal and vertical components motion parameters. Inaccuracies and resolution of measurements increases
the minimal data requirement for detection and identification. Ambiguities arise when the projectile motion is characterized
by lower speeds. In addition as the fired elevation (high angle fire or low angle fire) determines the nature of vertical and

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horizontal gradients, a multi-dimensional approach to discriminant analysis needs to be adopted. Enhancements can be
achieved by constructing scenes using radar measurements from successive time stamps, followed by scene analysis
using correlation filtering methodologies. The data set which is a time stamp of spatially distributed objects in space, on
correlation filtering with an appropriately computed trajectory leads to the segregation of projectile tracked data from the
irrelevant back ground. Though this method does not improve on the cardinality of the data set, this is likely to very well
address the problem of ambiguities and missing of targets by improper identification. Improvements in identification
algorithm not only enhances the probability of prediction by minimizing misses, but also economizes time and data
storage. Every detection triggers a verification beam which in turn continues to track (most liberal sense) and on
identification as a target of interest prompts a track beam.
Filtering & Tracking

Tracking is the most vital process of the WLR system. Well established tracking always guarantees higher
probability of prediction leading to estimates close to the true value. Advancements in signal processing hardware and
algorithms have offered a possibility for finer resolution, thereby putting higher demand over more sophisticated and
accurate tracking algorithms. In the absence of accurate filtering (smoothing the potentially noisy data by mathematical
modeling and using it for next state prediction) algorithms the radar beams are more likely to miss the target than to score a
hit. Un-guided projectile dynamics is a particular case of non-maneuvering, non-linear system. Adding to the complexity
are the non-stationary noise pattern in measurements and the system. Kalman Filter (KF)can accurately estimates the states
of Linear dynamical systems from a time-series data of noisy measurements. The filter exploits the dynamics of the target
for estimation & prediction (multiple step ahead future state ). The Extended Kalman filter (EKF) (non-linear process
dynamics linearised using differentiable functions & their Jacobians for state & measurement prediction), a variant of
simple KF is well suited to model projectile motion. An augmented EKF with unknowns is widely and successfully
employed for tracking and parameter estimation. Though filtering and tracking by EKF offers robustness in dealing with
time series measurement data; convergence, difficulties in parameter tuning, increase in complexity with dimensionality
and parameter estimation are certain issues which need to be resolved. The method of propagating true mean and
covariance adopted in case of Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF), against average mean and covariance propagation in EKF
for predict state could improve the tracking process.
Estimation & Prediction
Process Model
Enhancement of the simple alpha-beta filter (a particular case of KF in its primal form) to EKF or UKF just alone
cannot fully solve the target location problem. The state transition is sensitive to parameters influencing the motion of
projectile in air. An incomplete representation of projectile motion like point mass trajectory model describing only
translational motion,itself requires estimates of unknowns like CD - drag coefficient, projectile parameters m mass of the
projectile, d reference diameter and non-stationary and uncertain atmospheric parameters like ñ density, (Wx ,Wy,Wz)
wind components, t temperature, p pressure prevailing over the whole range of trajectory. Sensitivity analysis reveals the
need for accurate estimation of these parameters and their influence over the target location estimate(TLE ). CD profile of a
projectile has a non-polynomial descript function over the varied mach regimes. There fore the CD estimate made using a
trajectory segment characteristic by a specific mach regime is only applicable in that regime and can to an immediate
neighbour-hood of that regime.
Point Mass Model PMM

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Prediction Model
Where as the LP & IP prediction requirement fore sees the applicability of the estimate to a much broader
spectrum. Significant deviations in TLE have been noticed in certain cases where the mach regimes of projectile
tracking and prediction by extrapolation differed significantly. An artillery projectile undergoes drag force variation due to
the effect of compressibility of air and dissipation of energy. Every projectile in general would transit through a velocity
regime from high super-sonic to low sub-sonic passing though the transonic region of rapid variation, during its course
from muzzle end of weapon to the aimed target point. And in an environment of hostile mode operation as both aero-
dynamic and projectile parameters are not-known, grouping them in to one parameter and making an estimate for the same
would resolve the problem of multiple parameter estimation. This parameter would characterize trajectory of the projectile
in the specific regime. The extrapolations to impact points and launch points with the velocity prediction, falling within a
specific interval about the corresponding velocity of the estimate gives fairly close prediction to the true value. The
prediction error increases with increase in difference between the mach regimes of tracking and prediction.
Methodology
A prevalent procedure employed by ballisticians to compile range tables using C0, ballistic coefficient (carrying
capacity of a projectile ) very well approximates the projectile behavior. In this approach unlike CD profile which is
unique(loosely) to every projectile, a profile of air resistance experienced by a class of projectiles(having geometric
similitude) is adopted as a reference profile (C0, the standard ballistic coefficient for the reference projectile ) and every
projectile belonging to the class is assumed to have a form-factor (the factor of adjustment to the reference profile), by which
the projectile behaviour can be approximated with the reference law. In spite of its simplicity and naïve-ness this approach
yields comparatively better estimates. C0, mostly an invariant for a trajectory, and varies within a small interval about C0 for
the specific shell. The combination involving bundling the parameter and ballistic parameter estimation, with a
meteorological(MET) data extraction during tracking and infusion of the same during extrapolation instead of standard
MET scheme offers improvements in prediction.
Launch point Prediction

Uncertainties and unknowns in hostile fire mode operations makes TLE less accurate. The MET factors have
pronounced effect on the tracked and extrapolated trajectory. MET data used will be inappropriate due to differences time
and location of the weapon. Also the error due to termination point along the extrapolated trajectory severely handicaps the
prediction. The height correction is based on data derived from terrain maps. Shallow fire ( low angle fire - like the firing
from Field Guns) is more sensitive to height error than the vertical fire (high angle fire like in case of Mortar and howitzer ).
Wind effect also becomes critical when the extrapolation of the rockets are carried out as their response to the wind (in
characteristic boost phase ) is different from standard projectiles. As proper implementation is only possible on right
identification and classification of the target. This addresses the need for classification of projectiles in to classes from the
negligibly smaller and noisy signatures. Target classification also helps in MDMP by providing more target intelligence.
Sophisticated and real time algorithms are needed to optimize radar resources and enable real time response.
Impact point Prediction and Search Fence

The advantages existing in terms of fire data availability in DOOAF mode puts higher demands on optimization of
resources, estimate accuracy and response time. The fire data can be effectively used to predict trajectory and to focus the
tracker to a point in space to initiate tracking. An exclusive Artillery Ballistic Kernel (ABK) developed for in service
artillery weapons (Mortars, Field Guns, Howitzer and rockets) is used for trajectory prediction. The fire data along with
MET data is used by the ABK to estimate a probable optimal region in space to focus the radar to ensure capture of own
artillery fire. A restricted simulation carried out within pragmatic variations and consolidation leads to narrow the search
fence. This way of focusing the radar beams in a much narrower region, and more accurate tracking optimizes the resource
spending in DOOAF mode and makes maximal resource allocation to hostile mode. The optimization achieved enhances
the systems ability to handle multiple hostile targets and friendly projectiles.
Accuracy improvements
Apart from the influence of meteorological parameters like humidity, temperature, barometric pressure and wind,
the inaccuracies due to altitude of met data station, geographical, chronological variations and earth rotation effects, earths
curvature effects are also likely to affect the accuracy in estimates. Sensitivity analysis with above parameters and also using
radar track data based on factors like height of initiation, height of termination, mach regime , aspect angle, search sector and
range, vertical scan, velocity requirements, time duration, track volume, sparseness of data and gradient analysis would aid
in prioritizing factors and for allocation of proper weights to each in the prediction model. Site selected for radar
deployment should be evaluated based on slope, area available in the foreground, screening crest, electronic line of sight.
Location averaging can effectively minimize the random error component. Automatic Height correction form terrain
information derived from digital maps and GPS can also improve the accuracy of estimate.

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4. RESULTS
In order to facilitate the system development process and to aid in the process of testing and evaluation of various
hard ware and software sub systems various sub-modules related to ballistic aspects were developed and successfully
implemented. The ballistic work related to WLR carried out includes Radar tracked data simulation which was mandatory
for tracker training, algorithm verification and pruning. Ballistic algorithms for launch point estimation and impact point
estimation which are the core for WLR's prediction performance. Search fence narrower software. Single track simulator for
real time system testing. Target classification algorithm which enhances the radar's capability in assessing the enemy target
. Position analysis tool a means by which the target acquisition battery can decide the optimal geographical location (site
selection ) to track and target from a safe and survivable position. The prior analysis tool available will prove handy and
effective during real battle field missions. Diagnostic tools a sub module developed to replay the track to find and rectify the
problems for prediction probability, accuracy of estimates and reasons for misses. Multiple track simulator for offering off-
line user training for improved preparedness and hands-on experience.
The Position analysis and diagnostics software developed were exhaustively used in combination over a range of
projectiles involving mortar bombs, artillery shells, rockets in all possible variations of fire prediction. The conditions for
which the study was carried out includes geographical location, angle of bearing, elevation angle, aspect angle propellant
temperature, mass of projectile, muzzle velocity, MET parameters, height of track initiation and termination, range to target,
regime of tracking, volume of track, variance levels for the measurement noise, ascending and descending part of trajectory.
The results were analyzed using criteria based on probability of prediction and probability of accuracy of estimate falling
within the specified CEP. Out come of the analysis were used to tabulate the limitations of the system by the specification
summary. Which spells out the ranges of various parameters within which the system is guaranteed to operate. And the
detection summary details the various parameters corresponding to the track to throw light in to possible future directions in
which the tracking could be carried out to obtain the best performance and the factors influencing the accuracy and factors
leading to performance deterioration.
5. CONCLUSION
This paper has addressed the ballistic aspects in solving the Inverse Ballistic Problem of finding the fire data from
a segment of a trajectory measured using weapon locating radar. Though EKF based algorithms very well accomplish the
requirement for variety of domains. The domain of interest here exhibits non-linearity in process and in measurement
hence adoption of UKF model for specification nonlinear process and measurement is likely to provide better estimates than
EKF which has a linear measurement model. Further with possible improvements suggested in each of the sub-modules, if
carried out in a combined fashion after isolated evaluation of each methodology's score over the other, is likely to bring
forth enhancements to the system performance.
REFERENCES
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Opt.Eng. 28(5), 474-481 (1989).
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Multiple Circular Harmonic Filters", Appl. Opt. 28(2), 245-249 (1989).
3. Hosking, J.R.M. 1990. L-Moments: Analysis and estimation of distributions using linear combinations of order
statistics, J.R. Statist. Soc., Ser.B, 52 (1), 105-124, 1990.
4. Berger, J. 1980. Statistical Decision Theory, Springer Verlag.
5. Rudolph van der Merwe and Eric Wan. The square-root unscented kalman filter for state and parameter-estimation.
Proceedings of the International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing (ICASSP), Salt Lake
City,Utah, May 2001.
6. Eric Wan and Rudolph van der Merwe. The unscented kalman filter for nonlinear estimation. Proc. of IEEE
Symposium 2000 (AS-SPCC), Lake Louise, Alberta, Canada, October 2000.on Julier and Jeffrey Uhlmann.
Unscented filtering and nonlinear estimation. Proceedings of the IEEE, March 2004.
9. Chi-Tsong Chen. Linear System Theory and Design, third edition. Oxford University Press,1999.
10. Robert Grover Brown and Patrick Y. C. Hwang. Introduction to Random Signals and Applied Kalman Filtering, 3rd
Edition. Prentice Hall,1996.
11. Fredrik Orderud. Comparison of Kalman Filter Estimation Approaches for State Space Models with Nonlinear
Measurements
12. FM 3-60 (FM 6-20-10). Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for the Targeting Process. 8 May 96.
13. FM 3-09.12 (FM 6-121). Tactics, Techniques and Procedures for Field Artillery Target Acquisition. 25 Sep 90.
14. Text Book of Ballistics and Gunnery . HMSO Publications.

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Warheads
Non Lethal Weapons
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NON LETHAL WEAPONS: NAVAL PERSPECTIVE

Rajeev Prakash
Armament Research and Development Establishment, Pune 411 021
ABSTRACT
There are many conditions under which too much lethal force is not recommended due to many factors. Today there
are many low intensity operations that carry the threat of violence and may cause severe damages to soldiers or relief units in
the field. The need of a Non Lethal Weapon (NLW) is becoming more and more necessary to balance between lethality and
effectiveness. The ideal NLW should incapacitate the threat to the extent that it is not a threat anymore. This incapacitation
must be absolutely reversible and temporary.
Requirement of clearing facilities and incapacitating personnel via non-lethal means in combatant/non-combatant
environment has been recognized by Navies of various countries. The need of NLWs for Navy can be categorized into two
missions - defensive and offensive. The defensive missions include force protection, particularly for vessels. For force
protection, the Navy should have non-lethal weapons in three capacities: counter-personnel, counter-material and counter-
capability. The force protection measure for a ship or vessel is to generate three layer architecture – an outer zone or assessing
and warning of approaching vehicles and personnel (above, on or below the surface); a middle zone for initial engagement to
turn away threat if it is still approaching, at which point non-lethal means may offer the only reasonable alternative to deter the
threat; and a third, inner zone in which lethal force could be employed. The offensive missions include ship interdiction,
blockades and strikes.
The non-lethal-weapons technologies are grouped in six categories: (1) kinetic-energy technologies (2) chemical and
materials technologies, (3) directed-energy technologies, (4) acoustic technologies, (5) electrical technologies, and (6)
barriers and entanglements. Non-lethal options could offer valuable means of facing the challenges of intercepting suspect
vessels. A running gear entanglement system (RGES) is proposed to protect Navy ships in port, and other waterside assets such
as museums and marines. The entanglement device will foul the propeller of unauthorized vessels attempting to approach
restricted areas. Also included in the NLW are pulsed-energy projectile (PEP)/flash-bang grenades, intense lights for
battlefield illumination (and for dazzling the opponent) and laser dazzling devices that temporarily shield a person or group
from sniper fire. Thermobaric technology is a nonlethal weapon, in development, that causes extended flash, sound,
temperature, and pressure conditions to disorient and/or temporarily incapacitate individuals. Some of the anti-material goals
of nonlethal weapons may be achieved by lethal weapons capable of precision attack. Their effect on material is destructive but
in some cases with very limited unintended damage. Such is the case, for instance, with the use of a laser-guided bomb (or one
guided by GPS) to destroy underground fiber optic cable or on occasion concrete-filled bombs can demolish a small structure
with minor damage to neighboring facilities. Endeavours are being made in development of newer NLW technologies that
include high-power microwaves for countering equipment containing electronics (including some vehicles), counter-
personnel lasers, and counter-materiel lasers.
These weapons for meeting the warfighting needs are still in embryonic stage but have made their need strongly felt
globally. This paper addresses the progress made and technologies being developed for NLWs with an attention to Naval
relevance.
1. INTRODUCTION
Less-lethal weapons, less-than-lethal weapons, non-lethal weapons, non-deadly weapons, or, more recently, compliance
weapons are weapons intended to be unlikely to kill or to cause great bodily injury to a living target. There are many conditions
under which too much lethal force is not recommended due to many factors. Today there are many low intensity operations that
carry the threat of violence and may cause severe damages to soldiers or relief units in the field. The need of a Non Lethal
Weapon (NLW) is becoming more and more necessary to balance between lethality and effectiveness. The ideal non lethal
weapon should incapacitate the threat to the extent that it is not a threat anymore. This incapacitation must be absolutely
reversible and temporary. NLWs, while development is currently focused on tactical level applications, offer the operational
commander flexible new tools that can be employed for warfare to achieve operational objectives. These can be used at
operational level to limit civilian casualties and collateral damage. This in turn will allow for more rapid war termination and
will minimize the destruction associated with conventional warfare.
Requirement of clearing facilities and incapacitating personnel via non-lethal means in combatant/non-combatant
environment has been recognized by Navies of various countries. The need of NLWs for Navy can be categorized into two
missions - defensive and offensive.

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The defensive missions primarily include force protection, particularly for vessels. For force protection, the Navy should
have non-lethal weapons in the three capacities: counter-personnel, counter-material and counter-capability. Protection of
personnel and ships at anchor or in port is essential. A strategy emerging is the enforcement of a layered defense with three
zones around the perimeter of a vessel. The force protection measure for a ship or vessel is to generate three layer architecture –
an outer zone designed to alert personnel and to assess and warn of an incoming platform, approaching vehicles and personnel
(above, on or below the surface); a middle zone for assessing or affirming intent if the incoming platform or individual has not
somehow acknowledged the warning given in the outer zone and for initial engagement to turn away threat if it is still
approaching, at which point non-lethal means may offer the only reasonable alternative to deterring the threat and non-lethal
options are desirable in such situations because assessed threats may involve unintended intrusion or non-combatants; and a
third, inner zone in which lethal force could be employed. Establishing zones around the perimeter of a ship requires
delineating the zones with barriers that have visible markings and warning devices, such as flashing lights and lasers. Once the
outer barrier is penetrated, assessment of intent and tactics to delay or deter the threat are required. If a potential threat crosses
into the middle zone, the option is open for delivering a warning with a non-lethal deterrent such as “flash bangs” or electronic
vessel stoppers. Entry into the inner zone requires the use of tools that engage the threat directly through either lethal or non-
lethal means. The options selected must be effective on a time scale that allows the employment of lethal means if the NLW
fails to deter the threat.
The offensive missions include ship interdiction, blockades and strikes. Given the inherent capabilities of the Sea Strike
land attack concept, operational NLWs offer the potential for enhancing the effectiveness of lethal forces by, for example,
enabling the commander to engage early, immobilizing enemy equipment without permanent damage to roads or bridges, and
turning moving targets into stationary targets. Non-lethal capabilities can also establish areas of denial and restrict an
adversary's sea space and air space. Non-lethal means can deny an enemy the use of equipment and facilities. For instance, non-
lethal directed-energy weapons can disrupt enemy air defenses and early warning detection sensors; they can also neutralize
2. TECHNOLOGIES
The non-lethal-weapons technologies are grouped in six categories: (1) kinetic-energy, (2) chemical and
materials technologies, (3) directed-energy technologies, (4) acoustic technologies, (5) electrical technologies, and (6)
barriers and entanglements.
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic-energy (KE) NLWs were among the first non-lethal weapons developed. KE weapons have a long history
of use by police and military forces. Nonlethal projectiles of various kinds have been developed to stun, confuse, and disperse
individuals and crowds. Rubber projectiles can be fired from standard issue shotguns, either singly or in clusters of balls, with a
range of up to about 30 meters. A grenade launcher weapon can dispense rubber balls for dispersing large crowds and
achieving site security. The sponge grenade can knock down an individual at 50m. A new subcaliber ammunition from an
Italian weapons manufacturer, the ART (Ammunition with Reduced Time of Flight), has been developed as a non-lethal
weapon for use in naval 76mm cannons. One of the proposed uses put forward is for disabling the rudder of a vessel without
sinking it. For intercepting speeding boats, developmental work has been carried out on a 6.25 inch diameter non-lethal
torpedo capable of carrying a 27kg payload.
Chemical and Materials Technologies

A large array of chemicals and materials have been suggested as candidates for use as NLWs. They fall into two
broad categories: (1) antipersonnel and (2) anti-material. Chemical antipersonnel NLWs or incapacitants are intended to
dissuade, temporarily inhibit, incapacitate, or otherwise impede—with no lasting side effects-individuals and crowds from
taking certain actions. Incapacitants are biological and chemical substances that have a calmative effect on humans, and can
cause symptoms such as nausea, disorganized thinking, and hallucinations. Chemical anti-material NLWs are intended to
disable, neutralize, or otherwise prevent the operation of electronics, engines, networks, and so on, in vehicles, vessels or
infrastructure. Anti-material agents are microbes which can be genetically engineered to produce acids or enzymes that have

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the ability to degrade a variety of substances, including cement, polyurethane, paint, lubricants, and fuel.
Directed-Energy Technologies
NLWs utilizing directed energy may be divided into three categories for the purposes of understanding
applications and effects: (1) low-energy lasers and incandescent devices; (2) high-energy lasers; and (3) high-power
millimeter-wave and microwave devices.
The category of low-energy lasers and incandescent devices includes laser dazzlers and flash grenades that use
intense visible light to temporarily blind or disorient a person. Thermobaric technology is a nonlethal weapon, in development,
that causes extended flash, sound, temperature, and pressure conditions to disorient and/or temporarily incapacitate
individuals.
High-energy laser refers to a system with sufficient energy (and/or power) to ablate, melt, or burn material. Their
use as NLWs is intended for applications such as bursting automobile tires, rupturing fuel tanks, selectively cutting through
electrical or communications lines, or setting fires. A second class of high-energy laser systems for antipersonnel application is
designed not to cause damage directly, but rather to produce a kinetic shock through a laser-induced plasma. One such
proposed system is the pulsed-energy projectile (PEP). PEP would utilize a pulsed deuterium-fluoride (DF) laser designed to
produce an ionized plasma at the target surface. In turn, the plasma would produce an ultrasonic pressure wave that would pass
into the body, stimulating the cutaneous nerves in the skin to produce pain and induce temporary paralysis.
NLWs bases on high-power microwave (HPM) and millimeter-wave technology can be grouped into two
subcategories: (1) those designed to disrupt electronic systems, such as communications and computer networks; and (2) those
designed to produce a physiological effect on an individual. Applications in the first category (electronic disruption) include
the capability of disabling or destroying electronic equipment. All sensitive electronics—including computers, cell phones and
radios, Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers, and engine ignition systems—are potential targets. HPM systems would
provide this capability without the accompanying blast effects, physical damage, or death to nearby personnel, characteristic of
explosive or other high kinetic-energy devices.
Some systems designed to produce physiological effects operate at frequencies corresponding to millimeter waves in
the range designed to be absorbed by the skin or at lower frequencies designed to produce resonance inside the body. Potential
applications are crowd control or perimeter protection around a vessel, airfield or other sensitive area. The Active Denial
System (ADS) is a non lethal, counter-personnel directed energy non-lethal weapon which can be used against human targets at
distances beyond the effective range of small arms. ADS projects a focused millimeter wave energy beam which induces
intolerable heating sensation on an adversary's skin and cause that individual to be repelled without injury. One application of
ADS is considered for airborne applications, from platforms such as a gunship.
Acoustic Technologies
A variety of nonlethal acoustical weapons have been proposed and evaluated. Some of these are little more than
fancy loud-speakers, while others involve more subtle or sophisticated processes and truly deserve the designation of acoustic
weapon. Simple high-intensity sound causes the inner ear to generate nerve impulses that register as sound. High-intensity
low-frequency sound may cause other organs to resonate, causing a number of physiological results, possibly including death.
Acoustic weapons pose the hazard of being indiscriminate weapons, potentially imposing the same damage on friendly forces
and noncombatants as on enemy combatants or other targets.
Underwater applications present a potentially more promising scenario due to the increased coupling of acoustic
energy. Past investigations have considered the use of ship sonar against underwater threats. Also being investigated are
underwater acoustic sources as warning or non-lethal options against such threats.
Electrical Technologies
Electrical shock weapons are designed to cause Electro Muscular Disruption (EMD) which, when affecting an
unprotected human completely overrides the central nervous system and directly control the skeletal muscles. Unlike bullet
impact or chemical agents, that are most effective when hitting specific body organs (respiratory system, heart or head), EMD

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weapon is effective wherever direct contact is made with the subject's skin (even through few layers of clothing). Employed
either as a direct contact of from stand-off distance, as a stun gun, the EMD effect causes an immediate uncontrollable
contraction of the muscle tissue. Existing EMD weapons require physical contact with the target using hand held shockers or
stun guns, such as the Taser. These guns utilize compressed nitrogen to project two small probes up to 15, 21 or 25 feet at a
speed of over 160 feet per second. These probes are connected to the Taser device by insulated wire. An electrical signal is
transmitted through the wires to where the probes make contact with the body or clothing, resulting in an immediate loss of the
person's neuromuscular control and the ability to perform coordinated action for the duration of the impulse. For military
applications Taser gun is now enhanced for integration with assault rifles. Using Taser guns with rifles enable troops to
selectively use the firepower, and respond to various levels of threats with minimum risk of casualties to innocent civilians.
Barriers & Entanglements

Barriers can be used to form a line of demarcation, to separate adversaries from friendly forces, to delay adversaries
from gaining access to an area, to secure facilities, to stop vehicles, to disable boats, and to serve in many other applications
where delaying an adversary's action is required. Rapid deployment is often the major challenge for effective barrier use. For
vehicle barriers or entanglements, rapidly deployable systems are necessary for putting barriers in place before a vehicle can
enter a secure zone or for allowing timely interdiction of moving land vehicles or watercraft, precision delivery of barriers may
be required. Non-lethal options could offer valuable means of facing the challenges of intercepting suspect vessels. An
example is the running gear entanglement system (RGES), which has proven to be effective in temporarily stopping small, fast
watercraft. It delivers an entanglement device or rope that floats in the water ahead of the target vessel and fouls with the
propeller of unauthorized vessels attempting to approach restricted areas. As the vessel runs over it, the rope becomes
entangled around propeller/rudder. A challenge with a RGES is to integrate the barrier with capable delivery systems providing
rapid and accurate delivery. Under development is a helicopter-based deployment system to accurately and safely emplace the
RGES in order to stop fast boats.
3. CONCLUSION
Many of these weapons for meeting the warfighting needs are still in embryonic stage but have made their need
strongly felt globally. However, current and emerging technologies of NLWs will enable to impose one's will on enemy while
limiting the civilian casualties and collateral damage. Also, Non-Lethal Weapons can be the strongest tool of meeting the
defensive need of facing force protection challenges and offensive need of implementing sea strike concepts by Naval forces as
well.
REFERENCES
1 Graham T. Allison, Paul X Kelley and Richard L. Garwin (2004), “Non Lethal Weapons and Capabilities”. Report by an
Independent Task Committee Sponsored by the Council on Foreign Relations.
2 Committee for an assessment of non-lethal weapons Science and Technology (2003), “An Assessment of Non-Lethal
Weapons Science and Technology”. Project report under Naval Studies Board, US.
3 Robert T. Durkin (2000), “The Operational Use of Non-Lethal Weapons”.
4 Neil Davison and Nick Lewer (2004), “Research Report No. 6”. Bradford Non-Lethal Weapons Research Project
(BNLWRP), University of Bradford.
5 M. Micheletti (2001), “Non-Lethal Weapons”. 1st European Symposium on Non-Lethal Weapons.
6 Defence Update Issue 1 (2005), “Electro-Muscular Disruption (EMD) Weapon”. Online at http://www.defense-
update.com/products/t/taser.htm.
7 Colonel George Fenton, “Proactive Naval Force Protection: Applying Non-Lethal Dimension”.

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DUAL TYPE FRAGMENTATION WARHEAD FOR

HARD/ SOFT TARGETS
V Anguswamy, AC Sahoo
Proof & Experimental Establishment
Chandipur, Balasore, Orissa-756 025
ABSTRACT
The warhead designer must derive unique and simple technique that will ensure lethal hits on the target. The
effectiveness of each fragment impact in the disablement of the payload is of major concern .All thre at warhead types must
be known, and the designer must develop a warhead to counter all potential payloads. It is proposed new fragment technique
to increase the fragmentation of HE warhead by providing a steel sleeve over the body of the shell leading to decrease in
C/M ration and increasing the useable volume. The steel sleeve increases the degree of confinement and enhances case
breakup process. The better dynamic stress distribution on the inner shell assure better fragmentation. Thus to take on as many
as soft targets possible while outer sleeve will fragment less but would acquire higher velocity to take on hard target like
Tank,APC etc.
This paper dwels on the new technique of fragmentation to produce high velocity and high mass less fragmentation
for hard targets, while high velocity and more small fragmentation for soft targets for better destruction of area targets.
1. INTRODUCTION
Today's warhead design process against required target is very complex from flyout to fuzing to actual warhead
detonation physics. The design also require examination of new trajectory shaping and guidance laws enable the projectile to
approach the target. Fuse technology need to be applied to determines optimum detonation point. The system should also
achieve high lethality. A fire set or safe and arm device must also be designed in conjunction with the warhead to ensure that it
can be initiated given proper environment. The warhead designer must derive unique and simple technique that will ensure
lethal hits on the target. The effectiveness of each fragment impact in the disablement of the target is of major concern. Key
conditions that define the warhead include warhead weight and space allocations target terminal kinematics including
approach angle and attitude of the projectile with respect to target fuzing logic, time allowed for deployment of warhead
mechanism and target characteristics.
The warhead weight and space allocation must be defined as initial starting condition for the designer. The explosive
density in approximately 22% that of steel, and the warhead volume will determine the warhead C/M ratio. The total warhead
weight and volume will determine the warhead C/M. Non fragment items such as detonator, end plates and fittings are referred
to as dead weight. The designer must made prediction of useful warhead weight relative to explosive and case weight. Actual
calculation of dead weight need to be performed to set total weight buyout. The first step is to approximate the warhead dead
volume where 1-2 inch should be allowed for fuze and fittings. The warhead C/M must be designed so that the velocity and
fragment mass are optimized to allow the fragments to impact as normal to the target as possible. The only function
performed by the warhead is to damage the target so that it is incapable of performing its intended mission . This paper
focuses on chemical energy warhead design details. A chemical energy warhead is a device that contains explosion that on
detonation create blast and fragmentation effects. The metal fragments are quickly accelerated to hypervelocity.
2. WARHEAD DESIGN OPTIONS

The isotropic or directional warhead concepts accelerated metal fragments in all directions about the center warhead
axis. The exact target location with respect to the warhead origin is not as vital as with a direct energy warhead. This type of
warhead device can be separated into two types, blast and fragmentation . Most blast warheads usually contain some
fragmentation capability ; however, these fragments are not considered the primary kill mechanism. Basically, a blast warhead
and explosive mass installed in a metallic container. When the warhead is detonated, it creates a high-pressure wave followed
immediately by negative pressure. This pressure wave moves outward at hypervelocity speed from the burst point. Damage
occurs when a target is impacted by the high-energy wave. Fragmentation warheads are similar to blast warheads except that
the metal case is the major kill mechanism. Explosive energy is used to accelerate metal fragments to high velocities that
impact and damage threat target components

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A fragmentation warhead can be designed utilizing three different fragmentation methods. The first approach is
natural fragmentation . The explosive pressure expands a metal case 50-60% of its original diameter before metal failure
occurs. As the warhead case expands, the case begins to experience plastic strains. The metal case begins to fracture generating
many different size fragments. The mass of the fragments can be biased depending on the thickness, the explosive type, and
the case material properties. This failure of the metal case creates thousands of nonuniform size fragments that accelerate to
high velocities. The second approach strategically places machined grooves, known as stress raisers, which fracture the case
into predesigned uniform size fragments. Many different shaped groove have been developed over the years that can generate
specific fragment sizes and shapes. These grooves consist of v-cut, saw-thoothed, or rectangular shapes. Also, these cuts can be
inserted either on the inside of the case or both on the inside and outside. The last approach is known as a premade fragment
warhead. This warhead consists of fragments that have been fabricated to a specific weight and are bonded or embedded onto
the warhead case with epoxy. These warheads allow a designer to select the exact fragment size and shape that inflicts
maximum damage to targets.
3. DESIGN CONCEPT ADOPTED

The omnidirectional and directed energy warheads are the bases of most warhead payloads today. Given some
imagination, a design can combine or modify these concept to increase lethality performance. Most designer do not realize
that warheads are inefficient devices, however, in which the majority of the potential energy is wasted . With a warhead
detonation, its gas products accelerate through the vents/ endplates decreasing potential energy and, thus, the capability of
accelerating the metal case .Once the case fractures , there is extensive explosive venting through the metal case , resulting
in a loss of explosive energy . These warhead fragments accelerate to high velocities; however, only a few fragments actually
impact the target to cause component damage. The total amount of explosive energy used to accelerate fragments is on the
order of 10-20%, whereas only 10-15% of the total fragment mass actually impacts the target.
The potential energy of the water behind the dam is similar to a high-explosive charge. Once the dam is blown up, the
water flows towards the buildings and destroys them; nonetheless, all of the water behind the dam is not used to destroy all the
buildings. A warhead works in a similar manner by loading enough explosives or designing the warhead to compensate for
energy losses. Warhead designers need to design and utilize more chemical energy by developing new and novel techniques to
direct wasted energy into the target in an attempt to maximize warhead performance.
The isotropic concepts contain initiation points that are used to propel the fragments about the missile axes. However,
aimable, directional, or mass enhanced concepts better utilize the potential energy contained on the warhead to destroy the
target. When a warhead is detonated an explosive pressure is generated and imparted to the metal case creating 2-4 x 106 psi in
several microseconds. This pressure from the high explosive is much greater than the ultimate yield strength of the warhead
case material, and whether the case is scored or unscored determines how the case breaks apart. If a warhead designer wishes
to control fragments shape and mass, then the metal case is scored with predetermined machined grooves that act as stress
raisers. Conversely, if the case is unscored, then the fragment shape and mass are uncontrolled.
The effective warhead weight is the combination of explosive and case weight; other warhead components are not
considered. The fundamental principle behind the fragmenting warhead is to accelerate hundreds and even thousands of
metal fragments to high velocities. These high-velocity metal fragments have sufficient energy to penetrate hostile targets and
damage vulnerable components. Blast and impulse pressures waves created from warhead detonation are considered
secondary effect. Therefore, design emphasis is placed on fragment shape, material, weight and velocity. The warhead
designer must design the case to break into specific size fragment so that maximum damage is inflicted.
4. FRAGMENTATION MECHANISM MODEL

Naturally fragmenting warheads are classified as uncontrolled fragmentation devices. The analytical and
mathematical equations that predict uncontrolled case breakup help to describe and to model controlled case breakup
phenomena. The idea behind the natural fragmentation warhead is to break the case into a number of fragment masses giving a
bias toward a particular mass. Fragment mass bias is controlled by case molecular grain size, brittleness, toughness, case
thickness, confinement, and explosive fill. The natural fragmentation process model is a four-step process, which starts with
radial expansion of the case. The outer surface fractures develop into cracks that grow toward the inner case surface. The

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explosive gas products start to flow through the cracks causing massive explosive venting. At this time the warhead case has
expanded to 50-60% of its original diameter. An explosive gas cloud is created with fragments coming out as the gas products
begin to decay. This four-step natural fragmentation breakup process model is shown in fig 1.
Fig. 1 Expansion process of natural fragmentation warhead
Fig. 2 Stress components on warhead case element

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5. WARHEAD CASE BEHAVIOUR

The warhead case expands until the internal energy exceeds the strength of the case. The warhead case can be
modeled as a cylindrical pressure vessel and loaded with a uniform static pressure. Upon warhead detonation, high pressure is
exerted on the inside of the case and produces a dynamic stress. The stress that is applied to the warhead case has three
components. The principle stresses are radial compressive stress (6r), tangential tensile stress(6?) and axial tensile stress (6z) .
The three principle stress components are shown in fig.2.
6. STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN WARHEAD CASE

The shear stresses are determined from the principle stresses. Shear stress r/ is computed from principle stresses r and
whereas shear stress r /z is calculated from principle stresses r and.z The principle stresses and z calculate shear stress / z. A shear
plane element is shown in fig. 3. Principle stresses and shear stress can be computed, showing major modes of failure that are
caused by fracture stresses in the r/ plane and radial tensile fracture . One of these modes will dominate in the failure of the
warhead case and case thickness; metal properties and temperature are variables that influence such processes. Consider a
cylindrical warhead with an inside radius ri and case thickness t under an internal pressure (fig.4). the outside radius is
designated as ro whereas an inside pressure is Pi. A thin infinitesimal ring can be analyzed at radius r summing all forces in the
vertical plane and letting the equation equal zero gives
(1)
Fig. 3 Shear plane directions1
Fig 4 Cylinder subjected to internal pressure.

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7. WARHEAD CASE FRACTURE MODEL

Shear fracture and radial fracture are the dominant modes resulting in case breakup and the fracture mode that is
predominate depends on case thickness, temperature, and material properties such as ductility. The locations of all of the shear
fractures on the warhead case is random, which results in the formation of many different size fragments. As the pressure in the
warhead case increases, the plastic region of the case extends outward creating fracture trajectories caused by the principle
stresses. These trajectories have direction and form a network of radii and circles. The maximum shear stress trajectories form
a grid of logarithmic spirals crossing the trajectories of principle stresses at 45-deg angles. This type of shear fracture occurs in
both the region of elastic deformation and in the region of plastic deformation. An illustration of a cylinder showing 45 degree
maximum shear trajectories is shown in Fig. 5
Fig. 5 Cylinder with 45-deg logarithmic spirals with fractured pieces from test.
The case thickness of the cylinder in Fig. 6. is thick steel and the photograph shows that the cylinder has broken into
many major fragments. The pressure generated from the explosive fill did not create a force great enough to fracture the entire
cylinder. The inner surface diameter increased near 77% of its original diameter
8. DUAL TYPE FRAGMENTATION MODEL

Consider a thick wall cylinder that experiences elastic-plastic stress distributions. The inner radius is ri and outer
radius is ro with an internal pressure Pi, The external pressure is expressed as Po but is negligible compared to the explosive
detonation pressure. If the cylinder is considered as plane strain, then åz = 0.0. The elastic hoop and radial stresses are expressed
as (óè, ór, whil ä is the radial case deflection.
(2)
(3)
(4)

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Where v is Poisson's ratio. If the exterior pressure Po is equal to zero, then the principal stress occurs at the inner
surface of the cylinder. From Mohr's circle the inner surface of the maximum stress is (ó è - ór so that
(5)
(6)
Where j = ro / ri. The inner surface of the cylinder is where plastic yield first occurs. . If the difference between any two
principal stresses of the cylinder is greater than the case yield strength, then yielding has occurred. Plastic strain occurs first at
the bore when r =ri , and applying the equation gives
(7)
(8)
The internal pressure p/ is required to produce plastic yielding at the inside surface of the warhead. The elastic and
plastic fields are shown in Fig. 6. If the elastic plastic yield condition is employed, then Eq. (8) is now in terms of by where pip is
the inside pressure required to take the case to plastic yield. The plastic yielded material expands past the plastic zone and
infiltrates the elastic region when pip exceeds its plastic limits,

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Fig 7 Warhead case expansion with fracture
This model can be expanded, and an equation can be derived that predicts internal pressure to cause case fracture. Assume the
warhead is initiated isotropically at and end after 10-20 us, the warhead would look as shown in fig.7
9. CRACK PROPAGATION
Figure 8 also shows the growth of surface cracks as a function of time. These cracks were initiated around 40-50 ìs
after detonation. The crack lengths were 10-20 mm, but as time increased they grew to 30-50 mm. These test provided valuable
data on number of fragment produced from a cylinder warhead. Fragment mass distributions were experimentally predicted to
be of the form
(10)
where N(> m) is the number of fragments with mass higher than m, No is the total number of fragments, ì is the fragmentation
size variable, and m is fragment mass. Fragment distributions were computed for each cylinder warhead test. Figure 9 plots the
number of fragments with mass greater then m vs 1 ft2 of fragment mass m.
The results in Fig. 9 show that experiments 5 and 6 did not produce a wider distribution of fragment sizes. One could
conclude that experiment's 5 and 6 warheads are brittle than the others. The explosive used in those tests was comp-B, and the
detonation front ran right to left.
The explosive provides a large pressure that is imparted to the metal cylindrical case, and this force causes the case to
expand with a high radial speed. The warhead case is

experiencing biaxial tension, and with increasing tension the
case material experiences a reduction in area. Once the critical
load is reached, then the material strength cannot compensate
for loss of reduced area. Several empirical equations for
uniaxial stress-strain can be applied for a strain-hardening
material. These equations are uniaxial stress-strain can be
applied for a strain-hardening material. These equations are
where B, B', C Y, N, P, and M are empirically calculated
constants.These equations help describe the fall in hoop force
(11) Fig. 8 Explosive test cylinder case

expansion as a function of time.
(Courtesty of Don Curran at SRI)

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Fig 9 Fragment mass summary for explosive cylinder tests. (Courtesy of Don Curran at SRI)
around the circumference of the case where necking has formed. A case experiencing necking is in Fig.10
It is pointed out that if the radial speed is large, then a second and third neck will form. This is because the release
wave from the first waves has not passed the formation of the 'second and third portions of the necking case. It is important from
a engineering perspective to understand this necking process and to be able to calculate the initial speed of the warhead case that
causes static instability. Assume the elastic strains are small compared to the plastic strains. An equation of radial motion can be
written It is now easy to compute the instability strain as a function of V0. Before necking and fracture arise, the velocity that
will cause strains equal to the static instability
(12)
(13)
(14)

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Fig 10 Necking of case when expanded at high radial speed.
(15 )
10. CHARGE TO MASS RATIO

The charge to mass ratio C / M can be computed that would be required to obtain the velocity for the instability strain.
The radial velocity required to achieve instability strain is 688 F/s for steel while N, C, and B equal 0.50, 0.016, and 3.2/l.0E6.
The instability strain åè is 0.236 for a cylinder. The Gurney equation computes the peak ejection velocity of the fragment. This
peak velocity can be compared to the velocity for instability strain,
(16 )
(17 )
(18 )
(19 )
(20 )
(21 )

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11. COMPUTING AVERAGE FRAGMENT MASS

The preceding mathematical calculations computed the total number of fragments on a warhead given case thickness,
warhead diameter, warhead length, and explosive characteristics. An equation has been developed [Rosin, Rammier, and
Sperling (RRS distribution)], which computes number N of fragments whose mass is equal to or less than the value m, where M
is the total weight. This is
(22 )
(23 )
(24 )
(25 )
(26 )
(27 )
This equation was generated by collecting warhead arena test data and plotting Óm vs N. The data are plotted in Fig. 16
The dashed lines in Fig. 11 refer to Eq. (27) and the solid lines represent actual data. An attempt was made to derive an
equation for average fragment mass. The average fragment mass utilized 75% of the warhead casing mass, and Óm is 75% of the
total mass, which is divided by fragment number N. The average fragment masses for two different charge diameters are
plotted in Fig. 12. as a function of case thickness t.
The equation derived from Fig. 13
(28 )
(29 )
Fig 12 Average fragment mass m75%

Fig 11 Sum of fragment mass Óm vs N function of charge diameter. vs case thickness given steel case warhead

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Fig 13 Expanded element of warhead showing geometric values
(30 )
(31 )
(32 )
(33)
(34 )
(35 )
(36 )
Equation (36) calculates the average fragment mass mf given a specific percentage of z where z is the ratio of
fragment mass Óm to total case mass M. The fragment mass can now be computed as a function of case thickness and explosive
diameter. The function z/[ -en (1 - z)] is plotted from 1 to 0, which corresponds to 100% and 0%.This warhead has expanded up
to 60% of its original diameter, and experienced elastic-plastic failure before fracture cracks occur. The equations can estimate
fragment size distribution as a function of C / M, L, D, and case thickness. several equations that were developed predict two-
dimensional case breakup and mass distribution of fragments. His equation is expressed as
(37 )
(38 )

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Equation can be expressed assuming a specific confidence level (CL) of a particular size fragment
(40)
where the largest mass m f is achieved 95% of the time. The total number of fragments greater then m f is
(41)
(42)
(43)
The warhead case is considered thin walled when the thickness is less than or equal to 0.6 in. If the case thickness is thicker,
then a three-dimensional equation is employed,
The total number of fragments N o is equal to M /6ì, and 6ì, is the arithmetic average mass.
12. FRAGMENTATION DESIGN FOR INNER LAYER OF WARHEAD CASE

The selection of fragment mass and shape has always been difficult, and much time is utilized attempting to optimize
its geometric configuration. The warhead designer must analyze the vulnerability data of the target before any warhead is
designed.
The fragment mass can be computed by
MF = SFtpf /6=C1t3(C2+2)pf (44)

3
This derivation computes fragment thickness while maximizing fragment volume. The size, weight, and shape of the
fragment is critical in inflicting maximum damage to a target. One way to measure how lethal the fragments are is to compare
KE and momentum to penetration through target plates. The penetration of a fragment though a plate is a function of fragment
mass, obliquity, yaw, shape, and velocity. The velocity of a fragment when arranged on a warhead can be estimated
Fig. 14 C/M demonstration explosive and metal effects on peak ejection Velocity vs

N
by a simple Gurney equation
Vo= 2E CIM
(45)
1+CIM
Where 2E is aGurney explosive constant that has units of velocity. If ã½= Vo/ 2E and a curve ã ½ vs C/M is plotted, then the
effect of the C/M ratio on ejection velocity can be examined (Fig.14)
The curve shows that low fragment launch velocities are significantly affected by C/M whereas large C/M ratios contribute
little to enhancing velocity.
Based on the fragment shape and mass, an estimate of total momentum and KE of the warhead can be computed. This
analysis provides insight into maximum penetration performance. After that the case thickness t can be calculated as a function
of warhead design parameters. The fragment must be designed so that it does not shatter or fracture during initial launch. The
inner liner material is also an important part of the warhead design.
A great deal of care must be taken in choosing the liner material and thickness because it is possible that fragment
fracturing could occur. Fracturing of the
Fig. 15 percent of maximum vs (C/C+M)
Fig. 16 Description of pressure wave' s impact on different positions on case.

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Premade Fragment is also a function of initiation geometry and fragment longitudinal location. If the fragments are near the
booster or near the warhead end, then nonuniform detonation pressures with reflected shock waves could be exerted on the
fragments. A half-barrel-shaped warhead is shown in Fig.(18), demonstrating that the C ratio and shockwave exerted on these
M
fragments differs depending on the fragment's position.
The fragments experience a lower ratio at location P1 whereas location p2 experiences increased with a normal
C C
shock front. This increased pressure at p2
M is attributed to the location of the booster charge. When the warhead
M is detonated, the
highest pressure is thrusted forward, or normally in front, at nearly 300 kbars whereas lower pressure with rarefraction waves is
experienced near the booster side fragments. This occurs because the blast wave runs nearly tangent to the warhead case.
The inner thickness is designed to hold and sometimes mitigate some of the shock front, and to allow the fragment to
be ejected without major fracture cracks. The designer must be careful that the shock front does not fracture the fragment
during initial launch. A premade fragment after initial launch is shown in Fig.3.17
Fig . 17 Description of fragment stress wave during launch
The explosive creates an intense, high-pressure impulse wave that pushes on the fragment, causing it to accelerate to
high velocities. The explosive impulse acting on the fragment can be modeled as a triangular saw tooth pulse. If the fragment
undergoes fracture, then the tensile wave traveling though the fragment exceeds some critical stress value óf. When the wave
reaches the outside surface, it is reflected with a maximum tensile stress ót. The tensile stress is computed as
ót=óM - ói
where ói is the compressional incident stress and óM is the magniture of the incident compressive pulse.
13. DESIGN OF THICKER FRAGMENTS FROM UNCONTROLLED FRAGMENTATION CASE

Some warhead designers may want to design a warhead with an uncontrolled fragmentation case with premade
fragments. A designer may decide to make the premade fragments large because deep penetration into targets is required.
Smaller fragments, from an uncontrolled case, generally destroy thinner skinned threats.A warhead with premade fragments
on an uncontrolled case would generate a combined-effects warhead that would accelerate large mass fragments at heavy

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Fig. 18 Illustration of pre-made fragments on uncontrolled fragmentation case
componented with small, light fragments that would kill thin component. A warhead with premade fragments with an
uncontrolled fragmentation case is shown in Fig 3.18
An equation for total warhead weight can be expressed as
WT = W e+ WUC + W f
Where We is the of the explosive, Wuc is the weight of the uncontrolled case, and Wf is the weight of the premade fragments.
This equation can be expanded to
(46)
(47)
From this equation the explosive diameter can be calculated based on initial conditions and desired fragment weights and
dimensions.
The equation for the explosive radius is
(48)

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The explosive diamenter De is also the uncontrolled case inside diameter, and the outside diameter Di is computed by
Di=Do-2t
This equation can be expanded to solve for uncontrolled case thickness. If
De=-2tl=Do-2t
Then solving for tl gives
(49)
(50)
Where B is a constant.
14. CONCLUSION
The design of dual fragmentation aimed at effectively utilizing the maximum potential energy of the warhead. This is
achievable using two liners of different case thickness, with inner being thinner and allowed to expand maximum while
outter being thicker with stretching limited to just short of reaching plastic region. During such situation inner with
prefragmented is to spread maximum fragments and with high velocity. Where as the a outter with natural fragmentation
having bigger sizes and gaining tremendous momentum, would be able to destroy hard target like tanks , A PCs etc. where
as inner liners providing maximum number of fragments with equally high velocity would prove to be effective against soft
target
REFERENCES
1. Richard M Lloyd, Conservational Warhead Systems Physics and Engineering Design, Progress in Astronautics and
Aeronautics, Volume 179
2. Roger Holmberg, Explosives and Blasting Technique, A..A Balkema Publishers, Lisse/Tokyo.
3. Charles L. Mader, Numerical Modeling of Explosives and Propellants, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group
4. Text Book of ammunition, 1936, HMS Office publisher
5. Artillery ammunition, Vol-3, The Ordnance School, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland
6. Reger T Fernner, Mechanics of Solids, CRC Press, Washington DC
7. Liu Congdian and Roy W. Nichols, Design and Analysis, Vol-1, Pressure vessel Technology, Pergamon Press

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NON LETHAL WEAPONS :

CONCEPTS, TECHNOLOGIES AND DEVELOPMENTS
Brig HSN Sastry (Retd)
Institute of Defence Scientists and Technologists, Pune
ABSTRACT
The paper brings out clearly the concepts of non- lethal weapons, their state of art, and the pressing
need for their use in the present global scenario. Security forces increasingly operate in challenging
environments other than conventional wars. Non lethal capabilities provide flexibility by allowing forces
to apply measured force with reduced risk of casualties. Political, economic and humanitarian
considerations dictate that wherever possible, casualties should be minimized while also limiting
collateral damage. First and second generation non-lethal weapons, which include rubber and plastic
bullets, bean bags, stun guns, tasers, electric shock weapons, incapacitant gases, batons, laser weapons,
water cannons etc have been described briefly. Emerging technologies in a range of mines, encapsulation
devices, thermobaric technology, electromagnetic directed energy weapons, melodorants, unmanned
aerial vehicles, acoustic beams, bio-technical and biodegrading microbes are briefly brought out in the
paper.
Suitable technologies to be developed in the country to meet the needs of our security forces, and
project to be undertaken by DRDO, in consultation with military, Para military, civil police etc are
brought out. Lethal, ethical and humanitarian aspects of non-lethal weapons, based on national policies,
public opinion, and the need of formulating suitable laws, commensurate with international standards are
highlighted.
The paper also bring out briefly, the role of IDST (Institute of Defence Scientist and Technologists), an
organization with a large number of experts with years of experience, who can assist in envisaging such
non lethal weapon projects, give necessary consultancy services and coordinate the progress of such
projects.
(FULL PAPER NOT RECEIVED)

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VELOCITY VARIATION OF PRE-MADE FRAGMENTS

IN MULTI-LAYERS
KD Dhote, KPS Murthy
ABSTRACT
Gurney's formulae for estimation of velocity of metal liners in contact with detonating explosive are based on
conservation of momentum and energy. In spite of several limitations associated with these formulae, they are still in use for
prediction of ejection velocities of both controlled and pre made fragments, due to their simplicity in use and good agreement.
However, these formulae can't predict the ejection velocity of multi-layered pre made fragments.
The design of warhead is often dictated by the mass & space constraints. Hence, to achieve higher hit densities, the
pre-made fragmentation warheads are often designed with multiple layers of fragments. On detonation, fragments from
various layers are ejected out with differential velocities thereby generating number of fragment wave fronts. The separation of
fragments in multi-layers is affected by ringing and bouncing phenomenon associated with interaction of shock waves with
fragments, fragment motion through explosion products and subsequent fragment motion in free air.
To study the effect of fragment separation, authors have conducted experiments with single column of 3 fragments in a matrix
construction. In these studies, spherical tungsten alloy fragments were packed in the matrix and propelled out with high
explosive charges having C/M ratios from 0.16 to 0.64. It is observed that the velocities of inner fragment & middle fragment
are 86 % & 95% of the outer most fragment respectively, irrespective of C/M variations. Mathematical relations for estimating
the fragment velocity of each layer have been presented using conservation of momentum & coefficient of restitution. The
methodology of estimating the coefficient of restitution presented in this paper can be effectively used for different types of
fragment matrix constructions and derive the mathematical relations for estimating the velocity of the fragments from each
layer, before optimizing the design of warhead.
1. INTRODUCTION
Gurney in 1940's developed the mathematical relations for estimating the velocity of metal liners in contact with
explosive, which are essentially based on conservation of momentum and energy [1]. Application of these relations for various
warhead configurations is limited due to the assumptions made in deriving the formulae. However, Gurney's formulae, are still
in use, due to simplicity in use and good agreement with experiment results for many configurations. One of the limitations is
that it can't predict the velocities of multi-layered pre made fragment configurations.
Warhead designers most often have to optimize the performance of kill mechanism with in the space constraints of
overall weapon system. In pre made fragmentation warhead configuration, as many as fragments are need to be packed to
achieve desired fragment hit density on target. Hence, fragments are packed in multiple layers. On detonation of warhead,
fragments are ejected outwards with differential velocities, thereby forming fragment wave fronts. Single layer pre-made
fragment launch dynamics is discussed in Reference [2]. The phenomenon of fragment separation in multi-layers is presented
in References [3] & [4].
The phenomenon of fragment layer separation is categorized in following three ways.

a) During shock waves transmissions
The separation of layer due to shock wave transmission occurs either by meeting of compressive & tensile shock waves at
layer interface or by long pressure pulse or by differential shock impedance characteristics of layer material [3].
b) During fragment motion in explosion gas products
Even after initial small separation of fragment layers by shock wave transmissions, high pressure gaseous products further
accelerate the inner fragment layer i.e. layer in contact with explosive. This fragment impacts on the fragment next to it
and next fragment impacts on the subsequent fragment ahead of it and so on. These multiple impacts between the
fragments are described as ringing bouncing phenomenon [4]. Thus, the fragments mainly separate due to momentum
transfer which is dependent on the coefficient of restitution 'e' for the materials in layer [5]. In addition to this, the
interaction of expanding hot gases with fragments also contributes in its separation.

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c) During fragment motion in free air

After fragment comes out of explosion gaseous products with differential velocities they move in surrounding air. During
this phase, the drag force exerted on it further contributes in its separation.
The fragment separation phenomenon, thus depends on construction of fragment matrix and the material characteristics
predominantly in a given explosive system. Authors have conducted experiments with a single row of 3 layered, spherical
tungsten alloy fragments packed with resin harder in a matrix and propelled with an high explosive having C/M ratios varying
from 0.16 to 0.64 to study the effect of fragment separation. The velocities of inner fragment & middle fragment are observed to
be in the order of 86 % & 95% of outer most fragment respectively and do not depend on C/M ratio. Mathematical relations for
estimating the fragment velocity of each layer have been worked out using conservation of momentum & coefficient of
restitution. Based on experimental results, coefficient of restitution has been found to be in the order of 0.1 for the fragment
matrix, under experimentation.
2. FRAGMENT SEPARATION
On initiation of explosive, fragments get separated due to shock phenomenon, followed by its motion in explosive gas
products & in air. When the fragments are initially deployed there is an impact momentum transmission phenomenon that
occurs between neighboring fragments. The collisions that occur between the fragments happen within a short period of time.
When one fragment impacts another, the fragment are subjected to localized deformations under high strain rates, over a very
short period of time. This is followed by a short period of restitution. The coefficient of restitution is expressed as 'e' and is the
ratio of the integrals of restitution and pressure [5].
e = Rdt / p dt
The value of 'e' is between 0 and 1 and is dependent on fragment material, shape, surface condition, filler materials
(momentum traps) and impact conditions. For perfectly plastic impact, the coefficient of restitution 'e' will be 0 and the
fragments would stay together because there is no time period during which restitution occurs. However if e = 1, the impact is
said to be perfectly elastic, and the fragments move away from each other during initial launch itself with large difference in the
velocities.
Let V1, V2 and V3 be the ejection velocities of the fragments of first, second and third layer fragment respectively. V is
the average ejection velocity of the fragments bundled together. V12 is the velocity of the fragment bunch of layer one and two.
The conservation of momentum yields

3 M V = 2 M V12 +M V3
Where, M is each fragment mass.

Thus, 3 V = 2 V12 + V3 ------------------------(1)
Similarly, 2 M V12 = M V1 + M V2
Therefore, 2 V12 = V1 + V2 -----------------------(2)
Thus, 3V = V1 + V2+ V3 -----------------------(3)
Consideration of the coefficient of restitution yields

e V = V3 - V12 ----------------------(4)
e V12 = V2 - V1 ---------------------(5)
The above equations (1), (2), (3), (4) & (5) can be solved for obtaining the initial velocities of fragments in
three layers i.e., V1, V2 and V3 as follows,
V1 = (1/6) (2-e) ( 3- e) V ------(6)
V2 = (1/6) (2+e)(3-e)V --------(7)
V3= (1/3)(3+2e)V ------- (8)

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3. TRIAL CONFIGURATION AND RESULTS

To study the fragment separation, a Fragment Launch Unit (FLU) of
steel has been used to launch three numbers of 9 mm spherical Tungsten Alloy
(TA) fragments in a single column by high explosive as shown in Fig. 1.
Fragments are packaged in resin hardener mix and assembled at one end of the
FLU. High explosive pellets are inserted from the other side. An electrical
detonator is used to detonate the high explosive. The trials were conducted
with C/M ratios of 0.16, 0.32, 0.48 and 0.64.
Trial set up is shown in Fig. 2 & Fig. 3. A high-speed camera having

recording speed 1,00,000 frames/sec was used. The camera speed was set to
10,000 frames/sec to record. A velocity screen was placed in front of the
camera to record fragment motion. On a velocity screen vertical lines having
distance 100 mm in between the lines were marked to measure distance of
fragment traveled. A firing circuit was used for positive recording of the event.
In addition to this, a screen is also placed in front of the FLU to record the
fragment spatial distribution & path of its travel.
The separation of fragments recorded in one of the trial is shown in

Fig. 4. The velocities recorded in various trials are given in Table 1. It is
observed that, the velocity of 1st fragment & 2nd (middle) fragment is around
86 % & 95% of 3rd fragment irrespective of C/M variations.
Based on experimental results given in Table 1 &

Eqn. 6 to Eqn. 8, coefficient of restitution for each trial has
been worked out, and found to be varying from 0.095 to
0.112 in various trials, for the 3 layered TA fragments
bundled in a column using resin hardener mix.
FIG. 4: MULTI LAYER FRAGMENT SEPARATION

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Shot no. C/M 3rd frag. vel.(V3) 2nd frag. vel. (V2) 1st frag. vel. (V1)
A1 0.16 310 m/s 295 m/s 265 m/s
A2 0.16 323 m/s 310 m/s 275 m/s
A3 0.16 318 m/s 302 m/s 270 m/s
rd
Average [% wrt 3 frg. vel.] 317 m/s 302 m/s [95.3%] 270 m/s [85.2%]
B1 0.32 457 m/s 435 m/s 396 m/s
B2 0.32 450 m/s 430 m/s 390 m/s
B3 0.32 439 m/s 418 m/s 380 m/s
rd
C1 0.48 522 m/s 496 m/s 449 m/s
C2 0.48 526 m/s 500 m/s 455 m/s
C3 0.48 540 m/s 510 m/s 460 m/s
rd
Average [% wrt 3 frg. vel.] 529 m/s 502 m/s [94.9%] 455 m/s [86%]
D1 0.64 615 m/s 585 m/s 520 m/s
D2 0.64 593 m/s 564 m/s 515 m/s
D3 0.64 629 m/s 600 m/s 530 m/s
rd
4. CONCLUSION
The paper presented the details of trials conducted for 3 layered Tungsten Alloy fragments bundled in a column using
resin hardener mix and mathematical relations for estimating the velocities. It is observed that the velocity 1st (fragment in
contact with explosive-inner) fragment & 2nd (middle) fragment is 86 % & 96 % of 3rd (outermost fragment) irrespective of
variation in C/M ratio and the coefficient of restitution is found to be in the order of 0.1 for the matrix under consideration. The
methodology presented in this paper can be effectively used for estimating the coefficient restitution for different types of
fragment matrix constructions and derive the mathematical relations for estimating the velocity of the fragments from each
layer before optimizing the design of warhead.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are extremely thankful to Director, ARDE for his guidance, encouragement and motivation through out the
investigative trials, analysis of results and presentation of this paper.
REFERENCES
1. Zukas W, Fundamentals of shape charges, 1989, pp. 45-71
2. O'Donoghue PE, Predebon WW, Anderson Jr. CE, “Dynamic launch process of preformed fragments”, J. Appl.
Phys.,63 (2), 15 Jan. 1988. pp 337 – 347.
3. Jones GE, “The Gurney equations for multilayered fragments”, J. Appl. Phys., 50 (5), May 1979, pp 3746-3747.
4. R. Lloyd, “Conventional Warhead Systems Physics and Engineering Design”, Progress in Astronautics and
Aeronautics, March 1998, Vol. 179, pp. 140-149.
5. Beer F. and Johnston E., Vector Mechanics for Engineers, Dynamics, 3rd ed., McGraw – Hill, New York, 1997. pp. 594 –
596

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DESIGN AND EVALUATION OF A LIGHT WEIGHT

BLAST BARRIER FOR THIRD GENERATION
ANTI TANK MISSILE WITH TANDEM WARHEAD
S Harikrishnan, KPS Murthy

ABSTRACT
Tandem shaped charge warhead is one of the efficient methods to defeat Explosive Reactive Armour (ERA) protected Main
Battle Tanks (MBT). The concept involves two shaped charges mounted in the same missile are initiated one after the other
with certain time delay. First shaped charge jet would remove the ERA and the second jet would penetrate the bare armour.
Both these explosive charges are mounted close to each other most of the time due to severe space constraints in the system. It is
necessary to protect the second charge from the blast effects of first charge, during the time delay between the initiations of two
charges. Blast barriers are being used in the space available between the charges for this purpose. More often, addition of such
component might introduce excess weight penalty and deterioration in the performance of the second charge itself.
This paper deals with the design and evaluation of a lightweight barrier to protect the second charge. Shaping of the barrier
is carried out in such a way that collapse of the second shaped charge liner is unaffected. 2D analysis was carried out using
Autodyn to verify the same. Flash X ray taken at different instances after the initiation of first charge shows that the barrier is
intact when the second charge is set to initiate. Static experiments of tandem charges were conducted which shows that the
performance of second charge is unaffected by the effects of detonation of first charge.
1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction of Explosive Reactive Armour (ERA) protection to Main Battle Tanks (MBT) necessitates the use of tandem
shaped charge warheads for anti tank missiles to defeat the MBTs. The concept of tandem shaped charge involves a precursor
charge (PC) and a main charge (MC) set to initiate with a predetermined time delay. Both these charges function based on
shaped charge principle. Hyper velocity jet from precursor charge would initiate ERA and the flying debris and high-pressure
detonation products emanating from ERA would create a disturbance zone for shaped charge jets. Hence the main charge jet is
allowed to reach the target only after the ERA products are removed from the main charge jet path. At the same time the
precursor charge detonation in the near vicinity of main charge would have detrimental effects on the performance of main
charge. Effects of precursor charge blast on main charge functioning are mainly in two ways. Firstly, direct blast effect and
secondly disturbance in the collapse process of main charge liner due to the flying components of missile system housed in the
space between PC and MC. Hence it is necessary to protect the main charge from the adverse effects of PC blast. This becomes
more relevant as presently larger precursor charges are being used in anti tank missles to defeat stronger ERAs.
Traditionally there are three different methods to protect the MC [1]. One of these methods is to use a massive bulk head to
shield the blast effects of PC. Its mass prevents the bulk head from accelerating towards MC. But the drawback of such a design
is that it would reduce the performance of MC. Moreover, the weight penalty offered by such a component might not be
acceptable to the missile system designers. A second method is to use components already in the missile as a shield. A third
approach is to use the space between the warheads to dissipate the blast energy before it reaches main charge.
This paper presents the design considerations and evaluation of a lightweight barrier for an existing anti tank missile
system. This system under consideration is a third generation anti tank missile with a massive front section, which houses the
precursor charge. Precursor charge consists of 250g of HMX based explosive. Main charge is housed at 200mm to the rear of
precursor charge. Space between PC and MC houses electronic systems consisting of printed circuit boards, connectors, cables
and their mounting frames. Precursor charge is initiated by a fuze, which has mass of 250g. A general arrangement of warhead
is shown in Fig: 1.

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Main charge Fuze for Precursor charge Precursor charge
Electronic components
Fig: 1 General arrangement of a tandem warhead system for a third generation anti tank guided missile.
2. INCONSISTENT PERFORMANCE OF TANDEM WARHEAD

Requirement of the blast barrier was conceived from the inconsistent performance of Tandem warhead observed during
static trials. Systematic conclusions were drawn from the characteristics of main charge jet penetration hole observed on the
target material. Main charge jet was observed to be shifting to the upper plane from the intended point of hit on the target as
shown in Fig 2.
Shift in Jet
Jet impact
point
Fig 2 (a) Trial set up (b) Target plate
Shift in the jet penetration towards the upper plane can be explained by assuming an asymmetric collapse of the liner
elements. If collapse of liner elements above the liner axis is perturbed, jet flow will tend to shift towards the upper plane to
conserve momentum. Perturbation of collapse can be caused by the debris of precursor detonation entering into the collapse
volume.
Autodyn 2D analysis was carried out to assess the time at which the blast product from precursor enters the collapse volume
of main charge. An axisymmetric model of the precursor charge and blast barrier was employed for simplicity. Fuze for
precursor charge was modeled as equivalent thickness of Aluminium. It has been observed in the simulation the back blast from
the precursor charge arrives at the location of blast barrier close to the time at which main charge is set to initiate. It has been
observed the pressure wave deteriorates considerably since considerable amount of energy is absorbed by the deformation of
the fuze. Different events of the blast phenomenon of precursor charge is shown in Fig : 3. In the actual configuration, apart
from the fuze, several guidance electronic components are positioned within the space between the PC and MC. These
components are likely to enter the collapse volume and affect the process of jet formation much more adversely than observed
in simulation.

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Main charge
collapse zone
Precursor
Fuze
Fuze is accelerating towards Fuze enters main

Main charge liner collapse charge liner collapse
zone zone
t = 300 m
s
Fig 3 Hydrocode simulation of Precursor blast
3. DESIGN CRITERIA FOR BLAST BARRIER
Location Of Blast Barrier

Objectives of blast barrier are to protect the main charge from direct blast effects of precursor charge and to arrest the flying
debris from entering into the collapse zone of the main charge. To meet these criteria, blast barrier has to retain its configuration
till the main charge is initiated and collapse process of liner is completed. It is not preferable to design a massive barrier to with
stand the blast loads since it only adds additional mass for the missile to carry. If the disc is too near the precursor charge, it will
attain high velocity causing damage to the main charge. Hence it is preferable to place the disc as far away from the precursor
charge as possible and allowed to receive less impulse and at the same time, the time taken for the movement of disc should be
such that the second charge is not disturbed. Distance at which barrier is to be located is worked out in an approximate way as
follows:
Pressure at the blast isolation disc is given by :

105 ´
20´ W 2/ 3
Pmax = 2
R
where Pmax = peak over pressure at the given distance, R

W = weight equivalent of explosive in terms of TNT
The pressure pulse duration is dependent on the distance R and the sound velocity in the gaseous products of detonation
t An estimation of is given by the ratio between the distance R and the sound
which is of the order of 2000m/s.
t
R
t=
D
2000
1
impulse per unit area = Pmax Dt
2
1 p
Total impulse = Pmax D́
t d2
2 4
Where d is the diameter of the blast barrier disc.
This total impulse is responsible for the movement of the blast barrier disc.

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Momentum gained by the barrier, M = mdVd

Where Vd = Velocity of barrier,
md = mass of barrier
Distance available for the disc to travel = L-R
Where L is the distance between PC and MC
R is the distance from PC to barrier
Time taken for the disc to travel ta = L -

R
Vd
By equating ta time interval between initiation of PC and MC we get the value of R for a given mass of disc.As per the above
calculation, blast isolator would be positioned close to main charge.
Shaping of Blast barrier

Since the blast barrier is located close to the main charge, it has to be ensured that collapse process and jet formation of main
charge liner is not adversely affected. This is ensured by shaping the blast barrier in such a way that the barrier does not affect
the collapse process. Angle at which the liner elements from the base of the liner are projected to the axis can be calculated
using the principles of grazing detonation by Taylor. Details of this aspect can be found in reference [2].
Deviation angle is shown in Fig 2. can be computed from the Taylor formula;
V _ col
tan d
=
2D
where V_col = collapse velocity of liner elements.
D = detonation velocity along the liner surface
Fig 2: Collapse geometry of Liner
According to the above approach, taking into consideration the mechanical integration aspects, a conical blast barrier is
envisaged whose included angle is 1000. Configuration and arrangement of barrier is shown in Fig:3.
Experiments were carried out to finalise the material and thickness of barrier. Initially, the tests were carried out with
barrier made of Aluminium. Inconsistent performance of warhead was recorded with Aluminium barrier. Further, Titanium
alloy Ti 6Al 4V was used as the material for barrier since it has high strength to weight to ratio and is capable of absorbing large
deformation energy per unit volume of the material. Warhead registered consistent performance with titanium barrier.
Subsequently, trials were conducted with dummy main charge and recorded the status of the blast barrier using Flash X ray
photography, at different intervals after precursor charge initiation. It is found that the barrier is intact and prevents precursor
debris from entering the collapse volume of main charge liner up to 350 microseconds. Details of these experiments are
explained in the forthcoming paragraphs. Nominal mass of the barrier design estimated to be 275g.
Fig 3: Configuration and mounting

arrangement of blast barrier

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2D ANALYSIS
Further simulation studies were carried out to observe the collapse phenomenon of main charge. Main charge and blast
diverter were modeled in Autodyn using axisymmetric eulerian structured mesh. Simulation shows the smooth collapse of
liner elements. Some of the events in the collapse process are shown in Fig: 5
Fig: 5 Simulation of main charge liner collapse
4. EXPERIMENTATION
Experiments were carried out wherein the precursor charge was detonated and Flash X ray photographs were taken at
different intervals till the time when main charge is set to initiate. Flash X- ray images show that the blast barrier is intact during
the time delay between initiation of precursor charge and main charge and it successfully arrests the debris of precursor blast
from entering the collapse volume of main charge. Main charge filled with non explosive material simulating weight and
dimensions were used. Trial set up is shown in Fig 6
X-ray film Cassettes
Test Article
Fig 6: Test set up
Blast barrier Precursor charge Blast barrier
Main Main
charge charge
T = 0m
s T = 250m
s
Main Main
charge charge
Blast barrier
T = 350m
s T = 500m
s
Fig: 7 Flash radiograph at different intervals from the initiation of precursor charge

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5. CONCLUSION
As the present day explosive reactive armours incorporate highly insensitive explosives and thick metal covers, large
caliber precursor warheads with heavy fuzes are needed to defeat them. Moreover, third generation anti tank missiles
accommodate various electronic components within the space between main charge and precursor charge. Hence it becomes
imperative to protect the main charge for allowing a proper collapse of its liner. A light weight blast barrier has been designed
for a tandem warhead system and tested against a variety of targets. Shaping of the barrier is very important or else the barrier
itself can deteriorate the performance of the main charge. Above design of barrier weighs 270g and effectively protects against
a large precursor charge having 250g of explosive mass. It has been reported in literature [1] that an isolator weighing 300g has
been designed for protecting the main charge from a precursor charge having explosive mass of 230g. In comparison to this
design, the present isolator is lighter and effectively protects the main charge against stronger precursor charge.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Shri Surendra Kumar, Director, ARDE, Dr. Satish Kumar, Director,
TBRL and Shri S.S. Mishra, Project Director-NAG for the support provided during the development of Tandem warhead
system and various diagnostic tests.
REFERENCES
(1) M. Meier, P.VonAh, J. Sorensen, N. Ouye, Solutions to some design constraints in Tandem Warheads, Proceedings of
the 20th Inetrnational Symposium of Ballistics, Sept 2002, pp 663-668
(2) Ake Persson., A theoretical analysis of the mechanics of Tandem Shaped Charges and their interaction with different
targets, Proceedings of 7th Inetrnational Symposium of Ballistics, April. 1983, pp 251-260
(3) W.P. Walters and J.A. Zukas, Fundamentals of shaped charges, Wiley Interscience Publication, 1989.

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ANALYSIS OF JET PENETRATION OF HOLLOW CHARGE

FROM CONCEPT OF HYDRODYNAMIC THEORY
AND FRACTURE MECHANICS
Mohammadali Partanian, RN Pralhad
Defence Institute of Advanced Technology, Pune 411 025
ABSTRACT
Hollow charge HEAT projectile penetration into the target (Tank/Bunkers/Runways) has been
modeled from the concept of fracture mechanics and hydrodynamics theory. Initial development of the
model uses concepts of hydrodynamic theory for the part dealing with penetration of jet into the target,
concept of fracture mechanics has been used. The model has also been compared with the other basic
model developed by using the concept of Bernoulli's principle. The difference between the present and
earlier model has been highlighted. The model has also been computed for different target material and
different metallic liners. The results indicate that the present model yields better results.

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AN OVERVIEW ON END GAME

FOR SURFACE TO AIR MISSILE (SAM)
PK Pradhan, PP Biswas, Dayanad, RN Bhattacherjee
Defence Research & Development Laboratory, Hyderabad
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper describes the end game scheme for a Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM), capable of defeating wide range of aerial
targets (fighter aircrafts, Bombers, Helicopters, Cruise missiles, PTAs etc) in Air Defence (AD) role. Its kill zone envelop
covers low altitude - near boundary engagement to high altitude far boundary engagements. Ground based command guidance
system and powerful radars are ensuring the missile-target engagement in the entire kill zone envelop. However, it is seen that
classical engagement scheme of beam matching (i.e., fuze beamwidth to warhead beamwidth) is not adequate in defeating the
aerial targets even though minimum miss-distance is achieved during engagement. Following are the primary causes for
failure of target defeat due to ineffective delivery of WH fire power on to target.
i) Dynamic warhead beam width is varying as a function of missile velocity, angle of attack and its attitude.
ii) RPF beam is fixed beam depends upon antenna mounting.
iii) Targets are different types and its sizes are very much different from each other.
iv) Target velocity and its maneuvering state results different engagement geometry.
v) Different altitudes of engagement.
vi) Warhead characteristics
vii)Fuze characteristics
In End Game mission design, each and every factors listed above were addressed End Game algorithm formulated &
implemented in missile onboard towards ensuring kill of all types of maneuvering targets, bombers and cruise missiles etc. in
the entire kill zone envelope of Weapon System. This is a novel design.
SAM end game scheme is using an intelligent Radio Proximity Fuze (RPF) to aid the target kinematic information in real
time and End Game algorithm have been invoked in real time to detonate the warhead at an optimum time from the instant of
target detection by fuze.
2. END GAME PHILOSOPHY

End Game philosophy has been conceptualized based on the features of the following subsystem performances :
i) Possibility of resulting maximum miss-distance from ground based command guidance system.
ii) Radio proximity fuze (RPF) features viz., fuze beam and its lean angle.
iii) Pre- fragment MK-III warhead features (viz., beam width, hit density, lethal radius and its fragment kinematics).
iv) Maneuvering capability of targets.
v) Target sizes (starting from PTA to Bomber).
vi) Modes of engagement and kill zone envelope.
In past target engagement scheme has been worked out on warhead and RPF beam matching principle. It was anticipated
that all the time target will be in the beam of warhead at the instant of warhead detonation by RPF. However, it is seen that beam
matching is not feasible due to missile velocity variation, warhead fragment velocity variation over the range of engagement
and engagement geometry. In addition to the above, it is aimed to deliver the warhead firepower onto the vulnerable zone of
every target to maximize target kill. In turn, the SSKP of weapon system increases considerably.
Such engagement scheme revealed that there is a need of knowing the missile and target kinematics and its engagement
angle to choose the optimum time of warhead firepower delivery on to the vulnerable zone of target in real time. This calls for
modified guidance scheme and requirement of intelligent RPF having potential to provide target range and its velocity at the
instant of its detection.
Presently, SAM is using both the above features from guidance subsystem and RPF. Based on these features, end game
mission have been designed for the total kill zone envelope and an end game algorithm have been evolved and implemented to
choose the optimum warhead detonation time as per the following relation.
TOB = f (Rd, Vc)
Where, Rd : Target detection range by fuze

Vc : Classing velocity between missile and target.
TOB : Optimum warhead detonation time

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3. SALIENT FEATURES OF SAM END GAME

Following salient features have been incorporated in various subsystems in order to achieve the desired end game
requirement.
Engagement Geometry
Ground based command guidance system is ensuring the occurrence of desired engagement geometry in the total kill zone
envelope. A typical engagement scenario depicting the aspect angle is shown in Fig 1
Fig. 1: Typical Engagement geometry
Target
RPF
Missile
Aspect angle
End game mission design ensures target interceptions for a maximum aspect angle upto 30 (i.e., the angle between missile
and target trajectory pertaining to missile terminal phase). This also ensures engaging maneuvering targets.
Fig.2 Target intercept geometry giving the warhead detonation position as per requirement.
50
40
R
P
30 F
Z [m ]
B
ea
m T0 : Tgt. Detected by RPF
20
T1 : WH Burst Time
T2 : Target Interception
10
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25
X [m]
Radio Proximity Fuze (RPF)

The fuze is omni-directional with a width of 10 and maximum detection range of 45m. It is an intelligent fuze which detects
the target (as on when target is in its beam) and feeds the target position and velocity information to End Game algorithm.
Schematic figure of missile-RPF beam configuration is shown in Fig- 3.

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Fig. 3 : Missile – RPF beam configuration
RPF Beam
RPF Unit
550 (a
L)
Warhead
Warhead (WH)
It is the pay load of SAM weapon system. It meets all following salient specifications required as per End Game mission
design
Weight : 55 kg
WH beam width : 70 to 100 (30)
Lethal radius : 50 m
Warhead
Fig-4 Warhead
SAM
TA Cube
4. Warhead Fragment Kinematics
Warhead fragment velocity decay is considerable over lethal range. However, fragment has sufficient lethality to cause the
damage of target. Typical warhead fragment / kill-mechanisms velocity decay profile is shown in Fig-5.
2200
2000
Frag. Vel [m/s]
1800
Fig-5 Warhead Kill Mechanism
1600 Frag. Velocity loss vs Decay
time
Velocity Decay Profile Actual
1400
1200
1000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Time [sec]

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5. SAM : Evolution of End Game Algorithm

End Game mission have been designed for the following parameters :
Ø Missile velocity : 500 – 750 m/sec
Ø Target velocity : 50 – 700 m/sec
Ø Engagement altitude : 0 to 16 kms
Ø Aspect angle : 30
Ø RPF characteristics : RPF detection range and closing velocity
Ø WH characteristics : Beam width, hit density, lethality
End Game algorithm have been evolved for all modes of target engagement (head on, receding & crossing) with consideration
of all the above parameters. The final algorithm have been worked out only in terms of two parameters, namely RPF detection
range and target closing velocity. The graphical representation of algorithm is given in Fig-6.
Fig.6: Graphical representation of end game algorithm

0.035
LOOK UP GRAPH
Closing velocity (RPF vs DTD[groupwise])
(m/s)
500
0.03 600
700
800
WH detonation time
900
1000
0.025 1100
1200
1300
0.02
D T D (s )
0.015
0.01
0.005
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
RPF range(m)
RPF Detection range
Based on this algorithm a typical sea level target intercept simulation is shown in fig. 7.
Fig. 7 Sea level engagement, closing velocity: 900m/s Target maneuvering attitude = 15deg.
45 8
40
T2 6
35
4
30 T0
2
25
y [m ]
Z [m ]
20 0
15 -2
10
-4
5
T1 -6
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 X [m]
X [m]

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6. EXECUTION OF END GAME ALGORITHM

This algorithm is executed in real time by RPF as per End Game requirement at the terminal phase of missile trajectory. It
ensures target kill for all modes of target engagement and also enhances the SSKP of Weapon System.
7. SUMMARY
1) Classical target engagement principle is not adequate
2) New End Game mission design principle ensures the following
a) Target kill in all modes of engagement.
b) Delivers WH lethality onto target vulnerable zone and enhances the target kill probability.
c) Target is defeated over entire range of miss distance.
In nutshell SAM is a modern-state-of-the-art weapon have all the advanced key features to defeat all varieties of aerial
target in Air-Defence roll.
REFERENCES
1) R.M. Lloyd, “Conventional Warhead Systems Physics and Engineering Design”, AIAA, Vol.179, 1998.
2) J. Carleone, “Tactical Missile Warheads”, AIAA, Vol. 155, 1993.
3) R.M. Lloyd, “Physics of Director Hit and Near Miss Warhead Technologies”, AIAA, Vol.194, 2001.
4) TBRL Team, DRDL Team, “Evaluation of Fragment Kinematics for Cubical Projectile”, Internal Report
No.DRDL/DOS/WAD/512/5/07, 2007.

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THERMOBARIC WARHEAD FOR UNDER-GROUND TARGETS
Kamlesh Kumar, Satwinder Singh, KPS Murthy

Armament Research & Development Establishment, Pune 411 021.
ABSTRACT
Development and deployment of thermobaric weapons have been increased in the recent past world over for defeating
tunnels or fortified underground targets. As the name implies thermobaric weapons are optimised for combined effect of heat
and over pressure on the target. Thermobaric weapons contain slow burning explosive that gets dispersed and detonated
simultaneously. Due to prolonged detonation time, total impulse on the target increases causing extensive damage.
Thermobaric weapons are much more effective against confined under-ground targets than over-ground targets due to re-
bouncing blast waves and sustained hot environment generated due to detonation of warhead over a significantly longer
duration.
For defeating under-ground targets the warhead has to be a penetrating type. The warhead penetrates the protective layer of
the target due to its kinetic energy and detonates inside the confined space.
This paper presents conceptual design of a 200 kg thermobaric warhead to defeat under-ground targets for a missile system.
1. INTRODUCTION
Generally, conventional high explosive filled penetrating warheads / bombs are deployed against under-ground enclosures
like tunnels, caves, bunkers etc. are in vogue for holding war material / equipments, command and control centers, production
and storage of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), ballistic missile and artillery basing, military parking lots etc. These
warheads / bombs, produce only a localized damage effects even in confined volumes. In the recent past, Thermobaric
warheads, capable of causing damage over a large area in the confined volumes, are being pursued world over to defeat the
under ground fortified targets. US has developed a laser guided penetrating thermobaric bomb BLU-118/B with a weight of
2000lb having 560 lb of thermobaric composition and used in Taliban war, to neutralize several caves in eastern
Afghanistan,[1]
The term “Thermobaric” is derived from two Greek words – 'Thermos' (means Temperature) and 'Baros' (means Pressure).
As the name implies Thermobaric warheads are optimized for combined effect of heat and pressure on the target. Thermobaric
warheads contain slow burning explosive compositions that keep their explosive impulse on the target for a longer duration.
Thermobaric compositions are essentially metal enriched and oxygen-deficient. Typical detonation velocities of thermobaric
explosives are in the order of 3–4 km/s. Unlike conventional HE warheads, the thermobaric warheads undergo simultaneous
detonation and dispersion. Only a part of the energy is released during the initial detonation phase, which generates “active
fuel-rich products” that undergo "after-burning" when mixed with the shock-heated air. The energy released through after-
burning increases the duration of blast overpressure along with fireball. The burning cloud is capable of penetrating into small
gaps, cracks, cleavages etc.
The comparative performance between high explosive detonation and Fig 1

thermobaric detonation are shown in Fig.1. The peak overpressure is much higher
for the conventional high explosive detonation (P2) than for the thermobaric
detonation (P1), but this pressure drops much more rapidly. The negative phase
results in a reversed-blast and is longer in thermobaric detonation than a high
explosive detonation. Therefore total impulse imparted to the target is much higher
than that of conventional explosive detonation. [2]
Thermobaric warheads for underground targets, are essentially Penetration

cum Blast (PCB) type of warheads containing fuel rich thermobaric explosives.
The target is neutralized by penetration of warhead into the target followed by
explosion within the confined volume. This paper presents conceptual design of a
200 kg thermobaric warhead to defeat under-ground targets for a missile system.

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2. DESIGN APPROACH
The thermobaric warhead system comprises of a casing filled with Thermobaric explosive composition and Post Impact
Delay Fuze. The design of warhead shall meet the following requirements.
w A sufficiently strong casing to withstand the stresses developed on impact and during the process of penetration.
w Accommodate maximum explosive contents for producing higher thermal and blast effects.
It is obvious that these two requirements are contradictory to each other. For strong warhead casing, thickness should be
considerably high, whereas the requirement of higher explosive content demands lesser casing thickness. At the same time
external configuration is to be selected in such a way that it will offer minimum resistance to penetration. Thus, the design
approach involves in (i) Design of casing (ii) Design of Burster charge and (iii) Selection of thermobaric explosive and its
filling.
A conceptual design of the 200 kg penetrating thermobaric warhead has been worked out for a missile system having
terminal velocity of 450 m/s with a space constraint of Dia 350 mm x 900 mm length. The warhead is required to penetrate a 1m
thick concrete covered with 1 m thick soil.
3. DESIGN OF CASING
The design of casing is generally carried out using the empirical and semi empirical relations published in “Text Book of Air
Armaments Part- IV” and optimized using standard simulation models like LS Dyna, Dytran, Autodyn etc. Using this
methodology, the design of warhead casing (high strength steel alloy) has been worked out and the salient parameters are given
below.
·Caliber - 310 mm
·Overall Length of warhead - 900 mm
·Total explosive contents - 63 kg with density of 1.75 g/cc
·Shoulder thickness - 20 mm
·Ogive length - 480 mm
The casing of warhead was analyzed for its integrity and penetration capabilities against targets having following
characteristics.
·Thickness of soil - 1000 mm
·Compressive strength of soil - 2.5 kg/sq.cm.
·Thickness of concrete - 1000 mm
·Compressive strength of concrete - 350 kg/sq.cm
From the penetration studies, it is observed that the warhead penetrates up to 2.1 m into the target and experiences a
maximum deceleration in the order of 12000 'g'. The time to penetrate the target is around 7.5 ms. The stress levels are around
880 Mpa.
4. DESIGN OF BURSTER CHARGE

The burster charge is placed centrally to detonate the warhead content and facilitate the dispersion of un-burnt metal
powders in surrounding zone. The burster charge breaks the warhead casing and disperses the thermobaric composition around
the point of burst. The volume covered by dispersed un-burnt explosive and metal particles will depend on quantity of burster
charge. Lower quantity of burster charge may not disperse the unburnt particles of explosive and metal over a wider zone. On
the other hand, higher quantity of burster charge will lead to low thermobaric explosive loading and result in lower
performance of warhead. Hence the quantity of burster charge will have to be optimized. Further the burster charge can be Al
rich which will under go completely anaerobic combustion and support setting up of initial hot environment required for “after
burning phase”. Based on the experience on burster charge designs for incendiary warheads, a 5 kg burster charge with the
following composition is finalised.

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5. THERMOBARIC EXPLOSIVE COMPOSITION

Thermobaric compositions are essentially fuel rich high explosives. Performance enhancement is primarily achieved by
addition of excess amount of micro-fine and nano size metal powders along with sufficient quantity of oxidizer to the explosive
composition. This combination will help the “after burning phase”, by sustaining high temperature ambience around the
warhead for a longer duration. The initial anaerobic combustion of micro-fine metal powder will serve the purpose of
prolonging the impulse time and sustain conditions for auto burning of micro fine and nano size metal rich explosive dust in
subsequent aerobic combustion stage.
In general there are two types of thermobaric compositions (i) Solid and (ii) Liquid based. Liquid based composition could
be either pure hydrocarbon fuels or gelled / slurried with metal powder and other ingredients. IPN is used as a liquid fuel for
liquid compositions due to its stability and ease of handling. Solid composition could be either cast or powdered Solid
compositions mainly comprise high explosives like RDX & HMX mixed with metal powders.
Liquid compositions have low filling density and thermal output compared to solid compositions. Powdered compositions
are not preferred for penetrating warhead systems due to density change / formation of discontinuities in explosive that occur
on impact and during the process of penetration. Therefore the cast compositions are the only choice for filling of penetrating
type of warheads. The filling density of cast compositions will be high with conventional filling techniques which can be
further improved by using advanced filling methodologies. The typical thermobaric cast composition contains following types
of ingredients -
Thermobaric cast composition – High Explosive + metal powder + Oxidiser + Binder.
High explosives for solid based composition could be RDX, HMX, TNT, PETN etc. RDX is preferred as compared to other
high explosives because it is readily available at low cost. The metal powders added to the basic composition should have low
burning temperature and produce high heat on combustion. Aluminium (Al), Magnesium (Mg), Boron (B), Zirconium (Zr) etc.
are the available options. Aluminium is preferred as it is readily available at low cost.
Generally the solid thermobaric compositions contain very high percentage of metal powders varying from 35 to 60%
[3] However the complete combustion of the metal powder present in the composition has been an issue, especially when
the percentage of metal powder in the thermobaric composition is on higher side. Poor combustion efficiency of metal
particles causes severe ineffectiveness of the weapon. This is due to high ignition temperature, 2000K, typically required
for proper combustion of metal (Al) powder. Low explosive quantity may not produce hot environment required for
complete combustion. The tests conducted by A Apparao, et al [4] using cast explosives with varying percentage of
micron-size Al powder, also reveal that the optimum percentage of Al powder is in the order of 40% only.
The hot environment required for full combustion of metal particles can be best maintained if it is supported chemically by
the combustion of oxidizers. 40-50% high explosive (RDX) mixed with 10-15% of oxidizers could be used for creating hot
environment required for complete combustion of metal particles. Further, the finer size of metal particles (nano) is preferable
for complete and easy combustion of metal particles. However, the use of nano size metal particles will result in low filling
density and shorter after-burning duration, compared to micro-fine metal particles. Therefore the size of metal particles will
affect the warhead performance. A mixture of micro-fine and nano size metal particles is recommended for complete
combustion and longer after-burning stage. Percentage of both size metal particles is to be optimized by conducting
experiments.
In confined spaces, transition to full detonation is not required for enhanced blast, if the solid fuel is ignited early in the
dispersion process. A series of reflected shock waves generated by the detonation mixes the hot detonation gases with metal
particles and compresses the metal particles at the same time. These, actions provide the chemical kinetic support to maintain a
hot environment, causing more metal to ignite and burn. Hence the percentage of metal powders that can be mixed in
thermobaric composition for under-ground application could be substantially high and is in the order of 50 to 60% with
sufficient quantity of oxidizer.
The percentage composition of ingredients for thermobaric cast composition is given below –
Thermobaric Composition
RDX Al Binder Oxidiser Other
agents
25-30% 40-50% 10-12% 10% 1-2%
The proposed thermobaric and burster charge compositions are for preliminary study which can be further fine tuned to
maximize the warhead performance.

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6. DISCUSSIONS & CONCLUSIONS

To defeat under-ground targets the warhead need to penetrate the protected layers and then detonate within the confined
space. The warhead content is dispersed in the surround by detonation of centrally located burster charge while undergoing
anaerobic combustion. The temperature produced due to detonation of burster charge and anaerobic combustion of
thermobaric composition combined with the reflected shock waves assist in sustaining the requisite hot environment to
complete combustion of dispersed metal and explosive particles during the “after burning” phase.
For confined space applications cast explosives are preferred world over as compared to powder, slurried or gelled
compositions. RDX and Al are used as basic ingredients for cast composition along with oxidizer and binder. The percentage of
micro fine & nano size Al particles in the composition and quantity of burster charge shall be finalized after conducting few
experiments.
The conceptual design carried out to defeat under ground fortified target protected by 1 m of concrete and 1 m of soil,
indicates that it is feasible to design a 200 kg thermobaric warhead with 55 to 60 kg of thermobaric composition.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Shri Surendra Kumar, Director, ARDE, Shri JS Gharia, Sc'G'(Retd), HEMRL and Shri A Appa
Rao, Sc'G', HEMRL for continuous support, guidance and encouragement provided during the work.
REFERENCES
1 Internet Website - http://www.globalsecurity.org / military/systems/munitions/blu-118.htm
2. 'Aspect of thermo baric weaponry' by Dr Anna E Wildeggar-Gaissmaier, ADF Health Vol 4, Apr 2003
3 Advanced Thermobaric Explosive Compositions, May L Chan & Gary W Meyers, US Patent no.6955732 B1,
18 Oct 2005'
4. Evaluation of castable thermobaric explosive compositions for enhanced blast and thermal effects' by A Apparao,
R Samudra, P P Vadhe, R S Punekar, N G Wagmare and S H Sidi, VI International High Energy Materials Conference
& Exhibit (HEMCE), 13-15 Dec 2007

S3
Weapons
Launch Technology
SAM & Fuze
Armament Electronics
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5-DEGREE OF FREEDOM DYNAMIC RIG FOR WIND

TUNNEL TESTS OF AEROSPACE VEHICLES
Sen A, Peyada NK, Subrahmanyam S, Ghosh AK, Wahi P
IIT Kanpur 208016
ABSTRACT
In this paper, a novel dynamic test rig is proposed. The paper describes the development of a test rig dedicated to
tests of artillery type models, rotating missiles and aircraft, in order to simulate roll, yaw and pitch moments of the models. A
regular test rig in the wind tunnel would be used for the purpose of deriving the static flight maneuvers. However, for deriving
the dynamic parameters, one would require the model to acquire a certain rate of translation or rotation, which would be
impossible to impart by means of static rig. The dynamic test rig uses simple principle of allowing the model to execute all
sorts of maneuvers in the tunnel as it would during the real flight.
In case the model is given a movement, it would have an additional burden of the rig to carry with it, and that would
not give us the actual scenario of action of the model. Hence aerodynamic compensator surface with adjustable arm length
will be used. The compensator would be used for negating out all the forces and moment terms arising due to the rig.
Furthermore, a theoretical description based on a six-degree-of freedom approach is developed for the motion of the model.
Part of the investigation concentrates on the characterisation of the roll, yaw and pitch damping behavior of the model in use
for the calculation of the dynamic behavior of the models used during the spin-down phase of flight. Development of such a
dynamic rig will add immensely in updating database for missile/rockets and aircrafts.
NOMENCLATURE
V = Velocity of aircraft
a = angle of attack
q = pitch angle
q = pitch rate
b = angle of sideslip
y = yaw angle
f= roll angle
Ixx = Moment of inertia about the X-axis
Iyy = Moment of inertia about the Y-axis
I zz = Moment of inertia about the Z-axis
m = Mass
V = Velocity
CL = Lift coefficient
CD /CX = Drag/Axial coefficient
CY
r
= Side force damping coefficient
Cn
r
= Yaw damping coefficient
CLq
= Pitch damping force coefficient
Cm
q
= Pitch damping moment coefficient
u, v, w =Velocity components
pqr = Angular velocity components
1. INTRODUCTION
In all previous Wind Tunnel Test rigs, the aircraft model would be tested for static stability parameters only, whereas
the dynamic stability parameters could only be estimated in real flight. This is because, generating the rates of rotation for the
aircraft would not be possible for a fixed configuration of the rig in the Wind Tunnel.
In other words, the aircraft model inside a Wind Tunnel, on a regular test rig, would be restricted in movement, and
will not be allowed to have the complete dynamics of its own as it would in real flight.

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Over the ages, attempts have been made1-7 to impart the elusive degrees of freedom to the aircraft model inside the
Wind Tunnel and replicate its exact 6-DOF flight inside Wind Tunnel. There is however an inherent disadvantage for this.
Most Wind Tunnels have a space constraint and hence cannot have the forward degree of freedom along the X-axis. The
forward velocity is usually fixed as per the capacity of the Wind Tunnel. Pitch and Yaw8-10 degrees of freedom have also
separately been imparted over aerospace vehicle models. Efforts have been concentrated on having 1 Roll degree of
freedom11-16 additionally, along with the forward velocity. However, these would only let the model achieve upto 2 or 3
degrees of freedom. A breakthrough in imparting several degrees of freedom to the test model was achieved in NASA17-21
where a total of 4 degrees of freedom was imparted to the model.
An enhancement of the number of degrees of freedom was achieved at Bristol by Prof. M. H. Lowenberg , where a
unique rig called the Pendulum Support Rig (PSR22-23) was developed to study the dynamic derivatives of the aircraft using
dynamic maneuvers, and a total of 5 degrees of freedom were achieved (Fig-1). However, the calculations for such a model
would be very resource intensive, and the manufacturing would be very difficult.
The present paper is inspired by the philosophy of the work at Bristol, where a novel attempt has been made to
estimate the dynamic derivatives by allowing the aircraft to have 5 degrees of freedom like the Bristol model, but with
enhancements, so as to make the manufacturing and calculations easier and inexpensive.
As described in Fig. 2, the model, christened H-model, due to its appearance, would allow the aircraft (a/c) scaled down
model to pitch and yaw about a 2 DOF gimbal G at its CG, and the rig arm would take a roll, along with the aircraft, about joint J.
The joint J would be collinear and coaxial with the CG of the aircraft model.
In addition, heave would be provided by the movement of the horizontal arm HH over the two vertical rails VV1 and
VV2. Sway would be provided by the sliding movement of the joint J along the horizontal arm HH through the slider rail
provided along it.
In case the aircraft is given a movement, it would have an additional burden of the rig to carry with it, and that would not
give us the actual scenario of action of the aircraft. Hence an aerodynamic compensator surface A with adjustable arm length C
will be used. The compensator would function as any normal aircraft control surface, with the capacity of being deflected by the
experimenter.
The compensator would be used for negating out all the force and moment terms arising due to the rig, along with its
Second Law effects.
The difference can be seen from Fig.1 and Fig.2, between the two models. The PSR22-23 model imparts the linear
velocities of heave and sway through the pitch and yaw degrees of freedom at the joint J. Also, the rig has a non-conventional
design, and cannot be procured off the shelf.
The differences in calculation can be found once the equations of motion are developed for both the cases.

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2. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION OF THE H-MODEL
From the above Fig. 2, the following can be seen:
1. u is given in the global coordinates( u e ) by the wind tunnel
2. ve and we is given by movement of J on HH over the slider rail, and movement of HH on VV1
and VV2 respectively
3. The velocities seen are of the global coordinate system because they are being imparted on NON
TURNING AXES
4. The rig is aligned such that its c.g., the point J, and the aircraft c.g. are all collinear.
pù
é ép&
ù
w êú
qú & ê
q&ú
5. The aircraft sees its a/c =
ê and consequently w
a/c =
ê ú.
ê
rú
ëû r&
ê
ë ú
û
pù
é p&
é ù
the rig sees w
ê ú & ê
0ú
6. rig =
0ú
ê and consequently w
rig =
ê ú
ê
0
ë ú
û ê
0
ë ú
û
ue ù
é
7. velocity of the aircraft is Va / c Ta¢
= ê
ve ú
w.r.t aircraft body axes, where Ta / c is the
/c ê ú
ê
we ú
ë û
f
ì
ü
24 ï
ï
transformation matrix from body to earth fixed axes, with all q
angles í
ý, and Trig is the
ï
ï
y
î
þ
f
ìü
ïï
transformation matrix from body of rig to earth fixed axes with angles 0ý
í
ï
0ï
îþ
8. Velocity of the rig will be taken also at the axes of the c.g. of the aircraft, with the assumption #3 in place. It would
be interesting to note that the rig will see all the velocities that the aircraft sees. However H will see only ue and we. Vv1 and
VV2 will see only ue, but they are fixed, so we will not consider their movements, and their aerodynamic forces will be
considered to be already taken care of. The aerodynamic forces of HH will also be considered as already taken care of. It is to
be noted that for HH and VV1 and VV2, Drag will be the primary aerodynamic force. The moments caused due to their
aerodynamic forces will be combined with the aerodynamic moments of the rig. This is an assumption for ease of
understanding of the rig equations and can be trivially added to the equations at any point of the calculation without any
hassles.
One very interesting thing is to note that we shall not bother about the compensation of the drag in this case (Fx
terms). This is because they can be statically accounted for, and drag due to dynamic degrees of freedom is negligible.
Also we can see that moment due to drag terms will be very less as the z-arm of the moment is negligible in all cases
(zero, theoretically).
We can also safely assume that u& e=0 for all cases since it is very difficult to vary the tunnel velocity dynamically.
Now the forces24 on the entire system (rig, aircraft and horizontal HH)can be calculated.

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3. FORCE EQUATIONS
The force acting on the aircraft body, rig and compensator is summarized in Eq. 1.
r é ù
é
Fa / cbody ùê ú
ê ú ê ú
+
ê úma / c (
ê V& + w ´ V ) ú
rú
ê =ê
a/c a/c a/c (1)
ú
F
ê ú
rig
+
ê ú
ê ¢ ú
ê
+ úmrig (
ê TrigV&a/c +w rig
¢́
Trig Va / c )
ú
ê
rú ê
+ ú
ê
F
ë û
C úê ú
ê é u& ù
e ú
ê
mH Ta¢ ê
0 ú ú
ê /c ê ú ú
ê
ë ë &
ê
w e
ú
û ú
û
The first row of Eq.1 on LHS and RHS constitute the main aircraft equations which can be found in any standard text
book24.
However when we look into the 2nd and 3rd rows we find they are the “spurious” terms in a given aircraft equation of motion.
Hence these are the terms we would like to negate in order to let the aircraft fly in an environment akin to free air. So we can
write:
é ù
ê & ú
éùê mrig ( ¢
Trig Va / c +
w
rig
¢́
Trig Va / c )
ú
r
ê úê
F + ú
êrig ú
ê ú
ê
+ ú
= ê é u& ù ú (2)
e
ê
r úê ê ú
ê
FC ú
ë ûêmH Ta¢/c ê0 ú ú ú
ê ê
ë ë w&eû
ú ú
û
So from the above Eq. 2, we can see that since all the other quantities are known or are measurable, we can calculate .
So Eq. 2 is a design condition for the compensator.
4. MOMENT EQUATIONS
Moment Equations24 follow the same philosophy similar to Force Equations. However, when only the aircraft rotates
about G, it does not see any effect of the rig. When the aircraft and rig as a whole rotates about the aircraft x-axis, about point J,
then affects the motion of the aircraft.
r
é
M a/c ù
êúé I a / c- &
cg w a/c + w a/c ´ ( I a / c- cg wa/c ) ù
+
ê ú T ¢Iê ú(3)
r
ê ê (
rig rig - &
w + w ´ (T ¢ I ) w ) ú
M rig ú
cg _ a / c rig rig rig rig cg
- _ a / c rig
=
êú ê ú
ê
+ ú ë û
r
ê ú
MC ú
ê
ë û

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Where all Moments of Inertia and aerodynamic moments are calculated about the cg of the aircraft.
mrig ( x) 2 =
I rig rig _ cg + I rig -
cg _ a / c (4)
Where x is the horizontal distance between rig cg and aircraft cg.
The first row on LHS and RHS are usual terms of an aircraft equation of motion.
Hence the design condition for the compensator would be24
r
é
M rig ù
êúé T¢
rig I
= ê rig -
( &
cg _ a / cw
rig +
w ¢
(Trig
rig ´ I rig -
cg _ a / cw
rig )
ù )
+
ê ú ú (5)
r
ê úêë ú
û
MC û
ë
Hence Eq. 5 is the design criterion in addition to Eq. 2.
All cross product terms can be expanded in a manner similar to usual aircraft equations of motion.
The compensator design would thus depend upon:

1) dimensions of the rig involved
2) material properties of the rig
3) aerodynamic characteristics of the rig
4) dynamic roll
We can see that if there is no roll, it can be verified from the equations that the rig plugs on to the aircraft model like a
dumb mass.
5. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION OF THE PSR MODEL

In the above drawing, we can see that the only difference is at the end of the rig. Here, the ve , we are being given
by means of the rotation of the big joint J. So instead of ve , we we will write ve =a/c
y J ´Ra / c for a/c and ve =
rig
y
J ´ Rrig for
rig, where is the vectorial distance from c.g. of the body to J. Similar is the case for we . This is a typical example of a system
which has higher velocity near the edge of the rotational radius and lower velocity closer by.
In addition, since it is quite impossible to put the compensator unit away from the body and/or keep it on the body
without making the compensator unit acquire a different velocity, the velocity of the compensator unit will also depend
on/change accordingly with the moment arm of its compensating surfaces as measured from J.
This indeed would prove to be tedious for our future plans of designing a control system suitable to operate the
compensator.
Now with the supposition that we are in a position to accept such difficulties, we proceed to derive the subsequent
equations24.
r
Fa / cbody [ f ( R 2 a / c )] ù
é
ê ú
+
ê ú ma / c (
é V&a/c + wa/c ´ Va / c ) ù
r 2
ê ú ê ú
F [ f ( R )] +
ê ú (6)
êrig rig =
ú
ê
+ ú mrig (
ê ¢
Trig &
Vrig +w rig Trig Vrig )
¢́ ú
ê ú ê ú
r 2 ê ú
ê
FC [ f ( R compensator )]ú ë û
ë û

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and for the moments24:
M a / cbody [ f ( R 2 a / c )] ù
é
ê ú
+
ê úé I a / c-cg w
& a/c + w a/c ´ ( I a / c- cg wa/c ) ù
ê ú ê ú
ê
3
M rig [ f ( R rig )]
ú= T¢
ê ( rig I rig -cg _ a / c
&
wrig + w rig ´ ¢
(Trig I rig -
cg _ a /)c w
rig ) ú (7)
ê
+ úê ú
ê ú ë û
3
M
ê
ë C [ f ( R compensator ú)]û
Where all Moments of Inertia and all aerodynamic moments are calculated about the cg of the aircraft, as the above case.
mrig ( x) 2 =
I rig rig _ cg + I rig -
cg _ a / c (8)
Where is the horizontal distance between rig cg and aircraft cg
It is interesting to note the dependencies of each of the LHS terms w.r.t. the distances from point J.
The rotations at point J, except roll, which are meant for imparting velocities, will NOT be considered in any other
computations.
Hence after this comparative study, we wish to follow the H-model configuration for further study and development.
The present study would not be complete without a study of the dynamic controllability of the H-model, as would be provided
by the compensating surface. This is presented in the next segment.
6. DYNAMIC CONTROLLABILITY OF THE RIG WITH THE COMPENSATOR

When the rig is designed for static purposes, then it seems that the function of the compensator is redundant, and the
same can be easily achieved through a dead weight compensation.
However, the main advantage of the rig comes in a dynamic case, as illustrated hereunder.
Fig. 3: Diagram showing layout of compensator
Let us consider from figure-3 that the compensator has a horizontal fin and a vertical fin, both of which can be
individually or simultaneously deflected. In addition, the length Rc can be changes in order to provide suitable moment arm
to compensate the “spurious” moment terms.

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So we have a total of 3 controls in our hands, the deflection of the horizontal fin of the compensator(dh), deflection of the
vertical fin of the compensator (dv) and Rc, the moment arm of the compensator.
So from eqn (2) we can see that:

é ù
éùê ú
r
ê úêmrig ( ¢
Trig V&a/c +
w
rig
¢́
Trig Va / c )
ú
Frig ú
ê = ê
+ ú
ê
+ úê ú
ê
r úê é u& ú
e ù
ê
FC ú
ë ûê ê ú ú
mH Ta¢
ê /c ê 0 ú ú
ê ê
ë ë w& ú
eû
ú
û
Which we can further break down as:
é ù
ê ú
ê r ú
ê
-Frig ú
ê ú
+
ê ú
rê ú
[
] mrig (
FC = ê ¢
Trig V&a/c +
w
rig
¢́
Trig Va / c )
ú (9)
ê
+ ú
ê ú
ê é u&
e ù ú
ê
mH Ta¢ ê 0 úú ú
ê /c ê ú
ê
ë ë ê w& ú
eû
ú
û
If we closely observe the RHS terms we shall see a term . w
rig
¢́
Trig Va / c
This term implies that the DYNAMIC degree of freedom of the rig also has to be suppressed. So we have to select the
compensator airfoil profile judiciously such that the C Land CY terms take care of the rig dynamic characteristics.
q r
Further, for the moments, we can revisit Eq. 5.

r
é
M rig ù
êúé T¢ (
rig I rig - &
cg _ a / cw
rig +
w ¢
(Trig
rig ´ I rig -
cg _ a / cw
rig )
ù )
+
êú ê ú
r
ê úëê ú
û
MC û
ë =
Which can be simplified as
r
é
æ
-M rig ù
ö
ç
ê ÷
ú
r ê ç
+ ÷
ú
[
] ç
MC = ê
ç
T¢rig I rig - & ¢
(Trig I rig -
÷
ú
÷
ê
è cg _ a / cw
rig +
w
rig ´ cg _ a / cw
rig ) ø
ú
ê ú
ë û

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So we have to select the airfoil profile of the compensator judiciously such that theCmand Cnterms
q r
take care of the rig
dynamic characteristics. In addition, dhmax and dvmax are to be determined as well.
The above statements give the outline for development of the aerodynamic compensator of the rig, along with the
mathematical models describing the H-model layout. When all these factors are compensated, the design of the aerodynamic
compensator would be taken as complete. However, arriving at a particular design would involve a lot of iteration cycles.
7. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a novel dynamic test rig has been proposed and the rationale has been portrayed. The rig has been analyzed
mathematically and has been compared to an existing dynamic rig (PSR) configuration. The advantages of the rig layout have
also been brought out. The compensator has been analyzed and its design constraints have been identified. As future work, the
complete structural design of the rig layout and the detailed aerodynamic design of the compensator and other controllers (if
any) has been identified.
REFERENCES
1. Chaturi Singh and K. Poddar, ”PXI-based High-Performnance Versatile Instrumentation and Motion Control
System for Wind Tunnel Applications” National Wind Tunnel Facility, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur-
2080 16, India.
2. Lars E. Ericsson, “Conceptual Fluid/Motion Coupling in the Herbst Supermaneuver” JOURNAL OF AIRCRAFT,
Vol. 34, No. 3, May June 1997.
3. Scott M. Murman, “Reduced-Frequency Approach for Calculating Dynamic Derivatives” AIAA JOURNAL ,Vol.
45, No. 6, June 2007.
4. Mark F. Reeder and Walter Allen, “Wind-Tunnel Measurements of the E-8C Modeled with and Without Winglets”
JOURNAL OF AIRCRAFT, Vol. 45, No. 1, JanuaryFebruary 2008.
5. Peter Eliasson, “Investigation of a Half-Model High-Lift Configuration in a Wind Tunnel” JOURNAL OF
AIRCRAFT ,Vol. 45, No. 1, JanuaryFebruary 2008.
6. Martin E. Beyers, “Direct Derivative Measurements in the Presence of Sting Plunging” JOURNAL OF AIRCRAFT
,VOL. 23, NO.3, MARCH 1986.
7. Sungwan Kim and Patrick C. Murphy, “EVALUATION AND ANALYSIS OF F-16XL WIND TUNNEL DATA
FROM DYNAMIC TESTS” AIAA Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference and Exhibit 11 - 14 August 2003,
Austin, Texas.
8. Patrick C. Murphy, “VALIDATION OF METHODOLOGY FOR ESTIMATING AIRCRAFT UNSTEADY
AERODYNAMIC PARAMETERS FROM DYNAMIC WIND TUNNEL TESTS” AIAA Atmospheric Flight
Mechanics Conference and Exhibit 11 - 14 August 2003, Austin, Texas.
9. Brian D. Dykas and Daniel W. Tellier, “A Foil Thrust Bearing Test Rig for Evaluation of High Temperature
Performance and Durability ” ARL-MR-0692 April 2008.
10. Peter G. Hamel, ” Birth of Sweepback: Related Research at LuftfahrtforschungsanstaltGermany” JOURNAL OF
AIRCRAFT, Vol. 42, No. 4, JulyAugust 2005.
11. “Free-to-Roll Testing of Airplane Models in Wind Tunnels” NASA Tech Briefs LAR-17153-1.
12. “Identification of Dynamic Systems -Applications to Aircraft Part 2: Nonlinear Analysis and Manoeuvre Design”
AGARD 300 flight test technical series - Volume 9.
13. Khanh Nguyen and Benton Lau, Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California “Dynamics of the McDonnell
Douglas Large Scale Dynamic Rig and Dynamic Calibration of the Rotor Balance ” NASA Technical Memorandum
108855.
14. LEWIS B. SCHIFF* AND MURRAY TOBAK, ” Results from a New Wind-Tunnel Apparatus for Studying Coning
and Spinning Motions of Bodies of Revolution ” AIAA JOURNAL VOL. 8, NO. 11, NOVEMBER 1970.
15. Mehmet Altun Ýbrahim Iyigun, ”Wind Tunnel Experiments for Maneuvering Aircraft” AGARD ADVISORY
REPORT 305 “DYNAMIC STABILITY DERIVATIVES OF A MANUEVERING COMBAT AIRCRAFT
MODEL” JOURNAL OF AERONAUTICS AND SPACE TECHNOLOGIES ,JANUARY 2004 VOLUME 1
NUMBER 3 (19-27).

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16. Patrick C. Murphy, “ESTIMATION OF AIRCRAFT UNSTEADY AERODYNAMIC PARAMETERS FROM

DYNAMIC WIND TUNNEL TESTING” IAA-2001-4016.
17. Gerald N. Malcolm and Lewis B. Schiff, “Recent Developments in Rotary Balance Testing of fighter aircraft
Configurations at NASA Ames Research Center” NASA Technical Memorandum 86714 , July 1986.
18. Jay M. Brandon* and John V. Foster, “RECENT DYNAMIC MEASUREMENTS AND CONSIDERATIONS FOR
AERODYNAMIC MODELING OF FIGHTER AIRPLANE CONFIGURATIONS ” AIAA - 98-4447.
19. Lars E. Ericsson, ” Wind-Tunnel Aerodynamics in Rotary Tests of Combat Aircraft Models” JOURNAL OF
AIRCRAFT Vol. 35, No. 4, JulyAugust 1998.
20. Martin E. Beyers, “Implications of Recent Rotary Rig Results for Flight Prediction” JOURNAL OF AIRCRAFT
Vol. 37, No. 4, JulyAugust 2000.
21. Gerald N. Malcolm, “New Rotation-Balance Apparatus for Measuring Airplane Spin Aerodynamics in the Wind
Tunnel” 264 J. AIRCRAFT VOL. 16, NO. 4.
22. Lowenberg, MH & Kyle, HL., 'Development of a pendulum support rig dynamic wind tunnel apparatus', AIAA
Atmospheric Flight Mechanics Conference, Monterey, USA, 2002.
23. C. D. C. Jones, M. H. Lowenberg, and T. S. Richardson, “Tailored Dynamic Gain-Scheduled Control” JOURNAL
OF GUIDANCE, CONTROL, AND DYNAMICS, Vol. 29, No. 6, NovemberDecember 2006.
24. Robert C. Nelson, “Dynamics of Flight”, Chapter 6, Published by Wiley and Sons.

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PINAKA WEAPON SYSTEM INTEGRATION

WITH ACCCS:
CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS
MV Rao, VS Mahalingam
Centre for Artificial Intelligence and Robotics, Bangalore
ABSTRACT
Pinaka weapon system and Artillery Combat Command and Control System (ACCCS) have
been accepted by the Artillery, Indian Army for induction after extensive field trials. The
production/deployment is in progress.
The ACCCS enable the arty Commander to plan the fire mission using inputs like gun parameters, target
location, shell/fuse combinations, prevailing meteorological conditions, etc. the major functions
supported by ACCCS are Technical fire control, Tactical fire control, Fire planning, Deployment
management etc. the major effort of technical fire control involves calculation of Trajectory parameters
by Point Mass and Modified Point Mass models. ACCCS communicates with higher echelons for
decision making and approval procedures as per the established practices/policies in the Indian Army.
The fire plans are prepared using Geographical Information System (GIS) on a digitized military map
(including military symbols), which enables the commander to visualize the battlefield scenario,
analyze the situation, probable area for deployment of guns, etc. All existing weapon systems of
Artillery like 105mm, 105 IFG, 120mm, 130mm, 122 Grad-BM21 and 155mm etc. have been integrated
into ACCCS.
PINAKA weapon system has to be integrated into ACCCS as yet another weapon system. Suitable data
transfer formats and procedures were finalized for smooth integration. The ACCCS software was
revised accordingly to accommodate the data formats and procedures being used in the Pinaka system.
A Communication Interface Unit (CIU) designed and developed by CAIR provides the robust
communication over the noisy channels of Combat Net Radio (CNR). The communication between the
BCP and the Battery of six launchers were customized to suit the requirements keeping the ACCCS
Communication procedure with higher echelons in tact over the Radio as well as 2-Wire Line.

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ENHANCING ACCURACY OF FREE FLIGHT ROCKET BY

MINIMIZING DYNAMIC UNBALANCE: A CASE STUDY
Salutagikar CS, Mukane SB, Pravaker RC, Pawale SO, Rajan KM
ABSTRACT
The role of an Artillery Rocket is to neutralize enemy concentrations, to destroy POL depots and 'B' vehicles , with
minimum collateral damage. To meet these requirements the accuracy and consistency become important aspects for artillery
rockets. Dynamic balancing becomes imperative to ensure performance improvement for any free flight artillery rocket. In
reality achieving a desired level of dynamic balancing for artillery rockets becomes a challenging task due to various aspects
like manufacturing inaccuracies, assembly intricacies and different sources of manufacture of sub-systems . The paper
brings out an innovative methodology of dynamic balancing of an artillery rocket to improve its performance. It also gives the
constructional features for balancing mass and its integration in the rocket hardware. Finally, detailed flight data is presented
to highlight improvement in accuracy achieved at target end with known unbalance and also with unbalance mass corrected.
This methodology has enormously helped in smooth integration of rockets at production centers and faster delivery of
complete rocket system to the Users.
1. INTRODUCTION
An Artillery rockets are generally free flight all weather rockets fired from a Multi Barrel Rocket Launchers
(MBRLS). A free flight rocket and a MBRL are shown in fig. 1(a) and fig. 1(b). The accuracy and consistency of free flight
rocket is generally in the range of 1.5 2 % of its maximum range. It has been seen that increase in unbalance mass in flight will
make the dynamic axis of the rocket different from its geometrical axis. The angle between these two is to be minimized for
reducing the lateral deviation. Also, higher unbalanced mass in the case of spinning rockets leads to undesirable stresses due
to centrifugal force.
The dynamic unbalance 'U' is the product of unbalance mass and it's radius at which it is located.
2. UNBALANCE PARAMETERS
It is almost impossible to make a dynamically balanced rocket. The unbalance of any system is because of
any of the following three reasons: i) Inhomogeneity of material ii) Machine inaccuracy involved iii) Non-alignment in
integration of sub-assemblies.

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There are three types of balancing methods, i) Static balancing i.e. unbalance measured in a plane keeping on roller,
ii) Couple or Dynamic balancing , i.e. unbalance measured in different planes and iii) Combined balancing i.e. combination
of static and dynamic balancing. In actual practice the combined balancing is followed, which is measured on balancing
machine. It has been established in the theory of balancing that combined static and dynamic unbalances of a rotor can always
be represented by two unbalances in any two desired planes. Static balancing by gravitational means, which is done by
rolling the unbalance part on it's mandrel along two parallel horizontal ways or knife edge, can only detect the static portion of
unbalance (for single plane separation). Static balancing can be justified only for slowly rotating rotors having L/D ratio less
than 1, because the dynamic unbalance if present, will be too small to be of practical significance. On the other hand when the
L/D ratio is more than 1, it will not be sufficient to balance static unbalanced forces but also dynamic unbalanced couple must
be balanced. As the length to diameter (L/D) ratio of an artillery rocket increases the dynamic unbalance increases because of
non-alignment of axes in integration of sub-assemblies and shift in radial direction of center of mass from geometric axis
thereby the unbalance angle between dynamic axis and geometric axis increases.
3. UNBALANCE MASS MODELING ON IDEAS-11 SOFTWARE

Dynamic unbalance is the result of the longitudinal axis of inertia (also called dynamic axis) not being the same as
the geometric longitudinal axis, i.e. the weight distribution is not uniform about the geometric axis. If the rocket is perfectly
dynamically balanced then geometric axis and dynamic longitudinal axis will be coincident and the Principal longitudinal
moment of inertia will be equal to longitudinal axis moment of inertia and all the product of inertia term will be zero. But it is
practically impossible to manufacture a complete dynamically balanced rocket. For dynamically unbalanced rocket, product
of inertia term will come in to picture. Due to dynamic unbalance of rocket there will be increase of structural load on the
rocket. The more the dynamical unbalance the more will be the angle between geometric axis and dynamic axis and so more
will be dispersion in line. To calculate the angle between geometric axis and dynamic axis, longitudinal axis moment of
inertia and product of inertia of rocket should be known. A solid model of Pinaka in IDEAS-11 is taken to calculate the
longitudinal axis moment of inertia and product of inertia of rocket with different unbalance masses at the two selected
planes. For dynamic balancing of rocket there should be at least two balancing planes. Two planes are selected such that one
lies left to centre of gravity and another right to CG as well as where one can add or remove mass for balancing. For the case of
Pinaka rocket both plane1 and plane2 are separated at a distance 1754 mm and the first plane is at a distance 1450 mm from
nozzle end. To keep the accuracy and consistency within the specified limit (1.5-2% of range) the specified value of dynamic
unbalance is maximum 350 gm at a radial distance of 107 mm based on performance analysis of the system.
Fig. 2 Balancing mass in specified planes
A Pinaka solid model is taken for simulation of dynamic unbalance mass. On the solid model two planes are selected
as shown in figure above. Two unbalance masses assumed in the form of very small cylinder (diameter 1 mm and height 1
mm) is taken. One unbalance mass in each plane is placed opposite to each other at a radial distance of 107 mm i.e. at
periphery of rocket. This is shown in fig. 2. Unbalance masses are placed to each plane since it will give the maximum product
of inertia and hence the maximum angle between geometric axis and dynamic axis for a given unbalance mass in both planes.
Simulation for different unbalance masses are done by varying the density of cylindrical unbalance masses. So different
unbalance is in both planes are found. We simulated for 200 g, 350 g, 500 g, 750 g and 1000 g of unbalance at a radial distance
of 107 mm in both the planes. The product of inertia found out for different unbalance masses in both planes are given in
Table 1.

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Table-1: The Product of inertia values with respect to different unbalance in specified planes
4. CALCULATION OF ANGLE BETWEEN GEOMETRIC AXIS AND DYNAMIC AXIS
Suppose X-axis is the longitudinal axis and Y & Z axes are the transverse axis of the rocket as shown in the fig. 3.
So X- axis will be the axis of symmetry and it is called Geometric axis. Y- Axis is so selected that unbalance
mass will put in XY plane. Now X-axis will be the axis of symmetry or geometric axis.
Suppose,
Ixx = Moment of inertia about X axis.
Iyy = Moment of inertia about Y axis.
Izz = Moment of inertia about Z axis.
Ixy = Product of inertia about X, Y axis.
Ixz = Product of inertia about X, Z axis.
Iyz = Product of inertia about Y, Z axis.
The free flight rocket rotates about one of principal moment of inertia axis called Dynamic axis. The principal
moment of inertia can be calculated by equation given below.
(1)

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For the nominal mass condition the moment of inertia is calculated by solid modeling of Pinaka rocket. The
value of moment of inertia about longitudinal axis is 1.82 kg m2 and about transverse axis is 451.08 kg m2. The angle
between geometric axis and dynamic axis is calculated by equation (2) given below.
Ö = Ixy / (Iyy - Ixx) (2)
Applying the above formula we calculated the angle between dynamic axis and geometric axis for the Pinaka rocket
for different unbalance masses. The calculated angles are listed in the table-2.
Table-2: Angle between geometric axis and dynamic axis and deviation in line at range of 32 km with
respect to different unbalance masses.
The above data is represented in graphical form in fig. 4.

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5. DYNAMIC BALANCING METHODOLOGY
Dynamic balancing machine

There are mainly two types of balancing machines. They are, i) hard balancing machine ii) Soft balancing machine.
The soft bearing machines are sensitive to mass of the rocket and calibration will be required every time. Hence in balancing of
rocket hard balancing machine are used as not often calibration is required and the same calibration can be used for different
size and shape rockets with minor changes in position of supporting structure. In hard bearing machines the natural frequency
of supporting system is five times the natural frequency of balancing speed of the machine in order to ensure the bearing
bridges are kept rigid. For the present study hard balancing machine is used. Measuring system of the machine is given below.
i) Electrical measuring system using two watt meters and manual operation phase transmitting drums graduated in
3600 for knowing the amount as well as position of unbalance.
ii) Electronic measuring system incorporating entirely solid state circuitry : The measuring device is provided with
two unbalance indicating meters for two unbalancing planes and position of unbalance is indicated by 'stroboscopic light'
method.
iii) Electronic measuring system using 'Analogue computer' incorporating entirely solid state circuitry with
integrated solid state circuitry. The measuring device is provided with one set of angle meters and unbalance indicating meter
for left plane and right plane.
Testing procedure
The main objective of the testing is to find out any unbalance mass of the rocket. Figure 5 explains parameters of
unbalanced rotor with supporting planes and correcting planes. Resultant unbalance masses (Ma and Mb) and their
orientations in two desired planes ( A and B) are shown in figure 5.
A rocket on dynamic balancing machine is shown in figure 6. Location of support rollers and correcting planes are
shown in figure 7
.
Correction plane for dynamic unbalance
In tube launched artillery rockets, attaching a correction balancing mass is always a challenging task, due to space
constraint, as the design of propulsion system is arrived at with optimum external configuration and thickness of components
with only sliding clearance of approximately 0.5 mm radial clearance between rocket body and its launch tube. Also, as the
rocket thrust chambers are high strength thin wall tubes, making provisions for dynamic unbalance correction is rather
difficult. So manufacturing of rocket within the geometrical tolerances is of utmost importance in order to reduce
misalignment at joints of rocket sub-systems to a lesser degree leading to low amount of unbalance mass and provision of

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attaching correcting balancing mass for the same. The misalignment and unbalance lead to shift in the physical properties, i.e.,
principal mass moment of inertia in transverse and axial directions. The geometrical axis and the dynamic axis will be
differing considerably. These effects will contribute in wider dispersion of rockets at the target end.
It is really a challenging task to add the correcting balancing mass in the rocket system. Balancing by removing the
unbalance mass is not feasible in the rocket system as the airframe is designed with low structural factor and low level factor of
safety (1.4). The rocket propulsion system under study consists of a thrust chamber with twin motor coupled assembly tubes
with optimal thickness. The motor tubes are manufactured through flow forming technique wherein correction for unbalance
mass is not feasible. Also adding the correcting balancing mass in the aft stabilizing system is also not practicable because of
complexity of design and loading constraints. This creates limitation for adding the correcting balancing mass in some
particular portion only. In the present case study in the front adaptor of propulsion system, provision for the correction of
balancing mass is considered.
Attachment of balancing mass
Unbalance meters and angle meters on the balancing machine display the amount of unbalance mass in both
correcting planes and their orientation respectively. Fig. 5a shows unbalance mass reading and their orientation from
balancing machine. Resultant balancing force is calculated by force triangle as shown in fig. 5b. The correcting balancing
mass obtained is attached in the resultant orientation as derived from the unbalance masses and their orientations from both the
correcting planes. Methodology and constructional features of correction is shown in fig. 6. Out of two planes one correcting
plane is on thrust chamber, where no correction for unbalance is feasible. Other correction plane is at front end adapter where
inside the cavity, addition of correcting balancing mass is feasible and this is shown fig. 6. The maximum radius at which
balancing mass is to be fixed is constant, because of space constraint. The dynamic balancing rotational speed is also fixed and
the reference distance of plane in which correction is made is also fixed. So, considering these fixed parameters, it is simply a
parallelogram of unbalance masses in both the planes, which is shown in fig.8.

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6. TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

A typical result of the testing showed an unbalanced mass of 459 g at orientation of 170o in the left plane i.e. near
front adaptor and 394.3 g at 271o in the right plane (at the nozzle end). Correcting balance mass of 750 g at orientation of 2170
is calculated. Due to limitation of space in the hardware cavity the correcting mass (290 g at 217o) little lower than the
calculated one is placed in the hardware cavity of front adaptor of propulsion system at the left plane. After correction
dynamic balancing of the rocket was carried out. Result of the testing showed an unbalanced mass of 344.9 g at orientation of
186o in the left plane and 286 g at orientation of 316o in the right plane. Thus unbalanced masses at the both planes are kept
below the maximum acceptable limit of 350 g. Subsequently, during flight trial it was revealed that the rockets with
correction in unbalance mass showed lower lateral dispersion than the uncorrected one. For a typical results discussed,
dispersion of the rocket reduced to 350 m as against 700 m and 300 m gain in the range.

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Deviation in line of a rocket is the effect of many parameters like unbalance mass, wind effect, launch errors, thrust
misalignment etc. Wind effect is taken constant for all the rockets fired in series in a short time interval. The aiming error of
the launcher is maintained below 3 arc minutes with the incorporation of Automatic Gun Alignment and Pointing system
(AGAPS). The dispersion due to residual launch errors may also be taken constant for a given launcher. Hence it can be
concluded that the amount of dispersion is directly proportional to the magnitude of rocket unbalance mass.
The rocket unbalance mass Vs dispersion in line from a fired series is given in table below:
Table 3: Rocket unbalance mass Vs dispersion

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7. CONCLUSION
Artillery rockets with high unbalance mass experiences coning effect leading to high drag and subsequently reduced
range and increased dispersion. By incorporating suitable unbalance mass correction provision in the rocket hardware, the
original unbalanced mass could be brought down within acceptable limits thereby reducing the errors in accuracy and
consistency. The methodology presented has been found very effective in productionisation of Pinaka rockets at Ordnance
Factories which in the absence of unbalanced mass correction would have led to considerable rejection of rockets.
REFERENCES
1. Dynamic Balancing of rotating machinery; Wilcox J.B.; Sir Isaac Pitman & sons Ltd., London; 1967.
2. The Theory of Machines; Thomas Bevan; CBS Publishers & distributors, Delhi; Third edition, 1984.
3. Balancing of high speed machinery; Marks S. Darlow; Springer- Verlag, New York Inc.; 1989.
4. Machinery vibration balancing; Wowk Victor, McGraw Hill Inc, 1995
5. Rotating machinery: Practical solutions to unbalance and misalignment; R. B. McMillan, PE, CEM; The
Fairmont Press Inc, Lilburn, 2004.
6. Roy, P. K., and Bankhele, S. D. (1981). On some aspects of dynamic balancing machine, The Engineer, pp. 2-14.
7. Dynamic machine manufacturer manual, ABRO.

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ESTIMATION OF SHOCK VELOCITY AND PRESSURE FOR

THE BULLETS IMPACTING ON HUMAN BODY
Mahmoud Zarrini, RN Pralhad
Defence Institute of Advanced Technology, Pune - 411 025
ABSTRACT
Wound ballistics deals with wounding capacity of the bullet in the human body. In the proposed
study, impact of bullet on the human body has been investigated.
The model has been developed from the concept of underwater explosions with appropriate changes to
the present model requirements. The analysis has been restricted to the estimation of shock velocity and
pressure created by the bullet as a result of impact on the body. Basic concepts of fracture mechanics
have been incorporated while developing the model. The model has been compared with the other basic
model and its advantages over the previous model have been highlighted.

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LETHALITY ASSESSMENT OF SMALL ARMS AMMUNITION

RP Pandey, Gaurav Verma, Aishwarya Dixit, SV Gade, AM Datar
ABSTRACT
Small arms are personal defense weapons used by law enforcing agencies. When it is fired on an opponent, it is
done with the clear intention that the opponent will get incapacitated and will not retaliate. Lethality of a weapon is its
capability to knock down the opponent in shortest possible time. The weapon which performs the function of knocking
down the opponent in more effective way and shorter time is called as more lethal. It is the Ammunition which causes the
damage at the target end. Hence the design of Ammunition plays very important role in determining the lethality of the
weapon.
The human body is a very complex target. It is far more difficult to predict a human target's composition and bullet design
that will be most advantageous. The combinations of muscle, bone, organs, skin, fat, and clothing create a staggering
number of target types which often require different lethal mechanisms. Physical condition, psychological state, size,
weight, and body form all play a factor in the body's ability to resist damage. The same bullet fired against a large, thick,
healthy person has a very different reaction than that fired against a thin, malnourished opponent. The paper presents
definition of incapacitation and various factors affecting the incapacitation of Human body. Since the subject under the
study is Human being, the trial and evaluation has to be done on simulated targets. Hence various experimental techniques
of evaluation of lethality of Small Arms Ammn are devised. The same are discussed in the paper. The Ballistic trials
conducted on wood and Ballistic Gelatine block to assess the comparative lethality of various Small Arms Ammunitions are
also presented in the paper.
1. INTRODUCTION
Use of force to protect and defend a nation from external aggression, internal disorder and unlawful activity is
considered necessary and morally acceptable. Even though ultimate, lethal force is sometimes unavoidable the force should
always be in proportion with the prevailing threat. Firearms injuries caused in military conflicts, law enforcement and
civilian environment are numerous and of great social and humanitarian concern. Small arms are weapons designed for
personal use. In any armed conflict the objective is to neutralize the opposite force. While killing an enemy soldier certainly
accomplishes this task, incapacitating him achieves the same goal while putting more burdens on the opponent's medical
and logistic resources. As far as the weapon designer is concerned, it is the ability to incapacitate which is more important
rather than killing capability. At many points in the Army, the requirement arises for quantitative comparison of
performance of various competing weapons.
A police officer using a firearm must know what it will do and what not [UN 1990]. As a corollary the bullet must
perform consistently in various foreseeable circumstances. A law enforcement bullet must therefore have sufficient tactical
range and kinetic energy, yet avoid excessive injuries and especially danger to bystanders. Increasing bullet velocity gives a
longer tactical range. It will also increase kinetic energy. If most of the energy is not dissipated into the target or deformation
of the bullet, the result is increased danger of injury to bystanders due to excessive penetration and high residual velocity
and energy of the exiting bullet. If most of the energy is dissipated into the target, the result will very often be increased
injury to the target. If the bullet velocity is reduced the tactical range shortens and the bullet may not perform consistently.
This may in turn prolong the gunfight and significantly increase the danger to both bystanders and law enforcement
officials. An ideal law enforcement bullet should not fragment during glass or other light barricade and subsequent soft
tissue penetration. It should, however, lose most of its kinetic energy into deformation or disintegration on impact with a
hard substance like street surface or brick wall in order to minimise the danger from ricochets.
What Is Lethality?
The simple question requires a very complex answer. For the Soldier in combat, lethality equals death: the desire to have
every round fired result in the death of the opposing combatant, the so-called "one-shot drop." However, death--or lethality-

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-is not always necessary to achieve a military objective; an enemy combatant who is no longer willing or able to perform a
meaningful military task may be as good as dead under most circumstances. Lethality ultimately equates to the potential of
the weapons system to eliminate its target as a militarily relevant threat.
Assessment of injury potential is central for determining the legitimacy of a weapon and its ammunition. It is essential to
make a distinctive difference between assessment of injury potential and assessment of effectiveness i.e. incapacitation
potential. Although greater injury usually also means greater incapacitation potential the relationship is not at all clear. As
injury deals with the physiological result, the incapacitation includes also the psychological and more difficult to measure
processes whose outcome is affected by determination, beliefs and even previous experiences.
Incapacitation
The weapon designer uses incapacitation as a measure of weapon performance. Wound is a structural derangement
which may cause incapacitation. Incapacitation is a functional rather than a structural concept. Different tactical roles
involve different tasks hence the wounds are not always incapacitating. The same wound received by two individuals
performing different tasks may be incapacitation to one but not to other. In order to calculate incapacitation one must consider
biomedical degradation caused by the wound and biomechanical requirement that goes with soldier's role. It is important to
make a distinction between the specific effect that results from single projectile and the generic overall effect averaged over
the entire body.
The human body is a very complex target. It has a number of built-in mechanisms that allow it to absorb damage and
continue to function. Compared to a tank, it is far more difficult to predict a human target's composition and what bullet
design will be most advantageous. The combinations of muscle, bone, organs, skin, fat, and clothing create a staggering
number of target types which often require different lethal mechanisms. Physical conditioning, psychological state, size,
weight, and body form all play a factor in the body's ability to resist damage, and all add to the complexity of the problem. The
same bullet fired against a large, thick, well-conditioned person has a very different reaction than that fired against a thin,
malnourished opponent. The average area of the various human body parts and the vulnerability is given below:
a) Total Area : 4000 cm2
b) Head and neck : 12 %
c) Thorax : 16 %
d) Abdomen : 11 %
e) Upper Limbs : 22 %
f) Lower Limbs : 39 %
g) Vulnerable area : 40 % of the total area (Head chest and Abdomen)
h) In general the back side has better inbuilt protection to the vital organs by means of tissues, bones etc.
Incapacitation Mechanism
The physical mechanisms for incapacitation--causing the body to no longer be able to perform a task—is due to followings:
i) Destruction of central nervous system tissue so that the body can no longer control function.
ii) Reduction in ability to function over time through blood loss.
The closest things the human body has to an "off switch" are the brain, brain stem, and upper spinal cord, which are small and
well-protected targets. Even a heart shot allows a person to function for a period of time before finally succumbing to blood
loss. What the wound ballistics community at large has long known is that the effectiveness of a round of ammunition is
directly related to the location, volume, and severity of tissue damage. In other words, a well-placed .22 caliber round can be
far more lethal than a poorly placed .50 caliber machine gun round. Setting shot placement aside for the moment, though, the
challenge becomes assessing the potential of a given round of ammunition to cause the needed volume and severity of tissue
damage, and then relating this back to performance against a human target.
Upon impacting the target, the bullet penetrates tissue and begins to slow some distance into the target, the tissue
acting on the bullet also causes the bullet to rotate erratically or yaw; the location and amount of yaw depend upon speed of
the bullet at impact, angle of impact, and density of the tissue. If the bullet is moving fast enough, it may also begin to break
up, with pieces spreading away from the main path of the bullet to damage other tissue. If the target is thick enough, all of
these fragments may come to rest in the target, or they may exit the target. Meanwhile, the impacted tissue rebounds away
from the path of the bullet, creating what is known as a "temporary cavity." Some of the tissue is smashed or torn by the bullet
itself, or its fragments; some expands too far and tears. The temporary cavity eventually rebounds, leaving behind the torn

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tissue in the wound track--the "permanent cavity." It is this permanent cavity that is most significant, as it represents the
damaged tissue that can impair and eventually kill the target, provided, of course, that the damaged tissue is actually some
place on the body that is critical.
This is where the balance of factors in bullet design becomes important. Volume of tissue damage is important--
which might suggest high velocities to enable the bullet to tumble and fragment sooner, materials that cause the bullet to
break up sooner, etc.--but it must also occur in critical tissue. If the bullet immediately breaks up, it may not penetrate through
outer garments to reach tissue, or it may break up in muscle without reaching vital organs underneath. The projectile must
have enough penetration capability to reach vital organs to cause damage. At the same time, it must not have so much
penetrating capability that it passes completely through the target without significant damage--resulting in a so-called
"through-and-through." Energy expended outside the target is useless (as it does not separate energy expended in damaging
the target from energy lost beyond the target). The ideal bullet would have enough energy to penetrate through any
intervening barrier to reach vital organs without significantly slowing, then dump all of its energy into damaging vital organs
without exiting the body. Unfortunately, design of such a bullet is nearly impossible in a military round, even if all human
bodies were uniform enough to allow for such a thing. When hitting a target the bullet might have to pass through a forearm,
exit, enter, the shoulder, then proceed down the trunk before striking heart or spinal cord. A flanking hit would engage the
same target through or between the ribs to strike the same vital regions. All these possibilities are encountered with the same
ammunition. Ultimately, bullet design is a series of tradeoffs complicated by the need to survive launch, arrive at the target
accurately, possibly penetrate armor, glass, or other barriers.
A bullet impacting the target has an impact mass of mi (g) and velocity vi (m/s). Its kinetic energy Ei (J) is defined as
Ei = 0.5 * mi * vi2 / 1000
Impact energy Ei is partially dissipated into the target and performs work upon it. From equation above, we can see that both
the bullet mass but more significantly its velocity determines the amount of kinetic energy. If the energy is not dissipated into
the target, it is used somewhere else. The wound ballistic energy equation can be expressed as:
Er = Ei – Edef – Ed
where Er is the residual kinetic energy, Ei the impact energy, Edef the energy used by bullet deformation and Ed the energy
dissipated into the target. Since Ei has to be significant, Edef and Ed must be maximized in order to minimise Er. The residual
energy is a significant factor describing the danger to bystanders when the bullet completely penetrates and exits the primary
target continuing its flight. The factor of Edef has often been overlooked in the literature. Kinetic energy dissipation (Ed) can
be increased by bullet instability, deformation and fragmentation. When a rigid tail-heavy bullet hits the target it tends to start
tumbling because the rate of spin is insufficient to maintain stability in dense medium like tissue. This increases the cross-
sectional area in the direction of penetration which increases the dissipation of kinetic energy. The process is, however,
somewhat out of control. The precise depth at which tumbling occurs is difficult to predict as it depends on the yaw angle on
impact, properties of the tissue encountered and internal instabilities of the bullet.
Controlled deformation can in principle be achieved by a cavity in the tip of the bullet. Upon impact these bullets
start expanding at the tip. This makes the cross-sectional area larger and increases Ed. It will also shift the centre of gravity of
the penetrating bullet closer to the tip making a long bullet in theory more stable in penetration. The dimensions and surface
angles of the cavity together with the bullet materials and construction determine the rate and type of expansion. Bullet
fragmentation can be controlled by jacket thickness, making pre fragmentation incisions in the jacket and by varying the
strength of bonding between the bullet core and jacket.
The exiting bullet makes an exit wound which is usually larger than the entry wound as the bullet has already
deformed or may be in an unstable state exiting base or side first. The result will in many cases be a star like rupture. The
difference between entry and exit wounds can also be hypothesized with different penetration mechanism. In an entry wound
the projectile presses the skin against subcutaneous tissue thus reducing the stretch whereas on exit the skin is stretched
outwards from the supporting tissue thus increasing the stretch. As the wound must anyway be opened (debrided) for tissue
excision and the skin injuries can relatively easily be corrected, the entry and exit wound sizes as markers for wound severity
cannot be held very significant. A large exit wound should, however, be treated as a warning sign for possible extensive
internal injury. In order to cause only the justified injuries the bullet must be inherently accurate and have a satisfactory
tactical range.

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International Laws
In order to reduce the use of excessive force and un necessary sufferings from the bullet injuries, some international
rules are framed. Some are discussed below:
i) United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 declares that 'everyone has the right to life, liberty and
security of person' (article 3), and that 'no one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment' (article 5).
ii) The UN Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials (1979) defines standards for law enforcement practice that
are consistent with basic human rights. Article 3 states that: 'the use of firearms is considered an extreme measure.
iii) Every effort should be made to exclude the use of firearms, especially against children. In general, firearms should
not be used except when a suspected offender offers armed resistance or otherwise jeopardizes the lives of others and less
extreme measures are not sufficient to restrain or apprehend the suspected offender'.
iv) The UN Resolution on Small-Calibre Weapon Systems (Geneva, 1979) recognizes that bullet expansion is not the
only factor increasing the extent of injury and that rapid advance in weapons technology requires further research and
standardized assessment methodology.
v) A number of technical interpretations of the International Law and recommendations are presented as the basis for
assessing the legitimacy of firearm and ammunition types from the injury potential point of view:
vi) To avoid superfluous injury and unnecessary suffering to the offender
a) There must be a maximum for acceptable kinetic energy dissipation for the first 250 mm of penetration in
defined tests with accepted synthetic material, for example, gelatine validated to simulate muscle tissue.
b) There must be a maximum for an acceptable viscous criterion of non-penetrating kinetic impact projectiles
(baton projectiles) in defined tests.
c) There must be a maximum value for acceptable fragmentation in defined tests (including kinetic impact
projectiles).
d) There must be a maximum for acceptable 'crookedness' of the permanent wound channel in defined tests.
e) No fragmentation bullets shall be used directly against persons.
f) No explosive bullets shall be used directly against persons.
g) No incendiary bullets shall be used directly against persons.
h) Projectiles used directly against persons shall not contain X-ray undetectable components.
i) To avoid unwarranted risk and injury to uninvolved persons and other officials.
j) Both the weapon and the ammunition must function reliably as a combination in defined conditions.
k) Ammunition performance must be consistent; in particular, penetration, permanent and temporary cavity
formation must be consistent in defined tests.
l) Accuracy and selectivity of weapon and ammunition must provide for a sufficient tactical range and
accuracy in various defined conditions.
m) Penetration ability of the standard issue projectile must be controlled with minimum and maximum tissue
simulant penetration in defined tests with a defined maximum for acceptable residual kinetic energy after
penetration of 250mm of simulated tissue.
n) A personal side-arm standard issue projectile should not penetrate the body armour worn by the official.
o) Special circumstances may warrant the use of bullets with higher penetration ability.
p) There must be a maximum for acceptable ricochet deflection angle from standardised surfaces and a
maximum for acceptable kinetic energy of the heaviest fragment.
q) Functional safety of the weapon must be proven by a) standard test set and b) any necessary weapon
specific tests.
r) Visual and tactile markings shall be provided to assist in identification of various types of ammunition
under adverse light and weather conditions.
s) For ease of use under stress, the weapon should not require the performance of any fine motor functions in
a tactical situation except for loading the magazine and pressing the trigger.
t) To increase proficiency, the weapon systems should handle with reasonable similarity.
u) To increase accountability, it should be possible to trace the bullet back to the weapon that fired it and as a
matter of principle, all firearms should be assigned to named officials.
v) Exceptional and grave circumstances may justify deviation from the abov recommendations.

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2. SYNTHETIC SIMULANTS
The tissue simulants and their preparation methods have not been standardized making comparison of the reported results
somewhat difficult and reducing their power of evidence. To reach the goal of comprehensive and surgery compatible wound
ballistic simulation a lot needs to be done. Validation of simulation materials is still at an embryonic stage with only muscle
and skin tissue simulants having been validated. Bone simulants have not been validated with human bones. As the purpose is
not to simulate wound ballistic events on a pig the simulant system must be brought as close to a human being as possible. It
has too often been taken for granted that a pig resembles a human being. An example of this is the specific gravity of muscle
tissue quoted to be 1.06. It actually is that of a 100 kg landrace pig. Human muscle tissue specific gravity is 1.02-1.04. A
comprehensive study on the visco-elastic properties of human tissues needs to be done in order to develop and validate
corresponding simulants. Wound ballistic testing with tissue simulants cannot be replaced with computer simulation. Power
of evidence and needs of quality assurance require that real bullets must be fired upon simulated targets. Computer simulation
and modelling are, however, important for learning more about the complex interaction between a projectile and a target. The
mathematical possibilities can far faster help to find better protection and bullet designs than experimental research only.
Tissue simulants can be divided into soft tissue, skin, bone and skull simulants. A good tissue simulant must possess the
following qualities:
a. similarity in the deceleration of the projectile between the simulant and the living tissue
b. the simulant has been validated for
c. similarity in the deformation behaviour of the projectile
d. similarity in the kinetic energy dissipation
e. kinetic energy dissipation measurability with reasonable accuracy
f. extrapolation of temporary cavity diameter
g. elastic behaviour similar to living tissue for observation and measurement of temporary
h. cavity formation and tissue compression
i. extrapolation of permanent cavity diameter
j. reproducibility
The above list of requirements means that the simulant does not need to possess exactly the same biomechanical properties as
living tissue as long as the results can be measured and appropriately extrapolated or scaled to reflect what happens in living
tissue. In fact a simulant with lower tensile strength than that of muscle tissue might allow for more accurate measurement of
the cavities and kinetic energy dissipation; hence the requirement for extrapolation instead of similarity.
Soft Tissue Simulants

Principally two types of tissue simulants have been used to simulate muscle tissue. Specially manufactured
glycerine soap and hydrogels prepared from water solutions containing 10-20 mass-% gelatine. Soap is plastic and does not
reproduce the pulsations of temporary cavity. The cavity left in soap reflects temporary cavitation. Permanent cavity cannot
be measured. Ballistic gelatine is usually used in 10 or 20% nominal concentrations. The actual concentration should be
adjusted i.e. calibrated for every batch of gelatine powder to give precisely the desired penetration and to compensate for
possible manufacturing variances. Gelatine blocks are prepared by dissolving the calibrated amount of usually 250A bloom
gelatine powder into warm water, adding possibly preservative and pouring the solution into moulds where it first cools off
and then solidifies. To avoid dehydration and unnecessary contamination by airborne microbes the moulds should be covered
with plastic foil. The gelatine blocks are then taken to refrigerator for storage and cooling into prescribed usage temperature.
It should, however, be noted that isotropic materials like gelatine and soap fail to take into account the
heterogeneous nature of tissues and their different densities.

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3. EXPERIMENT
Three 5.56 mm Ammns, having similar velocities and mass but different bullet constructions (Steel insert+Lead, Al
insert+ Lead and full Lead core) were fired upon the wood and Gelatine blocks. The trial results are as follows:
Trial On Wooden Target

Experimental trials were conducted to compute the energy transferred to 1 inch deal wood placed at range of 11m.
The details of the trial and the results are as follows

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SV= Striking Velocity, SE= Striking Velocity, EE= Exit Energy, ET= Energy Transferred

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Trial On Gelatine Block

The trials were conducted on 20 % Gelatine block of size 100 mm dia and 150 mm length placed at range of 5 m. The
energy deposited could not be computed since the bullets were breaking inside the block. The details of the trial and the
results are as follows

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Summary Of Experimental Trials

i) The energy transferred to the wooden target by the bullet with Al insert and Lead is max as compared with the bullets
of different construction.
ii) In the Gelatine block;
a) The bullet with Al insert and Lead is getting destabilized very early as compared to bullet with Steel insert and Lead
and bullet with full lead core.
b) The Max hole dia created by the bullet with Al insert and Lead is max as compared to other two Ammns.
c) The exit hole dia of the bullet with Al insert and Lead is also max as compared to other two Ammns.
d) The amount of damage created on the Gelatine block by the bullet with Al insert and Lead is max as compared to
other two bullets.
4. CONCLUSION
Assessment of lethality of Small Arms weapon is very important aspect in selection of the weapon. The subject involves the
study from Biomedical and Biomechanical sciences. A thorough study of behavior of the bullet inside the human body will
immensely assist in designing an optimized bullet. Due this the morale of the law enforcing officers will boost and the
offenders will be neutralized without any causality to by stander. Standardization of experimental and simulation studies on
the simulants will help in deciding the Armies to select suitable weapon for a particular operation.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are deeply indebted to Shri Surendra Kumar, outstanding scientist and Director ARDE for his continuous
encouragement and suggestions.
REFERENCES
1.The Modeling and Application of Small Arms Wound Ballistics- Memorandum Report BRL-MR-3923, David N
Neades, Russel N Prather, US Army Laboratory Command, Aug 1991.
2. Wound Ballistic Simulation: Assessment of Legitimacy of Law Enforcement Firearms Ammunition by Means of
Wound Ballistic Simulation; Jorma Jussila, Helsinki, 2005

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EFFECT OF SMALL ARMS BULLET CONSTRUCTION ON

PENETRATION OF HARD TARGETS
Aishwarya Dixit, Gaurav Verma, RP Pandey, SV Gade, AM Datar
ABSTRACT
Small Arms are used to incapacitate protected and un-protected targets. The design of Small Arms Ammn is mainly
governed by the Range and type of target. Considering these requirements the Terminal, External and Internal Ballistics
studies are performed to decide the caliber, Bullet construction, muzzle velocity, rifling rate etc. The Small Arms bullets are
jacketed. Inside the jacket, either full Lead core, Steel insert and Lead core or other combinations are used to arrive at a
suitable bullet mass and stability.
The paper discusses in detail about the effect of bullet construction on the penetration of Mild Steel plate of 3.5 mm
thickness. To study the effect of bullet construction, two new types of Bullets have been developed. One bullet envelope is
filled with full lead core and other bullet envelope is filled with Al insert and Lead core. It has been ensured in the design that
the bullets are stable in the flight against any perturbation. The existing 5.56 mm Ammn with Steel insert and Lead core is
also used for the purpose of analysis. Experiments have been conducted by firing three different types of bullets of 5.56 mm
caliber at a range of 100 m on 3.5 mm thick MS plate. The striking velocity at this range was in the range of 800-850 m/s. It
has been observed that the bullet with lower density tip material has made bigger hole as compared to the denser material tip
bullet. The penetrations of bullets have also been simulated on ANSYS AUTODYN. It has been observed that the
simulation results are in good agreement with the experimental results. This will help in studying the performance of the
Small Arms bullets against hard targets and optimization of bullet design.
1. INTRODUCTION
Small Arms are the weapons used for personal defence as well as disabling the opponents by various law enforcing agencies
and individuals. When the Ammn is fired upon, it is expected that the opponent will stop the current activities immediately
and not retaliate. This is achieved by incapacitating the opponent. Among other factors, incapacitation is also governed by
energy transferred by the bullet to the individual.
Various types of Ammns are under use by law enforcing agencies. In the same calibre different construction bullets are also
available. A Typical small arms bullet is encapsulated by a thin gilding metal jacket filed by lead core or in addition to some
lead the core may contain steel as shown in figure1.
5.56 mm calibre, three different construction bullets have been selected to study the effect of bullet construction on the
penetration capability of bullet on the hard target. They are as follows
a. Envelope filled with Al insert and Lead core
b. Envelope filled with full lead
c. Envelop filled with Steel insert and lead
The target selected for the purpose of the study is 3.5 mm thick MS plate.
The complete study was carried out in two stages. In the fist stage, the firing trials were conducted by placing the target at
range of 100 m and measuring the striking velocities and the hole dia on the target. During the second stage, theoretical
estimation of damage and deposited energy was estimated by using AUTODYN (hydro-codes) simulation which is widely
used in dynamic transient loading phenomena such as ballistic impacts. Hydro-codes simulations can accurately predict
penetration as well as impact crater geometry (depth and diameter) in given thickness of steel armor for different types of
bullets. To predict behavior of hard target on bullet impact, material models for target and bullet have been developed.
Bullet Construction
All projectiles used for Small Arms ammunition are of composite construction. Solid lead is not used because of its low

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strength. If it is fired from rifled barrel, it results in the coating the bore of the barrel with layers of lead which soon fills the
rifling grooves. The most common constriction is lead antimony alloy covered with a copper alloy envelope. Steel jackets
may also be used to increase the strength of bullet and to reduce the costs.
The Ogive of the high velocity projectile is made to be well pointed to reduce aerodynamic drag. It is also usual for the base of
the bullet to be tapered (boat tail) to reduce base drag. To increase the stability in flight the ogive portion is often filled with a
light weight material to move the center of gravity of the bullet more towards base.
Fig1: General construction of a bullet
2. STAGE1- FIRING TRIALS

A series of firing trials were conducted with the three types of the bullets. The striking velocities were recorded with help of
Doppler radar set up and used in subsequent AUTODYN simulations. The results are tabulated below.
Table 1: Firing range 100 m, Target 3.5 mm MS Plate:
3. STAGE2- SIMULATION
The AUTODYN computer code was employed in full Lagrange mode to simulate the all three bullets impacting on Mild steel
targets. In this study 5.56 mm Bullet with Envelope filled with Steel insert and Lead core bullet was used as a basis for
investigation of different core material configurations. Figure 2 shows the Lagrangian mesh for this bullet mirrored about its
horizontal axis of symmetry. The analyses were conducted with AUTODYN -2D using axial symmetry about the axis. The
model consists of more than 5000 grid cells that are filled with appropriate user defined materials models.

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Factors Affecting the Penetration

A complete description of the dynamics of the impacting solid would demand that account be taken of the geometry
of the interacting bodies, elastic, plastic and shock wave propagation, hydrodynamic flow, finite strains, work hardening,
thermal and frictional effect and the initiation and propagation of failure in the colliding materials.
For low velocity regime (less than 250m/s) typically loading response times are in millisecond regime. Material behaves
primarily plastic.
For the striking velocity range 500-1000m/s the response of the structure mainly focused with in a small zone
(typically 2-3 times of projectile diameter) of the impact area. Viscous material strength plays significant role. A wave
description of the phenomena is appropriate and the influence of velocity, geometry, material constitution, strain rate,
localized plastic flow and failure are manifest at various stage of impact process. Typically the loading and reaction times are
on the order of microseconds.
Higher impact velocities (2000-3000m/s) resulted in localized pressure that exceeds the strength of material by
multiple orders of magnitude. In effect the colliding solids can be treated as fluids in the early stages of impacts.
Modeling of Material used in AUTODYN Simulation

In general, materials have a complex response to dynamic loading and the following phenomena may need to be
modelled.The modelling of such phenomena can generally be broken down into two main components.
Equation of State
An equation of state describes the hydrodynamic response of a material. This is the primary response for gases and
liquids, which can sustain no shear. Their response to dynamic loading is strictly hydrodynamic, with pressure varying as a
function of density and internal energy. This is also the primary response for solids at high deformation rates, when the
hydrodynamic pressure is far greater than the yield stress of the material.
A general material model requires equations that relate stress to deformation and internal energy (or temperature). In most
cases, the stress tensor may be separated into a uniform hydrostatic pressure (all three normal stresses equal) and a stress
deviatoric tensor associated with the resistance of the material to shear distortion. Then the relation between the hydrostatic
pressure, the local density (or specific volume) and local specific energy (or temperature) is known as an equation of state. In
the present study due to the loading condition the used equation of state is shock.
Shock EOS:
The Rankine-Hugoniot equations for the shock jump conditions can be regarded as defining a relation between any pair of the
variables r, p, e, up and U. In many dynamic experiments making measurements of up and U it has been found that for most
solids and many liquids over a wide range of pressure there is an empirical linear relationship between these two variables: If
U is shock velocity and up is material velocity behind the shock, C is the velocity of sound, p is hydrostatic pressure, r is
The Gruneisen Gamma G

, defined as:
Where J is the mechanical equivalent of heat

density, m compression = r/r0 - 1, e is specific internal energy, S is specific entropy.
It is then found convenient to establish a Mie-Gruneisen form of equation of state based on the shock Hugoniot. Where U is
shock velocity,
Material Strength Model

Solid materials may initially respond elastically, but under extreme shock loadings, they usually reach stress states
that exceed their yield stress and deform plastically. Material strength equations describe this non-linear elaso-plastic
response.

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The original formulation of material strength effects considered that materials were elastic -perfectly plastic. However it is
possible to generalize the approach by making the yield function Y a function of material properties such as strain, strain rate,
energy, temperature etc. without excessively complicating the resultant calculations. Model used to solve present problem
are Von Mises and Johnson-Cook.
Von Mises Model:

This model uses the original von-Mises premise that the yield stress has a constant value. Consequently the von-Mises
cylinder has a fixed radius. States lying inside the cylinder are elastic. States on the surface of the cylinder are plastic.
Johnson-Cook Model:
Use this model to represent the strength behavior of materials subjected to large strains, high strain rates and high
temperatures. Such behavior might arise in problems of intense impulsive loading due to high velocity impact.
With this model, the yield stress (and the radius of the von-Mises cylinder) varies depending on strain, strain rate and
temperature.
The model defines the yield stress Y as
Where ep = effective plastic strain, ep* = normalized effective plastic strain rate, TH = homologous temperature = (T -
Troom) / (Tmelt - Troom ).
The five material constants are A, B, C, n and m. The expression in the first set of brackets gives the stress as a function of
strain when ep* = 1.0sec -1 and TH = 0 (i.e. for laboratory experiments at room temperature). The constant A is the basic yield
stress at low strains while B and n represent the effect of strain hardening. The expressions in the second and third sets of
brackets represent the effects of strain rate and temperature, respectively.
Material properties of lead, copper and steel employed in these simulations are given in table 2.
Table2: Material Properties for impact Simulation
The impact velocity was given on the basis of experimental data recorded previously. Fig 3, 4 and 5 show the details of
simulation study conducted on different types of bullets. Simulated penetration at various time steps are shown for each
bullet. Energy absorbed by target with reference to time is shown in graph. Final dimensions of AUTODYN simulated bullet
crater are measured and compared with actual cross-section cut.

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Simulation of bullet with Al insert and Lead core is shown in Fig 3 at 12, 32 and 35 micro sec. Similarly for bullet
with full Lead core and bullet with Steel insert and Lead core are shown in figures 4 and 5 respectively. Dimensions of
predicted impact crater are also measured and given in Table No 3. The actual holes made by the bullets and the predicted
crater dia are also shown in the respective figures.
Measured and predicted crater dimensions are in good agreement. This shows that this method of simulation is
validated and could be used for other bullet design exercises. In case of bullet with Steel insert and Lead core, mesh tangling
was more and program stopped in the middle. This problem was resolved by redefining mesh geometry and giving proper
erosion criteria. Energy absorbed by the target due to impact of the three types of the bullets is given in table 4.

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Fig 3e: Bullet at 4.5e-2 ms

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Fig 3g: energy absorbed by the
Fig 4d: Bullet at 3.56e-2 ms

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Fig 4f: Actual cross section cut
Fig 5b: Bullet with Al insert just before striking the plate

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Fig 5d: Bullet at 2.60e-2 ms
Fig 5f: Actual cross section cut

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5. CONCLUSION
Simulations studies and firing trails have been conducted to predict the effect of bullet compositions on penetration of hard
targets (MS plate 3.5 mm thick). These studies have shown how core material properties such as density and deformability
influence both bullet penetrability and its residual potential for damaging the hard targets. Results show that the projectile
with less density material as insert has better damage effect at the target. Good agreements have been observed among
experimental results and AUTODYN outputs. Energy transferred by the bullet with Al insert and Lead core was max (325 J)
as compared to bullet with full Lead core (250 J) and bullet with Steel insert and Lead core (80 J).
The Von-mises strength model for Lead and Copper material provided satisfying results. For the purpose of Steel and Al,
Johnson Cook strength model was successfully used. Mesh tangling problem with Lagrange solver during processing was
solved by redefining the mesh geometry and giving suitable erosion criteria. It was observed that the Eulerian treatment
results were less accurate as compared to Lagrange solver.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are deeply indebted to Shri Surendra Kumar, Outstanding Scientist and Director ARDE for his continuous
encouragement, suggestions and permission to publish this paper.
REFERENCES
1.Century Dynamics, AUTODYN User and theory Manual
2. Journal of Impact engineering (Elseiver)
3. By Dale S Preece and Vanessa S Berg” Bullet Impact on Steel and Kevlar/ Steel Armor- Computer Modeling and
Experimental Data” published in proceedings of the ASME Pressure Vessels and piping Conference Symposium Under
Extreme Loading, July 25-29, 2004, San Diego, CA.
4. RE Wellard “Cannon and Small Arms Ammunition and Terminal Ballistics” proceedings of the 11th Euopean Small
Arms Symposium, Royal Military college of Science, Shrivenham, 1997.

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ENHANCEMENT OF LETHALITY OF ROCKET ASSISTED BOMB

OVER STANDARD HE MORTAR BOMB
TB Khilare
ABSTRACT
Increase in range by insertion of rocket mortar in Artillery shell or bomb reduces the capacity of explosives in the
bomb. Consequent to this, overall lethality of bomb or shell is reduced in compensation for increased range. Therefore, ways
are required to be thought to increase the lethality over standard HE bomb or shell, or at least equalize the lethality to the
standard HE bomb or shell. Selection of high fragmentation yielding material for body, optimum metal to explosive ratio /
proper distribution of mass of explosives with respect to thickness of steel casing of bomb or shell , use of high VOD
explosives and use of pre-notched body are the major contributors which will increase lethality of bomb/shell. In this paper, a
study has been carried out for 120mm rocket assisted bomb to increase the lethality against standard HE bomb. After design
of rocket assisted bomb and selection of high fragmentation yielding material, prototypes have been developed. After filling
of high explosive, prototypes have been trial evaluated statically for lethal radius.
Results show that lethal radius of rocket assisted bomb has been enhanced 1.5 times over standard HE bomb.
NOMENCLATURE
RAB - Rocket Assisted Bomb
HE - High Explosive
VOD - Velocity of Detonation
- Probability of kill
- Number of hits
Lethal Radius A radius from the point of burst of projectile within which a chance of incapacitation is 50 per cent.
Lethal fragment A fragment is said to be lethal if it perforates 1.5 mm thick steel plate.
1. INTRODUCTION
The principle cause of casualties is invariably fragmentation from high explosive ammunition and statistics from
the Second World War, Korean War, Vietnam War and many other wars verify this. The principle of high explosive
ammunition is very simple: detonation of the explosive filling causes the casing in which it is held to break up, propelling
fragments outwards at high velocity. The way in which the casing breaks up is influenced by several factors, the most
important of which are the velocity of detonation of explosive, the distribution of the explosive in relation to the thickness of
casing, and the metallurgical properties of casing. The fragments are hurled outward, and penetrate or perforate objects
within certain distance from the point of burst. The ability to penetrate the target or to damage the object is characterized by
the concept of the “effective fragment” which is defined as: A fragment is effective if it perforates a steel sheet of 1.5mm thick.
The number of hits of effective fragments on the distance from the point of burst, are determined in a fragmentation test area.
Probability of kill is computed from the number of hits and lethal radius is worked out. A chance of 50 % kill is achieved at a
certain radius from the point of burst, a bomb or shell is said to have that much lethal radius. A literature study has been shown
that Mn renders a material fracture prone because it reduces grain size whereas Si increases frictional stress resisting motion
of dislocation. Similarly Carbon and Nitrogen raise stress needed to unlock dislocations held up at grain boundaries.
Rocket assisted bombs are used to engage targets at higher ranges. However lethal radius of bomb reduces due to
incorporation of rocket motor into the bomb body of the same calibre and nearly same mass of bomb body due to reduction in
explosive and explosive mass in cross section in relation to thickness of casing. However lethal radius may be increased by
various means like use of high yielding fragmentation material for casing, use of high brisance explosive, use of
predetermined fracture points. It has been observed from previous study that high carbon content material yields more
number of small fragments. However, Designer has to keep in mind that the casing of bomb body should have adequate

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strength to withstand firing stresses during gun launch. Material Spheroidal Graphite Iron which has high percentage of
carbon and also contain graphite in the form of spheroid which helps in formation of large number of small fragments. While
selecting high VOD explosive, factors like ease of processing during mass production, insensitivity of explosive during
handling from safety point of view have been considered.
In the present study, with above background, material AISI 9260 ( En 45A) which has higher carbon content ( 0.6 %)
and higher Si ( 2.0 % ) and also has moderate per cent of Mn and adequate strength to withstand firing stresses has been used
for rocket assisted bomb in comparison to material grade SS F/44 to specification JSS 9510 with carbon of 0.3 0.4 per cent
was used for standard HE bomb. Pre-fractured points were made inside the casing of rocket assisted body as comparative
study to assess its effect on enhancement of lethal radius.
2. EXPERIMENT
Design
Sketch of design of rocket assisted bomb body for 120mm calibre is shown in figure 1 and sketch of standard HE
bomb is shown in figure 2. Bomb body was made of forgings made from AISI 9260 material having obtained proof strength of
800 MPa with 10 % elongation after heat treatment which was adequate for withstanding firing stresses for designed casing
thickness. Hardness range is between 300-350 HB. Standard HE bomb of 120mm calibre made from forging material of steel
grade SS F/44 of JSS 9510 specification having proof strength of 590 MPa with 8 % elongation with hardness of 250-300 HB.
Bodies of rocket assisted bomb were also made with pre-fractured points internally with 0.5- 0.7 mm depth at 60° angle. Each
square was varying size from 5 x 5 mm to 8 x 8 mm due to contour of body. Thickness of body was varying from 6mm to
8.5mm. Empty rocket casing made from aluminium alloy was placed inside as shown in figure 1. Standard HE bomb bodies
were filled with TNT and rocket assisted bomb bodies were filled with RDX/TNT (60/40). Qty 5 rocket assisted bodies with
pre-fractured points and qty 5 bodies without pre-fractured points were manufactured. Explosive Charge to metal ratio for
both the bombs are shown in Table 1. It is seen from the table1 that explosive charge to metal ratio has been slightly improved
in the rocket assisted bomb
Metal mass, explosive mass & charge mass ratios are tabulated below.
Trial Set-up & Static Evaluation

The Bomb was suspended 1.2 m above the ground vertically with nose down position and fired remotely. Steel
plates of 1.5mm thickness with 2.4m height were erected at distances of 20m, 30m, 40m and 50m from the centre of burst
point of bomb. Average velocity of fragments was measured with high speed photography. A sketch of trial set-up is shown in
fig 3. Qty 3 numbers of bomb each with and without pre-fractured points were test fired for evaluation of lethal radius. Qty 2
numbers of bomb each were fired in sand pit to assess the total number of fragments.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

It is seen from the Table-2 that lethal radius (kill probability 50%) of Rocket assisted bomb is 30 m whereas lethal
radius of standard service bomb is 20 m.

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Total numbers of fragments of rocket assisted bomb are 3120 which is much higher as compared to standard service
HE bomb of having only 1780 number of fragments.
If the comparison is made between pre-fractured and non pre-fractured rocket assisted bombs, it is seen that average
number of fragments in both the cases are almost same and there is no significant improvement in lethal radius as well. This
may be due to insufficient depth of pre-fractured points and appropriate distance between the pre-fractured points. However it
may be noted that sufficient wall thicknesses are required to be kept to withstand the firing stresses. Moreover manufacturing
of pre-fractured points in the bomb body are time consuming and not cost effective.
Thus, therefore it is concluded that by increasing charge to metal ratio and use of high fragmentation yielding
material and high VOD explosive, lethal radius can be increased significantly in rocket assisted bomb.
The results of trials are tabulated below.
Note:
1. No of lethal hits & lethal hits per square metre are given for average of 3 bombs.
2. Probability of kill is worked out based on lethal hits per square metre.
3. The equation for Probability of kill is given below.
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Author would like to express his sincere gratitude to Shri Surendra Kumar, Director ARDE for his kind permission
to publish the results. Author would further wish to thank Shri Anil Datar, Associate Director for his encouragement. Thanks
are also due to Dr. Pardeep Kumar, Sc 'E' from TBRL, Chandigarh for his support in conducting the static evaluation of trials.
Author is also grateful to Shri RD Wasnik Scientist E and his team from HEMRL, Pune for their support for explosive filling
of bombs.
REFERENCES
1. Handbook of Weaponry- Rheinmetal Gmbh 1982
2. Brassey's “ Ammunition for the land battle “ by PR Courtney- Green
3. TBRL Report No.427/96 on, “Study of Fragmentation behaviour of plain Carbon & Low alloy steels.”
4. TBRL Report No.70/72 on, “Fragmentation and lethality of 120mm Brandt mortar HE Ammunition”
5. ARDE Closing Report NO. 1179 of July 2007 on, “To Evaluate the Lethality of 120mm Rocket Assisted Bomb for
Existing Service Mortar E1”

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Integrated G-hardened Telemetry System

For
Cannon Launched Munition Testing
Vaibhav Saini,Vinay Kumar,DS Saini, S C Rana, Kapil Deo
Scientists, Armament R&D Establishment, DRDO, Pune, India
Email: sainids 1(a),gmail. corn
32 Analog Inputs
Abstract-The Telemetry group at ARDE actively develops
telemetry systems for testing of Artillery rockets, munitions and
Aircrafts bombs. The integrated g-hardened telemetry system
utilizes new capabilities in transmitter , power supplies, electronic
packaging and sensors and PCM encoder incorporating FPGA Signal Conditioning
Module
based architecture for operational flexibility. Each module has
Transmitting Antenna
been individually test qualified to the required shock and vibra-
tion level This PCM/FM telemetry system has been demonstrated
to function in shock environment up to 700g and survives impact Serial Link 1
shock up to 2000g. Design criteria are presented for multi- Pre-
S Band
channel re-configurable PCM telemetry system to monitor on Serial Link 2 PCM Encoder modulation
Transmitter
board flight computer digital data, 3-axis body acceleration, roll
Filter
rates and all other digital system parameters and telemeter it Serial Link 3
to ground receiving station . The complete telemetry system with
Power
g-hardening to survive severe launch acceleration is described Supply
and results of its flight performance are also presented. swn^n^ng
Internal Management
Key words : g-hardened telemetry system , miniaturization, g- eaneries Motlule
hardened PCM Encoder, Telemetry frame, Microstrip antennas.

Enernal Power
Source
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper introduces a development of highly integrated Fig. 1. Telemetry Block Diagram
low cost telemetry system for munitions testing that can
measure analog and digital signals. This telemetry system
was required to acquire and collect telemetry data such as design was verified with a series of thirteen full missile system
vibration, temperature, accelerations, pressure, and so on. flight tests.
The telemetry system synchronizes with digital data sources
II. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
of various on-board subsystems such as Flight control Unit
(FCU), Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), Actuator control

A. PCM Encoder
Unit (ACU) and collects health monitoring and real time The PCM encoder receives analog and digital data from
calculation data. In addition,it withstand Knock Out Engine several sources, organizes the data into a data frame, and
(gas generator) set back acceleration of 700 g, vibration levels sends a randomized serial data stream to the transmitter for
of 0.06 g2/h,_- and capture data at 1 111Samp1es/s. modulation and transmission. The PCM encoder is designed
The telemetry systems consists of four modules, Power for data rates upto 2 Mbps and provides 32 analog channels
source and Switching Module, Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) that are sampled at IMS/s, with 12 bit resolution. There
Encoder, Sensor and signal conditioning module (SCM), are three serial RS-422 interfaces that can process data at
Transmitter and Transmitting Antenna. The system block 115kbps, PCM encoder directly acquires high sampling rate
diagram is shown in figure 1. Field Programmable Gate Array analog channels after signal conditioning. One of the key
technology was incorporated into the PCM Encoder design. features of encoder is synchronization with digital burst data
An innovative modular packaging and interconnect scheme and PCM frame construction.The PCM Encoder is coded
allowed high survivability. This modularity also allows card by VHDL (Hardware Description Language), synthesized by
level repairs and easy system level reconfiguration for alternate Xilinx ISE, and implemented on an ALTERA CycloneT100.
uses. The post flight data processing was also simplified and PCM Encoder block diagram is shown in figure 2.
enhanced by using MATLAB to process captured data. The The PCM Encoder has features as shown in Table I.
final result is a compact, modular telemetry system ruggedized In order to interface with RS422, Three UART (Universal
to survive ultra high setback and impact shock levels. This Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter) is implemented in

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Data Data D . t. Data Data Data Data Data Daa Data Data
word word ward Word Nord word word word word word word
1 2 3 , S 5 1 a It 1`41 N
Fnm Fram
Sync ya. sFID Dara
Minor Fr.me I
Word Word Word Al A2 D,t D,2 D,3 Al D, 1 D,5 D ,1 Word Al A10
2
F- Fram
Minor Frame 2 Sync Sy- SFID

ward word wwd Al A3 DA D,2 D3 At Dt2 D,5 D,2 At A10
1 2
Fram Fram
Mirror Frame 3 wsynrdc s.yn SFID
Al A4
wont were D, l D,2 D,3 Al Dt3 Dt5 113 ... Al A10
1 2
Fram Fr am
sync syn. SFID At A2
Ed w«a word D 1 D,2 D3 Al D,4 D,5 DA .. Al A10
1 2
Fra Fram
sync syn. SFID
ward wwd
Al A3 DA D,2 D,3 At D,3 Dt5 D >M-1 - Al A10
Fnm
sm. SFID
Word word
Al A4 D,1 D,2 D,3 Al Dr4 D,5 ,M ... Al At()
i
2
...................... ..' .................................. - Digital Data Words Analog Data Words - Al, A2. A3.. SFID-Sub Frame Identifier
RS422 Chi - DA, D,2, D3..
RS422 Ch2-DA, D,2, Dt3..
RS422 Ch3 - D,l, D,2, D,3..
Fig. 3. Telemetry Frame
Encoder in receive mode only. After power on reset, the UART

waits for its individual synchronization data words. Upon
receipt of sync words, UART starts storing the corresponding also implemented in FPGA, which outputs BiPh-L or NRZ-L
asynchronous words in RAM bank which resides in the FPGA. coded randomized data stream as per output requirement.
When finished receiving block of data, UART waits until it The parameters sampled at high rate and digital data from
again receives digital frame sync words. Independent sync three sources are packetized to form a telemetry frame which
words can be programmed for each RS 422 interfaces. The is simply a matrix with rows representing minor frames and
serial interface has features as shown in Table It. columns as subframes as shown in Fig 3. . All the channels
The analog and digital channels can be commutated as with required sampled rate and digital data without any con-
normal, super and sub commutation. Encoder uses a state gestion should be accommodated within the given data rate.
machine block that generates addresses according to the PCM To get the best fit for all data the following unique identifiers
format. Additionally, it controls and initiates the A/D conver- for a data word are used
sion. The sampled data read from ADC and stored RS-422 Starting Word No, Word Increment, Starting Frame No. , Frame
serial data, is routed and interlaced in telemetry frame as per increment.
the commutation scheme. PISO (parallel in and Serial Out) is These four constants completely identifies occurrence of a
data word in telemetry frame [1]..By using simple memory
management techniques the vacant data block in minor frame

TABLE I
is filled with data words. Telemetry frame is finalized once the
PCM ENCODER FEATURES
Sampling criteria for all data words are met. The randomized
Analog channels( 0 to 5 V) 32 PCM serial data stream is then filtered through 5-pole Bessel
A/D converter 12 bit(1 MSPS)
pre-modulation filter to limit the transmitted RF bandwidth to
Frame programmability Full (including sub-commutation
and super commutation.) 1.4 times the bit rate for Bi-phL and 0.7 times for NRZ-L as
Baud rate . upto 2Mbps Programmable per IRIG 106-01 [2]. The Bessel filter characteristic is chosen
Digital Configurable Serial Input 3ports (RS422) for its maximally flat delay characteristics over the filter pass-
PCM output (TRIG-106) NRZ-L,M,S
band Figure 5. presents the modulated RF output Spectrum
or BiPh-L,M,S
Operation voltage 5 Volt Single Supply after pre-modulation filter. The circuit is operational on single
power supply.
TABLE 11
SERIAL INTERFACE FEATURES
B. Transmitter and Transmitting Antenna
number of Interfaces 3 twisted shielded RS-422 The transmit configuration is Single Transmitter -single
protocol Asynchronous mode Antenna. In this configuration a single telemetry transmitter,
communication mode burst mode
data quantity 4800,96W 19200, operating on a S Band (2255.5MHz) carrier frequency, is
38400.1 15.000bits/sec connected to a single telemetry antenna using co-axial cable.
Sync Words 4 byte sync data from source to PCM Encoder The telemetry transmitter selected for the requirement was de-
Digital Frame 256 bytes (Programmable) )telemetry data
veloped by M/A-COM,Inc. which is available as unpackaged
including 4 bytes of frame header
from source to PCM Encoder. electronic die. These transmitters are rugged, small, low cost
Other Details I byte consists of start Ibit, data Sbits modules and outputs power level of 500mW.
I and stop I bit
The efficiency of a modern FM telemetry transmitters

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Fig. 6. Microstrip Antenna
Fig. 4. Transmitter housing
Fig. 7. Telemetry Housing
head compartments. The axial and lateral acceleration were
measured by second generation of MEMS accelerometers
(ADXL210, 150,190). The MEMS Accelerometer ADXL210
was used to measure Lateral acceleration of Spin Stabilized
Munition but care was taken to locate it along the spin axis
(so as to avoid large DC off-sets due to centrifugal force).

Fig. 5. RF Spectrum
The launch environment is very severe with axial accelerations
of 1000 g's, these sensor showed cross-axis sensitivity of
generally of the order of 20 percent, approximately 80 percent nearly 10`%, thus are saturated during launch phase It is of
of the power consumed by a transmitter must be dissipated interest to note that the recovery is quick and no occurrence
as heat. This overheating drastically shortens the life of the of Stiction (the nonrelease of MEMS structures subsequent
output power amplifier stages,thus optimum output power level to large over shocks). These MEMS Sensors can be used for
taking sufficient margin should be selected, smaller the size of future munitions where lesser space and low cost will be the
transmitter greater are problems of heat dissipation at higher requirement.
power levels. This transmitter has thermal vias which are Nontraditional navigation sensors (Automotive Grade) were
connected to ground plane for heat dissipation. Our novel used for angular rate measurements in the pitch and Roll axes.
approach was to design a small, lightweight, rugged mounting These sensors (from Murata) are piezoelectric in nature and
platform for the transmitter chip die as shown in figure 4. are available in miniaturized and rugged package.. The PCB
The die was encapsulated tightly using Teflon machined rings Piezotronics 3901 F31IB2000G accelerometer was chosen for
maintaining clearance of components from the housing. A low setback force measurement.This sensor was chosen for several
dropout, linear regulator generating +3.3 V was also mounted key reasons. First, it has high mounted resonance, offering
inside the casing. the best opportunity to collect wide bandwidth data without
Micro strip conformal antenna as shown in figure 6 is the exciting transducer resonance. Second, it is rugged, small
obvious choice when space and weight are prime considera- and light weight.and is proven to survive in extreme shock
tions.The antenna was mounted on the outer wall of warhead environments. Third, since it is piezo-resistive, its frequency
casing. It was made up of four rectangular patch sections response extends to DC.
that are fed through a power divider network. After mounting The transducers utilized in instrumentation system limits
on the metal cylinder, it behaved as cylindrical - rectangular the quality of the data, but equally important is its mounting
antenna and the desired radiation pattern in Pitch plane was and electronic interfacing. The key to survive high 'g' is
achieved. miniaturization and ruggedization thus minimizing mechanical
electrical impact.To ensure High Survivability following key

C. Sensor and Signal Conditioning
factors were taken care of. All interconnections between
The telemetry system is often placed in mother system sensors and signal conditioning were done within the module
where unused space is found such as in ogives and war- itself and the power and conditioned outputs of sensors were

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Telemetry Trial Launch Acceleratlon Vs Time
o.o, o.ox o .aa o.os o.ae m
Time (sec)
Fig. 8. Telemetry Block
Fig. 9. Measured Shock
brought out from module using high density D Connectors.

The circuit boards are stacked using teflon spacers to the walls III. CONCLUSION
of aluminum housing box. All internal wiring is completed and This paper presented design and implementation of g
secured prior to Mounting The circuit boards are coated with a telemetry system for Cannon launched Munitions. Inorder
Polysulfide rubber sealing compound to protect surface mount to collect telemetry data and health monitoring data from
components.The potting compound( GE Bayers Silicon) is other units , the system adopts RS422 serial data link . A
applied ensuring to hold supply capacitors, Mounting nuts, Pcm Encoder , is designed and implemented on Xilinx FPGA
raised components and is left for the curing. The High g coded by VHDL. To qualify the instrumentation system for
accelerometers are mounted in channels cut in aluminum the flight tests, a qualification test was conducted in which
housing and layer of epoxy (Araldite and M-Seal Compound the instrumentation system was tested for 700g in launch axis
60:40) is applied to the underside and top of the accelerometers and subjected to random vibrations tests . The instrumentation
before finally securing with screws. system functioned properly during the test and was, therefore,
accepted for use in the flight test . Thirteen Tube-launched
instrumented flight tests were conducted at ITR Balasore using
D. Power Switching Module the developed system . Telemetry data was obtained from all
tests and provided test data for analytical simulations.
The power Switching module allows the telemetry system
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
to be operated from external power supply thus preserving
the telemetry power source.MOSFET Switching regulators The authors is thankful to all the members of Telemetry
were implemented for switching. The components and sensors Group at ITR,Chandipur for their support, Specially to the
in the design operated from either +5.0 VDC or +9 VDC. Telemetry Group at ARDE for their valuable contribution.
Low dropout, linear regulator regulator were used to provide Special thanks goes to Director ARDE.
these voltage outputs. Rechargeable Lithium-Ion technology
REFERENCES
From Ultralife Inc. was used as primary power source. These
[I] M M Samman and S C Cook Configuration of Flight Test Teleme-
batteries available in laminated packaging are small in size,
tr), Frame Format. International Telemetry Conference Pg 643-
weight are high g resistant. The Battery module is potted using 650,USA,Nov 1995.
the flowable Silicon Rubber (3140 RTV, Dow Corning between [2] Secretariat Range Commanders Council, Telemetry Standards, IRIG
White Sands Missile Range,New Mexico.1993
each individual Li-ion battery cell, this act as a cushion
[31 M M Samman and S C Cook Configuration of Flight Test Teleme-
minimizing shock and vibration thus securing the batteries. tn Frame Format, International Telemetry Conference Pg 643-
Polyethylene Packaging material is inserted between the gaps 650,USA,Nov 1995.
of the aluminium housing. All internal wiring is completed
and secured prior to encapsulation.

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APPLICATION OF WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK IN THE

SELECTIVE AND INTELLIGENT ACTUATION OF
SCATTERED MUNITION
P.K.Saha, B.K.Sahu, P.Dhande, Ms C.P.Mahajan
Armament Research & Development Establishment, Pune-411021
ABSTRACT
In terms of modern day's war perspective, accuracy, lethality and economic use of explosive is playing an
important role. We not only have to kill the target with maximum lethality but also with minimum resources. There is also a
need to counter the enemy's effort to deceive our system's intelligence. For that an intelligent and optimum rearrangement of
munitions and specific sensors is required. This paper presents the design concept of intelligent actuation of scattered
munitions. It is required for effectively handling the countermeasures applied to scattered munition by enemy to blast it
prematurely or erroneously. ECCM feature is to be provided so that enemy cannot deceive the munition by only wirelessly
transmitting the signature of the target for which the munition is made. It is also required to maximize the lethality for the
type of target chosen by actuating the selective munition(s) situated at the optimal distance from the target. If it is a soft
target like a human being, only one munition will suffice, but if it is massive like combat vehicle having thick armor then
plurality of munitions can be selected for blast. This paper presents a practical approach to solve all these problems.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the present paper the configuration considered for scattered munition is in random orientation with varying
distance between successive rows and columns in general. The maximum distance between any two neighborhood
munition is considered to be 50 meters(Maximum). Each of the munitions will know its position with respect to other in
terms of coordinates. One RLG (Ring Laser Gyro) unit attached with each of the munition will dynamically determine the
position of it during the handling. The munitions will keep on communicating with each other about the position of the
target. Each munitions nearer to the target will receive varying Seismic energy and acoustic energy. A crude method is
applied to resolve those signals and determine the velocity, direction and position of the target. Based on the information
taken from the distributed network one local server (one of the munition) will manage the data and will give command for
actuation of the specified munition(s). Each munition will have both client mode and server mode. If one server is destroyed
new server will be elected by the nodes on priority basis.
The power supply will be in semi-passive mode activating only when it is required implementing the power
harvesting circuits inside (to elongate the operating life of the cell). The communication will be a blending of spread
spectrum and frequency hopping (with high processing gain for anti-jamming) based. The modulation scheme will be
GMSK(Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying) based to avoid ISI (Inter Symbol Interference).The networking protocol
followed will be CSMA-CD(Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) based to make the mines to
communicate each other on a single channel.
2. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF MUNITION

The munition will receive the seismic and acoustic data through miniaturized geophones and microphones
respectively, purify the signal by equalization and noise elimination and give it to the microprocessor unit. The RLG
unit will keep on communicating with the processor assembly about the co-ordinate of the system.
The antenna assembly is interfaced with the main microcontroller unit by matching circuits. It will connect the munition
with the rest of the network by a secure RF link. X-band will be used keeping in mind the smaller size of the antenna and
higher data rate. The link will be spread spectrum modulated to avoid any jamming.
The storage battery power supply unit will provide the power to all the active circuit. Power harvesting unit is
attached to enhance the storage battery limit. The power harvesting circuit will harvest power from acoustic, seismic and RF
energy

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.
The shaped charge with copper liner will be in a spherical container which in turn is able to rotate in both azimuth
and elevation direction. It can be pointed in any direction where the maximum lethality is expected. For that both azimuth
and elevation motors has been provided driven by electrical power and controlled by microcontroller. The pre-fragmented
interface consists of n number of steel balls to provide the blast a certain level of lethality.
3. WORKING PRINCIPLE
Network Initialization
Network initialization will be done during the idle time when none of the target is approaching. It may be right after the
installation. The munitions are assumed to be air delivered at the probable areas of enemies and hence will be scattered
randomly with no predefined position. Each system will have RLG (Ring Laser Gyro) system which is initialized
previously will dynamically determine the changing co-ordinate of the system. Before the air delivery the power supply of
each unit will be switched on by some automated process. Each munitions will have its unique factory identification number
engraved in some particular format.

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After being scattered each munitions will flood its coordinate along with its identification number in the network
with the highest power level available to the system. Maximum power level possible is assumed to be 30 dB. The
transmission will maintain unique packet format. Packet will contain some preamble bits (NRZ type), identification
number, its current global co-ordinates Fetched from RLG unit and end bits. The networking protocol will be CSMA-CD
type.
After sharing the co-ordinate information a predefined data burst is generated by all the nodes to maintain
synchronization.
Now each node will transmit different levels of calibrated power (5dB, 10dB, 15dB), FSK modulated by its own
identification number in binary form. The network capturing for transmission of power will be done again by CSMA
protocol.
In this way the different power level will be received by all the nodes, transmitted by all the nodes. The relative
distance will be calculated by all the nodes with the help of general radar equation (Friis equation)in all combinations and
the calculated distance will be tallied with the previously received global co-ordinates.
Based on the received power different groups (each including 5 to 6 munitions) are formed. Nodes with received
power below some threshold level (-50 dBm) will be rejected for that particular group. One munitions can exist in one
group. One munition for server will be selected for each group based on the maximum power reception by all its clients.
Now the network is said to be initialized and ready for operation.
The logical flowchart is shown in Figure 2

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Target Sensing and Actuation: A logical flowchart has been shown here followed by its detailed description.
Array of
Seismic Transmitting Calculation of absolute
sensors Calculation of
angle target position
approximate position
(Algorithm -1) information to
server
Array of
acoustic Determination of Calculation of locus of
sensors
No signature target(Algorithm -3)
Determination of
severity of target in Is the
Confirmation of signature
terms of known signature
known? from all its clients
signature
(Algorithm -4)
Yes
Determination of
Height of the target
from the stored
database.
Selection of nodes from Giving actuation Giving azimuth and

geometrically optimized command to elevation data to the
algorithm particular node(s) required node(s) Is server
involved in
one the
Upgrade the
blast?
database
Yes
No
Flood the
Is delay required message for
(future predicted network re -
position is found
Yes Actuation of
Delay
nodes

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Array of seismic & acoustic sensors

Array of seismic and acoustic sensors are used for sensing the target. The arrays are proposed to be circular with a
fixed radius and each of the sensors are properly indexed and uniquely defined by its exact co-ordinates with reference to
munitions global co-ordinates. Sensors are positioned in a periodic and fixed angular distance with respect to centre of the
circle referred.
Sensor will be passive type and can be anything starting from geophones to miniaturized MEMS sensors. Each
sensor will be properly interfaced with the main processor of the system.
Calculation method for approximate target position (Algorithm-1)

On the approach of the target each sensors will receive some power. The received power will be varying in nature for
each of the sensors in the circular array depending on the relative position of the sensors (because all the waves undergoes
some attenuation with the distance traveled).The phase information is also considered. For each node a mathematical model
has been prepared to approximately calculate the angle of approach of the target and its approximate position in any
particular time frame. It is described as below.
Let us suppose O be the centre of any such circular array and T is the position of the target at any particular time
frame. Now at this time instant the electrical parameters (amplitude and phase) are measured for the seismic wave.
Each of the measured result is compared. In this case maximum and minimum amplitude value of the seismic wave received
will be measured at point D and A respectively (because it is in the direction of the maximum dimension, diameter, of the
circle). The difference of the value will give us the rate of attenuation of the waves. The line joining the points A and D will
give the direction of the target.
This difference in value of amplitude will keep on decreasing for the points like B and C (for all other chords in that
direction). With the attenuation factor known (at the position of the munition, generally it varies slightly from position to
position) the algorithm will search for all the amplitude values to find the combination like B & C.
Now the line joining BC and AD will intersect at point T. So T is the expected position of the target. In such a way all
intersecting points will be found out and finally one intersecting point will be chosen by the method of average. All the
erroneous noisy data leading to incorrect points and direction will be eliminated by the algorithm. Detailed mathematics is
given below;

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Direction (angle) finding

Suppose any two adjacent sensors subtends an angle á at the centre of the circle and let point 'D' is Kd-th sensor of the
array. So direction of the target will be è=Kdá
Approximate position finding

In the figure the triangles TDC and TBA is similar. So from the property of similar triangle we can say that
Now AD, DC, BC and AB are all can be expressed in terms of radius(r) of the circle and the angle of the points A,B,C
and D(integer multiples of á) which are all known.
So from this the length TD and TC can easily be calculated which directly defines the position of the target.
Expressions for AD, DC, BC and AB is given below
AD=2r
The final expressions of TD and TC are given below in terms of DC, AB, BC and AD.
Now knowing the coordinates of all the sensors and the angle è, the co-ordinate of the point T (the target)
can be found out.

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Calculation method for absolute target position (Algorithm-2)

Now all these angle information which is calculated at each munition's end is transmitted to the server of the group. Now
each server will calculate the absolute position of the target as described under.
Each of the nodes will have its own global co-ordinates and angle information from previous processing. Suppose the t-th
node has global co-ordinates (Xt,Yt) and angle ãt with global reference. So equation of the straight line can be obtained as
(X- Xt)=tan(ãt)(Y- Yt).
In this way in the server straight lines for all its clients are calculated as shown in the figure-4 for the nodes
P,Q,R,S,T.
Ideally all these straight lines should be meeting at a single point. But in practical cases due to some measurement
error or noise or data corruption during transmission and reception these meeting points will be scattered somewhat. In the
figure these are i, j, m, n, o. It is obvious that smaller the area of the polygon 'ijmno' greater is the accuracy of the system.
The decision whether to actuate the system or not depends on the area of the polygon. If it is too large engulfing all the mines
it will postpone the decision of actuation to avoid a certain misfire. In this process the server will also consider the
approximate calculated co-ordinates of individual munitions.
If the area of the polygon is below a certain tolerance value the final co-ordinate of the target is determined by
simply averaging the co-ordinate points of the polygon.

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Calculation of approximate locus of the target (Algorithm-3)

It is the responsibility of the server to note down the co-ordinate points of the target with respect to changing time. So in
this way an approximate function of ordinates with change of time is obtained. Upto third order terms of Taylor series is
considered to convert the assembly of discreet co-ordinate points to a continuous curve.
Finally the functions are obtained in the form X(t) and Y(t).
Now needless to say a first derivative of the function will give the velocity and the second derivative will produce the
acceleration/deceleration.
Signature identification (Algorithm-4)

With varying time frame all the nodes will keep on sensing the signature of the target and keep on tallying the existing
signatures. A block diagram is shown to elaborate this.
The server will try to compare the retrieved signature with the existing ones with all combination of gains (some
discreet value between 0 to 1) as shown in the figure. If a match is found the server will try to determine the severity and
height of the target from its existing database. Accordingly it will calculate the number of munitions required to kill the
target. Say for human only one munition is sufficient. For normal vehicle some multiple numbers. For combat vehicle even
more. Exact figure will depend on the amount of the charge the individual munition is having.
If no match is found then it will try to determine range between which existing signature(s) does the current one fall
and act according to that range of signature(s) using a fuzzy logic based technique.

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Selection of nodes for actuation (Algorithm-5)

The server in some particular group will try to select the nodes in such a way that the total distance between the
target and the selected nodes will be optimized. It calculates the distance from co-ordinate reference of each node as
shown in the figure like D's. Find its sum and try to optimize the expression
F= ÓDi
By selecting or rejecting the nodes. For the scarcity of suitable nodes it tries the next best possible combination.
Final actuation & network re-initialization

With the proper determination of the locus of the target the future position of it can be predicted by extrapolating
the existing data. Once the position, time of actuation and munitions for blast is selected the command is sent to the
particular nodes with all the information of the target. This information is;
1) The current location of target.
2) The future predicted location for the blast (Should be very near to the current location).
3) The target information like its severity, height, and massiveness uniquely determined from the signature.
From these each node will calculate the elevation and azimuth motor data and feed it to its steering mechanism,
which will accurately align the copper liner towards the target and wait for the proper time to commence. Sufficient latency
period will be provided to complete these jobs. If any server is involved in the blast it will send a command to all the nodes
for network re-initialization before destroying itself. In this way the complete cycle repeats.
4. CONCLUSION
The aforesaid concept will be very useful because it will intelligently actuate the munition matching the human
thoughts. To initiate the explosive at the right time, correct point and in the proper direction it takes the help of its inherent
intelligence implemented through different algorithms with sharpness and precision. The distributive processing feature
enables it to process numerous sensed data and bring out its essence with a speed which a single processor can't do. It can be
deployed organically and is autonomous in nature. In that way there is a significant reduction of the time required to lay the
munitions. No preplanning and human intervention is required. It assures minimum logistic burden and hence reduces

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complexity to a great extent. It poses a robust obstacle to disrupt enemy target and can be used both for offensive and
defensive action. In that sense it becomes a suitable candidate for an effective future weapon..
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful to Director ARDE Surendra Kumar and Associate Director A.M.Datar for their valuable
guidance and permission to present the paper.
REFERENCES
1. Wireless Underground Sensor Network : www.sciencedirect.com
2. Wireless Communication Technologies By Narayan Mandayan (Rutgers University)
3. RF & Microwave Handbook By John Michael Golio
5. RF interferometer/Doppler target location system. US patent No. 4509052
6. Method of improving seismic resolution US patent No. 741491
7. Seismic-acoustic low flying aircraft detector. US patent No. 4630246.

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REMOTE TIME DATA SETTING FOR MUNITIONS
P Dhande, BK Sahu,PK Saha,Ms. CP Mahajan

ABSTRACT
This paper describes the design concept for setting the time data (in hours/days) remotely in munitions. The wireless distance is
up to 100 cm. The systems (Transreceiver modules) for setting the time data in remote munitions utilize the concept of
Magneto-induction coupling method. It consists of miniaturized time retention transreceivers (Integrated Circuit, fitted inside
the munitions) including an antenna using a local time setter system (Hand-held transreceiver, in the hand of user).
KEYWORDS: Handheld Time Setter Transreceiver, Miniaturized Time Retention Transreceiver
1. INTRODUCTION
In the earlier days the time data (in hours/days) had been set in the sub-munitions at the time of manufacturing itself
and have no flexibility to change it into the field by the users. This technique forced the users to maintain different inventories
of sub-munitions for different days setting. Remote time data setting concept will not only help the user to eliminate the need to
maintain the inventories of munitions for different days but at the same time also give flexibility to set the time (according to
the war scenario) in individual munitions before its deployment.
2. SELECTION OF OPERATING FREQUENCY

MAGNETO-INDUCTION coupling method uses various frequency bands to communicate with the time setter.
Figure 1 shows the most commonly used bands. The main frequencies are 125 kHz LF, 13.56 MHz HF, UHF (860-
930MHz), and 2.45 Ghz.
Different frequency bands are needed for various applications in rugged environments. For instance, metal and lossy
material effects as well as water and human body absorption are more detrimental to system performance at UHF and higher
frequencies than the lower frequencies. At 125 KHz frequency there are so many AM broadcast signal present in the
environment that will triggered our system even if no actual power is transmitted. Higher data rate is also achieved with higher
frequencies and anti-collision speed is limited at lower frequencies as well. Read range is also higher at higher frequencies (~3-
5 m in free space) than at the lower frequencies (~30 cm) That's why there is a trade-off between higher data rate, higher anti-
collision speed, and higher read range at UHF and 2.45 GHz compared to the better performance in rugged environments in the
presence of metals, lossy materials, and humans at the lower 125 kHz and 13.56 MHz bands.
Based on above study it is proposed that operating frequency of 13.56 MHz (HF band) is very much suitable for our
application. The following are some of the benefits and limitations of High Frequency (HF) Remote Time Setting System:

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3. HIGH FREQUENCY (HF) REMOTE TIME SETTING SYSTEM:
Benefits
1. HF Penetrates most materials well including water and body tissue.
2. HF Time Retention Transreceivers can easily be embedded into non-metallic items.
3. HF does not affected by electrical noise that may be generated by electric motors in a surrounding environment.
4. Higher data transfer rate, the higher the frequency, and the faster the communication.
5. HF Time Setter Transreceiver can communicate with multiple Time Retention Transreceivers simultaneously in short
time.
6. HF Time Retention Transreceivers have larger memory capacity.
Limitations
1. Not as effective as LF in the presence of metal and water.
2. Read range is less than two meters.
4. WORKING PRINCIPLE (MAGNETO-INDUCTION COUPLING):

HF Band (13.56 MHz) generally utilize the concept of Magneto-induction coupling method, in that the data is transferred
remotely through magnetic field (Fig 2), which required a simple coil antenna as compared to the modulated backscatter
coupling method in which the signal is transferred remotely through electric field, which required larger antenna at HF band.
Magneto-induction is a phenomenon through which a change in the magnetic field of a source such as a time setter
transreceiver creates a voltage level in a remote circuit such as a time retention transreceiver. A parallel circuit used to tune the
time retention transreceivers operating frequency to that of the time setter transreceiver is formed by a capacitor in parallel to
the time retention transreceiver antenna coil, which behaves as an inductor. At 13.56 MHz frequency, the receiver's antenna
interchanges energy at a particular rate, called resonant frequency, which depends on several design parameters such as size of
the coil, number of turns or distance between the capacitance plates, among others. At this time high currents are generated in
the time setter transreceiver antenna coil by the method known as resonance step-up. Resonance step-up occurs when the
frequency of the transmitted signal becomes similar to the resonant frequency of the circuit. At this point a portion of the energy
stored as magnetic form in the inductor is transferred into electrical form in the capacitor. Before achieving a stable state, a
temporary adjustment in the energy levels at the time retention transreceiver inductor and capacitor occurs; this whole process
explains the before mentioned resonance step-up effect. After reaching the stable state at resonant frequency, the received
energy is “stored” in the time retention transreceiver by transfer back and forth from the capacitance to the inductance, in
accordance with the required field strengths for the operation of the remote time retention transreceiver. A constant current is
required for IC's operations; this can be achieved by using a rectifier, a built-in component which transforms the alternating
energy arriving at the time retention transreceiver into a constant current. As a general principle it is possible to say that
inductively-coupled systems are based upon a transformer-type coupling between the primary coil in the time setter
transreceiver and the secondary coil in the time retention transreceiver.

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5. OPERATING MECHANISM OF SYSTEM

The working schemes described as:
1. Handheld Transreceiver (as shown in Fig.3) transmits RF energy (signal) towards the munitions consisting of time
retention transreceiver (as shown in Fig.3).
2. This RF signal power up the munitions transreceiver. After powering up, munition transreceivers generates unique
Identification Number (data) and transmit towards handheld transreceiver.
3. Handheld transreceiver captures ID data and displayed it on LCD display for the identification of the munitions.
4. Handheld transreceiver then transmit time data (in hours/days) into individual munition transreceivers. As soon as
the time data is set into the munition transreceivers, these transreceivers send feedback signal towards handheld
transreceivers for user conformation.
6. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS

In complete remote time setting system, design and development of antenna coil and tuned it to 13.56MHz frequency
is the critical issue. The antenna coil has been designed, developed and tested at ARDE as shown in Fig.4. It will consist of 30
turns of copper wire wrapped on antenna former (Fig.4) having a diameter of 75mm.
Experiment Conducted in Laboratory:

Dimension of coils:
Radius = 3.75cm, No. of turns = 30, radius of copper wire = 0.0225cm
Coil height = 1cm, conductance of copper (ócu) = 5.813õ107 Ù-1 m-1
Capacitance at Tx side = 22pF
Fig.4 Antenna coil
Capacitance at Rx side = 12pF (Copper conductor wrapped on former)
Operating frequency = 13.56MHz

RF measurement and test equipment used Rx coil
Tx coil
RF signal generator: To provide power to transmitter antenna coil (23 dBm)
RF spectrum analyzer: To observe the received power spectrum of receiver
antenna coil 100 cm
Oscilloscope: To measure voltage and current on transmitter and receiver
antenna coil.
Fig.5 Transmitter and Receiver coils

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Observation table for received power Vs distance between Tx & Rx

1) Received power when both coils are in same plane (Fig.5),
Transmitted power = 16 dBm (39.81mW)

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2) Received power when coils are in same plane and are moved according to
Fig.7 Transmitted power = 16dBm (39.81 mW)
Distance between Received power (in

transmitter & receiver dBm)
(in cm)
0 -20.19
5 -19.70
10 -19.97
15 -20.45
20 -22.10
25 -23.60
30 -23.70
35 -24.21
40 -25.95
45 -27.30
50 -27.95
Table 2

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3) Received power when plane of coils are perpendicular to each other and receiver coil is moved according to Fig.9
Transmitted power = 16 dBm (39.81mW)

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4) Received power when both coils are in same plane and receiver coil is covered with aluminum sheet of thickness 0.19mm.
Transmitted power = 16dBm (39.81mW)
By comparing Table 1 and Table 4, it is clear that if time retention transreceiver is covered with Aluminium sheet, received
power reduced by nearly 7dBm.

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7. CONCLUSION
The above said concept for setting the time data remotely in munitions is very efficient which will not only help the
user to eliminate the need to maintain the inventories of munitions for different days but at the same time also give flexibility to
set the time (according to the war scenario) in individual munitions before it deployment.
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful to Director and Associate Directors of ARDE for their valuable guidance and permission to
present the paper.
REFERENCES
1. RFID Technical Tutorial and Threat Modeling Version 1.0 by Neeraj Chaudhry, M.S., Dale R. Thompson, P.E., Ph.D.,
Craig W. Thompson, Ph.D.
2. Design and characterization of RFID Modules in multilayer configurations by Sabri Serkan Basat.
3. A Radio-oriented Introduction to Radio Frequency Identification by By Daniel M. Dobkin, Enigmatics and Titus
Wandinger, WJ Communications
4. Radio Frequency Identification based Manufacturing and Distribution: An Exploratory Overview by Arunava
Banerjee and Ashok Kumar Jha, UG Student, Assistant Professor, Department of Production Engineering and
Management
National Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur.
5. http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/1338/1/129.
6. K. Finkenzeller, RFID Handbook: Fundamentals and Applications in Contactless Smart Cards and Identification, 2
ed. New York: Wiley, 2003.
7. S. Chen and V. Thomas, “Optimization of inductive RFID technology,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Electronics and the
Environment, 2001, pp. 8287.

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STUDY OF FREQUENCY SELECTION FOR COMMUNICATION WITH

UNDERGROUND MUNITIONS
Ms Savita, Ms Prachi Patel, Pramod Dhande, P K Saha, Ms C P Mahajan
ABSTRACT
The new trend for next generation of underground munitions deals with the wireless operation of these systems. This
provides flexibility of operation to the user (i.e. man in loop) , safety during recovery and passing of our own troops and
optimization of laying the static field considering the system constraints, for establishment of any remote wireless
communication link, selection of frequency is the very first and foremost requirement.
To make wireless underground communication possible, the Electromagnetic (EM) waves need to penetrate to the
buried munitions. Depth of penetration of EM wave depends on the dielectric properties of the medium. According to field
requirement, munitions can be buried in marshy land, sandy land, rocky or normal soil, each having different dielectric
properties and hence different depth of penetration. Depth of penetration of EM wave also depends on the frequency and
polarization of EM wave. Since attenuation increases with frequency, high frequency radio waves do not penetrate far
through soils and rocks, while at low frequency, electromagnetic fields no longer travel as waves but diffuse, which is the
realm of inductive EM or eddy current measurements. Hence frequency should be optimized. It is also important to note that
the dielectric may not be isotropic and may contain a mixture of mineral particles. In general, the larger the difference in
dielectric constant of soil layers, the larger the reflection. One can increase exploration depth by increasing the transmitter
power. If transmitted signals are of high power, then they may interfere with nearby communication equipments present in the
field.
This paper includes theoretical study of penetration of electromagnetic waves, the absorption losses in soil and the
reflection losses at the interface of the air and soil. Based on this study, the paper also describes the parameters to be
considered for selection of frequency for underground application along with the constraints such as size, penetration depth,
signal attenuation, dielectric constant of various soils, etc.
1. INTRODUCTION
The concept of remote activation/deactivation supports the activation and deactivation of buried munitions
remotely from a safe distance (1km or more). This requires a wireless communication link from air to underground munition.
For any wireless communication system, selection of frequency is main criteria. In this system, selection of the frequency is
very crucial because medium is changing from air to ground (1 km in air, and upto 15 cm in ground), several factors such as
free space path loss, reflection at air-ground interface, depth of penetration in soil, absorption losses in soil(which depends on
soil properties) affects the communication link. All these parameters should be considered during selection of frequency.
In this paper we discuss how these parameters affect the communication link and based on this we optimize the frequency.
2. SELECTION OF FREQUENCY
For remote activation and deactivation of buried munitions selection of frequency depends on several factors. These are:
a) Free space path loss
b) Depth of penetration in soil
c) Absorption loss in soil
d) Vegetation scattering loss
e) Size of antenna and availability of components
a) Free space path loss: Electromagnetic waves (EM) suffer from path loss due to spherical wave front spreading
while traveling in free space. Path loss is given by the formula (4ðd/ë)2 ,where 'ë' is the wavelength of the EM wave and 'd' is
the distance traveled in free space. Path loss is directly proportional to square of distance and square of frequency; hence path
loss increases with frequency and distance. If we go for high frequency path loss is more and more power is required to
overcome these losses. But transmitter power cannot be increased above a certain level in order to prevent interference from
other operating systems. Repeaters can be used to increase distance.

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b) Depth of penetration in soil: Depth of penetration (ä) of EM wave in any medium is given by
ä = 1/v (ðfµó)
Depth of penetration in any medium is inversely proportional to square root of frequency. For high frequencies depth of
penetration is less and for low frequencies depth of penetration is high. So we have to select operating frequency that will
travel at least 15 cm into the ground. Fig.1 shows graph of penetration depth Vs frequencies for different medium. From graph
it is clear that for a depth of around 15 cm under the earth for the humid soil (worst case) the operating frequency comes out to
be around 1 Ghz.
c) Absorption losses in soil: Since munitions are buried into the ground, EM wave should have sufficient power to
overcome the absorption losses in soil to reach up to munitions. Attenuation due to soil absorption is the major concern in
underground wireless communication. Predicting path losses for an underground channel is a challenge due to the
inhomogeneous nature of ground in which munitions is to be buried.
Characteristic of soil can be described by its complex permittivity given by:
ç = å - j 60*óë
ç = Complex permittivity
å = Permittivity of soil
ó = Conductivity of soil
ë = Wavelength
In case of earth surface, å and ó entirely depend on the degree of humidity. Presence of humidity in the ground
produces solutions of salts which can considerably increase conductivity at low frequencies.
From the above equation it can be seen that for any given soil there is a transition frequency for which real and imaginary part
of ç are equal. If the frequency is lower than transition frequency then the ground behaves as a conductor for all practical
purposes. If the frequency is greater than the transition frequency then the ground behaves as the dielectric for all practical
purposes.
For any non-maritime medium (soil) the transition frequency lies between 0.6MHz and 6MHz.
Several factors such as composition of soil, including its water content, particle size, density and temperature
directly affects the attenuation of EM waves passing through the soil.

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Now we discuss the effects of these parameters on signal attenuation.
Water content: Soil water content is the most significant parameter when predicting signal loss through a given type of
soil. Any increase in the water content of a soil will make the channel significantly more lossy. At a frequency of 1 GHz as
water content rises from dry to 13%, volumetric loss/meter increases about 137dB. The effect of rise in water content is
highly dependent on type of soil, for example sandy soil show less attenuation as water content increases than do clay soil.
Attenuation caused by soil water content is also dependent on frequency being used. Lower frequencies experience less
attenuation at a given water content than higher frequencies.
Particle size: Soils are classified by the diameter of their particles and are generally described as some variation of sand,
silt or clay. Sandy soil produce the least amount of loss and clay soils the most. In addition different soil particle types
respond differently to changes in water content.
Density: Increasing soil density increases path loss. The denser a soil, the greater the signal attenuation.
Temperature: Increasing the temperature of soil; changes its dielectric properties and will increase signal attenuation.
Additionally changes in temperature will affect the dielectric properties of any water present in the soil.
d) Signal attenuation in Vegetation: When EM wave reaches the ground it may pass through vegetation, it suffers
additional losses due to vegetation. This happens due to scattering of energy out of the radio path. These losses depend on the
species and density of vegetation. Figure 2 shows the attenuation due to vegetation over the frequency range of 30 MHz to 30
GHz for vertically and horizontally polarized wave. Below about 1 GHz, there is a tendency for vertically polarized signals
to experience higher attenuation than horizontally polarized signal.

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e) Size of antenna and availability of components: Size of antenna depends on frequency of electromagnetic wave. For
efficient radiation and reception of EM waves, antenna size should be comparable to the wavelength of EM wave. Due to
size constraint we cannot go for low frequency. At high frequencies size of antenna is small as compared to low frequencies.
Also at high frequencies components are easily available.
3. UNDERGROUND LINK BUDGET

In air to underground wireless communication, to calculate received power at buried munitions link budget equation
is as follows: Pr = Pt +Gt +Gr 20 log (4ðd/ë) -Lm
Pr represents signal power at the receiver in dBm, Gt represents the gain of the transmitting antenna in dB, Gr
represents gain of receiving antenna in dB, 20 log(4ðd/ë) represents free space path loss due to spherical wave fronts
spreading , and Lm represents signal attenuation in dB due to absorption by soil and water.
During calculation of received power, polarization of signal arrived at receiver (munitions) also matters. When EM
waves penetrate/enter the ground, polarization of EM wave may change. Change in Polarization of EM wave depends on the
properties of medium in which wave is entering and angle of incidence. If polarization of EM wave changes during
communication, then receiving antenna can not extract all of the incoming power. So during design of system this factor
should be considered.
4. CONCLUSION
Selection of optimized frequency will only make the concept for remote activation and deactivation of buried
munitions efficient and successful.
From the above discussion it is clear that at high frequencies free space path loss is more and depth of penetration is
less, and at low frequencies size of antenna is large. So there is a tradeoff between losses and size of antenna while selecting
frequency. Considering all the factors discussed above, frequency in L-band (~1GHz) is best suited for this application.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are thankful to Director and Associate Directors of ARDE for their valuable guidance and permission to
present the paper.
REFERENCES
1. RF & Microwave Handbook By John Michael Golio
2. Wireless Underground Sensor Network : www.sciencedirect.com
3. Wireless Communication Technologies By Narayan Mandayan (Rutgers University)
4. Elements of electromagnetic By Matthew N. O. Sadiku
5. Electromagnetic Waves By R K Shevgaonkar

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HYBRID COMPOSITE TECHNOLOGY FOR GUN BARREL
KD Deodhar
ABSTRACT
This paper outlines the development efforts of state–of–the–art Hybrid Composite Technology for Gun Barrel
Application for the first time in the country. To meet the Infantry requirements for Light Weight Guns especially for high
altitude mountain warfare, ARDE has concentrated the efforts on reducing the mass of the gun. Composites with carbon fibres
as reinforcement and epoxy resins as the matrix materials offer very good mechanical and physical properties like very high
strength – to – mass ratio as well as very high tensile modulus-to-mass ratio. The advantage of composite materials is that the
properties can be tailor-made, and when reinforced fibres are oriented in the hoop direction, thickness could be optimized for
lower mass.
An attempt has been made to implement the technology to realize the 84 mm Light Weight Launcher (LWL) shoulder
fired anti-tank infantry weapon. 84 mm LWL has undergone a series of User and troop trials at high altitude and extreme cold
climatic as well as at desert & hot climatic conditions. Recently, the technology has been transferred to OFB for bulk
production.
1. INTRODUCTION
There was a requirement for an anti-tank infantry gun system from army, which is light in weight, man portable,
capable of shoulder firing, safe, reliable and robust to be deployed in varied terrains and operated in all weather conditions. The
then COAS asked us to take up the project on priority to make light weight rocket launcher. Feasibility study was carried out
and a project titled “Design and development of 84 mm Light Weight Launcher” was undertaken. It was successfully
completed within a record time of thirty months and the same technology has been handed over to OFB for indigenous bulk
production.
Fig.1 : 84 mm Light Weight Launcher (LWL)
Last few decades, the use of composite materials in the industry has been growing exponentially, mainly because of
the reasons that the material properties can be tailor made as per demand of the product. Variety of combinations is available
for the composites. A vast spectrum of materials & manufacturing processes is available for selection giving flexibility for
wide choice.
The composite technology is being used mostly in aerospace industries, Automobile industries, in a big way. Defence
industry is also not behind and right from structures, armour plates, missile casings, Naval boats etc. are made of composite
materials.

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2. PROJECT WORK
84 mm Light Weight Launcher barrel has been designed & developed with state-of-the-art hybrid composite
technology for the first time in the country. This has resulted in drastic mass reduction, without compromise on the parameters
like stress & strain due to pressure experienced by the weapon. The hybrid composite barrel technology has been developed by
using carbon fibers as reinforcing agent and epoxy resins are as binder matrix material. The carbon composites exhibit
superior mechanical properties such as high specific strength and high specific modulus i.e. Strength-to-weight ratio as well
as elastic modulus-to-weight ratio is very high. This property gives the component required strength/stiffness still very low in
weight. That is how the mass of the weapon, 84 mm LWL is below 11 kg was achieved, still it will withstand the firing stresses
generated due to pressure to the order of 100 MPa. The carbon composite has been built up over a thin riffled steel tube by
“hoop over wound” technique. The high strength, high modulus carbon fibers impregnated through epoxy resin system have
been wound by filament winding technique and cured in controlled atmosphere by autoclave technique.
After in-situ winding of composite barrel on a mandrel, it has been put for curing cycle in an autoclave. The temperatures, rate
of rise of temperature and cooling, air pressure, vacuum etc. are under control to culminate the properties as desired. It will
provide good structural integrity, robustness etc.
Why hybrid composite?

To induce certain properties required, the composite barrel has been designed with hybrid reinforcement of carbon
and glass in appropriate proportion. The composite layers will be laid over a thin riffled steel liner in various discrete layers of
carbon and 'E' glass alternately. The carbon will provide fatigue resistance, high tensile modulus and partial conductivity for
heat dissipation. The E-glass reinforcement helps to have high resistance to crack growth rate, high strain carrying capacity,
high tensile strength and higher percentage elongation.
The matrix material used is epoxy resin which is possible to be selected from wide variety available, since large
number of starting materials, curing agents, and modifiers are available.
Absence of volatile matters during cure, low shrinkage during cure, excellent resistance to chemicals and solvents
and excellent adhesion to a wide variety of fibers, fillers & other substrates are the advantages of the epoxy resins for selecting
as a matrix material. Carbon composites provide high performance, strength having low density, fatigue resistance, wear
resistance, corrosion resistance, and high temperature resistance having unique damping characteristics. Tensile strength of
carbon fibers increases with temperature.
Fig. 2 : Construction of Composite Barrel

3. PROCESS
Out of various manufacturing processes, filament winding technology has been selected as we are utilizing the continuous
fibers as reinforcement, which has been oriented in the maximum stress direction to get optimum wall thickness. The thin steel
liner has been used to provide all the internal features of the barrel like chamber and bore with a set of helical grooves to impart
spin to the projectile for stability in fight with out changing the internal ballistics. Other advantages are:
i) protection from direct contact of very high pressure & high temperature propellant gases, so that charring of
composite material is avoided.
ii) Maintain mirror finish of the chamber & bore.
iii) Reusability of the launcher.
An important aspect of carbon composite with steel liner is the interface. Special coupling agent has been employed to
avoid de-bonding, so that the composite barrel can be deployed for use in negative temperatures say -40°C at Himalayan
ranges as well as high temperature say +50°C like at Pokharan ranges.

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4. CURE CYCLE
The steel liner, mounted on a suitable mandrel, wound on a filament winding machine and the barrel in wet condition kept
rotating with low speed to allow it for semi-cure and complete polymerization of matrix material, say about 20-30 minutes, is
then put into an autoclave. Then mandrel, liner wound with barrel will be put into a vacuum bag and placed into a chamber of an
auto clave where the hydrostatic air pressure is applied over the vacuum bag. The outlet of vacuum bag is attached to vacuum
pump. The temperature inside the chamber also can be monitored including rate of heating and cooling.
Generally the barrel has been kept for better curing at constant pressure and temperature for specific time to get full
polymerization and cross-linking called as thermosetting to induce the properties. If some air traps, voids or volatile gases
come out of chemical reaction, they will be taken away by vacuum pump to give flawless, uniform, sound and strong structure.
5. QUALITY CHECKS & QUALITY AUDIT

As a normal practice, right from raw material, quality checks were carried out, however specific Non-destructive and
destructive tests were included into quality assurance plan. Since the weapon is a shoulder-fired weapon, the safety of Jawan is
of paramount importance, hence, ultra sonic C-Scan test, acoustic emission test (AET) has been introduced during
manufacture itself to ensure defect-free product. Additionally environmental tests as extreme hot and cold conditions have
been included in QAP. Destructive tests like tensile strength test by split disk method, hydrostatic pressure test, fibre content
test etc. have been thrusted to ensure safety. Test coupons for these destructive tests will be manufactured along with each
barrel simultaneously to have same raw materials, same process, same proportions and same layer morphology.
Finally each and every composite barrel will be assembled to a full weapon and subjected for dynamic proof firing test at
20 % higher than service pressure to reveal out unknown defects if any.
Fig. 3 : Set-up for C-Scan

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Fig. 4 : Firing at Leh
6. CONCLUSION
State-of-the-art hybrid composite barrel technology has been established first time in the country. The technology has
been validated by various users, troops at varied terrains including high altitude viz. Tangatse, Leh and Pokharan desert by
subjecting these composite barrels to dynamic firing trials and recommended for induction. Compatibility with advanced
ammunition has also been validated. This technology has been transferred to Ordnance Factory Board for indigenous bulk
production at Gun and Shell Factory, Kolkata.
The technological spin-off is being explored for higher caliber guns and mortars for the futuristic weapon systems and
automated salvo firing platform for naval application.

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DEVELOPMENT TESTING, SYSTEM INTEGRATION AND

EVALUATION OF INDIGENOUS SURFACE TO
AIR WEAPON SYSTEM
Sachin Sood, G Narasimha Rao, G Chandramouli, Dr RR Panyam
Defence Research & Development Laboratory, Hyderabad
ABSTRACT
Indigenously developed medium range surface to air (SAM) missile system Akash, has completed
all development trials, user trials and being inducted in to the Indian Armed Forces. The weapon system
consists of number of surveillance radars, guidance radars, control centers , missile launchers, supersonic
missile Akash and many other ground support equipments. Each weapon system element is a system of
systems consisting up to sixty multi disciplinary subsystems. Since, first time such complex and varied
multi discipline weapon system is developed in India, the type of system integration and testing
requirements were to be evolved abinitio, in the absence of precedence and published literature.
Two critical technologies ie Integral rocket ramjet technology and multi function phased array technology
were developed as a part of the programme. A close monitoring was required for stage wise development,
integration, testing, clearance and revision of design parameters/test setups. Frequent interactions with
developing agencies, users, manufacturing agencies were required to evolve the performance and test
methodologies. For the first time a Defence R&D project is executed in parallel with Technology
development.
The typical integration and testing tasks involve interfacing Radars, Command Control Centres,
Launchers and Missiles. The typical functions include establishing secured communication, Muti-target
tracking, fusion of target track data from various radars, display of a single integrated air picture, generate
fire control commands, automated missile launch, missile acquisition, missile tracking, guidance and kill
assessment. These functions are automated for ease of combat decisions.
A number of onboard and ground elements are required to work in tandem for the multiple missile launch,
control and guidance. The methods used, setups built and evaluation techniques evolved etc are an
experience by themselves. The DRDO teams and production teams could learn many techniques during
the course of development.
As a part of user trials, the weapon system elements were subjected to mobility and performance trials in
the desert terrains. The missile system performance is evaluated by flight testing against fast moving
targets as per user specified mission profiles. In these trials, all the equipments including support
equipment have been transported to user specified locations and tested for deployment and performance.
This paper discusses how the technologies were developed and how they were integrated, tested and
evaluated for Indigenous SAM system before being subjected to field tests and user trials.

S4
Test & Evaluation
Guidance & Control
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ROBUST ROLL AUTOPILOT DESIGN
Jaywant P Kolhe, Johni Bhasha Shaik,Geeta A Bokil, SE Talole

Defence Institute of Advanced Technology, Pune -411 025
ABSTRACT
In this paper a robust roll autopilot design based on Extended State Observer (ESO) approach is proposed. The effect of the
disturbances acting on the system as well as the states of the transformed model are estimated by ESO and are used for design
and augmentation of a state feedback controller. Closed loop stability of the autopilot is established. Simulation results are
presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of the ESO in estimation of the uncertainties and states and in meeting the
objectives of the design
1. INTRODUCTION
Many cartesian controlled missiles are required to be roll position stabilised in their flight as the rolling motion results into
several undesirable effects [1]. Roll motion causes cross-coupling of pitch and yaw channels which can lead to instability apart
from causing incorrect execution of guidance commands. Command guided missile will need to carry resolvers on board if
allowed to roll freely. High roll rate may lead to loss of target during terminal phase. Also it can be shown that high roll rate
coupled with servo lag may cause instability of the guidance loop. The missile may roll in flight due to various undesirable
rolling moments/disturbances acting on the missile such as the moments arising due to aerodynamic imbalances on the body of
the missile, rigging errors and external disturbances etc. Whenever such moments act, the missile will tend to roll. In such
circumstances, it becomes necessary to stabilise the missile at desired roll position in order to overcome the undesired effects
resulting from the roll motion. To achieve this, the missile is equipped with roll autopilot that controls the roll attitude of the
missile at desired roll angle thereby arresting unwanted rolling motion of the missile.
The roll autopilot can be designed by employing various approaches. In classical approach, compensators are designed by
considering conservative stability margins [1]. Such designs may offer inferior performance due to reduced closed loop
bandwidth. On the other hand, the modern control approaches require exact mathematical model. Further, many of such
approaches need some information on characteristics (such as bounds) of the disturbance acting on the system. Controllers
designed using simplified models may become unstable when un-modelled dynamics are considered as shown in Ref. [2].
One effective strategy to address these issues is to design a controller based on disturbance estimation. In this approach, the
effect of the disturbances acting on the system is estimated on line and the same is cancelled by augmenting a controller
designed for nominal system. The disturbance may represent effect of all uncertainties and inaccuracies arising in practical
control system such as the effect of un-modelled dynamics, parametric variations, and external disturbances acting on the
system. Many approaches such as the Uncertainty and Disturbance Estimation (UDE) [3], Unknown Input Observer (UIO)
[4], Disturbance Observer (DO) [5], exist in literature that can be used for estimation of the disturbance acting on the system.
Some other approaches such as the Time Delay Control [6] are also used for the estimation of the effect of the uncertainties.
These approaches usually offer estimation of the disturbances only acting on the system. Frequently one requires the state
vector also to be available for implementation of controller necessitating a design for separate state observer. The issue of
estimation of uncertainty as well disturbance in an integrated manner is addressed by state and perturbation observers such
as the Extended State Observer [7].
In this paper, a robust autopilot for roll position stabilisation of a cruciform (Cartesian controlled) missile is designed using
the Extended State Observer approach. As the mathematical model considering the real disturbance does not satisfy matching
condition, state coordinate transformation is performed in such a manner that an equivalent disturbance acts in the same
channel as that of control signal. The effect of the disturbances acting on the system as well as the states of the transformed
model are estimated by ESO and are used for design and augmentation of a state feedback controller. Closed loop stability for
the system under the proposed controller is established. Simulations are carried out by considering significant external
disturbance acting on system to demonstrate the effectiveness of the approach and the results are presented. The remaining
paper is organised as follows: In section 2 the description of the problem and design of the state feedback controller is
presented. In section 3 the ESO theory is briefly reviewed and applied for state and uncertainty estimation of the present
problem. Simulation results using ESO based controller are presented in section 4 and section 5 concludes this work.

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2. MISSILE AUTOPILOT PROBLEM

This work concerns with the design of a roll position stabilisation of a cruciform missile. The aim of the autopilot is to
stabilize the roll position in spite of the external disturbances acting on the missile. It is expected that the design offers desired
robustness, stability and performance over its operational flight envelope.
A Mathematical Model
The roll dynamics of a cruciform, tail controlled missile, in the presence of disturbances is given by [1]
f&
= p
p&
=+lp p lx
x+d
&
x =
-kx
+ku
y =
f [1]
where f (rad) is the roll angle, p (rad/s) is the roll rate, are the non-dimensional aerodynamic derivatives, d is the
lumped disturbance acting on the system, x (rad) is the aileron deflection, and u is the input, i.e., commanded aileron
deflection. The servo is modelled by a first order dynamics with bandwidth of k
From Eq. (1) it can be noted that the disturbance and control input are acting in different channels and thus the matching
condition is not satisfied. For this purpose state coordinate transformation is performed obtained as follows. To this end,
differentiating the output of Eq. (1) till the input appears explicitly, one gets
&
&
&
f
=(l p - &
&
k )f
+ &
(l p k )f( klx
++ d&
)u ( kd +) [2]
Now denoting equivalent disturbance d e as de = d&

kd +Eq. (2) can be re-written as
&
&
&
f=(l p - &
&
k )f
+ &
( l p k )f
+( klx
)u +
de
[3]
Defining transformed state variables as x1 =

f &
, x2 =
f &
&
, x3 =
fEq.(3) can be written in state space model as
x&x2
1=
x&x3
2=
x& (lpk)x2 (lp -

3 =+ k)x3 +
(klx
)u +
de [4]
Being linear dynamics, conventional linear design methodologies can be employed for the system of Eq. (4) for design of the
controller such that the missile roll attitude is regulated as desired with satisfactory transients and steady state accuracy. To
achieve the roll position stabilisation, i.e., to ensure that the roll angle, f
,remains always zero in the presence of disturbances,
the following pole placement controller is proposed
1 [5]
u= l pkx2 -
(- (l p -
k ) x3 -
k1x1 -
k2 x2 -
k3 x3 -
de )
klx

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Obviously by choosing the values of the gains appropriately, one can obtain stability and roll position stabilisation. The design
is robust as it caters for the disturbances as well as for the model uncertainties. However implementation of the controller will
need availability of the states as well estimation of the equivalent disturbances. The same has been achieved by using the ESO
as presented in the next section.
3. EXTENDED STATE OBSERVER

As stated earlier, the ESO is an observer which can estimate the effect of the uncertainties along with the states of the
system enabling disturbance rejection or compensation. The ESO regards all factors affecting the plant, including the
nonlinearities, uncertainties and the external disturbances as the total uncertainty to be observed and in that sense, it can be
viewed as an unknown input observer or disturbance observer. Since the observer estimates the uncertainty as an extended
state of the original system, it is designated as Extended State Observer. Its merit is that it is relatively independent of the
mathematical model of the plant, performs better and is simpler to implement. The robustness is inherent in its structure as will
be obvious in next section. A comparison study of performances and characteristics [8] of three advanced state observers
namely High Gain Observer, ESO and sliding Mode Observer is presented and it is shown that over all the ESO is much
superior in dealing with uncertainties, disturbances and sensor noise. Several diverse applications of ESO based control
strategies have appeared in literature such as the control of induction motor drive [9] and aircraft attitude control [10]. In this
section a brief review of this approach and its application to state and uncertainty estimation for the present problem are
presented.
3.1 Concept of ESO

Consider an nth order, single input-single output dynamical system described by
(n) ( n-
1)
[6]
a ( y , y&
y= ,K
, y )+
bu +
w
where, a(.) represents the dynamics of the plant (linear or nonlinear), w(t) is the unknown disturbance, u is the input and y
measured output. Let a (.) = a and b =
a0 (.) +
D b0 +
Db where a0 (.) and b0 are the best available estimates of a and b respectively
and D a and D b are their associated uncertainties. Defining the uncertainty to be determined as d @ Da+ D bu and
x
designating it as an extended state, n+ 1, the dynamics of Eq. (6) can be written as
x& x2
1 =
x& x3
2 =
M
x& xn+
n = a0 +
1 + b0 u
x& h
1 =
n+ [7]
y =
x1
Where h is the rate of change of uncertainty, i.e. h = d& and it is assumed to be unknown but bounded function. By making
d as a state, however, it is now possible to estimate it by using a state estimator. To this end, consider a linear ESO of the form,
x&
ˆ1 =
xˆ2 +
1.e
b
x&
2
ˆ =3xˆ +b.e
2
M
x&
n
ˆ =
xˆ +
n+
1b.e +
n a +
bu 0 0
x&
ˆn +
1 =
b1.e
n+
[8]
where e = y- yˆ = x1 - xˆ1 and xˆn +1 is an estimate of uncertainty. The quantities b i are the observer gains. If one chooses
the bi properly, the estimated state variables xî are expected to converge to the respective states of the system xi i.e. xî ®
xi ;
1,2,L
i= ,n +
1

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3.2. Observer Error Dynamics

Having designed the ESO, it is necessary to prove the stability of observer error dynamics. For linear dynamics,a (.) in (8) is
linear in its arguments, i.e., a (.) =
-an x1 - 1 x2 L
an - - a1 xn Since the dynamics of the present problem is linear one, we continue
to represent a (.) as linear function of states and following this, the dynamics of the extended order plant is re-written as,
x& Ae xe +
e = Beu +
Bh h
y=
Cxe [9]
T
where [
xe =L 1]
x1 , x2 , , xn +and
é
0 1 0 ¼ 0ù
ê ú
0
ê 0 1 ¼ 0ú
ê Oú
Ae =
ê ú
-ano - a( n-1)o ¼
ê - a1o 1 ú
ê
0 0 ¼ 0 1ú
ë û
T T
[
Be = 0 b0 0 ]
0 ¼ h [
; B =¼
0 0 0 1]
; C =
e [ 0]
10 0 ¼ [10]
Here one can note that the additional term involving h is present in the state equation. Now assuming linear gains, we get a
linear form for the observer (8) as,
x&
ê =
Ae xê +
Beu +
Le
y=Cxê [11]
Subtracting the state equation of Eq. (11) from the state equation of Eq. (9), the observer error dynamics can be obtained as
e& (A-
0 = B¢
LC)e0 +h [12]
where e0 @xˆ and

x-
T
[
L=
b1 b
2 ¼
b
n b1]
n+
[13]
Since the pair ( A, C ) is observable, one can compute the observer gain, L and so the ESO gains, b i such that the observer
error dynamics is stable and has desired transient behaviour. As the eigen-values of the observer error dynamics given by
Eq. (12) are placed at the desired locations, it can be stated that under the assumption of boundedness of h bounded input-
bounded output stability for the linear system of Eq. (12) is assured. A special case arises when h = 0 i.e., when the rate of
change of uncertainty, d is zero. In this circumstance, the errors will go to zero asymptotically, i.e. lim e0 ( t ) =
0 The similar
t®¥
result can be expected if the rate of change of the uncertainty is reasonably small.
3.3. Eso Based Controller

Now consider the transformed roll dynamics given by Eq. (4) and the controller of Eq. (5). As stated earlier, to implement the
control law, one requires the value of uncertainty, d e apart from the states and for this purpose an ESO can be designed. To this
end following the procedure outlined in earlier section, an ESO of the form of Eq. (8) with n = 3 is designed for the dynamics
of Eq. (4) by taking the total uncertainty as an extended state, x̂4 Having the estimated states, the controller (5) takes the
following form 1
u= (- l pkxˆ2 - k ) xˆ3 -
(l p - k1xˆ1 -k2 xˆ2 -
k3xˆ3 -xˆ4 ) [14]
klx

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where x̂4 is an estimate of the uncertainty d e The controller (14) is designed as the ESO based controller and is implementable.
4. SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS

Simulations are carried out for the autopilot, thus designed, under nominal condition (without disturbances) and also
by considering disturbances. The plant parameters of l p andlx and servo bandwidth k, are taken as -38.8542, -14062.5
3
and
t
100, respectively. The controller gains k ' s required in Eq. (14) are obtained by placing the poles at æ ç1 + s
ö
÷ with a time
i è 3 ø 4
0.05 The ESO linear gains, b i ' s are obtained by placing the poles at ç
constant of t æt ö
= 1+
è4 ø
s÷with a time constant of
T
t = 0.01 The initial conditions of the plant, are taken as x (0) = é10 0
0 0 ù while the initial conditions for the observer are
T ë û
taken as xˆ e (0) = [0 0 0 0] Two models of disturbances are used to study the effectiveness of the approach. First the
disturbance is assumed constant with d = 1000 N - m and secondly it is assumed time-varying as d = m The
1000sin(t ) N -
corresponding equivalent disturbance for second case works out to be d e = 100000 sin(t ) + 1000 cos(t ) With these data
and disturbance models, simulations are carried out and the results are presented. Simulation results for d = 1000 N - m are
presented in Fig. 1 and from Fig. 1(a) it can be noted that while roll angle goes to 0 for ESO based controller, it does not go for
the nominal one (i.e. controller without uncertainty compensation). The corresponding control input histories are given in
Fig. 1(b). In Fig. 1(c) , the plot of the actual and estimated disturbance are presented and it can be noted that that disturbance is
estimated quite accurately. Next simulation results for time-varying disturbance d = 1000sin( t ) N - m are given in Fig. (2)
and one can note that the ESO based controller offers satisfactory performance. Note that in this case d& is not equal to zero.
Thus in the presence of the disturbance, while the nominal control is unable to keep the roll angle ( f ) to zero, the ESO based
control accomplishes its objective quite satisfactorily.
4
x 10
30 6 12
ESO based
aileron deflection (deg)
disturbance and its estimate

5 nominal 10
20 ESO based
8 actual
nominal 4 estimated
(deg)
f
10 6
3
4
0
2
2
-10 1 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
time(s) time(s) time(s)
[a] [b] [c]
Fig. 1: Performance of Nominal and ESO based controller with d =

1000 N -
m
4
25 4 x 10
10
disturbance and its estimate
ESO based ESO based actual

aileron deflection (deg)
20 nominal nominal 8 estimated

3
15 6
(deg)
f
2
10 4
1
5 2
0 0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
time(s) time(s) time(s)
[a] [b] [c]
Fig. 2: Performance of Nominal and ESO based controller with d=

1000sin( t ) N - m

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5. CONCLUSION
In this work an ESO based controller is proposed for design of robust roll autopilot. The effect of the disturbance
acting on the system is estimated and a controller designed for nominal system is augmented by using the estimated
disturbance to compensate the same. Simulation results show that the ESO based controller offers satisfactory performance in
presence of large constant as well as time-varying disturbances.
6. REFERENCES
[1] Garnell, P., “Guided Weapon Control Systems”, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England, 2nd Edition, 1980.
[2] Nesline, F. W., and Zarchan, P., “Why Modern Controllers Can Go Unstable in Practice”, Journal of
Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, Vol. 7, No.4, Jul-Aug 1984 pp. 495-500.
[3] Zhong, Q.C., and Rees, D., “Control of Uncertain LTI Systems Based on an Uncertainty and Disturbance
Estimator,” Transactions of the ASME, Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control, Vol. 126,
No. 4, Dec 2004, pp. 905–910.
[4] Takahashi, R.H., Peres, P.L.D., “Unknown Input Observers for Uncertain Systems: A Unifying Approach
and Enhancements”, Proceedings of the 35th Conference on Decision and Control, Vol. 14, No. 12, Dec
1996, pp. 1483–1488.
[5] Chen, W.H., “Nonlinear Disturbance Observer-Enhanced Dynamic Inversion Control of Missile”, Journal
of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, Vol. 26, No. 1, Jan-Feb 2003, pp.161-166.
[6] Youcef-Toumi, K., and Ito, O., “A Time Delay Controller for Systems with Unknown Dynamics”,
Transactions of the ASME, Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control, Vol. 112, No. 1, 1990,
pp., 133–142.
[7] Gao, Z., “Scaling and Bandwidth-Parametrization based Controller tuning”, Proc. of the American Control
Conference, Jun 2003, pp. 4989-4996.
[8] Wang, W., and Gao, Z., “A Comparison Study of Advanced State Observer Design Techniques”, Proc. of the
American Control Conference, Jun 2003, pp. 4754-4759.
[9] Feng, G., Huang, L., and Zhu, D., “A Nonlinear Auto-Disturbance Rejection Controller for Induction
Motor”, IEEE IECON, Vol. 3, 1998, pp. 1509-1514.
[10] Huang, Y., Xu, K., Han, J., and Lam, J., “Flight Control Design Using Extended State Observer and Non-
smooth Feedback”, Proc. of the 40th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, Dec 2001, pp.223-228.

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MISSILE AUTOPILOT DESIGN USING DYNAMIC INVERSION

AND FUZZY LOGIC CONTROL
Mallikarjuna Bommu, Venkata Rama Subbaiah B., B. Srinivas Kalyan and

C. Arjun Rao and S. E. Talole
Defence Institute of Advanced Technology, Girinagar, Pune 411 025
ABSTRACT
In this paper, a dynamic inversion based controller is employed for missile autopilot design. As the controller lacks
robustness, fuzzy logic compensator is introduced to robustify the controller. Simulation results are presented to show the
effective of the controller in presence of large uncertainties in system parameters. Further the performance of the proposed
controller is compared with some of the existing formulations and it is shown that the proposed controller offers superior
performance.
1. INTRODUCTION
Missile autopilots are traditionally designed using the classical linear control approaches. In general, the missile
dynamics is linearized around certain finite number of operating points in the flight envelope and then controllers are designed
by employing well-known linear control strategies. For each linearization, a linear time invariant controller is obtained, which
in the local region of the fixed operating point delivers the desired performance characteristics. Gain scheduling, is then
employed to deliver the performance in the complete flight envelope of the missile. To this end, the linear control techniques
have dominated missile autopilot design over the past several decades[1-2]. Lately, to cater for large uncertainties, various
robust control techniques such as H-infinity [3] have been used to design robust autopilots.
Although design of autopilots by linearizing the missile dynamics is one of the most prominent approaches, the
controller thus designed may offer unsatisfactory performance especially when the dynamics is highly nonlinear and
undergoes large motion. In such circumstance, use of various nonlinear approaches such as the Quantitative Feedback Theory,
Variable Structure Control, Adaptive Control, Predictive Control, Fuzzy Logic Control, the Feedback Linearization and
Control strategies based on Neural Networks have been proposed for designing of the missile autopilots.
In Ref. [4], a nonlinear autopilot design based on Dynamic Inversion (DI) is proposed. The design is based on two
time scale separation of the missile dynamics wherein the pitch dynamics is the fast dynamics whereas the angle of attack
dynamics is the slower one. Since the performance of dynamic inversion technique is not guaranteed to be satisfactory in
presence of uncertainties, a PI controller is employed in outer loop for robustification and the authors have shown that the
performance of the controller is superior in comparison with the pure DI based controller.
In present work a Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) based compensator is introduced in place of the PI compensator to
obtain robustification and to achieve better performance in presence of the large uncertainties in aerodynamic parameters. The
effectiveness of the proposed controller is demonstrated by comparing its performance with the existing controllers such as the
dynamic inversion (fast as well as slow) with PI control and fast dynamic inversion with PI control and the results are
presented.
The paper is organized as follows. In section 2, a nonlinear missile model is described. The dynamic inversion based
controllers, i.e., dynamic inversion based, dynamic inversion with PI and fast dynamic inversion with PI are presented in
section 3. The formulation of fast dynamic inversion with Fuzzy Logic compensator is the subject of section 4 and simulation
results giving comparison of the proposed controller along with the rest are given in section 5. Finally section 6 concludes this
work.
2. MISSILE DYNAMICS
As is well-known, the equations that represent the dynamics of missiles are highly nonlinear. The nonlinearity is more
pronounced in the case missile encountering high angle of attacks. A representative pitch plane dynamics for a tail controlled
missile as taken from [1] is given by

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where the various parameters and their values are:
á(t) : angle of attack(deg),

q(t) : pitch rate(deg/s)
Po = 46627.30069 newton/mt2(static pressure at 20,000 ft)
S = 0.040877338 mt2 (surface area)
m = 204.022722 kg (mass)
vs = 315.89472 mt/sec (speed of sound at 20,000ft)
d = 0.2286 mt(diameter)
M = 3(Mach number)
Iy =247.4367 kg- mt2 (pitch moment of inertia)
Ká = Ká = , Kq =
The normal force and pitch moment aerodynamic coefficients are given by
M
(t),M ) = sgn(á)[a n |á(t)| 3 +b n |á(t)| 2 +c n (2 -
C n ( á(t),d )|á(t)|]+ d n d(t)
3
d p 8M
(t),M ) = sgn(á)[a m |á(t)| 3 +b m |á(t)| 2 +c m (-7 +
(3) C m ( á(t),d )|á(t)|]+ d m d
(t) (4)
d c
3
a n = 19.374 rad -3 , a m = 40.44 rad -3 ; b n = -31.0225 rad -2 , b m = -64.014 rad -2
c n = -9.7174 rad -1 , c m = 2.9221 rad -1 ; d n = -1.9481 rad -1 , d m = -11.803 rad -1 .
These approximations are valid for á≤20 deg.
The tail fin actuator model is represented by 2nd order transfer function as
2
d
p wn
= 2 2
d
c s +wn s +
2V wn
where p and c are the actual and commanded tail fin deflections (deg) respectively and damping ratio, V
= 0 .7 and natural
frequency of wn = 20Hz The input is commanded control surface deflection, i.e., u=c. The limits on control surface
deflection are c ≤±30 deg and its rate, ≤300deg/sec. The objective of the controller in missile autopilot design is to force
the missile to track the commanded acceleration profile.
3. DYNAMIC INVERSION
The Feedback Linearization [5] is one of the most widely studied techniques for nonlinear control system design. In
this approach, a given nonlinear system is transformed into an equivalent linear system through nonlinear state coordinate
transformation and static state feedback resulting in a linear input-state relation and is designated as state-space linearization,
input-state linearization or simply feedback linearization. When applied to output control, only nonlinear state feedback is
involved and the technique is referred to as input-output linearization, also known as Dynamic Inversion (DI) in aerospace

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literature. One can find large number of papers wherein the DI approach is used for design of controller for missile autopilot.
For example an approximate input-output linearization based design for missile control by taking angle of attack as output is
presented in Ref. [6]. However the DI based controller suffers from robustness as the design assumes perfect knowledge of the
plant dynamics. As this requirement is rarely satisfied in practical systems, it becomes necessary to robustify the DI
controllers. Applications of the robustified DI controllers for missile autopilot design have also been reported in literature. For
example, an angle of attack tracking controller for missile based on input output linearization is presented in Ref. [7]. To
provide necessary robustness the controller is augmented by adding a term which is based on the assumed bound of
uncertainty.
In Ref. [8] the input-output feedback linearization approach is employed wherein the output is taken as a linear
combination of angle of attack and pitch rate. Further the controller is robustified by using a disturbance observer. In what
follows is development of three controllers based on the DI theory. Subsequently a Fuzzy Logic Control based compensator is
presented for robustification of the DI controller.
Slow And Fast Dynamic Inversion

As the dynamics associated with the angle of attack, á, operate on a slower time-scale than that of the body rate dynamics,
time scale separation can be used in design of the pitch autopilot. Following this line, a two time-scale separation is used for
autopilot design in Ref. [4] wherein the pitch dynamics (inner loop dynamics) is the fast subsystem and the angle of attack
(outer loop) is the slow subsystem. Dynamic Inversion is then employed separately to these loops separately resulting into
Fast Dynamic Inversion (FDI) and Slow Dynamic Inversion (SDI) controllers. A functional block diagram of this scheme is
shown in Fig. 1. The inner loop inversion uses the control surface deflections to control the fast state q. This loop calculates
control surface deflection commands from the rate commands d, given by the slow inversion to achieve the desired dynamic
response. The desired dynamics given by FDI are
The slow inversion replaces the actual ác dynamics with the desired dynamics
where wq and wa are the design parameters. The values taken in this study for wq and wa are 3Hz and 1Hz respectively.
The inversion control laws are given by

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Dynamic Inversion With Pi Control

As the DI controllers lack robustness, a PI compensator is employed for achieving robustness for the autopilot. In this
control scheme, the dynamic inversion is used along with PI compensator as the outer loop of dynamic inversion. The PI gains,
Kp and Ki are calculated to satisfy closed loop bandwidth of 1Hz and an overshoot of 5%. The block diagram of nonlinear
dynamic inversion with PI is shown in the Fig. 2.
Fast Dynamic Inversion With Pi Control

In this control scheme, fast dynamic inversion and PI control law is used and the controller structure is as shown in Fig. 3.
4. FUZZY LOGIC CONTROL

Since the introduction of the concept of fuzzy reasoning, its use in engineering disciplines has been widely studied.
The main attraction undoubtedly lies in the unique characteristics of fuzzy logic systems. They are capable of handling
complex, nonlinear, and sometimes mathematically intangible dynamic systems using simple solutions. Very often, fuzzy
systems may provide better performance than conventional non fuzzy approaches, with less development cost [9-11].
It is well known that fuzzy systems have the ability to make use of knowledge expressed in the form of linguistic rules
without completely resorting to the precise plant models. In control applications, fuzzy logic approaches using if-then rules
can solve complex and practical problems. In recent years, researchers have also attempted to apply it on missile guidance
designs [12-13].
However, obtaining an optimal set of fuzzy membership functions and rules is not an easy task. It requires time,
experience, and skills of the operator for the tedious fuzzy tuning exercise. In present work the fuzzy logic is employed for
robustifying the DI controller. The functional block diagram using FLC as compensator is shown in Fig. 4. The procedure
followed in this design is discussed in the subsequent sections.

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Selecting input/output control variables:

In this work, fuzzy controller is used instead of the PI controller to improve performance while achieveing
robustness. The input variables are
Error = error between alpha command and actual alpha = ac - aa (t )
ac= Alpha command, aa (t ) = actual angle of attack
CError = change in error of angle of attack = Error (t)-Error (t-1)
Output variable: The output of fuzzy controller is the command pitch rate qc
Defining Universe of Discourse (UOD):

The generalized universe of discourse [-1 1] is selected for both input and output variables with proper scaling Variable UOD
Error [-1 1]; CError [1 -1]; Pitch rate [-1 1]
Scaling (I/O):
With control the maximum Error and CError are [-40 40] with attacking angle (á) varies from +20 to -20 So the
scaling factor for input variables is 1/40 Scaling factor for output pitch rate 5
Selecting membership functions and fuzzy sets:

The triangular and trapezoidal memberships are widely used because of their simplicity in representing in
programming and ease of tuning. The triangular membership can simply be represented with three parameters a, b, c and
mathematically it is represented with linear straight line equation. a, b base of triangle, c centre of triangle. The member ships
are shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6. And Linguistic are given in Table.1 and Table.2.
Table.1. Error, Change in Error

Linguistic table
Table.2. Pitch rate linguistic table

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Fuzzification, Defuzzification
In fuzzification, And method min, Or method Max, Implication Min, Aggregation Max is used while In
Defuzzification the centroid method is employed. The rule table with 25 rules is shown in Table. 3. The inner view of fuzzy
logic controller is shown in Fig. 7.
Table.3. Fuzzy logic rule table
5. SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS

Simulations are carried out for the three controllers namely (1) PI+DI controller (2) PI+FDI controller and (3)
Fuzzy+FDI controller. First simulations are carried out without any uncertainty in the system parameters and the results are
presented in Figs. 8-11. Next simulations are carried out by considering -20% uncertainties in the aerodynamic parameters and
the results are given Figs. 12-15. Lastly simulations are carried out by considering +20% uncertainties in the aerodynamic
parameters and the results are given Figs. 16 -19. The results consist of the time histories of angle of attack, control surface
deflection, pitch rate command and pitch rate response.
A ttackin g ang le p lot w ith o ut u n certainity D elta w ith o u t u n certain ity

30 150
A lp ha-c DI
20 P I+ D I P I+ D I
100
P I+ FD I P I+ F D I
10 fuz z y + fdi
d e lt a ( d e g )
alp h a(d eg )
s t eady erro r= FU Z ZY +F D I FU ZZY +FD I

3. 75% 50
ts = 0.41s ec
0
0
-10
-5 0
-20
-30 -10 0
-40 -15 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
p it c h r a t e c o m m a n d ( d e g / s e c )
tim e(s) tim e(sec )

Fig.8. á (deg) vs time Fig.9. (deg) vs time
p it c h r a t e ( d e g /s e c )
p itc h ra te c o m m a n d w ith o u t u n c e rta in ity p itc h ra te w ith o u t u n c e rta in ity

150
1000
DI DI
P I+ D I 100 P I+ D I
500 P I+ F D I P I+ F D I
Fuzzy+FD I 50 Fuzzy+FD I
0 0
-5 0
-5 0 0
-1 0 0
-1 0 0 0
-1 5 0
-1 5 0 0 -2 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
tim e (s e c ) tim e (s e c )
Fig.10. qc (deg/sec) vs time Fig.11. q (deg/sec) vs time

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A lp h a w ith -20 % u n c ertain ity d e lta w ith -2 0 % u n c e rta in ity

40 200
a t t a c k in g a n g le ( d e g )
com m anded DI
D I+ P I 150 P I+ D I
F D I+ P I
P I+ F D I
Fuzzy+FD I
20
d e lt a ( d e g )
F u z z y+ F D I 100
50
0 0
-5 0
-2 0 -1 0 0
-1 5 0
-4 0 -2 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
tim e (se c ) tim e (s e c )
Fig.12. á (deg) vs time Fig.13. (deg) vs time
p itc h ra t e c o m m a n d ( d e g /s e c )
p i tc h ra t e c o m m a n d w i t h -2 0 % u n c e rt a i n i ty p itc h ra te w ith -2 0 % u n c e rta in ity
P it c h r a t e ( d e g /s e c )
1000
DI 150
DI
P I+ D I P I+ D I
500
100 P I+ F D I
P I+ F D I
Fuzzy+FD I
F u z z y+ F D I 50
0
0
-5 0 0 -5 0
-1 0 0
-1 0 0 0
-1 5 0
-1 5 0 0 -2 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
ti m e ( s e c ) tim e (s e c )
Fig.14. qc (deg/sec) vs time Fig.15. q (deg/sec) vs time
A lp h a w ith + 2 0 % u n ce rta in ity d e lta w ith + 2 0 % u n c e rta in ity

30 150
a t t a c k in g a n g le ( d e g )
com m anded DI
20
D I+ P I P I+ D I
P I+ F D I
d e lt a ( d e g )
F D I+ P I 100
F u z z y+ F D I F uzzy+FD I
10
0
50
-1 0 0
-2 0
-5 0
-3 0
-4 0 -1 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
t im e ( s e c ) tim e (s e c )
Fig. 16. á(deg) vs time(sec) Fig. 17. (deg) vs time(sec)
p i t c h ra t e c o m m a n d w i t h + 2 0 % u n c e r t a i n i t y p itc h ra te w ith + 2 0 % u n ce rta in ity

p it c h r a t e c o m m a n d
p it c h r a t e ( d e g /s e c )
1000 150
DI DI
P I+D I 100 P I+ D I
500 P I+F D I P I+ F D I
F u zzy +F D I 50 F u zzy+F D I
0 0
-5 0 0 -5 0
-1 0 0
-1 0 0 0
-1 5 0
-1 5 0 0 -2 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
tim e(se c) tim e (s e c )
Fig. 18. qc (deg/sec) vs time(sec) Fig. 19. Q (deg/sec) vs time(sec)

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Performance Comparison
From simulations, comparison is carried out of all the controllers and the results are summarized as shown in Table 4..
From the table it can be observed that the Fuzzy+DI controller offers the least settling time for all the cases while giving
satisfactory steady state accuracy as well as peak overshoot.
Case I: Performance without uncertainty
(Alpha=20, step time=2, Kp=6.85, Ki=21.64)
Control Steady Settling Peak
Scheme state time(ts) overshoot
error(ess) % ( normalized) (Mp) %
DI 30 1.88 -
PI+DI 0 6.77 40
PI+DI 0 7.3 -
Fuzzy+DI 2 1 -
Case II: Performance with + 20 % uncertainty

Alpha=20, step time=2, Kp=6.85, Ki=21.64
error(ess)% (normalized) (Mp)%
DI 33.75 0.8247 -
PI+DI 0 4.06 42
PI+DI 0 3.97 -
Fuzzy+DI 4 1 -
Case III: Performance with -20 % uncertainty
Alpha=20, step time=2, Kp=6.85, Ki=21.64

error(ess)% (normalized) (Mp)%
DI 27 1.875 -
PI+DI 0 8.75 45
PI+DI 0 6.25 -
Fuzzy+DI 6 1 -
Table 4. : performance comparison of controllers
6. CONCLUSION
A Fuzzy Logic based compensator is proposed to robustify the DI controller for missile autopilot design. The
performance of the proposed controller is compared with some existing controllers appeared in literature and it is shown that
the proposed controller offers performance benefit in comparison with the considered controllers.

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REFERENCES
[1] Garnell, P., Guided Weapon Control Systems, Pergamon press, Oxford, England, 1980
[2] Horton, M. P., Autopilots for Tactical Missiles: An Overview, Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, Journal of Systems and
Control Engineering, Vol. 209, 1995, pp. 127-139.
[3] Nichols, R. A., Reichert, R. T., and Rugh, W. J., Gain Scheduling for H-Infinity Controllers: A Flight Control
Example, IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology, Vol. 1, No. 2, June 1993, pp. 69-78.
[4] Cho, S., Kim, S.-H., and Choe, D.-G., Robust Missile Autopilot Design using Dynamic Inversion and PI Control,
Proc. of the International Control Conference (ICC2006), Glasgow, Scotland, UK, 30 Aug-01 Sep 2006.
[5] Slotine, J.-J. E. and Li, W., Applied Nonlinear Control, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1991.
[6] Devaud, E., Siguerdidjane, H., and Font, S., Some Control Strategies for a High Angle of Attack Missile
Autopilot, Control Engineering Practice, Vol. 8, 2000, pp. 885-892.
[7] Hull, R. A., Schumacher, D., and Qu, Z., Design and Evaluation of Robust Nonlinear Missile Autopilots from a
Performance Perspective, Proc. of the American Control Conference, Seattle, Washington, June 1995, pp.
189–193.
[8] Chen, W.-H., Nonlinear Disturbance Observer-Enhanced Dynamic Inversion Control of Missilee, Journal of
Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, Vol. 26, No. 1, Jan-Feb 2003, pp. 161--166.
[9] Cox, E., Fuzzy Fundamentals, IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 29, No.10, 1992, pp.58-61
[10] Albertos,P.,Martinez, M.,Navarro, J. L., and Morant, F., Fuzzy Controllers Design: A Methodology, IEEE
Conference on Control Applications, 1993, pp. 69-75
[11] Chia-Nan Ko, Tsong-Li Lee, Yu-Yi Fu, Chia-Ju Wu, Simultaneous Auto-Tuning of Membership Functions and
Fuzzy Control Rules Using Genetic Algorithms, IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and
Cybernetics, 8-11 Oct. 2006, pp.1102-1107
[12] Mishra, S. K., Sarma, I. G., and Swamy, K. N., Performance Evaluation of Two Fuzzy-Logic-Based Homing
Guidance Schemes Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics , Vol. 17, No. 6, 1994, pp. 1389--1391.
[13] Shieh, C. S., Nonlinear Rule Based Controller for Missile Terminal Guidance, IEE Proc. on Control Theory
Applications, Vol. 150, No. 1, 2003, pp. 45--48.

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HIGH SPEED IMAGING AND DOPPLER RADAR BASED

MEASUREMENTS FOR PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
OF ARMAMENTS
N Nayak and T. K.Biswal

Proof and Experimental Establishment,
Chandipur , Balasore – 756 025
ABSTRACT
High speed imaging system covering three major types of instruments like 16mm film based camera (NAC-HD),
still video recorder ( SVRII) and high speed video camera ( Speed Cam Visario) have been used to record different
performance parameters like sabot separation of fin stabilized armor piercing discarding sabot (FSAPDS) ammunition, spin
of rockets and sequence of functioning of high explosive squash head (HESH) shell when impacted on armor . The system
configuration and the analysis of image output to derive ballistic and performance parameters have been presented. In view of
the fast events and short duration of exposure, appropriate choice of imaging system has been crucial to record the desired
parameter. Trajectory of long range projectile and rockets, functioning of fuzes and ejection of child stores in case of
remotely delivered minelets (RDMS) and cargo ammunition have been studied by using tracking doppler radar . Different
plot formats viz velocity-time, velocity –distance, acceleration-distance, range-azimuth, horizontal range-vertcal
components have been used to derive desired information. Ideal plot format to study specific parameters like all burnt point
(ABP) of rockets, time and height of fuze functioning and malfunctioning in trajectory has been identified. Combination of
imaging and radar based measurement to support failure investigation by recording fast event of fuze premature has been
presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
Ballistics and performance parameters obtained from dynamic firing evaluation of armaments are gainfully utilized
by the designer , producer and quality control personnel for design validation and optimization during the developmental
stage and also for assessing its performance for user acceptance1. Range instrumentation plays a vital role in recording the
design and performance parameters involving internal , external and terminal ballistics of any ammunition. Parameters like
pressure , muzzle velocity, range , deviation , height of fuse functioning , integrity of projectiles on exit from muzzle are some
of the routine dynamic evaluation requirements for conventional Armaments2. With enhanced emphasis on large caliber, long
range, pin pointed accuracy and force multiplier ammunition , there has been a greater emphasis on recording total
trajectory, separation of child store in case of cargo ammunition , base bleed functioning and spin of rockets among others1.
Over and above, the recording of additional parameters to understand fast and transient phenomena associated with dynamic
firings evaluation and related failures/malfunctioning provides additional advantage to designers and evaluating agencies3.
The recording of ballistic and performance parameters are crucial but its analysis to deduce the desired parameter
vis-a-vis correlation with the actual end results is more challenging. Ideal range layout coupled with selection of
appropriate instrumentation is therefore key to the successful performance evaluation of any Armament store.
A wide variety of parameters are required to be determined for assessing performance of a broad spectrum of
conventional Armaments and therefore, no single set up of instrument or its category can record all the desired parameters .
Moreover all ballistic phenomena occur at high speeds and great number of complex interaction occur. The major range
instrumentation essential for dynamic test and evaluation can therefore be broadly grouped into three categories viz. optical,
radar and sensor based measurements. High speed imaging and doppler radar based measurements covering select class of
ammunition which provide information on fast and transient phenomena along with the governing principle are presented in
this paper. Importance of combinations of both optical and radar based measurement for typical case for detection of
malfunctioning has also been highlighted.
2. HIGH SPEED IMAGING

High speed photography is used directly in all branches of ballistics. Few of the techniques which have been well
established and put to practice in the author's laboratory are given in Table1. High speed photography plays a vital role for

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evaluation of ammunitions parameters like projectile stability, integrity , impact studies , armor defeat mechanism , sabot
discarding, spin measurement and defect analysis . To study these phenomena it is necessary to use specialized measuring
equipment
Table1: Parameters measured by imaging technique
Type of Armament Parameters
Sabotted projectile Sabot separation

(APDS/FSAPDS) Penetrator status & velocity
Rockets Spin
Fin opening
Thrust & acceleration
Dip angle
Base Bleed projectile Ignition of base bleed mortor
Ordnance Recoil &Run out
Obturation
HESH Scabbing effect
Delay
Pyro technique Ammunition Smoke emission, Ignition time
spread of Red Phosphorous pellets
Fuzes Arming Delay
Height respect to target
Armor Penetration & perforation
Impact & residual projectile velocity
In general all events in ballistics take place quickly and in order to obtain clear pictures exposure are usually very
short. As object movement become faster, exposure must decrease and illumination must increase or image must be artificially
enhanced electronically. Therefore, the realm of high speed photography is generally determined by the exposure times used
or the picture repetition rate. Knowledge of the duration of actual exposure or shutter speed is important in HSP to ensure
clear and desired picture . Three types of instruments like still video recorder ( SVRII), film based camera (16mm NAC-HD),
and high speed video camera (Speed Cam Visario) to record ballistic phenomena like sabot separation of FSAPDS
ammunition, sequence of functioning of HESH shell and spin and dip angle of free flying rocket are presented below. Specific
instruments have been chosen based on the phenomena to be recorded to derive desired performance parameter.
Sabot discarding & study of penetrator in FSAPDS type ammunition by SVRII

The integrity of penetrator , separation of three sabot petals, interaction of sabot with penetrator as well as the status
of tail unit are some of the parameters required to be ascertained in intermediate ballistic zone after exit of projectile from
muzzle. Separation of tail unit or breaking /bending of penetrator due to very high chamber pressure, non uniform sabot
discarding are among the defects which can be inferred from the high speed photographs instantly. The film based camera can
be more handy to study sequence of sabot separation at a very high frame rate. But inherent disadvantage like very small
picture size and development of film continue to persists. On the other hand, HSV camera with 10000 fps can also provide a
sequential pictures covering 2-4m of travel in flight. However to record specific information like status of penetrator and its
velocity at the instant of sabot separation, SVR can be the ideal tool. In this method the image (fast event of penetrator in flight)
can be captured in single or multiple exposures ( in a single frame ) from a minimum of 200ns to 1ms . A schematic

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diagram of capturing the motion of an FSAPDS ammunition is shown in Fig. 1a and that of the out put of obtained
photograph is given in Fig. 1b.
a b
Fig. 1.a) schematic layout of SVR II b) Sabot discarding of FSAPDS Ammunition
.The status of penetrator along with tail unit is clearly seen in Fig 1b. The velocity of the penetrator can be accurately
determined by taking pictures in multiple exposure (instead of single one ) in a single frame with appropriate time mark.
Study of functioning of HESH shell by film based high speed camera

High explosive squash head shells functions with the principle that the nose portion squashes on impact on target,
followed by padding of inert material and pasting of high explosives. The explosive is detonated by the initiation of a base fuze
with select delay to ensure proper pasting of explosives. The detonation wave sets into the target results in scab formation from
rear side. The sequence of impact of HESH on to target and initiation of detonation has been studied by a film based high
speed framing camera (16mm NAC-HD). This is a film based mechanical rotating prism camera with a speed of 32000
pps . A schematic diagram for recording functioning of HESH shell on impact on armor and the recorded photographs for
four rounds are shown is Fig. 2 a and 2b respectively..
Two distinct pattern of functioning i.e one type for Fig.2b & d and different for 2c &e is clearly visible. A delay time
of the order of 250 µs for the former and 170 µs for later type was obtained from frame to frame analysis. It was of interest to
a b c d e
Fig. 2 a) schematic for deployment of HSP, b-e) HSP of functioning of a HESH shell

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observe clear scabbing in shells representing the sequence as in b & d where as non scabbing was observed in c& e where
delay was 170µs. Criticality of delay time of detonation after impact vis-a-vis scab formation was inferred from this
recording. This technique has proved to be an ideal tool for defect investigation of such fast phenomena.
Spin of Rockets and projectile by High Speed Video camera (Speed cam visario)
The spinning of rockets and its fin opening in case of wrap around ones on exit from launcher are among the crucial
launch parameters sought after by the designers to correlate ultimate range and accuracy. Due to comparatively lower launch
velocity and high angle of fire, high speed video camera is the preferred one for recording such parameter. Speed cam Visario
is a color high speed digital camera with CMOS sensor capable of recording a dynamic event at 1000 fps for 4s at its
maximum resolution 1536 X 1024 .In windowing mode it is capable of recording at a maximum of 10,000 fps at 512 X 196
resolution The flight of 122mm rocket captured by the camera is shown in Fig. 3. The Spinning of the rockets can be
measured on exist from launcher. The external surface of warhead portion is suitably paint marked with appropriate
dimension and contrast as reference for spin measurement.
3. DOPPLER RADAR BASED MEASUREMENTS

Muzzle velocity (MV) of any projectile fired from
tank or gun is one of the crucial parameter to correlate internal
ballistic parameters and predict the range by considering
ballistic co-efficient and other meteorological considerations
4
. Due to the introduction of the large caliber projectiles,
rockets, base bleed type ammunition with enhanced range,
the requirement of accurate measurement of impact range,
deviations from predicted line and height of functioning is on
the rise. Traditional technique of deploying survey
instruments has not been always been met with success.
Hence radar based measurements gaining more importance
where both MV and range capabilities of projectiles can be
Fig.3 Rocket in flight for spin measurement
simultaneously measured.
Table2: Parameters measured by Doppler Radar
Type of Armament Parameters

Sabotted ammunition Muzzle velocity
(FSAPDS) Velocity - time &velocity-distance
Rockets ABP Time, Velocity & distance
Trajectory
Carrier Projectile Range & height of functioning
(Cargo/RDMS) Time of fuze functioning
Ejection of child store
Pyro techniques Separation in flight
Ejection of pay load
HE Projectile Spin & spin decay
Drag coefficient

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Doppler Radar is one of the most effective and useful tool in artillery range instrumentation4 . Though it works in the
basic principle of doppler shift, the doppler radar technology has gone through improvements over the years 4-5 . CW
Doppler with mono pulse receiver can accurately measure velocity , azimuth and elevation of a moving target. But practical
use of such instruments need to have an in depth knowledge of their working principle, projectile design parameters and
correct interpretation of signal obtained with appropriate format.
Doppler radar has been extensively used in the authors laboratory to measure the external ballistics of a series of
ammunition viz. high explosive shell cargo ammunition, rockets, and base bleed projectile (Table 2). The data generated has
been validated by physical range observations in some cases. Though the details of working principle is available in
literature 5 and that of the commercially compact radar set up , the generation of desired data in appropriate format and its
analysis needs special attention . These aspects have been presented in subsequent paragraphs.
Carrier Projectiles
Remotely Delivered Minelets System ( RD M S )

Evaluation of Rockets with submunition warhead require a set of parameters to be measured simultaneously .
The rocket parameters like all burnt point, (ABP) all burnt time, all burnt velocity, range , height and time of fuze
functioning and separation of child store are measured simultaneously. Visual detection and recording of height and range
of fuze functioning, separation of minelets by normal observer becomes difficult due to little smoke/flash produced by fuze
functioning at a height of 300-500 m height and at a distance of 1.5 km from observer. Even if the fuze functioning is located,
exact range and dispersion of minelets and the empty warhead casing are not possible to locate. Under such circumstances the
tracking radar is quite useful to generate all the above parameters in addition to complete trajectory.
a
b
c d
Fig. 4. a) Schematic of RDMS functioning, b) Trajectory, c) velocity-time plot, d) range vs azimuth

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A schematic of RDMS functioning is shown in Fig. 4a. Its trajectory (X-Y plot) and the variation in azimuth in flight
(X-Z plot) is shown if Fig.4b &d. A functioning height of 500m above ground at a range of 96000m is obtained from the plot in
fig.4b. The rocket functions with an azimuth which deviates 300m from the line of launching (fig.4d). Further, crucial
information can be deduced from the velocity-time plot (Fig.4c). The discontinuity of V-T plot and multiple radar signals at 30
sec of flight results due to fuze functioning which matches with the fuze set time. Separation of warhead from the rocket and
subsequent ejection of minelets are represented as distinct and simultaneous lines arising from Doppler shift. These
observations have been corroborated by the simultaneous recordings from electro optical tracking system (EOTS).
Cargo Ammunition
Cargo ammunition with 24-56 bomblets is required function at a predefined height by setting of electronic time
(ET) fuze. During its evaluation, it is not always not possible to observe the functioning aspects visually due to safety
constraints. Further the separation of bomblets and its dispersion zone is also desired to assess the functioning and recovery of
components during design trials.. Tracking radar becomes handy to record the entire sequence of functioning including the
range, time of fuze functioning and at the same time the ejection of bomblets. A sectionized view of typical cargo shell with
bomblet and fuze is shown in fig.5a. Experimental data recorded during dynamic firing evaluation of this shell by tracking
radar DR-6700 is shown in fig.5b-d. The complete trajectory covering a range of 8000m is seen in X-Y distance plot format
(Fig. 5b).
a
b
c d
Fig. 5 a) schematic of an cargo shell, b) total trajectory (X-Y), c) velocity - time d) velocity - distance plot
A break in trajectory corresponding to a range of 6500 in descending trajectory represents the fuze functioning and
ejection of bomblets. Velocity-time plot (Fig. 5c) indicates the presence of multiple objects after 17 sec of flight which
corresponds to the actual fuze set time. .The upper curve after the break corresponding to this time represents the movement of
empty body and lines below indicate movement of child stores. The range corresponding to this event can be obtained from a
velocity-distance plot format (Fig.5d) An analysis of the above three plot format in combination with change in azimuth in
flight can provide information on the range and ground location of dispersion of bomblets as well as the mother container and
can be the guiding factor for their recovery.

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4. COMBINATION OF IMAGING AND DOPPLER RADAR BASED MEASUREMENT

The individual application of imaging and radar based measurements are presented in above paragraphs. At times,
these measurements supplement each other to derive more meaningful and conclusive results. Detection of flight premature
(fuze mal functioning) of a 155mm ERFB-BB projectile is a case in point for illustration.
The projectile launched for functioning at a range of 20km did not complete the trajectory even though the ignition
of base bleed and forward movement after muzzle exit could be seen from on line video camera. The velocity-time out put of
doppler radar showed multiple doppler signals at about 300m ahead of muzzle and also subsequent flight up to the range of
8000m. The signals at 300m was indicative of some separation of portions from the projectile and continuation of subsequent
flight (Fig.6a). It was rather difficult to draw any conclusion from such data. A careful study of CCD camera pictures of the
flight recorded in different look angles showed the functioning of only fuze at a distance of 300m and subsequent flight of
projectile with base bleed functioning (Fig.6b). A sharp drop in velocity (when compared with normal projectile at
corresponding distance) after the fuze functioning was the direct effect of induced drag due to change in ogive shape of shell.
Thus the fuze premature in flight and non initiation of booster to ignite main charge filling of shell could be conclusively
established which is a unique recorded observation in experimental ballistics.
a
b
Fig.6 a) Velocity- distance plot b) still video out put of ERFB-BB shell in flight
5. CONCLUSION
Range instrumentation is the backbone of any dynamic test activity . Ideal range layout coupled with integrated
range instruments is vital for study of fast events associated with dynamic firings. Interpretation of recorded data has been
found to be the key to identify failure modes and also for defect investigation. Appropriate choice of recoding system both
imaging and Doppler based ones can provide vital clue to the designers and measure performance parameters ; few of which
have been highlighted in this article.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express their gratitude to Maj Gen Anoop Malhotra, Director, PXE, Chandipur for his encouragement
and permission to publish this article.

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REFERENCES
1. N Nayak & G C Das “Dynamic test & Evaluation of Armaments: Recent trends “ Proceedings of Seminar on Test &
Evaluation of Ammunition organized by Deptt of Defence Production, DGQA, May 2005
2. C L Farar & D W Leening 'Military Ballistics: a basic manual, first edition, Brassys Publishers limited, Oxford, 1983
3. N Nayak & G C Das “Identifying Failure Modes and Defect Investigation by Dynamic Test & Evaluation: Case Studies
“ Proceedings of Seminar on Test & Evaluation of Ammunition organized by Deptt of Defence Production, DGQA,
May 2005
4. G C Das, N Nayak & A Bose “ Doppler radar Based Measurements for Evaluation of Conventional armaments”
Proceedings of National conference on Range technology, NACORT-2006, ITR, Chandipur.
5. Merril I Skolnik, Introduction to Radar systems, second edition, McGraw-Hill Book company, Singapore, 1981

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DYNAMIC TEST & EVALUATION METHODOLOGIES FOR

MEASUREMENT OF CRITICAL TEST PARAMETERS OF
ARMAMENTS: CASE STUDIES
T K Biswal & N Nayak

Proof & Experimental Establishment, Chandipur, Balasore-756 025
ABSTRACT
Three different types of test and evaluation methodologies pertaining to performance of proximity fuze against an
aerial target along with its miss distance studies in case of blind, estimation of rapid rate of fire of AK630 weapon and attitude
of a projectile before its impact on armor with adoption of innovative range techniques have been reported in this paper. High-
speed imaging as well conventional videography have been used to record the performance parameters. Certain features in
digital imaging like high resolution capabilities in space and time domains, synchronous imaging, concept of circular buffer
memory in the camera head leading to pre- and post-recording capabilities with various types of software/hardware triggers
and almost of real time display have been exploited in order to solve emerging test and evaluation requirements. In the absence
of standard testing techniques, the methodologies adopted have ultimately helped the users for acceptance of the armament
stores.
1. INTRODUCTION
Performance evaluation of any armament store by dynamic firing is the ultimate acceptance criteria before its issue to
users. At the same time dynamic firing data is crucial for design validation and optimization during the development stage.
Laboratory testing and simulation studies, many a times, do not represent the true performance as in actual condition. It is also
difficult to simulate the actual condition in the laboratory due to the magnitude of firing stress and environmental effect.
Hence, dynamic test and evaluation is of paramount importance both from the designers and users point of view. Conventional
armaments cover a broad spectrum of ammunitions, armors and weapons and its test and evaluation is system specific and no
open literature is available. In addition, evaluation methods adopted also vary depending on the design philosophy, intended
use and facilities available. Test range facility is one of the guiding factors for developing the evaluation techniques.
In recent past the transition of film-based high-speed cameras to digital high-speed imaging devices has got a
tremendous impact in the complete domain of high-speed imaging and its applications in the field of ballistics. Certain features
in digital imaging like
high resolution capabilities in both space and time domains, synchronous imaging, concept of circular buffer
memory in the camera head leading to pre- and post- recording capabilities depending on various types of software/hardware
triggers, almost real time display etc are add on and very much useful to the experimentalists to devise various techniques in
order to solve emerging test and evaluation requirements.
However, the physical problem needs to be understood thoroughly to devise a correct solution within the limitations
of the imaging devices. Few such problems of special significance both from the designers and users point of view will be
presented here. To mention some of the techniques evolved during recent years, this paper primarily focuses three different
aspects of test and evaluation methodologies pertaining to performance of proximity fuze within a close vicinity of an aerial
target along with its miss distance studies, estimation of rapid rate of fire of AK630 weapon and attitude of a projectile before
its impact on armor. In all the techniques, high-speed imaging as well conventional videography play a crucial role which have
been brought out in greater details in the following paragraphs in the form of case studies.
2. DEVELOPMENT OF METHODOLOGIES
Recent developments in conventional armaments focus more on pin-pointed accuracy, rate of fire and reliability of
the product for absolute performance. Appropriate technique to evaluate the product becomes a challenge to range
technologists due to a variety type of stores and its intended use. Since no single technique or method can meet the evaluation
requirement, there is a need to develop methodologies for deriving performance parameters from case to case basis. Few of the
methodologies are presented in subsequent paragraphs. Efforts have been made to outline the principles involved,

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experimental techniques adopted and determination of the final parameters. This has been illustrated with sketches and
photographs for ease of understanding of the readers.
Co-ordinates of functioning of Proximity Fuze against low flying target & recording of miss distance of blinds
Measurement of miss distance is a vital parameter for the fuze designer to know the performance of
ammunitions/warhead in the close vicinity of enemy target. Spatial measurement accuracy of this parameter is very much
important to judge ammunitions lethality and its defeating capabilities. In the evaluation process of fuze ammunitions, it is
mandatory to know about miss distance of the fuze-based projectile when it fails to function with respect to some aerial target.
Estimation of proximity fuze performance in the close vicinity of the target is also crucial for its acceptance. Here the fuze is
associated with a 40mm projectile traveling at 1000m/s and passing over an aerial target located at 1000m along the line-of-fire
and designed to function within 3m miss distance zone with respect to the target. One standard exocet dummy missile target
with photograph of fuze functioning and the definition of functioning zone (A&B) is shown in Fig1.(a) and (b) respectively.
Non-functioning round passing in zone A is called a blind and identified as a defect from user point of view. It is therefore
crucial to measure the miss distance in case of its non-functioning.
In real scenario where the target is dynamic in nature, measurement of miss distance is based on microwave and
image based devices. In case of microwave devices, miss distance indicator (MDI) is incorporated with one of the two flying
bodies and it is based on Doppler principle. At closest approach Doppler signature (frequency) is zeroed giving rise to a dc
signal from which MDI is calculated based on prior information (calibration). In imaging both the target and the ammunition
trajectories are calculated from which the closest approach between the two flying bodies is estimated. In both cases real time
data acquisition is possible.
INLINE PERPENDICULAR
ACCEPTANCE ZONE ACCEPTANCE ZONE
Fig.1 a) Exocet dummy missile target & fuze functioning, b) defined accepted zone of functioning

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However, in this paper conventional imaging and high-speed imaging have been used to obtain both point of
functioning as well miss distance1.
Methodology
The missile target (MT) is erected at 5m heights with respect to seabed and it simulates a low flying missile. It is an
extended target of cylindrical shape with 0.2m radius, 5.0m length and made of aluminum sheet. Proper distance is maintained
between the target and gun by use of distometer/laser range finder and the line of fire is chosen considering the range safety in
to account. MT is erected in a horizontal way such that its body axis and gun axis lie in a vertical plane. DGPS is used to
measure the altitude of target location and that of camera location so that camera can be adjusted to match its axis to that of MT
and both axes lie in one horizontal straight line. Measurement accuracy down to 0.01m is achieved in this DGPS. It helps to
know the exact separation between camera and target and also to ascertain both are at same height.
Camera with telephoto lens is positioned on a high-precision tripod to meet the above requirement and horizontality
of camera axis is ascertained through a digital clinometer. High-speed digital CMOS camera, Speed Cam Visario, is used
where a maximum resolution of 1536x1024 pixel is achieved at 1000pps.Same camera is also used in windowing mode at
1024X768 pixel resolution at 2000pps. Image acquisition at these rates is decided based on ambient light condition. Higher the
frame rate better is the time resolution that results in less blur and better measurement accuracy. Sensor has got square pixel of
size 11µm x11µm.Image acquisition is performed through an external trigger, a photo-trigger, that picks up muzzle flash of the
gun during firing and initiates image acquisition. This trigger time is considered as reference time t0 at which projectile leaves
the muzzle. Camera records the event in the post-trigger mode to facilitate determining time to burst of fuze functioning over
MT which is obtained through off-line video analysis. In a series of functioning rounds, burst time is determined for each round
and then mean burst time is calculated. This is probable because in a firing series, parameters like charge mass, charge
temperature, gun elevation etc are maintained constant through out. Minimum distance of the projectile with respect to MT
needs to be calculated during flight for miss distance calculation. Ideally in 40mm proximity ammunitions, shell is designed to
function within 3m radius with respect to MT body axis. So a field-of-view (FOV) of more than 3.0m radius around MT
longitudinal axis is chosen using suitable optics.
Experimental Set-up
The experimental lay out is shown in Fig.2..The in-line high-speed digital camera C1 and MT are separated by
1000m and a telephoto lens of 800mm focal length is used which attains a spatial resolution of 13mm/pixel in the object plane.
It ensures a 3x3 pixels image point of 40mm proximity fuze at the target plane that can be well resolved. Camera axis is
matched to that of AMT adjusting the height difference measured through DGPS and zeroing of camera is ascertained using a
digital clinometer. Since imaging is done in the longitudinal direction, the extent of blur caused due to projectile motion, both
translation and rotation (roll, pitch & yaw), during exposure time gives rise to motion blur which is considered for
measurement accuracy of miss distance down to single pixel. Exposure time down to 100 microseconds is set to reduce the
extent of blur.
C1 Gun MT
C1– in-line high-speed digital camera;
C2 –range camera;
PC – camera control computer;
T- optical trigger; T
MT- missile target
To ascertain that shell is functioning within the miss PC
C2
distance zone of the target, one conventional camera C2,

called as range camera, is placed at right angle to MT and also Fig.2 Schematic set up of experimental lay out
maintaining co-planarity to have equal height with respect to
MT. In case of functioning, the co-ordinates of point of
functioning is determined from both C1 and C2 data which
read two orthogonal planes of functioning.

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Observations
Initially two fuze shells are fired to function over MT that is confirmed by range camera C2.Orthogonal views of
inline and range camera are shown in Fig. 3.
Burst time is calculated for both shells and mean time to burst is found out (typically in the order of 976ms). The
functioning of the two rounds is affirmed well within three meter radius with respect to MT. Subsequently two inert shells are
fired which simulated non-functioning ones. These shells are also captured in flight. Separation between MT center and the
shell at 976ms from reference time is calculated from offline image analysis and found out to be 0.371m as shown in Fig.4.
Miss distance is calculated down to single pixel accuracy.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3 Functioning of fuze (a) Orthogonal view (b) Perpendicular view
Matching axes of both high-speed camera and MT is bit difficult if one thinks of in terms of pixel accuracy. This can
be done making use of PC-based pan & tilt gimbal as a platform for camera. Due care has to be taken to match image center of
camera field-of-view (FOV) to that of MT. In this process it is assumed that camera optic axis is passing through sensor image
center, which is lying at the center of the image plane. However, there is an offset both in x- and y- directions in the image plane,
which needs to be determined very accurately by any of the methods as suggested by R K Lenz & R Y Tsai 2 to have better
measurement accuracy.
Fig. 4 Measurement of miss distance with respect to MT center
Determination of Rate of Fire of AK630 Naval Weapon

AK-630 weapon of Russian origin has six barrels of 30mm caliber and determination of its high rate of fire is crucial
for its acceptance. Rate of fire of the order 4500 rounds/min has been determined by an innovative layout by firing a salvo of 30
rounds on to a witness target and simultaneously recording target hit points by a conventional video camera. The cumulative
impact on the target is calculated over time through frame by frame analysis leading to estimation of rate of fire. The same has
also been attempted by acoustics method and the results are in very close agreement and reproducible.

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Methodology
One witnessing target; a ply board of size 2.5mX2.5m, is erected at 100m from muzzle in the transverse plane with
respect to the line of fire. Conventional video camera is placed adjacent to the gun to image the witnessing target and to find out
the number of shots crossing the very target plane over time from their signatures i.e. impacts on target. Measurement of
cumulative impact points over time (interframe separation time 40ms) gives rise to the magnitude of rate of fire. In addition, it
also provides both consistency and accuracy parameters of the ammunitions and weapon as well.
Experimental Set up
Schematic set up for rate of fire studies of AK-630 weapon is shown in Fig.5. Here an interline transfer ½” CCD
camera is used with an object lens of focal length 180mm. It covers a field of view of 3.5mX2.66 m in the target plane. Sensor
has got a resolution of 640 x 480 pixels which corresponds to 5mm resolution in the target plane.
T
C
GUN
C-camera,
CCU-camera control unit,
T-witnessing target
PC
CCU
Fig.5 Schematic set-up for recording Rate of Fire of weapon
Camera is powered form a camera control unit (CCU) which is connected to a PC for display and image analysis. Camera
is positioned on a platform to match with the line of fire and its image center coincides with the witnessing target center.
The main aim is to look at the cluster of impacts from a right angle position. Passive imaging is incorporated in the total
process and due care is taken to image impact signatures.
The impact points are well defined and accounted for its quanta unless otherwise there is a complete superimposition
of one above the other.
Observations
(a) (b)
Fig.6. a) Witnessing target showing impact points, b) graph showing impact points vs. time
Cluster of 30 munitions is fired in a salvo mode and their impacts are shown on the witnessing target in Fig.6.(a).Then
offline analysis is performed to obtain rate of fire which has been depicted in Fig.6b. Here cumulative impacts over time is
plotted which shows a linear curve .It means a uniform rate of fire is obtained in this weapon and from its slope rate of fire is
calculated. This is found out to be 4852 shots/min and has got a very close match with the one taken by normal acoustic
method.

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Determination of Attitude of Projectile before Impact on Target

The attitude of a projectile at the point of impact on armor affects the depth of penetration3. Variation of angle of
impact other than the selected one can lead to inconclusive penetration results. Methodology for recording the attitude of the
projectile before its impact on target has been developed by single shot capture of images of the projectile in two orthogonal
planes simultaneously. It provides projectile attitude both in vertical and horizontal planes leading to measurement of both yaw
and pitch resulting its determination of attitude at the very instance of space and time.
ºv º
ºh
Fig. 7 Vector diagram for defining angle of attack º of the projectile in terms of vertical and
horizontal angles º v and º h representing yaw and pitch respectively
Methodology
Imaging the projectile in two orthogonal planes simultaneously, both horizontal and vertical, determines both pitch
and yaw angles from which the attitude angle (angle of attack) is determined as shown in Fig.7.
Let º be the angle of attitude which is defined in 3-D as shown above. It is resolved in two orthogonal planes resulting
º v and º h which are yaw and pitch angles respectively considering paraxial firing4 as practiced during armor testing. Here the
angle of attitude º is expressed as
º = tan-1 √(tan2 º v + tan 2 º h )
Further tan º v and tan º h are slopes of the projectile image body axis captured in the vertical and horizontal planes
respectively.
Experimental Set up
The mirror set up is positioned along the line of fire such that longitudinal axis of the mirror and the line of fire lie in
the same vertical plane of camera FOV. Here the projectile is allowed to pass within a hollow cylindrical object containing the
very mirror at 45º with respect to the vertical plane. Both direct and mirror images are recorded simultaneously by a single
ICCD camera. In this case SVR II Ballistic Range Camera is used as shown in Fig.8.
Gun Mirror
PC CAM
Fig. 8 Schematic set up for projectile attitude studies: T- optical trigger (sky screen); S-Xenon strobe

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Optical trigger, a sky screen, placed under line of fire and close to the mirror set up, is used as external trigger for
capture of shot image within the camera FOV after incorporating appropriate delay to the Xenon strobe, used as illuminating
source. The attitude of a 40mm AP shot before impact on armor at 50m has been generated and image is shown in Fig.9.
Fig.9 Orthogonal images of 40mm shot captured in SVR II:

Top-direct image (vertical plane) & bottom-mirror image (horizontal plane)
In this case º v and º h are found to be 1.1º and 2.81º respectively and º is found out as 3.01º. Three shots were fired
and in all the cases º was found to be less than 5º.This technique can be used for different types of AP shots. During set up
perpendicularity of the camera to the line of fire as well to the longitudinal axis of the mirror has to be done very carefully. To
achieve this, simple pendulum can be used as a test image where center of circles of both the direct and mirror images should
lie in one vertical line.
3. CONCLUSION
Technique for estimation of miss distance measurement of proximity fuze FB-40 for 40mm ammunitions has been
developed and implemented. However, present technique is based on passive imaging which can be further improved upon by
the use of either active imaging or imaging in the infrared band adopting high-speed IR cameras. Latter will be more effective
overcoming environmental conditions like low visibility, foggy weather etc. Determination of rate of fire from multi barrel
weapon has been established. The results are in close agreement with acoustics method adopted simultaneously. Attitude of
projectile before impact is crucial for study of penetration phenomena and it will help in assessing actual depth of penetration.
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to Maj Gen Anoop Malhotra , Director, Proof & Experimental
Establishment, Chandipur for his encouragement and permission to publish this paper.
REFERENCES
1. T.K. Biswal et al. “ Miss distance studies of 40mm proximity fuze with respect to anti-missile target using high-speed
videography”, NACORT-2006, ITR (DRDO), Balasore.
2. Reimar K. Lenz & Roger Y. Tsai, “Techniques for Calibration of the Scale Factor and Image Center for High Accuracy 3-
D Machine Vision Metrology,” IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol. 10, no.5, pp713-
720, 1998.
3. Manfred Held “Impact parameters of projectiles”, Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 24,211-216, 1999.
4. Donald E. Carlucci & Sidney S. Jacobson “Ballistics: Theory and Design of Guns and Ammunitions”, CRC Press, Taylor
& Francis Group, FL 33487-2742, 2008.

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NEXT GENERATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL TESTING
Subhas Saha, DR Kolhatkar

ABSTRACT
Highly-Accelerated Life Testing (HALT) and Highly-Accelerated Stress Screening (HASS) testing are the next
generation techniques for Environmental testing. The aim is to cause failures that identify weak design elements. Failure-
prone elements are then re-designed and tests are continued at higher levels. Highly-Accelerated Life Testing (HALT) and
Highly-Accelerated Stress Screening (HASS) are starting to supplement traditional vibration and thermal testing to meet these
new quality targets.
Highly-Accelerated Life Testing (HALT) exposes the product to a step-by-step cycling in environmental variables
such as temperature, shock and vibration. HALT involves vibration testing in all three axes using a random mode of
frequencies.. The goal of HALT testing is to break the product. When the product fails, the weakest link is identified to improve
product quality. HALT testing must be performed during the design phase of a product to make sure the basic design is reliable.
Highly-Accelerated Stress Screening (HASS) is an reduced form of HALT testing. HASS testing is an on going
screening test, performed on regular production units. The idea is not to damage the product, but rather to verify that actual
production units continue to operate properly when subjected to the cycling of environmental variables used during the HASS
test.
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of testing, computer modeling, engineering analysis, probability studies, Failure Modes and Effects
Analysis, Fault tree Analysis and good old fashioned thinking is to generate and evaluate information so that decisions can be
made. Hence how important is 'information', can be gauged from Mr. George Herbert's little rhyme
All for want of a nail….

For want of a nail a shoe was lost
For want of a shoe' a horse was lost
For want of a horse a rider was lost
For want of a rider, a message was lost
For want of a message, a battle was lost
For want of a battle, a kingdom was lost
All for want of a nail.
Without the right piece of information at the right time, the battle and the kindom war were lost. The right information
is critical to making any plan successful.In our R& D work, do we get 100% information? No, So we are forced to have a timing
formula P= 40 to 70 in which P stands for probability of success and the number indicate the percentage of information
acquired. We should not act if we are having less than 40 % information and should not wait until 100% information.
What is Reliability?
Reliability is the best quantitative measure of the integrity of a part, component, product, or system. Reliability
engineering provides the theoretical and practical tools where by the probability and capability of parts, components,
equipment, product, subsystems, and system to perform their required functions without failure for desired periods in specified
environments, that is their desired optimized reliability, can be specified, predicted, designed in, tested, demonstrated,
packaged, transported, stored, installed and started up and their performance monitored and fed back to all concerned
organizations.

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Traditional Testing and Its Limitations

Traditional vibration and temperature testing has played an important role in the genesis of today's reliable and
sophisticated electronic and electro-mechanical products. The core philosophy of this testing method is to define a set of
specifications, usually minimum or maximum temperatures and/or vibration levels, and to conduct the tests by changing only
one variable at a time. Vibration testing is performed on one axis at a time. If the device is still functional after being tested
according to the test specs, it is considered to have "passed." A "passing" result is a positive outcome. However, thinking about
this further, it becomes clear that a "pass" result does not help identify the weakest link in the product. In other words, the
traditional test cannot help the designer or scientist make the product any more robust.
Furthermore, with the "one-at-a-time" change in environmental variables, and the one-dimension vibration testing,
the test specs are not similar to real-world operating environments. As a result, this kind of testing does not provide an accurate
indication of how the product might perform in the field. This critical look at traditional environmental testing is not intended
to be a blanket condemnation of that process. After all, this kind of testing has played a key role in the evolution of today's
highly reliable products. Instead, this examination of certain weaknesses in classical environmental testing can be helpful in
understanding how new testing methods, in particular HALT and HASS testing, can lead to even greater levels of product
quality and reliability.
Accelerated Life Testing

Life cycle testing is a test procedure applied to a small percentage of products, subjecting them to stresses similar to
those found in actual service conditions. Accelerated Life Testing (ALT) is a test activity during product development in which
prototypes are subjected to stress in terms of temperature and vibration at levels much higher than those anticipated in actual
use. The aim is to cause failures that identify weak design elements. Failure-prone elements are then re-designed and tests are
continued at higher levels. Generally till to day, product quality has been determined through environmental testing such as
vibration tests, thermal cycling, mechanical shock, thermal shock, and more. Recently, there has been a significant trend in
today's globalized competitive market to improve product quality even further.
Highly Accelerated Life Testing (HALT)

Highly Accelerated Life Testing (HALT) and Highly-Accelerated Stress Screening (HASS) testing are the futuristic
techniques for Environmental testing. All external and internal environmental conditions in terms of temperature, humidity,
radiation, magnetic and electric fields, shock and vibration and natural, man-made or self-induced conditions influence the
form, function, and reliability of a product. Environmental testing involves subjecting a sample of products to a simulation of
anticipated storage, transport, and service environments in terms of vibration, shock, temperature, altitude and humidity. As
such Highly-Accelerated Life Testing (HALT) and Highly-Accelerated Stress Screening (HASS) are starting to supplement
traditional vibration and thermal testing to meet these new quality targets.
Highly Accelerated Life Testing (HALT) exposes the product to a step-by-step cycling in environmental variables
such as temperature, shock and vibration. HALT involves vibration testing in all three axes using a random mode of
frequencies. HALT testing can include the simultaneous cycling of multiple environmental variables, for example,
temperature cycling plus vibration testing. This multi-variable testing approach provides a closer approximation of real-world
operating environments. Unlike conventional testing, the goal of HALT testing is to break the product. When the product fails,
the weakest link is identified. Designers identify exactly what needs to be done to improve product quality. After a product has
failed, the weak component(s) are upgraded or reinforced. The improved product is then subjected to another round of HALT
testing, with the range of temperature, vibration, or shock further increased to make the product fail again. This identifies the
next weakest link. By going through several iterations the product can be made quite robust. This informed approach, only
identifies the weak spots for improvement. This type of testing provides so much information about the construction and
performance of a product, that it can be quite helpful for newer designers assigned to a product with which they are not
completely familiar. HALT testing must be performed during the design phase of a product to make sure the basic design is
reliable.

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Highly Accelerated Stress Screening (HASS)
Highly Accelerated Stress Screening (HASS) is a reduced form of HALT testing. HASS testing is an on going
screening test, performed on regular production units. The idea is not to damage the product, but rather to verify that actual
production units continue to operate properly when subjected to the cycling of environmental variables used during the HASS
test. The limits used in HASS testing are based on a skilled interpretation of the HALT testing parameters.
The components, materials, and processes can and do change over time, thereby affecting the quality and reliability of the final
product. The best way to ensure that production units continue to meet reliability objectives is through HASS testing.
Objectives of HASS
Some of the objectives of HASS are to:
1. Precipitate relevant defects from latent to patent at minimum cost and minimum time.
2. Detect as many defects as possible at minimum total cost and in a minimum time in order to reduce feedback delay
and cost.
3. Provide the start of a closed loop failure analysis and corrective action program of all defects found in the screens.
4. Increase field reliability by reducing the total no of faults sent to the field.
5. Decrease the total cost of production, screening, maintenance and warranty.
Purposes of HALT and HASS

General purpose of applying accelerated stress conditions in the design phases is to find and improve upon design and
process weaknesses in the least amount of time and correct the source of their weaknesses before production begins. It is
generally true that, robust products will exhibit much higher reliability than non- robust ones and so the ruggedization process
of HALT in which large margins are obtained will generate products of high potential reliability. In order to achieve the
potential, defect- free hardware must be manufactured or, atleast the defects must be found and fixed before shipment. In
HASS, accelerated stresses are applied in production in order to shorten the time to failure of the defective units and therefore
shorten the corrective action time and the number of units built with the same flaw. Each weakness found in HALT or in HASS
represents an opportunity for improvement. The application of accelerated stressing techniques to force rapid design maturity
(HALT) Results in pay-backs that far exceed these from production stressing (HASS). Nonetheless, production HASS is cost
effective in its own right until quality is such that a sample HASS or Highly Accelerated stress Audit (HASA) can be put into
place. The use of HASA demands excellent process control since most units will be shipped without the benefit of HASS being
performed on them, and those units in the selected sample will be screened for defects.
The stress used in HALT and HASS include, but are not restricted to, all-axis simultaneous vibration, highrate, broad-
range, temperature cycling, power cycling, voltage and frequency variation, humidity, and any other stress that may expose
design or process problems. No attempt is made to simulate the field environment. One only seeks to find design and process
flaws by any means possible. The stress used generally far exceeds the field environments in order to gain time compression;
that is, shorten the time required to find any problem areas. When a weakness is discovered, only the failure mode and
mechanism is of importance, the relation of the stress used to the field environment is of no consequence at all.
'Mechanism' here means the conditions that caused the failure, such as melting, exceeding the stable load or
exceeding the ultimate strength. The corresponding failure mode could be separation of a conductor, elastic buckling and
tensile failure, considering the margin instead of the failure mode is a major mistake, which is made by most engineers used to
conventional test techniques. In HALT and HASS one uses extreme stresses for a very brief period of time in order to obtain
time compression in the failures. In doing so, one may obtain the same failures as would occur in the field environments, but
with a different stress.
In the HALT phase of product development, which should be in the early design phase, the product is improved in
every way practicable bearing in mind that most of what are discovered in HALT as weaknesses will almost surely become
field failures if not improved.
HALT and HASS are not restricted to electronics items, but apply to many other technologies as well. Some of the
diverse examples include products like shock absorbers, airframes, auto bodies, exhaust systems and power steering hoses etc.

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Equipment Required
The application of the highly accelerated stress techniques is very much enhanced by, if not impossible without, the use of
environmental equipment of the latest design such as all –axis exciters and combined very high –rate thermal chambers (60 °
C/min or more rate). All- axis means three translations and three rotations.
A single-axis, single-frequency shaker will only excite modes in the particular direction of the vibration and only those nearby
in frequency. A swept sine will sequentially excite all modes in the one direction being excited. A single – axis random shaker
will simultaneously excite all modes in one direction. A Six axis system will simultaneously excite all modes within the
bandwidth of the shaker in all directions .If all modes in all directions are not excited simultaneously, then defects can be
missed. Obviously, the all- axis shakers are superior for HALT and HASS activities since one is interested in finding as much as
possible as fast as possible.
Some General Comments on HALT and HASS

The successful use of HALT or HASS requires several actions to be completed. In sequence, these are precipitation,
detection, failure analysis, corrective action, verification of corrective action and their entry into a database. All the first five
must be done in order for the method to function at all. Adding the sixth, results in long-term improvement of the future
products.
1. Precipitation means to change a defect, which is latent or undetectable to one that is patent or detectable. A poor solder
joint is such an example. When latent it is probably not detectable electrically unless it is extremely poor. The process
of precipitation will transpose the flaw to one that is detectable; that is, crack. This crack joint maybe detectable under
modulated excitation. The stress used for the transportation maybe vibration combined with thermal cycling and
perhaps electrical over stress. Precipitation is usually accomplished in HALT or in Precipitation sreen.
2. Detection means to determine that a fault exits. After precipitation by whatever means, it may become patent, that is,
detectable. Just because it is patent does not mean that it will actually be detected since it must first be put into a
detectable state, perhaps using modulated excitation, and then it must actually be detected. Assuming that we actually
put the fault into a detectable state and that the built in test of external test setup can detect the fault, we can then
proceed to the most difficult step, which is failure analysis.
3. Failure Analysis means to determine why the failure occurred. In the case of the solder joint, we need to determine
why the joint failed. If doing HALT, the failed joint could be due to a design flaw; that is, a extreme stress at the joint
due to vibration or may be due to a poor match of thermal expansion coefficients. When doing HASS, the design is
assumed to be satisfactory and in that case the solder joint was probably defective. In what manner it was defective
and why it was defective. In what manner it was defective and why it was defective need to be determined in sufficient
detail to perform the next step, which is corrective action.
4. Corrective action means to change the design or process as appropriate so that the failure will not occur in the future.
This step is absolutely essential if success is to be accomplished. In fact, corrective action is the main purpose of
performing HALT or HASS.
5. Verification of corrective action needs to be accomplished by testing to determine that the product is really fixed and
that the flaw, which caused the problem, is no longer present.
6. The last step is to put the lesson learned into a database from which one can extract valuable knowledge whenever a
similar event occurs again. Designers and manufacturers, who practice correct HALT and utilize a well-kept
database, soon become very adept at designing and building very robust products with the commensurate high
reliability.
The HALT process would be a good tool to determine the answer to the following tongue –twister riddle- ' How much
wood would a woodchucker chuck if a woodchucker could chuck wood?'
The basic principle of highly accelerated life testing is the margin discovery process. The goal of this process is to
determine the margins between the service conditions of the product, the functional limits and the destruct limits. In other
words, how much wood would the wood chucker chuck, or how much temperature can the circuit board handle, or how much

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vibration, or how cold, or how much voltage.

HALT is a test method usually applied to solid state electronics that determines failure modes, operational limits and
destruct limits. This test method differs significantly from reliability test. Halt does not determine a statistical reliability or
determine any estimated life. HALT applies once stress source at a time to a product at elevated levels to determine the levels at
which the product stops functioning but is not destroyed (operational limit) .The levels at which the product is destroyed
(destruct limit) and what failure modes cause the destruction of the product.
HALT has a significant advantage over traditional reliability test in identifying failure modes in a very short period of
time. Traditional reliability tests take a long period of time (from a few days to several months). A HALT typically takes two or
three days. Also, a HALT will identify several failure modes providing significant information for the design engineers to
improve the product. Typical reliability test will provide one or two failure modes, if the product fails at all.
HALT typically uses three stress sources: temperature, vibration and electrical power. Each stress source is applied
starting at some nominal level (for example 30 deg C ) is then elevated in increments until the product stops functioning. The
product is then brought to the nominal conditions to see if the product is functional. If the product is still functional, then the
level at which the product stops functioning is labeled the operational limit. The product is then subjected to levels of stress
above the operational limit, returning to the nominal levels each time until the product does not function. The maximum level
the product experiences before failing to operate at nominal condition is labeled the destruct limit. This process is repeated for
hot temperature, cold temperature, temperature ramp rate, vibration and voltage. The process is also repeated for combined
stress.
2. CONCLUSION
"Classic" vibration and temperature testing have definitely helped improve product quality over the years, but today's
very high standards for product quality and reliability require tests with a better ability to reduce or even eliminate the failures
in the field conditions. HALT testing provides a controlled, repeatable method of determining product quality under conditions
comparable to field operating conditions, and is critical for proving the basic design of a product. HASS testing is a quick,
effective screening process, which can be used to ensure that the production units continue to meet quality standards. While it
is true that HALT and HASS testing can add to the short-term manufacturing cost of a product, the increment is surprisingly
small in most cases. In the long run, the cost of the testing is much less than the cost of failures in the field conditions arising due
to reliability problems.
The challenge in front of young scientists / technocrats of DRDO is how to make use of HALT and HASS testing
methodologies in making more dependable, reliable Armament Stores, that which is explosive filled and potentially hazardous
in nature. The big question remains— Can we go upto the 'breaking point ' in case of explosive filled stores in terms of
temperature and vibration levels etc. Since the futuristic testing is HALT and HASS, a solution to the question has to be found
out in the near future as traditional testing methodologies become outdated.
REFERENCES
1. “Accelerated testing & Validation” by Alex Porter ,London, Elsevier, 2004.

2. Notes on “Highly Accelerated Reliability Testing” , Short term Course, IIT, Kharagpur.

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SABOT SEPARATION AERODYNAMICS

Niteen P Bhange, AK Ghosh
IIT, Kanpur -208016
ABSTRACT
In an effort to develop the capability to predict sabot separation dynamics within the framework of a simple physical
model, computational code is developed and named as MK-Code. MK-Code computes pressure distribution on the sabot's
front scoop and underside in high supersonic flow speed using simple analytical aerodynamic model. The experimental test
data available for IAT HVP_94_016 sabot configuration and firing test results on MK-II package are used to investigate the
accuracy of the MK-Code for predicting pressure distribution on sabot during its discard
NOMENCLATURE
V = Velocity of aircraft
a = Angle of attack
q= Pitch angle
q= Pitch rate
b
w
= Oblique shock angle
q
rel
= Angle between sabot and penetrator
d
max
= Maximum turning angle
P2 = Pressure at the tip of sabot
g= Specific heat ratio
M = Mack number
u 0 = P-M angle
1. INTRODUCTION
Anti tank kinetic energy projectiles are generally launched with initial velocities of around 5 – 6 Mach. The
projectiles are normally sabot launched. A sabot is a device usually made of two or more petals that encases the projectile,
providing needed structural support during launch. Because most projectiles are sub-caliber, i.e. projectiles diameter is smaller
than the barrel diameter, the sabot fills the space between the projectile and barrel wall, preventing the muzzle gases from
blowing by the projectile. However, after the launch, the sabot becomes a parasitic mass and must be removed as quickly as
possible to allow low-drag flight of the projectile to the target.
This is normally accomplished by incorporating a scoop into the front of the sabot so that aerodynamic forces lift and
rotate each petal away from the projectile. A good knowledge of the pressure distribution on the sabot is essential to predict the
dynamic behavior of sabot during the discard process. Researchers1-4 have presented various methods to compute pressure
distribution over sabot using experimental and numerical methods.
Guillot et al in Ref. 1 have presented results pertaining to pressure distribution on sabots in hypersonic flight. Dick et
al2 presented method to compute pressure distribution on sabot during discard. In Ref. 3, sabot separation studies have been
carried out experimentally using wind tunnel tests. Guillot and Reinkey4 presented exhaustive work wherein both numerical
and experimental methods have been applied to analyse sabot separation dynamics.
In Ref. 4, experimental data pertaining to pressure distribution over example sabot nomenclatured as IAT
HVP_94_016 have been presented.The sabot configuration of IAT HVP_94_016 has been presented in Fig. 1.

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Figure 1:- IAT HVP_94_016 four petal sabot Model
Figure2:- MK-II Three petal Sabot Model
Pressure Modeling
Theoretically, one could compute the pressure distribution on the sabot using the full Navier–Stokes equations5 and
couple this solution to the dynamic equations governing the motions of the sabot petals to compute sabot trajectories
accurately. Such intensive computations during sabot design are not feasible, so we need analytical model for quicker
simulations, than solving the entire problem using a CFD based approach. However, such a simplified model based on
analytical approach must capture the important physics dominating the sabot separation process.
Figure 3 : Diagram showing Overall pressure distribution during sabot discard

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Fig. 3 presents a summary overview, which highlights essentially all of the local flow elements previously used to
describe the overall surface pressure/aerodynamic force pattern. The key features involve impingement of the sabot bow shock
upon the projectile surface resulting in a shock-reflection process. The reflected shock then impinges upon the sabot petal
underside creating another separated zone of elevated pressure. An code (MK-code) has been developed which can be used as
practical tool for sabot configuration design. The code uses 2-D aerodynamic model to compute aerodynamic forces and
moment on the sabot during its launch to discard.
Front-scoop Pressure Distribution

The MK-code can be used as practical design tool. Basic assumption made here is that the aerodynamic forces acting
on the sabot petals are approximated simpler 2-D aerodynamic models. Front scoop geometry needs to be divided in to
segments for application of 2-D gas dynamics. For our purpose, we have considered 6 segments. It was observed by us that a
higher number of segments gave better results. On front scoop, the pressure distribution depends on the angle of attack of
sabot. If turning angle of the flow being encountered on any segment on front scoop is small enough for an attached oblique
shock to exist, the pressure on that segment is assumed to be constant at the value behind the oblique shock.
If turning angle is greater than that for an

attached shock, the pressure on the front scoop is
assumed to vary linearly from stagnation at the outer
radius to sonic at inner radius. Occurrence of bow shock
in any one of the segments of the sabot front scoop
depends upon the angle of attack seen by the sabot, pitch
rate of the sabot and angle between sabot segment and
penetrator. These situations are at small angle of attack
and attached shock exists on the outer segments whereas
detached shock exists ahead of remaining segments.
Figure 4 : Diagram showing Front-Scoop pressure distribution during sabot discard
During compression oblique shock angle is found by solving Eq. 1.
æM 2 sin 2 b
w -1 ö
tan q =
2 cot b
wç ÷ [1]
w ç2
M ( 2÷
è g+ cos 2b w)+ ø
Pressure behind oblique shock is obtained through Eq. 2.
æ2 g2 ö
1 +M sin 2 b
P1 =
ç
ç (
w -
1÷
´
÷P ) [2]
èg+1 ø

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Mach number behind oblique shock can be calculated through Eq. 3
æg
+ 1 2 sin b w sin q
w
ö
ç M +
1÷
ç cos ( ÷
w)
è2 bw - q ø [3]
M1 =
sin 2 bw
During shock the expansion of flow Mach number after expansion is calculated by solving Eq. 4
g+
1 -
1 g
-1
u
0 = tan (M 2 - tan -
1) - 1
M 2-
1 [4]
g-
1 g
+1
Pressure after expansion of flow can be calculate through Eq. 5.

-
g
æg- 1 2ö(
g
-1)
1+
ç M1 ÷
è 2 ø´
P1 = -g
P [5]
æg- 1 2ö(
g
-1)
1+
ç M ÷
è2 ø
Condition for maximum deflection angle for given Mach no. is as follows:
3
d
4 M - 1 () 2 2
[6]
Max = 2
3 3(g1)
+ M
If turning angle is greater than that for an attached shock, the pressure on the front scoop is assumed to vary linearly from
stagnation at the outer radius to sonic at inner radius. Sonic pressure behind normal shock is given by
æ2g2 ö
Psonic =
P1 ç
1 +M -
1÷ () [7]
èg+1 ø
Stagnation pressure behind normal shock is calculated by Eq. 8.

g
æ ö
ç æ g
+ 1 2ö g -
1
÷
(
g 1)
-
ç ç
M ÷ ÷
2
Pstag P0 ç è
= ø
1 ÷ [8]
ç M1 -
2g (g 1)
- g
- 1 ÷
ç ÷
è ø
Underside Pressure Modeling
The beginning of the pressure pulse is determined by projecting the line from forward tip by making an angle with
penetrator equal to oblique shock angle formed by contracting flow when it is turned by angle á. These serve as the beginning
of the pressure pulse. A mach wave is then reflected back up to the sabot underside at the mach wave angle. The end of the
pressure pulse is determined by reflecting a Mach wave from the same location on the projectile back up to the point where it
intersects the underside of the sabot. The base pressure level on the underside of the each sabot petal is computed by assuming
that underside incoming flow first passes through a strong shock with a turning angle equal to d max
then it gets expanded by an
5
angle d max - a s
by Prandtl-Meyer (PM) expansion .

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Figure 5 : Diagram showing Underside Pressure Distribution during sabot discard
However the pressure along the underside of sabot increases in the axial direction from tip to tail due to shock
reflection and shock interaction This depends on the Mach number in previous zone, which decides the condition for d maxin the
next zone, and accordingly it decides whether shock will be oblique or normal. Geometric distances over sabots are calculated
by following equation,
Ai ´-
cos( b
1 qrel )
Sa =
sin b1
Ai ´-
sin( b1 qrel )
Sb =
sin b1 tan( b2 +
q rel )
To calculate distances after nth reflection, the value of Ai is computed using Eq. 10.
An -
1
i´
sin( b 1-
q
rel )
An i = n-
sin bn-1
As the flow progressively gets reflected, the Mach number goes on decreasing.
The flow gets choked since the gap between the petals is not large enough to accommodate the incoming mass flow
rate. The interaction is characterized by a single normal shock upstream of the sabot petals and essentially a stagnant volume of
air within the scoops. The subsonic flow behind the normal shock is accelerated to supersonic Mach numbers as it turns
through a series of expansion waves and aligns itself with the petal interfaces bounding the core flow. (This is similar to the
case of subsonic flow in a converging channel, which has to accelerate.) However, since the area between the petals continues
to decrease, the supersonic flow will choke again, resulting in a second normal shock called the throttling shock. The location
of the throttling shock depends on the area ratio and the Mach number of the supersonic flow between the petals. The area ratio
can be calculated from the radial position and angle-of-attack of the petal at that instant in time. Estimating the local static
pressure, using hypersonic relations based on blast wave theory, and assuming isentropic expansion from stagnation
conditions behind the first normal shock upstream of the entire package, we can calculate the Mach number. The flow through
the launch package remains choked until the area between the petals is large enough to accommodate the incoming mass flow
rate.

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Model Validation Hvp_94_016 Sabot Test Data

It was necessary to perform validation to verify that the inviscid 2-D gas dynamics used for finding pressure
distribution on sabot surface. Experimental data available from wind tunnel test conducted in the Mach 5 blow down wind
tunnel of the University of Texas at Austin on IAT HVP_94_016 sabot geometry (developed by US army ballistic research
laboratory) was taken as reference. During the test, trailing edge distance from penetrator maintained during course of the
experiment is Y (Table-1), whereas AOA is determined relative to the free stream velocity vector.
Table : Sabot discard point used

in experimental study
Aerodynamic Model Investigation

The experimental conditions were M ¥ = 4.95 , P¥= 0.6715 psi and V¥ =2734 ft / s . The experiment was performed at
four distinct configurations, which are identified by the sabot's angle of attack (AOA) and trailing edge gap (Table 1).
a) 3-Deg AOA b) 7-Deg AOA c) 14-Deg AOA d) 23-Deg AOA

Figure 6. Experimental and computed pressure distribution along centerline of sabot front scoop and underside
All the experimental data show sharp pressure increases at the tail of the sabot. Although it is reasonable to expect that
flow choking down through a reduced area would cause a pressure increase, MK-Code was used for finding pressure
distribution on HVP_94_016 sabot surface. Also these results were compared with AVCO code prediction of pressure
distribution. The AVCO code incorporates a pressure model based on two-dimensional inviscid gas dynamics applied to the
centerline of the sabot. Figure 6 presents a comparison of pressure distribution (computed using simulated (MK-code),
Experimental and AVCO code). A fairly good matching was observed.
Underside Pressure Distribution

The centerline pressure distribution along the sabot was computed and compared to experimental results The results
are presented in Fig. 6(a) for 3-deg AOA and in Figs. 6b–6d for 7, 14, and 23-deg AOA, respectively. Because the pressure
distribution on the sabot is divided into two primary regions, i.e., front scoop and sabot underside, it is convenient to discuss
these two regions separately, beginning with the sabot underside. The figure also shows comparison of pressures predicted by
the MK-Code, the AVCO code and experimental measurements. Pressure distributions along the underside are very nearly
constant and correspond closely to that predicted by the Prandtl–Meyer expansion. The prediction made by MK-Code showed
better result than AVCO code. This is especially evident at the smaller AOA. The MK-Code adequately predicts the magnitude
of the pressure peaks at nearly all AOA. However, it assumes pressure rise is sharp after shock reflection. MK-Code method
may be a better approximation for calculating underside pressure than the Prandtl–Meyer expansion model incorporate into
the AVCO code. It also captures the angle-of attack sensitivity, unlike the AVCO code which uses Prandtl–Meyer expansion
technique (which is independent of AOA).

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Front-scoop Pressure Distribution

The pressure distributions on the front scoop of the sabot for each AOA are shown Figs. 6a–6d .The data indicate that the
centerline pressure on the front scoop is sensitive to AOA. The front-scoop pressure model incorporated into the MK-Code
assumes that the pressure on the front scoop is uniformly at the stagnation pressure corresponding to the free stream Mach
number and does not include AOA dependence. At 3-deg AOA, the data clearly show that the shock is not fully detached.
Oblique shocks most likely form on the forward portions of the scoop, as indicated by the lower pressures, which gets reflected
from the rear portion of the scoop, producing high-pressures on that portion of the scoop. In this case, the pressure on the front
scoop is uniform at the stagnation pressure corresponding to the free stream Mach number. At 7-deg AOA it is clear that there is
still an oblique shock structure on the forward portion of the front scoop. However, as the AOA increases to 14 deg and then to
23 deg, the data indicated that the shock was became fully detached, and the pressures predicted by the code started following
the experimental data. One would expect that as the flow was turned into the circumferential direction and began to accelerate,
pressures would decrease from centerline values. Because the net lifting force and pitching moment were computed from
integrated values of the pressure distribution, a negative pressure gradient in the circumferential direction would tend to reduce
the net lifting force and pitching moment. Therefore, variation in circumferential pressure distribution was taken into account
as a function angle of attack.
2. CONCLUSIONS
Experimental and analytical model investigations of the pressure distribution on a sabot in high mach no flight were
performed. The purpose was to validate the proposed aerodynamic code. It is observed that the developed aerodynamic code
MK-II can advantageously be used to estimate the sabot discard parameters. Following conclusions are listed for future
extension of the work.
1) The MK-Code method tends to predict the base pressure better than the Prandtl–Meyer expansion method followed
in AVCO code.
2) The MK-Code code predicts the pressure increase at the tail of the sabot fairly well.
3) The assumption of stagnation pressure on the entire face of the front scoop for all AOA does not accurately reflect the
pressure distribution on the front scoop at all stages of the discard process.
4) The pressure pulse on the sabot underside tends to diminish on the outer portion of the side-face area and is not
modeled in the AVCO code.
REFERENCES
1. Martin J. Guillot, Jason N. Dick, and William G. Reinecke, “Pressure Distribution on sabots in hypersonic flight”, Journal
of Spacecraft and rocket, Vol.34 No.3 june1997.
2. Jason N. Dick* and David S. Dolling, “Pressure Distribution on Mach 5 sabot during Discard”, Journal of Spacecraft and
rocket Vol.35 No.1, june1998.
3. Dick, J. N., “Experimental Determination of SabotSeparation in a Mach 5 Wind Tunnel,”M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Texas,
Austin, TX, May 1996.
4. M. Guillot, W.G reinkey “numerical and experimental analysis of sobot separation dynamics”The university of texas at
texas Austin, September 1995.
5. Karen R. heavey, james Dispirito ,Jubraj shahu “Computational fluid dynamics flow field solution for kinetic energy(KE)
projectile with sabot”ARL-MR-52,sepember 2003.

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STUDY OF GUN DYNAMICS USING DATA MINING
Sukromony Lakra, Pranab Kumar Das Gupta, V Anguswamy,

Proof and Experimental Establishment Chandipur, Balasore, Orissa-756025
ABSTRACT
Gun dynamics refers to how a gun behaves as a dynamic entity, during a projectile firing and immediately after the
projectile exits the muzzle. Recoil is generated on the gun by the reaction of its moveable parts to the impulse of the gas
pressure both while the projectile is in the tube and while the propelling gases are being exhausted after the projectile exits.
Large numbers of parameters are generated due to the gun dynamics. Sensors are available to probe and store the data. The data
generated is huge and difficult to handle to extract meaningful and interesting patterns. Data mining is the process of finding
correlations or patterns in large relational databases. Model or pattern includes linear equations, rules, clusters, graphs, tree
structures and recurrent patterns in time series. Cluster analysis is a powerful methodology to extract useful information.
Clusters are potential classes and cluster analysis is the study of techniques for automatically finding classes. Classes, or
conceptually meaningful groups of objects that share common characteristics, play an important role in how people analyze
and describe the world. In this paper K-Means algorithm is described so that to use clustering techniques on gun dynamics
parameters.
NOMENCLATURE
M = Momentum
Mrecoil = Recoil momentum
Mproj = Projectile momentum
Mprop.gas = Propellant gas momentum
mrecoil = Mass of recoiling parts
mproj = Mass of the projectile
mprop.gas = Mass of propellant gas, i.e. Charge mass
Vrecoil = Recoil velocity
Vproj = Velocity of projectile i.e. Muzzle velocity
Vprop.gas = Velocity of propellant gas as they leave the muzzle
Lrecoil = Recoil length
Trecoil = Recoil time
K = Number of clusters
c = Centroid
Y = Standardized matrix
X = Original data matrix
xiv = Data from X of ith row and vth column.
av = Grand mean of the data
bv = Range of the data
I = Masterpiece data
V = Set of columns of a data set i.e. I
d(yi,c) = Distance of yi from c
Sk = kth cluster
1. INTRODUCTION
Our main aim in firing a gun is to defeat the enemy, i.e. how accurately and consistently a gun can fire to destroy its
target. Firing of a gun starts by striking of the firing pin at the base of the primer by means of mechanical or electrical
mechanism. Primer hit generates a flash. This flash provides ignition to the black powder or gunpowder and in turn
gunpowder provides a big flash to the propellant and the propellant starts to burn. Due to burning of the propellant huge gas
pressure is developed inside the chamber. This gas pressure exerts a force at the base of the projectile and so it starts moving at
Short Start Pressure (SSP). As the pressure increases, velocity of the projectile also increases. After sometime pressure reaches

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at its peak, called as Peak pressure. As projectile moves down the barrel, it leaves more space behind it for the propellant gas,
thus pressure reduces. The projectile exits the muzzle at a certain velocity called as muzzle velocity (MV).
The gun is an elastic body, so that when the propelling charge is ignited many complicated structural reactions take
place in the gun. Stress and pressure waves are set up in the chamber and in the unpressurized portion of the bore, loading the
tube in a highly transient fashion. Swelling and elongation occur due to pressure. The gas pressure causes all these. The
rotating band or driving band of the projectile is engraved by the rifling (if present) causing local stressing of the tube and a
thermal gradient is set up. Recoil is generated on the gun by the reaction of its moveable parts to the impulse of the gas pressure
both while the projectile is in the tube and while the propelling gases are being exhausted after the projectile exits. There are
other dynamic reactions of the gun during firing. They are: Vibration of the barrel and gun jump. In this paper, only gun recoil
will be discussed.
Large amount of data related to recoil has been gathered. Using data mining the most unexpected and hidden
information can be revealed. It is very difficult to analyze the huge databases and extract valuable information. So clustering
techniques are used to sample the data set into clusters. Then the best cluster, which describes the original data completely, is
used for drawing the conclusion or making decisions. There are many clustering techniques. In this paper K-Means clustering
will be described.
2. GUN DYNAMICS
Gun dynamics refers to how a gun behaves as a dynamic entity, during a projectile firing and immediately after the
projectile exits the muzzle. There are three main behaviors of the gun during firing and immediately after projectile exits the
muzzle. They are: Recoil of the gun, gun jump and barrel vibration. Except these swelling and elongation also takes place.
When the propellant charge is ignited, huge amount of gas is generated inside the chamber. This gas creates stress and pressure
waves inside the chamber and in the unpressurised portion of the bore. Different types of stresses are occurred at different
place. These stresses are: Radial stress, Hoop tension stress, Longitudinal stress, Girder stress, Torsional stress. The gas
pressure produces a radial stress acting outwards on the walls of the chamber and barrel. The radial gas pressure tends to stretch
the fibers of steel circumferentially. This effect is known as hoop tension stress. Swelling occurs due to radial and hoop tension
stress. Longitudinal stress results from the action of the driving band and the difference in gas pressure between the front and
rear of the driving band. Longitudinal stress has a localized stretching effect on the barrel wall. The barrel may be of
considerable length. It is important that it should have sufficient girder strength not to bend under its weight. The rotation of the
projectile as it proceeds up the bore causes a twisting effect on the barrel. This is known as the torsional stress and it works
against the twist of the rifling.
Barrel vibration: During firing barrel of the gun can move transversely while the projectile is still in the bore. There
are many factors which may contribute to the transverse motion of the gun barrel. They are: projectile loads, recoil loads, gas
pressure and cradle movement. They are all dependent on the propellant gas pressure and on the projectile travel and velocity
as function of time. They may result in rotation of the barrel and cradle due to offset recoiling masses, a rotation opposed by the
inertia of the cradle and the stiffness of the elevating gear.
Projectile load: As the projectile moves down the barrel, it is subjected to a traveling load consisting of the weight of
the projectile and a transverse force, probably much greater than the weight, due to the mass of the projectile being constrained
to follow a curved path, defined by the shape of the barrel. This curvature is not simply the curvature of the barrel due to gravity,
but the instantaneous value resulting from all, causes the vibration.
Recoil load: The load related to recoil acceleration include a force and a couple applied to the breech end of the barrel
by the force of the propellant gas pressure acting on the breech. This force can produce a couple acting on the barrel. Couples
may also result from the effect of recoil acceleration on other eccentric masses at the muzzle and at any discrete intermediate
point, i.e. fume extractor. Assuming that the barrel acceleration is due to gas pressure applied to the breech, the barrel will
initially be in tension. The consequent extension will take a finite time to reach the muzzle, and axial vibration of the barrel will
be set up.
Vibration of the gun causes gun jump. The axis of the gun bore which is where the gas forces are applied is usually not
collinear with the center of gravity of the recoiling parts. This creates a moment couple referred to as 'powder couple', which

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acts upon firing. This couple causes a rotation of the gun that usually results in muzzle rise and that is also known as gun jump.
Gun recoil is discussed in the succeeding sections.
Recoil on the Gun
Recoil on the gun occurs due to the Newton's Third law of motion, i.e. each action has equal and opposite reaction.
When a gun is fired, a huge amount of gas pressure is developed inside the chamber due to the burning of propellant. This gas
pressure exerts a force on the base of the projectile and thus the projectile leaves the cartridge case and exits the muzzle with a
certain velocity. The same gas pressure also exerts an equal force back against the rear of the chamber due to which the
moveable parts (chamber, breech, and some other parts) of the gun move towards the rear. This rearward motion is called
recoil. In other way, recoil is generated on the gun by the reaction of its moveable parts to the impulse of the gas pressure both
while the projectile is in the tube and while the propelling gases are being exhausted after the projectile exits. The response of
recoil is barrel jump.
The motion of the gun during recoil depends on the balance of momentum between the projectile and its propelling
gases and mass of the gun. So, the equation of momentum balance in the direction of fire is:
Mrecoil = Mproj + Mprop.gas (1)

Where,
Mrecoil = Recoil momentum
Mproj = Projectile momentum
Mprop.gas = Propellant gas momentum
As Momentum = Mass * Velocity, so Eqn (1) can be written as follows:

mrecoilVrecoil = mproj Vproj + mprop.gas Vprop.gas (2)
Vrecoil=(mprojVproj+mprop.gasVprop.gas)/mrecoil (3)
Where,
mrecoil = Mass of recoil, i.e. mass of the recoiling parts (i.e. breech closing mechanism, sighting devices etc.) of the gun
mproj = Mass of the projectile
mprop.gas = Mass of propellant gas, i.e. mass of the charge
Vrecoil = Recoil velocity
Vproj = Velocity of projectile i.e. muzzle velocity
Vprop.gas = Velocity of propellant gas as they leave the muzzle
Again, Velocity = Distance / Time. So Eqn (3) can be written as follows:

(Lrecoil/Trecoil)=(mprojVproj+mprop.gasVprop.gas)/mrecoi (4)
Where,
Lrecoil = Recoil length
Trecoil = Recoil time
There are three main items that influence recoil, they are as follows:
(a) Mass of the moveable parts of the gun
Keeping projectile and charge mass constant, increasing recoil mass, recoil length will be reduced. So heavier the recoil mass
less will be recoil. Length of recoil is inversely proportional to mass of the recoil. So from Eqn (4), we can write,
Lrecoil (1/mrecoil)
(b) Projectile mass

A heavier projectile creates more recoil because it requires a heavier force to move forward and hence a heavier force to the
rear, i.e. length of recoil is directly proportional to mass of the projectile. So from Eqn (4), we can write,
Lrecoil mproj

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(c) Charge mass
Pressure is increased due to the increase in the charge mass as result recoil will be more. So, recoil length is directly
proportional to the charge mass. From Eqn (4), we can write,
Lrecoil mprop.gas
3. DATA MINING
Data mining implies extraction of non-trivial, implicit, previously unknown and potentially useful information from
a huge database. In case of data mining we focus to reveal hidden or unexpected information. A few applications of data mining
from commercial viewpoints are web data, e-commerce, departmental stores, bank, credit card transactions and so on. Plenty
of data is collected through remote sensors of satellite, scientific simulation, weather related data etc., and all are potential
candidates for usage of data mining from scientific viewpoint. In this paper, we will review basics related to On Line
Transactional Processing, Business Intelligent System, On Line Analytical Processing and data warehousing. We will also
discuss important methodologies prevalent in the field of data mining.
Data is stored in relational database, flat file, MS Excel sheet and other types of data structures. The major task of an
operational database system is to perform On Line Transactional Processing (OLTP). OLTP deals with insert, update, delete
and query related to operational database. Data warehouse can be defined as a single, complete and consistent source of data
obtained from a variety of different sources made for usage in a business context. The four main properties of data warehouse
are – data should be subject oriented, integrated, non-volatile and time variant. Business Intelligent System (BIS) allows
companies to make more informed and faster decisions to access and analyze data. Data warehouse is used to support BIS. A
typical example of data warehouse used in BIS is shown in Fig 1.
fig. 1
On Line Analytical Processing (OLAP) helps analyst, managers and executives in Decision Support System (DSS).
Data mining concept is used to explore knowledge from the data warehouse using different methods. OLAP and data mining
both assume data warehouse is already created and available for use.
Data mining is analogous to excavation in the earth for extracting coal, metal or diamond. In data mining the primary
objective is to retrieve hidden information in the data. Formally data mining is extraction of interesting information or patterns
from data in large databases.
A data miner often comes across huge volume of information from which he wants to draw inferences. Time and cost
limitations make it impossible to go through every entry in these enormous datasets. That is when the data miners resort to
sampling techniques. They choose a sample of the dataset and use it for the statistical procedures. The entire dataset is called
the population. A sample is a part of the population that we actually examine to draw conclusions. A good sample should be a
true representation of data. If the sample design is poor it can produce misleading conclusions. Various methods and
techniques are developed to ensure a true sample. Simple random sampling is probably the simplest method for obtaining a

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good sample. A simple random sample is chosen from the population in such a way that every random set have an equal chance
of being chosen as a sample.
To handle missing values in the data, the user has to process the data before any mining method is applied on it. The
user has to detect the missing values in the data and handle them the way he wants, may be, using the mean or median or mode
or a value specified by him.
All datasets are not perfectly numeric. Most of the times they have a few non-numeric columns making it difficult to
apply standard procedures on them. Transform categorical numerical data can be applied on such datasets. These assigned
numeric values are stored in a newly created variable. Thus the string variable is converted into numeric or categorical
variable.
Time series is a set of observations generated sequentially in time. If the set is continuous then the time series is
continuous. If the set is discrete then the time series is discrete. The usage of time series models is twofold. First is to obtain an
understanding of the underlying forces and structure that produced the observed data, and the second is to fit a model and
proceed to forecasting and monitoring.
Linear regression is performed either to predict the response variable based on the predictor variables, or to study the
relationship between the response variable and predictor variables.
Regression Tree
As with all regression techniques we assume the existence of a single output (response) variable and one or more
input (predictor) variables. The output variable is numerical. The general regression tree building methodology allows input
variables to be a mixture of continuous and categorical variables. A decision tree is generated where each decision node in the
tree contains a test on some input variable's value. The terminal nodes of the tree contain the predicted output variable values.
Regression tree may be considered as a variant of decision trees, designed to approximate real-valued functions instead of
being used for classification tasks.
Classification Tree
Classification tree (also known as decision tree) method is a good choice when the data-mining task is classification
or prediction of outcomes and the goal is to generate rules that can be easily understood, explained, and translated into SQL or a
natural query language. Classification tree labels records and assigns them to discrete classes. Classification tree can also
provide the measure of confidence that the classification is correct. Classification tree is built through a process known as
binary recursive partitioning. This is an iterative process of splitting the data into partitions, and then splitting it up further on
each of the branches. Initially, you start with a training set in which the classification label (say, "purchaser" or "non-
purchaser") is known (pre-classified) for each record. All of the records in the training set are together in one big box. The
algorithm then systematically tries breaking up the records into two parts, examining one variable at a time and splitting the
records on the basis of a dividing line in that variable (say, income > Rs 75,000 or income <= Rs 75,000). The object is to attain
as homogeneous set of labels (say, "purchaser" or "non-purchaser") as possible in each partition. This splitting or partitioning
is then applied to each of the new partitions. The process continues until no more useful split can be found. The heart of the
algorithm is the rule that determines the initial split rule.
Association Rules
Association rule mining finds interesting associations and/or correlation relationships among large set of data items.
Association rules show attributes value conditions that occur frequently together in a given dataset. A typical and widely-used
example of association rule mining is Market Basket Analysis. For example, data are collected using bar-code scanners in
supermarkets. Such 'market basket' databases consist of a large number of transaction records. Each record lists all items
bought by a customer on a single purchase transaction. Managers would be interested to know if certain groups of items are
consistently purchased together. They could use this data for adjusting store layouts (placing items optimally with respect to
each other), for cross-selling, for promotions, for catalog design and to identify customer segments based on buying patterns.
Association rules provide information of this type in the form of "if-then" statements. These rules are computed from the data
and, unlike the if-then rules of logic, association rules are probabilistic in nature. In addition to the antecedent (the "if" part) and
the consequent (the "then" part), an association rule has two numbers that express the degree of uncertainty about the rule. In
association analysis the antecedent and consequent are sets of items (called item sets) that are disjoint (do not have any items in
common). The first number is called the 'support' for the rule. The support is simply the number of transactions that include all

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items in the antecedent and consequent parts of the rule. The support is sometimes expressed as a percentage of the total
number of records in the database. The other number is known as the confidence of the rule. 'Confidence' is the ratio of the
number of transactions that include all items in the consequent as well as the antecedent (namely, the support) to the number of
transactions that include all items in the antecedent.
Neural Networks Prediction
Artificial neural networks are relatively crude electronic networks of "neurons" based on the neural structure of the
brain. They process records one at a time, and "learn" by comparing their prediction of the record with the known actual
record. The errors from the initial prediction of the first record is fed back into the network, and used to modify the networks
algorithm the second time around, and so on for many iterations. Roughly speaking, a neuron in an artificial neural network is a
set of input values and associated weights along with a function that sums the weights and maps the results to an output.
Neurons are organized into layers. The input layer is composed not of full neurons, but rather consists simply of the values in a
data record, that constitutes inputs to the next layer of neurons. The next layer is called a hidden layer; there may be several
hidden layers. The final layer is the output layer, where there is one node for each class. A single sweep forward through the
network results in the assignment of a value to each output node, and the record is assigned to whichever class's node had the
highest value.
Cluster Analysis
Cluster Analysis, also called data segmentation, has a variety of goals. All relate to grouping or segmenting a
collection of objects (also called observations, individuals, cases, or data rows) into subsets or "clusters", such that those
within each cluster are more closely related to one another than objects assigned to different clusters. Central to all of the goals
of cluster analysis is the notion of degree of similarity (or dissimilarity) between the individual objects being clustered. There
are two major methods of clustering -- hierarchical clustering and k-means clustering. In hierarchical clustering the data are
not partitioned into a particular cluster in a single step. Instead, a series of partitions takes place, which may run from a single
cluster containing all objects to n clusters each containing a single object. Hierarchical Clustering is subdivided into
agglomerative methods, which proceed by series of fusions of the n objects into groups, and divisive methods, which separate
n objects successively into finer groupings. Hierarchical clustering may be represented by a two-dimensional diagram known
as dendrogram, which illustrates the fusions or divisions made at each successive stage of analysis.
An agglomerative hierarchical clustering procedure produces a series of partitions of the data. At each particular
stage the method joins together the two clusters, which are closest together (most similar). (At the first stage, of course, this
amounts to joining together the two objects that are closest together, since at the initial stage each cluster has one object.)
Differences between methods arise because of the different ways of defining distance (or similarity) between
clusters. Several agglomerative techniques will now be described in detail.
One of the simplest agglomerative hierarchical clustering methods is single linkage, also known as the nearest
neighbor technique. The defining feature of the method is that distance between groups is defined as the distance between the
closest pair of objects, where only pairs consisting of one object from each group are considered.
The complete linkage, also called farthest neighbor, clustering method is the opposite of single linkage. Distance
between groups is now defined as the distance between the most distant pair of objects, one from each group.
Here the distance between two clusters is defined as the average of distances between all pairs of objects, where each
pair is made up of one object from each group.
With this method, groups once formed are represented by their mean values for each variable, that is, their mean
vector, and inter-group distance is now defined in terms of distance between two such mean vectors.
4. K-MEANS CLUSTERING
A non-hierarchical approach to forming good clusters is to specify a desired number of clusters, say, k, then assign
each case (object) to one of k clusters so as to minimize a measure of dispersion within the clusters. A very common measure is
the sum of distances or sum of squared Euclidean distances from the mean of each cluster. The problem can be set up as an
integer-programming problem but because solving integer programs with a large number of variables is time consuming,
clusters are often computed using a fast, heuristic method that generally produces good (but not necessarily optimal) solutions.
The k-means algorithm is one such method.
K-Means Training starts with a single cluster with its center as the mean of the data. This cluster is split into two and

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the means of the new clusters are iteratively trained. These two clusters are again split and the process continues until the
specified number of clusters is obtained. If the specified number of clusters is not a power of two, then the nearest power of two
above the number specified is chosen and then the least important clusters are removed and the remaining clusters are again
iteratively trained to get the final clusters.
When the user specifies random start the algorithm generates the k cluster centers randomly and goes ahead by fitting
the data points in those clusters. This process is repeated for as many random starts as the user specifies and the Best value of
start is found. The outputs based on this value are displayed.
The drawback of standard clustering methods is that they ignore measurement errors, or uncertainty, associated with
the data. If these errors are available, they can play a significant role in improving the clustering decision. This approach to
clustering is called Error based clustering. Error based clustering explicitly incorporates errors associated with data into the
clustering algorithm.
Cluster analysis groups the data set into groups (clusters) based only on information found in the data that describes
the objects and their relationships. The goal is that the objects within a group be similar (or related) to one another and different
from (or unrelated to) the objects in other groups. There are number of clustering techniques, i.e. K-Means, Agglomerative
Hierarchical clustering and DBSCAN. In K-means, we first choose K initial centroids, where K is a user specified parameter,
namely, the number of clusters desired. Each entity in a data set is then assigned to the closest centroid, and each collection of
entities assigned to a centroid is a cluster. The centroid of each cluster is then updated based on the entities assigned to the
cluster. We repeat the assignment and update steps until no entities change clusters, or, until the centroids remain the same. It is
always wise to standardize the data set before applying K-means algorithm to it.
K-Means Algorithm
Step 1: Initialization
Choose the desired number of clusters, K, and tentative centroids c1,c2,……,ck.
Assume initial cluster lists Sk (k=1,….,K) empty.
Step 2: Cluster Update
Given K centroids, determine clusters Sk' (k=1,…….,K) with the minimum distance rule.
Step 3: Stop condition
Check whether S'=S (all entities are assigned or not). If yes, go to Step 4, else go to Step 2.
Step 4: Centroid update
Given cluster Sk (k=1,……,K), calculate within cluster means ck' (k=1,……,K). If ck'=ck then STOP else ckck' and go to Step 2.
In K-means, number of desired clusters (K) and centroids are pre-specified. Here question arises, how can we
determine the value of K and K-centroids! There is one algorithm, which can give the value of K and K-centroids. That
algorithm is known as iK-means i.e. Intelligent K-means, which determines the number of clusters and initial centroids for K-
means. IK-means use Anomalous pattern algorithm iteratively to find the clusters whose centroids are used as the initial
centroids for K-means.
IK-means Algorithm:
Step 1: Setting
Put t=1 and S the original entity set.
Step 2: Anomalous pattern
Apply AP to S to find St and ct. Do Step-1 of AP (standardization of the data) at each t or only at t=1, second one is preferable.
Step 3: Control
If St=S (so that there are no unclustered entities left) does not hold, put SS-St and tt+1 and go to Step 1.
Step 4: K-means
Do K-means with c1, c2, …….., ck as initial centroids.
Anomalous Pattern Algorithm:
Step 1: Pre-processing
Specify a reference point a=(a1,…..an) (data grand mean) and standardize the original data using the following formula:
yiv=(xiv-av)/bv
Where, xiv=data from X of ith row and vth column.
av=grand mean of tha data
bv=Range of the data

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Y=Standardized matrix
X=Original data matrix
Step 2: Initial setting
Put a tentative centroid, c, as an entity, that is the most distant from the origin, 0.
Step 3: Cluster update
Determine cluster S around c against the only other centroid 0 with the Minimum distance rule so that yi is assigned to S if
d(yi,c)<d(yi,0).
Calculate the within S mean c' and check whether it differs from the previous centroid c. If c' and c do differ, update the centroid
by assigning c c' and return to Step 3. Otherwise, go to 5.
Step 5: Output
Output list S and centroid c.
Example
Let us consider a data set I (Masterpiece data), i.e. data in Table 1. Data in this table reflect the language and style
features of eight novels by three great writers. Feature of language :
1) LenSent – Average length of (no of words in) sentences.

2) LenDial – Average length of (number of sentences in) dialogues. (It is assumed that longer dialogues are needed
if the author uses dialogue as a device to convey information or ideas to the reader.)
Feature of Style are:

1) NChar – Number of principal characters (larger the number the more themes raised).
2) SCon – Yes or No depending on the usage of the stream of conscience techniques.
3) Narrative – The narrative style is a qualitative feature categorized as : (a) Personal , (b) Objective, © Direct.
Title LenSent LenDial NChar Scon Narrative

Oliver Twist 19.0 43.7 2 No Objective
Dombey and Son 29.4 36.0 3 No Objective
Great Expectations 23.9 38.0 3 No Personal
Tom Sawyer 18.4 27.9 2 Yes Objective
Huckleberry Finn 25.7 22.3 3 Yes Personal
Yankee at King 12.1 16.9 2 Yes Personal
Arthur
War and Peace 23.9 30.2 4 Yes Direct
Anna Karenina 27.2 58.0 5 Yes Direct
TABLE 1: Masterpiece data of 19th century: the first three by Charles Dickens, the next three by Mark Twain, and the last two
by Leo Tolstoy.
Standardization of Data
Before applying K-means algorithm to data it is very necessary to standardize the data.
Let us represent the Masterpiece data as I={i1, i2 …..,in} with n data or entities, here n=8.
The standardization process is explained below in two steps:
Step 1: Quantitatively enveloping categories
This stage is to convert a mixed data table into a quantitative matrix by treating every qualitative category as a
separate dummy variable coded by 1 or 0 depending on whether an entity falls into the category or not. Quantitative features
are left as they are. The converted data table will be denoted as X=(xiv), i I and, v V, where V is set of columns of I.
For example, if an attribute takes value like 'yes' or 'no', then we can replace that value by '1' or '0' respectively.

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In Masterpiece data SCon and Narrative contains qualitative value. We have to convert that into quantitative matrix.
So, 'Yes – No' can be replaced by 1 and 0 respectively. Narrative column is divided into three columns, i.e. Objective, Personal
and Direct. All the columns are represented by their short name in the following table. Column OB will take value 1 for first
three rows because; in the above table only first three rows have narrative value 'Objective'. Similarly Personal and Direct
columns are assigned with integer value. Quantitative representation of data in Table 1 is given in Table 2.
Entity LS LD NC SC OB PE DI
1 19.0 43.7 2 0 1 0 0
2 29.4 36.0 3 0 1 0 0
3 23.9 38.0 3 0 0 1 0
4 18.4 27.9 2 1 1 0 0
5 25.7 22.3 3 1 0 1 0
6 12.1 16.9 2 1 0 1 0
7 23.9 30.2 4 1 0 0 1
8 27.2 58.0 5 1 0 0 1
TABLE 2: Quantitative representation of the Masterpiece data
Here n is 8.
LS = LenSent, LD = LenDial, NC = NChar, SC = SCon, OB = Objective
PE = Personal, DI = Direct.
Step 2: Standardization
This stage aims at transforming feature columns of the data matrix to make them comparable by shifting their origins
to av and rescaling them by bv, vV, thus to create standardized matrix Y=(yiv);
Yiv =(xiv – av) / bv, iE I, vE V
After applying above rule to data in Table 2, we get range standardized data, given in Table 3.
Entity LS LD NC SC OB PE DI
1 -0.20 0.23 -0.33 -0.63 0.36 -0.22 -0.14
2 0.40 0.05 0.0 -0.63 0.36 -0.22 -0.14
3 0.08 0.09 0.0 -0.63 -0.22 0.36 -0.14
4 -0.23 -0.15 -0.33 0.38 0.36 -0.22 -0.14
5 0.19 -0.29 0.0 0.38 -0.22 0.36 -0.14
6 -0.60 -0.42 -0.33 0.38 -0.22 0.36 -0.14
7 0.08 -0.10 0.33 0.38 -0.22 -0.22 0.43
8 0.27 0.58 0.67 0.38 -0.22 -0.22 0.43
TABLE 3: Range standardized Masterpiece matrix.

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Distance Rule
The distance between two M-dimensional vectors, x=(x1,x2,……,xM) and y=(y1,y2,……,yM) , will be defined as the
sum of the component-wise differences squared:
d(x,y) = (x1-y1)2 + (x2-y2)2 + ……….. + (xM – yM)2
Minimum distance Rule

Minimum distance rule assigns each of the entities to its nearest centroid. Centroid is the mean of a cluster.
Clustering Using K-Means Algorithm

K-means is a major clustering technique producing a partition of the entity set or data set into K non-overlapping
clusters represented by lists of entities and within cluster means of the variable. The means are aggregate representations of
clusters and they are sometimes referred to as centroids or gravity center of the clusters. The cluster structure is represented by
subsets Sk I and M-dimensional centroids ck = (ckv), k=1,….., K. Subsets Sk form partitions S= {S1,…..,SK}with a set of
centroids c={c1,…….., cK}.
Important steps corresponding to K-means algorithm are described below:
Let us consider one example of Masterpiece data.
Step 1: Initialization
Choose the desired number of clusters, K, and tentative centroids c1,c2,……,ck.
Assume initial cluster lists Sk empty.
Let K = 3 and pre-specified centroids are given in Table 4.
Cl. Mean
LS LD NC SC OB PE DI
1 0.1 0.13 -0.11 -0.63 0.17 -0.03 -0.14
2 -0.22 -0.29 -0.22 0.38 -0.03 0.17 -0.14
3 0.18 0.24 0.5 0.38 -0.22 -0.22 0.43
TABLE 4: K initial centroids
Step 2: Cluster Update

Given K centroids, determine clusters Sk' (k=1…K) with the minimum distance rule. Means for an entity yi, calculate
d(yi,ck) for all ck (k=1…,K). Minimum distance rule assigns the entity yi to centroid ck (and to Sk) having minimum distance
from it.
Let us compute distances from entity 1 to all 3 centroids.
For mean 1(c1):
d(i1,c1) = (-0.20 - 0.01)2 + (0.23 - 0.13)2 + (-0.33 - -0.11)2 + (-0.63 - -0.63)2 + (0.36 - 0.17)2 + (-0.22 - -0.03)2 + (-0.14 - -0.14)2 =
0.23
d(i1,c2) = 1.61
d(i1,c3) = 2.52
Find minimum of 3 distances, i.e. MIN(0.23,1.61,2.52) = 0.23
This implies i1 is assigned to centroid c1, i.e. S1.
Similarly all other 7 entities are assigned to any one centroid using Minimum distance rule and the assignment is given below:
c1 ←i2 , c1 ←i3 , c2 ←i4 , c2 ←i5 , c2 ←i6 , c3 ←i7 , c3 ←i8
Step 3: Stop condition
Check whether S'=S (all entities are assigned or not). If yes, go to Step 4, else go to Step 2.
After assigning i1 to c1, i.e. S1, algorithm will check whether this element is last entity in the entity set. If yes, then

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algorithm goes to Step 4 otherwise goes to Step 2. Till entity e7 this step follows Step 2. At e8 the condition evaluates to true and
control goes to Step 4.
Given cluster Sk, calculate within cluster means ck' (k=1,……,K). If ck'=ck then STOP else ckck' and go to Step 2.
Computation of cluster centroids is as follows:
So clusters are as follows:
S1 = {e1 , e2 , e3}
S2 = {e4, e5, e6 }
S3 = {e7, e8 }
Cl Mean
LS LD NC SC OB PE DI
1 (c1’) 0.1 0.13 -0.11 -0.63 0.17 -0.03 -0.14
2 (c2’) -0.22 -0.29 -0.22 0.38 -0.03 0.17 -0.14
3 (c3’) 0.18 0.24 0.5 0.38 -0.22 -0.22 0.43
TABLE 5: Centroids of S1, S2 and S3 of Masterpiece data
Centroids of above clusters are given in Table 5.

Now, comparing ck=ck' we got it is true. So the above clusters are final clusters after applying K-means to the data set I.
Thus, from the above example we have found that, K-means algorithm has clusterd the masterpiece data into three
clusters. Those clusters are author-based.
K-means is based on a simplistic claim that entities can be represented by their cluster's centroids.
5. ANALYSIS AND TEST RESULTS OF GUN RECOIL

This section illustrates some of the test results of gun recoil using K-Means Algorithm.
Table 6 contains 29 entities and each entity provides recoil data related to a gun having following parameters:
W – Weight of the shell or projectile in Kg
C – Charge mass in Kg
MV – Muzzle Velocity in M/s
RL – Recoil length in Mm
P – Pressure in Mpa
RM – Recoil mass in Tone

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SN W C MV RL P RM
1 40.8 7.2 565.7 808 179.2 2.4
2 40.8 7.2 563.8 775 177 2.4
3 40.8 7.2 566.9 800 180.5 2.4
4 40.8 7.2 560.8 880 173.3 2.4
5 40.8 7.2 564.9 880 176.5 2.4
6 40.8 7.2 566.4 780 168.7 2.4
7 40.8 10.5 688.4 998 222.5 2.4
8 40.8 10.5 692.4 965 224 2.4
9 40.8 10.5 718.7 945 228.5 2.4
10 40.8 10.5 691.3 960 230 2.4
11 40.8 10.5 706.9 1075 247.5 2.4
12 40.8 10.5 703.5 1100 233.7 2.4
13 40.8 10.5 699.9 1075 240 2.4
14 42.84 15 882.5 1270 365 2.4
15 42.84 15.2 891.3 1190 363.5 2.4
16 42.84 15.2 888.7 1280 372 2.4
17 42.84 15.4 894.2 1255 390 2.4
18 42.84 15.4 902.5 805 377.7 2.4
19 42.84 15.7 929.3 1285 428.2 2.4
20 42.84 15.8 914.2 1275 417 2.4
21 42.84 15.8 924.2 1290 421.5 2.4
22 42.84 15.9 943.3 1245 434.5 2.4
23 42.84 16 933.3 835 421 2.4
24 42.84 29.2 879.2 1270 362 2.4
25 42.84 29.6 908.4 1275 383 2.4
26 42.84 30 905.7 1272 399 2.4
27 42.84 30 919.7 1280 424 2.4
28 42.84 30.8 926.9 1280 427.3 2.4
29 42.84 31 938.4 1280 440.5 2.4
TABLE 6: Recoil data

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Standardized data of recoil data is given in Table 7.
SN W C MV RL P
1 -0.56 -0.36 -0.59 -0.54 -0.5
2 -0.56 -0.36 -0.59 -0.6 -0.51
3 -0.56 -0.36 -0.58 -0.56 -0.5
4 -0.56 -0.36 -0.6 -0.4 -0.52
5 -0.56 -0.36 -0.59 -0.4 -0.51
6 -0.56 -0.36 -0.59 -0.59 -0.54
7 -0.56 -0.22 -0.27 -0.17 -0.34
8 -0.56 -0.22 -0.26 -0.24 -0.34
9 -0.56 -0.22 -0.19 -0.27 -0.32
10 -0.56 -0.22 -0.26 -0.25 -0.31
11 -0.56 -0.22 -0.22 -0.02 -0.25
12 -0.56 -0.22 -0.23 0.04 -0.3
13 -0.56 -0.22 -0.24 -0.02 -0.28
14 0.45 -0.03 0.25 0.37 0.19
15 0.45 -0.02 0.27 0.21 0.19
16 0.45 -0.02 0.27 0.39 0.22
17 0.45 -0.01 0.28 0.34 0.28
18 0.45 -0.01 0.3 -0.55 0.24
19 0.45 0.01 0.37 0.4 0.42
20 0.45 0.01 0.33 0.38 0.38
21 0.45 0.01 0.36 0.41 0.4
22 0.45 0.02 0.41 0.32 0.45
23 0.45 0.02 0.38 -0.49 0.4
24 0.45 0.58 0.24 0.37 0.18
25 0.45 0.59 0.32 0.38 0.26
26 0.45 0.61 0.31 0.37 0.32
27 0.45 0.61 0.35 0.39 0.41
28 0.45 0.64 0.37 0.39 0.42
29 0.45 0.65 0.4 0.39 0.47
TABLE 7: Standardized recoil data
Since recoil mass value is constant, we have not considered it in the standardized data and in further calculation. After
applying IK-means and K-Means Algorithm to data set in Table 7, we got 3 clusters. They are as follows:
S1={14,15,16,17,19,20,21,22,24,25,26,27,28,29}
S2={18,23}
S3={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13}
Their centroids are given in Table 8.
Cluster W C MV RL P
S1(Original) 42.84 21.76 910.43 1267.65 401.97
(Standard) 0.45 0.27 0.33 0.37 0.33
S2(Original) 42.84 15.7 917.9 820 399.35
(Standard) 0.45 0.01 0.34 -0.52 0.32
S3(Original) 40.8 8.98 637.67 926.24 206.27
(Standard) -0.56 -0.29 -0.41 -0.31 -0.41
TABLE 8: Centroids of three clusters of Recoil data

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The three clusters of recoil data, S1, S2 and S3 are given in Table 9, Table 10 and Table 11 respectively.
SN W C MV RL P RM
14 42.84 15 882.5 1270 365 2.4
15 42.84 15.2 891.3 1190 363.5 2.4
16 42.84 15.2 888.7 1280 372 2.4
17 42.84 15.4 894.2 1255 390 2.4
19 42.84 15.7 929.3 1285 428.2 2.4
20 42.84 15.8 914.2 1275 417 2.4
21 42.84 15.8 924.2 1290 421.5 2.4
22 42.84 15.9 943.3 1245 434.5 2.4
24 42.84 29.2 879.2 1270 362 2.4
25 42.84 29.6 908.4 1275 383 2.4
26 42.84 30 905.7 1272 399 2.4
27 42.84 30 919.7 1280 424 2.4
28 42.84 30.8 926.9 1280 427.3 2.4
29 42.84 31 938.4 1280 440.5 2.4
Table 9: Cluster S1 of Recoil data
SN W C MV RL P RM
18 42.84 15.4 902.5 805 377.7 2.4
23 42.84 16 933.3 835 421 2.4
SN W C MV RL P RM
1 40.8 7.2 565.7 808 179.2 2.4
2 40.8 7.2 563.8 775 177 2.4
3 40.8 7.2 566.9 800 180.5 2.4
4 40.8 7.2 560.8 880 173.3 2.4
5 40.8 7.2 564.9 880 176.5 2.4
6 40.8 7.2 566.4 780 168.7 2.4
7 40.8 10.5 688.4 998 222.5 2.4
8 40.8 10.5 692.4 965 224 2.4
9 40.8 10.5 718.7 945 228.5 2.4
10 40.8 10.5 691.3 960 230 2.4
11 40.8 10.5 706.9 1075 247.5 2.4
12 40.8 10.5 703.5 1100 233.7 2.4
13 40.8 10.5 699.9 1075 240 2.4
The center of all the clusters can be used to determine the behavioral pattern of gun recoil without conducting dynamic trials.

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6. CONCLUSION
In this paper attempt was made to analyze gun dynamics related parameters using cluster analysis. In the process,
brief description related to gun dynamics, data mining and K-means algorithm were briefly discussed.
REFERENCES
1. Fayyad and Uthurusamy, Data mining and knowledge discovery in databases, ACM Communication, 39, 24-27, 39,
1996
2. Inmon: The data warehouse and data mining, ACM Communication, 39, 49-50, 1996
3. Zadeh Fuzzy logic, neural networks, and soft computing, ACM Communication, 37, 77-84, 1994
4. Tickle, Andrews, Golea and Diederich, The truth will come to light: Directions and challenges in extracting the
knowledge embedded within trained artificial neural network, IEEE Transactions on Neural Network, 9, 1057-1068,
1998
5. Mitra and Hayashi Neuro-fuzzy rule generation: Survey in soft computing framework, IEEE Transactions on Neural
Network, 11, 748-768, 2000
6. Boris Mirkin, Clustering for Data Mining – A Data Recovery Approach, ISBN – L –58488-534-3.
7. Carlucci Jacobson, Ballistics: Theory and Design of Guns and Ammunition, p-153-158, ISBN-L-4200-6618-8.
8. Hand, Mannila, and Smyth, Principles of Data Mining, ISBN-0-262-08290-X.

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ADVANCED MINIATURE PRECISION EFFECTORS

Dr Ronnie Fleming, Dr George McConnell
Thales, Alanbrooke Road, Belfast, BT6 9HB
ABSTRACT
This paper provides a brief overview of Thales' background and expertise in the design, development,
integration and qualification of small-scale precision effectors.
In particular it highlights the technology capabilities of the miniature Starstreak hittile system and
subsystems and the challenges posed in the guidance and control of small-scale precision
effectors.Requirements specific to guided munitions are also described.
The miniaturised subsystems used in small precision guided effectors include electronics, power
supplies, electro-optic sensors, inertial sensors, actuators, warhead & fuze and Laser Beam Riding
Guidance. Each laser beam riding (LBR) hittile is an independent miniature precision guided weapon.
The Thales Research programme focuses on further miniaturisation of guidance components and
technologies; launch shock ruggedisation of components; use of COTS sensors and actuators to minimise
costs; suitable airframe design given L/D restrictions; use of aerodynamic prediction codes to predict
airframe performance characteristics; and packaging requirements.

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GUIDANCE FOR PERPENDICULAR HIT FOR SHAPED

CHARGE WARHEAD
Pankaj Kumar Jha, BVSS Krishna Kumar, PV Yogi,

Naval Science and Technological Laboratory
Visakhapatnam, A.P.
ABSTRACT
Impact angle constrained guidance has become an active area of research in the present decade for anti-submarine and
anti-ship torpedoes. In this paper a new guidance scheme for 90 degree impact angle is proposed which does not involve target
acceleration. To solve the problem, estimated target motion parameters during the mid course guidance phase has been given as
the input to the guidance scheme and torpedo aims the target by predicting its course to hit normal to the broadside. In this
approach first, the torpedo is driven away from the target in a predetermined course and finally straight run normal to the target.
Detailed simulation studies are carried out for different target and torpedo geometries. It works for all angle of approach and all
target velocity.
NOMENCLATURE
Vm - Torpedo velocity Vt -Target velocity
Tm-Torpedo heading Tt -Target heading
LOS - Line of sight R - Line of sight separation
B - Line of sight angle ? -First arc angle
Ö-Diffrence between torpedo and target course
á-Diffrence between LOS and target course
1. INTRODUCTION
Impact Angle and Modern Torpedo and Torpedo Applications

Classical guidance laws like the Proportional Navigation (PN), pursuit or Deviated pursuit guidance are derived with
the objective to reduce the distance between the torpedo and the target to zero. However, zero miss distance does not always
guarantee the fulfillment of a guidance goal. In the design of a guidance system for certain anti-submarine or anti-ship Torpedo
the terminal impact angle should be close to pi/2 radians for increased warhead effect and high kill probability. For underwater
or ground based targets the lethality of a guided torpedo or missile is very critical to the vertical impact angle. A recent
example is the “bunker buster”, used by American forces in the Afghanistan war, which hits the target almost perpendicularly
for maximum penetration.
In this paper the above application is discussed. Non-maneuvering targets are considered with the desired terminal impact
angle of pi/2 radians.
Guidance requirement for the shaped charge

The maximum effect of shaped charge warhead is possible if it hits normal to the broadside of target. So torpedo needs
to be guided on such a trajectory so that it can hit the target perpendicular with an allowable limit of 30deg in the three
dimensions. The following figure gives idea about the required terminal impact for shaped charge warhead.

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Fig. 1
Proposed two dimensional trajectory
Maximum effect of shaped charge warhead is possible if it hits normal to the target. So torpedo needs to be guided on
such a trajectory so that it can hit the target perpendicular with an allowable limit of 30deg in space. For this a good estimate of
target motion parameters, at an appropriate standoff distance is required so that torpedo can deviate and hit the target at
predicted position. The proposed guidance scheme, the target is intercepted at a predicted position by using the estimated target
motion parameters. Under this guidance torpedo will no longer be under homing control. It deviates from the original guided
course (Pursuit, DPC or PNG) and tries to aim at the predicted position of the target.The guidance scheme take estimated target
motion parameters as input to the algorithm and Turn rate and time are computed.
Trajectory planning
The intercept geometry has three phases:
i) Turning away from the target in a circular path for a computed time and computed angle.
ii) Turning in the reverse direction in a circular path so as to come normal to the target direction.
iii) Run straight so as to make an impact normal to the target broadside.
So the guided trajectory will look like a double arced one as show in the figure

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2. ASSUMPTION MADE FOR MODELING

1) Target is non-maneuvering
2) Model are kinematic models only, dynamics are not considered
3) Target and torpedo trajectory are considered in horizontal plane (Azimuth Plane).
Generalized Geometric Solution:

To solve the problem geometric methods are used. First the Turning arc angle is computed and consequently turn rate, total
time and radius are obtained. Straight run distance of the trajectory is equated to zero for optimal trajectory. Problem is solved
using the general target-torpedo geometry as shown in figure below where torpedo looks the target at certain angle with initial
range i.e. standoff distance R.

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From figure
OD=AA' +CC' (3.1)
(3.2)
DC=BC’=RSiná – CA’= RSiná – (C’B’ – AB’) (3.3)
Putting values in equation 3.3
Value of DC should be either zero or positive, hence DC is taken as zero for optimum
time.
DC=0 (3.6)
Equation 3.2, 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6 are solved for
Simplifying the constants of the final equation
(3.7)
(3.8)
C= 2 Vt sin á
Let
C= 2 Vt sin á (3.9)
(3.10)
(3.11)
(3.12)

Then we have
(3.13)
Solution of above equation gives quadratic in ? which gives two value of ? , the best
value of ? can be chosen using the optimality condition.
Calculation of arc radius
Using equation 3.2, 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6 radius of the arc is achieved and given by
(3.7)
Calculation of Turn rate:
(3.8)
Similarly the time of terminal guidance can obtained from equation (3.5)
3. SIMULATION STUDIES
The algorithm is validated for different velocities of target (8, 10 and 12m/s) and different target and torpedo bearings ranging
from 00 to 3600.All combinations of inputs are tested. Some of the simulation results are illustrated here with the plots.
The simulation results have been explained using the four cases. Each case contains two engagement geometry.
Case1. The result of tail chase case is shown without and with offset angle
Tm 900 90 0
Tt 900 90 0
B(LOS) 900 1300
R 200 m 200m
Vm 25 m/s 25 m/s
Vt 12 m/s 12 m/s
4.1
S4.10 / 5
Case2. Result of head on case is shown with and with offset angle
0 0
Tm 90 90
0 0
Tt 270 270
0 0
B(LOS) 90 110
R 200 m 200m
Vm 25 m/s 25 m/s
Vt 12 m/s 12 m/s
Case3. Approaching target with same course either side 4.2
Tm 00 00
Tt 150 0 1500
B(LOS) 400 -400
R 200 m 200m
Vm 25 m/s 25 m/s
Vt 12 m/s 12 m/s
Case 4. Receding target with same course either side
Tm 00 00
Tt 600 600
B(LOS) +400 -400
R 200 m 200m
Vm 25 m/s 25 m/s
Vt 12 m/s 12 m/s
S4.10 / 6
4. DISCUSSION
Proposed guidance scheme is tested against the non maneuvering target .The concept of double arced trajectory is numerically
verified and the importance of standoff distance R is analysed.The standoff distance can be decided online by onboard
computer which depends upon the maximum available turn rate. The scheme is tested against the wide range of initial
condition.
5. CONCLUSION
Algorithm is validated for all possible combination of inputs for non-maneuvering targets and standoff distance R was varied
upto minimum requirement. Miss distance and time of terminal guidance impact angle for all the cases were analyzed and
found to be within the acceptable limits.
6. FUTURE WORK
1. Target maneuver has to be included
2. Extension to three dimensions
3. Vehicle dynamics has to be introduced
4. Other possible trajectory
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to acknowledge the ideas and support given by Sri BVSS Krishna Kumar and Sri P.V. Yogi with the help of whom I
performed the studies of this algorithm.
REFERENCES
[1] Report on Estimation of Target Motion Parameter and Terminal Guidance by P.V.Yogi,Sc-G and B.V.S.S Krishna
Kumar,Sc-F,NSTL,Visakhapatnam
[2] Biased PNG law for impact with angular constraint by BYUNG SOO KIM, Student, IEEE,JANG GW LEE, Member,
IEEE,Seoul National University,Korea,HYUNG SEOK HAN, Member, IEEE Soonchunhyang University Korea
[3] Impact Angle Control for Planar Engage Engagement by T.L. song,S.J.Shin and H Cho,IEEE Transaction on Aerospace and
Electronic system,Vol 35 NO.4Oct 1999,pp-1439-1444
S4.10 / 7
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TESTING AND REVALIDATION OF IMPORTED

CARTRIDGE PDO - 1 FOR Su - 30 FIGHTER AIRCRAFT
AD Shaikh, YB Salkar, BA Parate, Virendra Kumar and DK Kharat

ABSTRACT
Power Cartridges is the important asset and plays vital role for safe escape of the pilot in emergencies. This paper
highlight the methodology of installed life expired cartridges of import origin, and their testing and performance evaluation
after subjecting at laboratory tests. All the results after tests were found successful. An attempt has been made to enhance the
installed life of these cartridges so as to avoid large grounding of Su - 30 aircraft in consultation with type approving agency.
This paper describes in detail the life extension aspects of power cartridges and can be applied to other cartridges.
KEY WORDS : Closed Vessel, Re-validation, Force Constant and Life Extension
NOTATIONS
A Surface area of the vessel, m2 P Maximum pressure obtained from P-t curve, MPa
C Charge weight of propellant, g s The allowable tensile stress, MPa
D Internal diameter of vessel, m Ta Ambient temperature, k0
Dm Major diameter of the thread t Time when propellant burns, milli second
dm Minor diameter of the thread tc Minimum thickness of closed vessel body
F Force constant of Initiatory composition
/ Pyro composition, J/g V Chamber volume, m3
L Effective length of chamber, m Greek Symbols
l Thread length Constant, 3.147
Fraction of charge burnt (at all burnt = 1)
1. INTRODUCTION
Power Cartridges are used to operate various systems in all modern fighter aircraft. Power cartridges are called as
Propellant Actuated Devices (PADs) and are used to perform various vital roles like Pilot Seat Ejection, Electric Igniter, Fire
Extinguisher System operations, Ejector Release Unit operations, Signaling, Recocking Defa gun, Cable cutting operations
etc in the aircraft system. ARDE has a strong base in the field of design, development and pilot scale production of power
cartridges used for safe escape of pilot from endangered aircraft in a shortest possible time during emergency. ARDE has been
undertaking number of re-validation programmes for various indigenous / imported cartridges, mainly due to [1]:-
- Non availability of cartridges from OEM
- Production holdups in indigenous cartridges
- Matching the life of cartridges in the set
- Expiry of installed / total life of cartridges.

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ARDE has undertaken the testing, performance evaluation on imported life expired escape aid cartridge,
PDO-1, Electric Igniter for use in SU-30 MK-I aircraft. The installed life of some of the cartridges was expired.
Performance evaluation trial for re-validation of life up to 4 months of these cartridges were conducted in suitable
designed test vessel. Re-validation of life expired cartridges is carried out in association with type approving agency [2].
The total life of 20 years was assigned by OEM. Cartridge, PDO-1, Electric Igniter is electrically initiated which is used
as the gas generator for the seat stabilization system as an energy source to provide the deployment of the stabilizing
booms with the parachutes and various other operations during the seat ejection process in the Su-30 aircraft. The photo
and cut section of the cartridge is depicted in Fig (a) and (b) respectively. This cartridge consists of body, housing and
squib bridge wire assembly. The electrically soldered bridge assembly is housed in a moulded plug. The objective of this
paper is to carry out re-validation of Life Expired cartridge, PDO-1, Electric Igniter of SU-30 MK-I of installed life
cartridges.
Fig. 1(a) : Photo of the cartridge Fig. 1(b) : Cut section of the cartridge
A Closed Vessel (CV) was fabricated to simulate the volume available in the aircraft. Closed Vessel is test
equipment used to simulate the actual volume available in the aircraft system where the cartridge is fitted. Closed Vessel
is one of the methodology / technique from which energy generated by Power Cartridge is measured in terms of
maximum pressure (P) and Time to maximum Pressure (TPmax) developed in the vessel. When the initiatory
composition burns inside the vessel, a large quantity of gas is generated. The energy released by initiatory compositions
undergoes several conversions. The chemical energy of initiatory composition is converted into internal energy /heat
energy of gas. Since the technical manual, electrical and other design parameters, of the Imported 812K/31, cartridge,
PDO-1, Electric Igniter were not readily available, it was therefore considered necessary to generate data and establish
initial required parameters as a Qualitative Requirements by conducting closed vessel trials in consultation with RCMA
(AA), Type Approving Authority.
2. DESIGN OF TEST VESSEL

Criterion for Selection of Pressure in the design of Closed Vessel: Generally it is observed that if the volume of the
aircraft system (which in this case is 7 to10 CC) is simulated, the pressure range is very high and hence unsafe for
repeated use. The basic criterions in designing a test vessel are that it should withstand all firing stresses and safe handling
and transport [3]. From experience it was observed that a pressure range of 20 to 30 MPa was safe on this account. The
design of the CV was made accordingly assuming safe working pressure of 20 ± 20% MPa.
The cartridge chamber pressure was calculated by using following formula assuming safe chamber working volume of
10 cm3, pressure of 20 ± 20% MPa. PV = F C f
F C
V = f -------- (1)
P

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After calculating the chamber volume, the length and diameter of chamber can be worked out
V =
A L -------- (2)
L pD2
where »
2 and A=
D 4
Once the inner diameter of the CV is known, the minimum thickness required for the CV is estimated using the
following CLAVARIONS EQUATION
s+
(1 -2m)P
tc =
0 .5D 1 -------- (3)
-
s-(1 +
m)P
The cylindrical chamber of the CV was secured with End Plug and Cartridge Holder on either side. These components
are screwed in and length of thread is calculated from the following formulae.
2
2P D
l =m -------- (4)
s dm
By selecting the suitable length and inner diameter of the effective part of the chamber, the chamber volume works out
to 10 cm3 as calculated considering requirement of repeated use. STEEL to Specn IS: 5517 Grade 40Ni2Cr1Mo28
was selected for manufacture of the vessel. It can be easily verified from the design drawings that everywhere a safety
factor more than 20 was maintained.
Using various formulae mentioned, the expected pressure in CV was 20 to 30 MPa whereas pressure measured during
Proof Parameter Evaluation Trials was 18.33 to 22.09 MPa on account of heat losses.
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST SET UP

The Design Team has successfully established the method of measurement of Pressure-Time (P-T) and
ignition delay by conducting in-house trials using closed vessel of 10cc volume. Design and manufacturing of closed
vessel was completed in a very short period. A closed vessel was designed for generation of data on Pressure-time
characteristics of Cartridge PDO-1. The equipment devised by the Instrumentation team was found suitable for
carrying out measurement of P-t parameters. Fig-2 (a) shows cut section of the closed vessel and Fig 2(b) shows
instrumentation set up for measurement of various parameters.
Amplifiers Oscilloscope
Fig - 2 (a) : Cut Section of the Closed Vessel

Fig - 2 (b) : Instrumentation set up

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4. DETAILS OF LIFE EXTENSION TESTS

Qty 30 Nos of Imported 812K/31,cartridge, PDO-1, Electric Igniter were subjected for environmental trials like Air Exposure
(8U) and subsequently followed by vibration tests (17U). The details of Air Exposure (8U) tests are [4]:-
Store subjected to 2, 6, & 10 two day cycles of the following conditions: -
17 hours at : 650 C ± 20 C
1hour at : 150 C ± 20 C and 75 % ± 5% RH
3 hours at : 650 C ± 20 C
3 hours at : 150 C ± 20 C and 75 % ± 5% RH
17 hours at : 700 C ± 20 C and 50 % ± 5% RH
7 hours at : 150 C ± 20 C and 75% ± 5% RH
Vibration Tests (17U) : Random vibration from 70-2000 Hz with acceleration spectrum density of 0.03g2/Hz, 30
minutes in each axis. Vibration graph is shown in Fig 3 (a).
5. OPERATING PROCEDURE OF CV FIRING

Fix the closed vessel assembly on to a rigid table using nut & bolt. Assemble the Pressure Gauge Adapter and End Plug at
respective places of the Vessel Body. Keep one end of Cable shorted i.e. near the firing stand and connect the other end of the
firing cable to the DC Power Pack Unit with a Contact Breaker in the firing circuit to keep the firing circuit open as a safety
measure. Remove the Safety Firing Key (SFK) from the Contact Breaker as a safety measure. Put “ON” Power Supply and
insert the SFK in the Contact Breaker to complete the circuit and set DC Power Pack Unit to read 27V, DC and 2 Amps before
firing. Put “OFF” Power Supply and remove SFK. To fire the cartridge, assemble the cartridge to Closed Vessel. Assemble
cartridge to test vessel. Now connect the contact pins of the leads of one end of the firing cable to the 6 Pin Connector Assembly
of cartridge. As the set-up is ready for firing, first switch 'ON' Power Supply and ensure DC Power Pack to read 27 V, DC. On
application of specified electrical energy, initiates an explosive train in which they are assembled. Thus gases are produced.
The gauge produce a voltage proportional to the input charge. The signal is recorded in the form of Pressure-Time curve on
oscilloscope, which is shown in Fig. 3 . Disconnect the leads of the firing cable from the fired cartridge and short the leads of
Firing Cable [5].
Fig. 3 : P-T curve

Qty 20 Nos (10 Nos each at Hot + 600 C & Cold - 400 C) were withdrawal as per Flow Chart shown in Fig 4 and fired in closed
vessel (10 cc) for data generation as acceptance parameters and for considering extension of installed life with ARDE
Instrumentation set up, in association with RCMA (AA), Pune. The following proof limits were generated for maximum
pressure and time to max pressure as a basic data for further trials i.e. for pressure 15.90 to 21.72 MPa and 0.226 to 0.741 ms for
time in hot 600 temperature and 16.80 to 23.73MPa and 0.247 to 0.6306ms in cold – 400 temperature respectively.
Conditions Maximum Pressure Time to Pmax

Pmax (MPa) (ms)
Hot 600 C 15.90 to 21.72 0.226 to 0.741
Cold – 400 C 16.80 to 23.73 0.247 to 0.6306
Qty 20 Nos Qty 10 Nos

Qty 50 Nos
Data generation 2 cycles of ISAT (6U)
Received from
Air Force followed by 17 U
Firing in
Closed Vessel
Qty 10 Nos Qty 10 Nos

6 cycles of ISAT (6U) 10 cycles of ISAT (6U)
followed by 17 U followed by 17 U
Fig. 4 : Flow Chart for life extension
Qty 10 Nos of each were withdrawn after 2, 6 and 10 cycles of 8U Exposure Air followed by vibration tests (17U). The
performance of the cartridges in hot and cold was satisfactory within the specified proof limits. Graphical representation of
these parameters after cycles is shown in Chart - I.
The measurement of Resistances, Pressure-Time characteristics, Ignition delay and current levels, has been carried out
successfully and the required data on imported cartridges was generated.
As brought out during the post trial discussions, firing trials were carried out to confirm satisfactory functioning of the
Cartridge PDO-1 after each withdrawal of environmental trials like Air Exposure tests, Vibration tests and CV firing trials.
After data generation in closed vessel, proof limits laid down in hot and cold conditions. Results of life extension trials were
within specified proof limits.
All the trials were carried out as per Joint Service Guide and Ordnance Board Proceeding [6].
S4.11 / 5
3 2.5
2.5 2
TPm ax, Dela y,Resi stance

TPmax, Del ay, Resi stance.
2
TPmax 1.5 TPmax
1.5 Delay Delay
Resistance 1 Resistance
1
0.5
0.5
0 0
Pmax MPa 20 19.79 20 18.54 18.33 Pmax MPa 19.38 18.75 19.17 18.33 18.33
CHART - I
7. CONCLUSIONS
Based on Air HQ request, ARDE undertook life extension. The purpose of ageing trials was to ensure that the cartridge would
function satisfactorily after every withdrawal as per approved schedule and Life extension trials were successful. After
satisfactory completion of all these trials mentioned above, extension for 1, 2 and 4 months subsequently was accorded by the
Type Approving Agency to meet Indian Air Force's requirement. The efforts were resulted in maintaining the large fleet of Su-
30 aircraft in operational readiness.
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors express their sincere gratitude to Shri. Surendra Kumar, Outstanding Scientist, Director ARDE for motivation,
support and kind permission to present this work. The authors are also grateful to Shri AM Datar, Sc 'G' Associate
Director, ARDE for guidance and support during the course of this work.
REFERENCES
1. Life Assessment Trials on Power Cartridges – M B Naidu and et all : Proceedings of National Workshop on “Power
Cartridges”, pp - 125 to 128 held at ARDE on 05 Dec 2001
2. Type Certification of Power Cartridges – J K Jain and et all
3. Design of Test Vessel / Test Equipments for Performance Evaluation of various Power Cartridges – B A Parate & et all :
Proceeding of National Workshop on “Power Cartridges”, pp – 161 to 171 held at ARDE on 05 Dec 2001
4. Joint Service Guide (JSG) 0102 : Environmental Testing of Armament store
5. Development Approach Of Power Cartridge For Fighter Aircraft - B A Parate, AK Sahu, Virendra Kumar and DK
Kharat : Sixth National seminar and exhibition on Aerospace and Related Mechanisms (ARMS 2008) at ARDE, Pune
during 28 to 29 March 2008.
6. Ordnance Board Proceeding (OBP) 41254 : Environmental testing of Armament store
S4.11 / 6
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TESTING AND EVALUATION OF CANOPY SEVERANCE SYSTEM

FOR LCA TRAINER AIRCRAFT
RV Katare, Rakesh Ravidas
Armament Research & Development Establishment, PUNE.
ABSTRACT
The Canopy Severance System (CSS) plays an important role in escape system for pilot's rescue in the shortest possible
time. CSS is being adopted for through Canopy Ejection. The pilot along with seat will be ejected out through the canopy
bubble, which will be weakened by making a cut by CSS at the center or periphery. CSS is configured in two independed
systems, viz: Inflight Egress System (IES) and Ground Egress System (GES). The advance technology of this type is being
developed for the first time in the country. During design and development of the system, the philosophies of Test plans are to
be considered. The purpose of Test plan is to screen the design aspects and to determine weakness, if any. If the type tests are
satisfactorily completed then initial clearance will be issued for its installation on the aircraft. Therefore, the system has to
undergo various environmental accelerated Laboratory tests, which are anticipated to be encountered during the lifetime in
service use condition. Tests plans include various functional tests in order to assess the adequacy of the system design to
ensure that the system performance specifications have been met. Thus the purpose of type testing is to ensure that under
worst environmental condition and throughout the lifetime of exposure to environmental conditions, the system should
perform as required. This paper deals with complete test procedures planned for CSS of LCA Trainer to be carried out for
proving the system design prior to type approval.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Canopy Severance System plays an important role in escape system for pilot's rescue in the quickest possible time
during emergency. The bubble being used for the Canopy is a high strength stretched Acrylic Sheet having 7 0.7 mm thick.
Hence to break the canopy bubble during through canopy ejection without the CSS the pilot will experience a high level of
impact on his head and neck. Similarly, shoulders and knees may suffer high impact loads. Also damage to the pilots
equipment and Life Saving units, will occur. Though the ejection seats are fitted with canopy breakers, the limited up ward
movement of the Seat makes only the point contact with the canopy. This develops / local stress concentrations, which leads a
local fracture instead of severance. Therefore the reliable method of severing Canopy to allow through-canopy escape is the
Canopy Severance System (CSS). The CSS will pre weaken the bubble in such a manner that as the Seat and pilot pass
through, neither he experience high impact loads nor his equipments will be damaged.
CSS being adopted for through Canopy ejection. Use of this technology reduces time required to rescue the pilot from
about 1400 ms (for jettisoning method) to less than 20ms only. CSS will cut the canopy bubble at the centre or periphery
depending on emergency in flight or on ground. Time factor is indispensable; when the aircraft is in danger at the time of
landing, take off and at high-speed low attitude flight. It is observed on many occasions that most of the fatalities are
occurring during the above occasion. Hence it is very essential to reduce the possible time for ejecting the pilot in quickest
way. Therefore the CSS will play the important role in the escape system for rescuing the pilot without injuring and / or impact
to the neck or head. The CSS has been developed indigenously for LCA Trainer a/c for first time in the country.
2. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF CSS SYSTEM

LCA Trainer a/c is a trainer version with two cockpits in tandem mode, one each for trainer and trainee. The Canopy
Severance System (CSS) for LCA Trainer a/c is an important system, as it is a part of the pilot's escape aid system both in the
In-flight emergencies and for the Ground emergencies. The complete CSS system comprises of two distinct and
independently operating subsystems called In-flight Egress system (IES) and Ground Egress system (GES).
Each IES acts in conjunction with the seat ejection system of respective cockpits. The Pressure Actuated Initiator (PAI)
of IES is initiated by a gas cartg unit provided adjacent to the seat and operated by the movement of seat, when both the pilot
has decided to eject. The gas pressure produced by gas cartg shears the shear pin inside the PAI and initiates the detonator.
Thus the detonation wave is generated. The detonation wave is transmitted through the Explosive Transfer Lines (ETL),

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Junction Boxes (JB), and ultimately reaches the Miniature Detonating Cord (MDC). The MDC is pasted over the center line
of the Canopy Bubble up to the Design Eye Point (DEP) of each cockpit. It generates a clear cut up to that point in the bubble.
This action is completed in the cockpits in less than 10 milli sec, from the time the detonator is initiated in PAI. The canopy
breakers of the respective ejection seats further break the bubbles and facilitate the exit of the seat along with pilot from the
cockpit without and incapacitating injuries to pilots.
On the other hand, the GES is meant only for the ground emergencies. In the event of any ground emergency which
endangers the life of the pilots and when he is unable to open the canopy through the normal means, he can operate the GES
Internal Initiators, which are provided next to the parking brake in both the cockpits. At the same time, two External Initiators
on either side of the front fuselage have been provided for operation of either the Internal Initiators or any one of the External
Initiators would produce a clean cut in both canopy bubbles all around its periphery, in about 10 milli sec, and the cut bubble
can be pushed out either by the pilots or the ground crew, allowing the pilots to emerge out from the cockpits safely.
The two systems IES & GES shall be so designed as to preclude any possibility of sympathetic detonation, when any one
of the two systems is operated.
3. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR CSS SYSTEM

The essential requirements for designing the CSS System for LCA Trainer aircraft are as follows,
The severance of the canopy, canopy fragments shall not cause.
w Incapacitating injuries to the pilots.
w Any damage to the seat, which might results in malfunctioning of the seat after ejection.
w Any damage to the personal equipments of the pilot's which are necessary for his Survival after ejection.
The operation of the CSS shall not result in any appreciable increase in the pressure inside the cockpit, it shall not raise
the level of decompression beyond human tolerance limits. After operating the system shall not release the harmful gases,
which may incapacitate the pilot or render them unconscious. The system components shall pose minimum obstruction to the
pilot's vision. The sound level raised during operation of CSS should be less than 180 db for 20 m.s. The weight of the system
shall be optimized. The system shall have a high degree of reliability and maintainability. The system shall have optimum
storage life and installed life. The CSS shall provide complete safety in storage, handling, installation and operation. The CSS
shall be provided with in built safety features to prevent inadvertent operation of the system during the normal operation of
the aircraft.
All components of the CSS shall be designed to withstand the normal aircraft ultimate flight load factors in all six
directions the maximum of 12g. To ensure the pilot safety no components of the CSS shall become loose in normal aircraft
operation similarly the components of GES shall withstand crash load factor in all six directions the maximum of 40 g.
4. OBJECTIVE OF TYPE APPROVAL TESTS

Design and development of the stores, related to armaments and aeronautical has been the major role of the DRDO.
During the developmental stages of the stores, it is obligatory to test them under simulated conditions of their actual use. The
purpose of tests is to screen the design aspects and to determine weakness, if any. If the type tests are satisfactorily completed
then initial clearance will be issued for its installation on the aircraft. Therefore, the system has to undergo various design
verification trials and followed by type approval tests. This has to be planned at component, sub systems and full system
levels and includes basically performance evaluation at each stage. After satisfactory design verification and performance
trials, the system type approval test will follow. During these trials desired functional reliability will also be achieved. In
short, the aim of type approval testing is to establish :
a) that under worst environment condition and
b) throughout the stipulated life time of exposure to expected environmental condition, the equipment meets
performance requirements

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SCHEDULE OF DESIGN VERIFICATION AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION TESTS.

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6. SCHEDULE OF QUALIFICATION TESTS AT SYSTEM / MODEL LEVELS

Test relating to Qualification / type approval are to be conducted as full-scale system and / or simulated models. In this
system it is considered to conduct a tests on the models since the Explosive transfer lines (ETL's) and MDC's are considerably
longer. Similarly there were constraints of limited volumetric capacity of various test facilities. Hence the models were
designed for various type approval tests, keeping same sequential assembly, with shortened ETL and MDC lengths
Type approval test to be conducted on the models are a series of tests ensuring qualitative requirements, functional
reliability, life and safety of the end product manufactured, inspected and accepted as per the deign drags, after successful
completion of design verification / performance tests.
Following are the type approval tests conducted on models.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4

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6.5
6.6
7. CONCLUSION
All the trials / tests schedule drawn up are to be carried out for type approval of the CSS system for use in the
LCA Trainer. The type approval tests that the system has undergone were agreed through discussion between the designer,
user and the certification agency. The concept of Limited qualification Tests (LQT) has been introduced to prove the
system requirements. The components, models and CSS sets were subjected to above trials in required nos. On successful
completion of the functional trials and limited qualification tests defined above, provisional clearance for flight of PV 5
has been issued by certificate agency. At present total Life of seven years including installed Life of Two year & eight
months is allotted. Total Life of eight year including installed Life of five years is aimed at. Further Life assessment trials
are in hand.
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express their sincere gratitude to Shri Surendra Kumar, outstanding Scientist and Director ARDE, Dr.
D K Kharat, Group Director (AA) for their kind permission and guideline extended from time to time. The authors have
also express their sincere thanks to the following agencies for their help and guideline.
ADA, Bangalore, RCMA (AA), Pune.
REFERENCES
1. “ Latest Trends in escape Aid system: the canopy severance system” proceeding of the National Seminar on
Engineering Technology and Indigenisations in the Aerospace Inducing by CM Kulkarni, and AV Namboodiri, Vol.-
I, PP 162-174.(1995)
2. Qualification test reports No. B-183, Issue 01 of March 95-Issued by M/s Martin Baker Aircraft Co. Ltd. UK
(1995).
3. Request for proposal Technical specification for Canopy Severance System (CSS) for LCA Trainer Aircraft Report
No. HAL / ARDC / LCA-T / ARM / 006 / 99 Dated 1st Dec 1999.
4. Test schedule Guideline No. M-II / CSS / TS / 02 of May' 99 and No. ARDE / GM / CSS / LCA
Trainer / Test sche / 04 of 01/05 approved by RCMA (AA), Pune.
5. “Optimization of models of Canopy Severance System for Life Assessment Trials” by CM Kulkarni and V
Madhusudan Rao. Proceeding of National workshop on power Cartridge, PP 145-154.

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IMPACT STUDIES ON SPACED ARMOUR

T Mathew, P Chandel,
Rajeev Kumar, M Athwal,
B Sewak, AC Sharma Manjit Singh
Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory, Chandigarh
ABSTRACT :
The paper summarizes the experimental observations of impact damage studies on spaced armour target
plates by tungsten alloy cube projectile using Two Stage Light Gas Gun facility at TBRL. Spaced armour
target consists of three plates made up of mild steel of size 300 mm x 300 mm of thickness 4, 4 and 10
mm at 100 mm distances apart. The target was impacted upon by W-alloy cube of size 9.5 mm in the
-1 -1
velocity range of 1500 ms to 4000 ms using specially designed polycarbonate sabots. The results
reveal clear penetration in all the three target plates upto impact velocity of about 2000 ms-1. But, at
higher velocities, the W-alloy projectiles disintegrate after impacting the first target plate. Six
experiments were carried out in the above said velocity regime to see the repeatability of results. The
observations are supported by x-ray records which show edge-on impact and seemingly disintegration
of W alloy projectile into fragments after first target plate.
The projectile velocity was recorded using Laser barriers, Aluminum foils and a newly designed copper
mesh technique. The edge on impact clearly visible in the x-ray record supports clean sabot separation
and good flight stability.
Simulation studies of the above phenomena were carried out using Autodyn 3D nonlinear code using
-1 -1
Lagrange solver with flat face impact of cube at velocities 1700ms to 3000ms . Clear penetration was
-1
seen in all three target plates in the impact velocity range of 2000 to 2600 ms . At impact velocities above
2600 ms-1 the impactor disintegrates into fragments.

S5
Modeling & Simulation
Safety
Quality & Reliability
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MODELING WEAPON EFFECTIVENESS IN

INTEGRATED COMBAT SCENARIO
IS Sharma, VK Singh, Arun Dayal, Rajiv Gupta

Institute for Systems Studies and Analyses, Delhi
ABSTRACT
The system analysis of modern day combat dynamics covers evaluation of Weapon Effectiveness Indices (WEI) for
large number of weapon systems participating in an integrated combat environment. Analysis of weapon effectiveness in
modern combat requires an integrated view of different factors influencing the dynamics namely support systems, deployment
tactics, weapon interaction, environment, mobility, detection and countermeasures. This paper attempts to present an approach
for modeling combat dynamics in an integrated manner, addressing the ultimate outcome of the combat. A Simulation model
has been used to evaluate the WEI of participating Weapon Systems in a dynamic combat environment. A macro approach for
analyzing Infantry battle with support from artillery and radar systems is presented as case study.
KEYWORDS : Modeling, Simulation, Combat effectiveness, Weapon Performance
1. INTRODUCTION
Weapon systems analysis participates in the weapon development programs as an integral component. The key focus
of this activity is to link various technologies being developed in the R&D Labs with the users' environment. This generates a
semblance, so that the technical features of the products, find adequate exploitation in the battlefield. The issue becomes more
relevant when a consortium of defence systems is deployed together, to meet a certain objective. Here the final mission
achievement is the main target in an integrated combat environment, in contrast to the individual weapon effectiveness.
Weapon mix and force mix issues are automatically handled in such analysis.
There are certain pertinent questions that need to answer in a defence planning process. For example, in reference to
artillery weapons, what variety of weapons are required by a force to address firing ranges from small 4-5 km to medium 30-50
km and long 100-150 km, maybe even more? What caliber of weapons will meet the target ranges, 75mm/ 85mm, 105mm,
122mm, 130mm, 155mm extending upto 203mm and beyond? As caliber and firing ranges increases, accuracies are adversely
affected. Should we go in for say, 155mm caliber, firing at different ranges or maintain a variety of calibers? What part of the
artillery force should comprise of rockets as against guns? What kitty of weapons needs to be guided and what can be fire and
forget? What part of the force needs to highly mobile (self-propelled) and what part can be stand-alone (tracked)? Similar
questions exist for infantry, armour and air defence forces. This paper attempts to draw a broad-based framework for analyzing
such issues.
2. SYSTEMS ANALYSIS PROCESS

In broad terms, participation of various defence systems and forces in a combat dynamics process can be analyzed on
the following issues:
? Force organization
? Deployment
? Mobility
? Target detection
? Target engagement
? Combat outcome
Here force organization refers to variety of armaments and support systems deployed together in a particular combat
situation by the two opposing teams. For example, in a land offensive, the combination has to focus on elements like:
? Hard hitting weapons against hard targets like tanks, bunkers, etc.,

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?
Precision strike weapons against distant targets,
?
Combat support & area suppression weapons,
?
Close combat weapons,
The nature and numbers of each one of them is an important issue in systems analysis. Similarly, support systems like
long range viewing devices, precision strike support systems, camouflaging devices etc., also plays an important role.
By deployment, the issue is placement of various systems over the battlefield, weapon to weapon distances, unit to
unit distances, formations in which the weapons are to be placed, location of support systems aiding precision strike, etc.
Mobility, being an important aspect of the combat dynamics, relates to numbers and nature of the mobile systems over the
designated terrain. It also takes into considerations the hurdles rendered by terrain features, tactics and consequent speed
degrades.
As mentioned above combat information and target detection process dominates the entire dynamics. The detection
process may be sensitive to terrain and environment affecting line of sight. Suitable models to handle the physics of various
sensors in different environments have to be configured. The engagement process starts with target detection and proceeds
with firing and target damage by various warheads. Therefore, the two fundamental issues in this are modeling of the projectile
trajectory and the warhead effect. Finally, the casualties generated, survivals, time and ammunition consumed, all factors
signify the combat outcome and mission accomplishment.
3. WEAPON EFFECTIVENESS IN INTEGRATED COMBAT SCENARIO

It has been seen that in certain combat scenarios the functional / operational effectiveness of weapon systems differs
significantly from their inherent effectiveness. Such issues affect the overall weapon system development programs. An
approach to analyze such issues for the purpose of effective defence planning is proposed in this paper. A methodology for this
purpose is described followed by a case study on an infantry combat scenario.
Methodology
The simulation methodology [1] has been used to evaluate the firepower score of the opposing forces in the dynamic
combat in an objective manner. It uses the principal that the value of a weapon is directly proportional to the rate at which it
destroys the value of opposing enemy weapon (Potential Anti Potential Methodology [2]). From a high resolution combat
simulation process, Killer Victim (KV) scoreboards, giving the attrition of weapon systems of a force, say Blue, by the
weapons of the other side, say Red, are generated. The KV scores for Blue are defined as
Rwpn1 Rwpn2 Rwpn3
Bwpn1 B11 B12 B1
BKV = Bwpn2 B21 B22 B23 where Bij = No of jth Red weapon killed
Bwpn3 B31 B32 B33 by each ith Blue weapon
Similar KV score card can be generated for Red side under attack from Blue weapons.
Using these KV score boards the killer-victim score matrices â (Blue) and ã (Red) are formed where
â11 â12 â1 3 ã11 ã12 ã1 3

â= â21 â22 â23 ã= ã21 ã22 ã2 3
â31 â32 â 33 ã31 ã32 ã3 3
âij = Casualty to the jth Red weapon /Total No of ith Blue weapon participating
To determine the fire power score of the Blue Force we obtain the product of matrix â and ã i.e. âã and get the
normalized eigenvector corresponding to the principal eigen value of âã matrix. The elements of this matrix represent the Fire
power scores (FPS) of various weapons in the simulated combat process.
Bwpn1 FPS1
th
BFPS = Bwpn2 FPS2 where FPSi= Fire Power Score of i Weapon
Bwpn3 FPS3

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Based on these FPS, the total combat potential of Blue force can be evaluated.
Total Blue Force Potential = ∑FPSi x Ni where Ni is number of blue ith weapon
Similarly by using the ãâ matrix we can get the Red Fire power scores and then obtain the total force potential for Red
force.
Case Study
To illustrate the process in an integrated combat environment, consider a case of Infantry combat, labeled as
“Advance Defence Position Neutralization” in military terms.
Defender Attacker
Force Organization Inf. Coy + Inf. Bn + weapon systems as

weapon systems as per per authorization + 6 Bty of
authorization + 3 Bty of supporting Arty + 2 Sec of
supporting Arty 81mm Mortar
Deployment 2–Up position with all round In Open at Forming Up Place

defence (FUP) with 2 Coys attacking
and one held as reserve
Terrain Desert / Semi-Desert Desert / Semi-Desert
Mobility Dug in (Static) On foot

100 m in 3 min
Target Detection Process Border Obs. Posts, Image Image Intensifiers, Night
Intensifiers, N ight Vision Vision Device, Thermal
Device, Thermal Imagers as per Imagers as per Authorization
Authorization
The combat dynamics is simulated on the basis of pre-defined tactical rules and engagements. The Killer Victim
matrices at various time points for the two forces are generated in the formats given below:
For Attacker: Pis Car. Rif. LMG MMG RL 2”Mor 81 Mor
Pistol 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Carbine 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Rifle 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
â (Blue) = LMG 0.00 0.33 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.00
MMG 0.11 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
RL 0.00 0.22 1.11 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.00
2”Mor 1.00 0.00 3.50 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
For Defender Pis. Car. Rif. LMG MMG RL 2”Mor
Pistol 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Carbine 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Rifle 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
ã (Red) = LMG 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
MMG 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
RL 0.06 0.06 0.39 0.00 0.06 0.11 0.00
2”Mor 1.75 0.00 2.00 0.00 0.75 0.00 0.00
81 Mor 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

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By using the above mentioned methodology and killer – victim matrices at the terminal stage, force potential can be evaluated
as shown in Tables 1 & 2
Table 1: Blue Force Potential Evaluation
Fire power Scores

Weapons No. of weapons No. x FPS
(FPS)
Pistol 50 0.004 0.213
Carbine 34 0.004 0.145
Rifle 144 0.004 0.614
LMG 18 0.025 0.444
MMG 4 0.084 0.338
RL 18 0.004 0.077
2”Mortar 6 0.004 0.026
81mm Mortar 6 0.004 0.026
Total 1.882
Table 2: Red Force Potential Evaluation
Fire power Scores

Weapons No of weapons No x FPS
(FPS)
Pistol 25 0.009 0.218
Carbine 17 0.009 0.148
Rifle 72 0.009 0.627
LMG 9 0.054 0.483
MMG 2 0.084 0.169
RL 9 0.015 0.133
2”Mortar 3 0.540 0.161
Total 1.938

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The following observations can be made from the above:
a) The analysis helps in analyzing the contribution of various weapon systems in different roles. In case of Attacker, its
87% close combat weapons only contribute 51% force potential. Similarly, 83% close combat weapons of Defender
constitutes 51% potential. Since this scenario involves neutralization of defence positions, close combat is imminent.
In some other scenarios, point and area fire weapons may be more effective.
b) The difference between measures of performance (MOP) in this scenario and generalized measures of effectiveness
(MOE), is directly seen from the results, i.e., as a weapon system LMG is inferior to MMG in terms of characteristics
but in scenario specific engagements it can be seen that for Red side the difference between FPS of LMG and MMG is
lesser as compared to that of Blue force.
c) For the attacker, 81 mm Mortar though having a higher operational lethality [3], shows inferior performance
than MMG and LMG because it has a higher dispersion and hence has lesser effect relating to enemy casualties.
d) This methodology also gives a facility to compare aggregate force potential of both sides. It can be seen that
though the Blue force is numerically three times stronger than the Red force still the total Force Potential of the two
sides is almost equal. This is because the Red Force is Dug-In (prepared defence) and enjoys superior protection
than the Blue Force. The comparison of force potentials of the opposing forces also helps in deciding the outcome of
battle in terms of win / loss.
e) This methodology can also be used to compare the effectiveness of alternate weapons systems by providing the
relevant parameter data (error and lethal zone) in the combat processing model e.g., rocket launchers Carl Gustav Vs
RPG 7, 7.62 mm NATO Bren L4 Vs 7.62mm MG1A3 MMGs, etc.
4. EFFECTIVENESS OF COMBAT SUPPORT SYSTEMS

The combat process is also influenced by the inclusion of Force Multiplier systems in the form of UAVs, BFSRs and
Satellite Imagery [4]. The above methodology also helps us to quantify the effectiveness of these systems in the combat
process.
Case Study
To illustrate, the above “Advance Defence Position Neutralization” scenario is taken into consideration with the
defender having a Battle Field Surveillance Radar (BFSR) along with BOPs (see Fig. 1). The BFSR co-located at the Coy. HQ
is able to detect the enemy advancing in Troop Carrying Vehicles (TCVs) along the lines of ingress. It is able to guide the
supporting Artillery units which can target them at 10-15 Km before the FUP.
Int. Border
Lines of
Ingress
FUP
BFSR Det.
Zone
BFSR
Defender
Coy
Fig 1: BFSR in Advance Position Reduction Scenario

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Defender Attacker
Force Organization Inf. Coy + Inf. Bn + weapon systems as

weapon systems as per per authorization + 6 Bty of
authorization + 3 Bty of supporting Arty + 2 Sec of
supporting Arty + BFSR (ELM 81mm Mortar + 16 TCVs
2129)
Deployment 2–Up position with all round Bn gets transported in TCVs

defence till the Disbursing Point(DB).
It advance by foot to FUP in
Open. Reorganizes at FUP
with 2 Coys attacking and one
held as reserve
Terrain Desert / Semi-Desert Desert / Semi-Desert
Mobility Dug in (Static) In TCVs up till Disbursing

Point (DB) at 8 km/hr and
then on foot 100 m in 3 min
Target Detection Process BOPs, BFSR, Image Intensifiers, Image Intensifiers, Night
Night Vision Device, Thermal Vision Device, Thermal
Imagers as per Authorization Imagers as per Authorization
From the simulation it was observed that one to two TCVs get damaged by the Arty fire resulting in a loss of Troops upto 2
Platoons. This results in a loss of 8 – 10 % in the total force strength of the Blue force even before it reaches the FUP. This can be
interpreted as the quantified benefit of deploying a BFSR in this scenario. The remaining combat proceeds with the residual
force as described in earlier case study above.
5. CONCLUSION
This paper presents a methodology to evaluate weapons and support systems in integrated combat scenarios. This
methodology enables detailed analysis of mix of weapon systems in different roles, stand alone effectiveness versus
operational/ functional effectiveness in different combat scenarios, force potentials of attacking and defending forces and their
improvisation by deployment of force multipliers. One can use this approach to answer some of the questions posed above in
context of artillery, e.g., guns versus rockets, caliber versus firing ranges, etc., and similar issues in other arms.
6. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are extremely thankful to Sh. H. V. Srinivasa Rao, Director ISSA for encouraging them to write this
paper and guiding them for its refinements.
REFERENCES
1. Jaiswal, N K, Military Operations Research Quantitative Decision Making, Kluver Academic Publishers, 1997
2. Anderson, L.B., Antipotential Potential, Report No-845, Institute for Defence Analyses, Arlington, VA, April 1979.
3. Dupuy, T.N., Number, Prediction and War, Hero Books, Fairfax, Virginia 1985.
4. Mathematical Modeling of Infantry Weapon Systems, ISSA Technical Report No. ISSA/LWPE/107-2/2004, 2004.

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MATHEMATICAL MODELING FOR EARTH PENETRATING BOMB
SK Singh, Manoj Kumar, VK Sharma, HV Srinivasa Rao

Institute for Systems Studies and Analyses, Delhi-110054
ABSTRACT
Vital assets of strategic importance are placed underground. Guided earth-penetrating bombs are devised for their
destruction of such targets. Mathematical models are developed for the penetration of bomb in earth; shock propagation in
various types of geo-media and assessment of damage to buried hardened targets. A criterion of damage based on pressure-
impulse diagram is used. Optimim combinations of layers of concrete and sand are suggested for minimization of projectile
penetration. Protection of a buried structure by surrounding it with a granular backfill is estimated and safety distance for
placing two consecutive structures is calculated.
1. INTRODUCTION
Vital assets of strategic importance such as command centres are placed underground. This protects them from the
blast and dynamic pressures generated by detonation of aerially delivered weapons. It has been a formidable task to locate and
destroy well protected and hardened buried structures. Guided earth penetrating bombs (such as GBU-28) have been devised
for effective neutralization of such targets. These bombs, also known as bunker busters, are aerially delivered and are designed
to impact earth surface with a supersonic speed and they can penetrate considerable distances in hard concrete or rock material.
These weapons are guided in the sense that they are directed to the targets by means of various guidance mechanisms: electro-
optical, infrared, global positioning system (GPS) and laser.
In the present paper, mathematical models are developed to assess the damage causing capabilities of earth
penetrating weapon, such as the penetration of the bomb in different types of earth media; earth shock or stress wave
propagation and its attenuation in various types of geo-media and quantitative assessment of damage to buried structures using
a properly selected damage criterion. Schemes for minimization of damage are also suggested, which include reduction of
penetration (and hence a reduction in the vulnerability of the target) by emplacing one or more layers of concrete and sand
placed over the soil in which the structure is constructed and by surrounding the target structure by a thin layer of loose sand or
backfill, which substantially reduces the stress transmitted to the buried structure.
2. MATHEMATICAL MODELS
Model for penetration of projectile in earth

Based on extensive work in terradynamics program at Sandia Laboratories, Young (ref [1]) proposed penetration
equations for various geological and civil construction materials. All quantities in this paper are expressed in SI units unless
otherwise stated. The penetration into soil, concrete or rock is given as
For V < 61m/s
m 0.7
D=
0.0008 S N ( 2.15 V 210 -
) ln (1 + 4
) (1)
A
For V > 61m/s
m
0.000018 S N ( ) 0.7 ( V -
D= 30.5) (2)
A
Where D is the penetration distance, S is the S-number characterizing the penetrability of the target material, m is the mass of
the penetrator, A is its cross-sectional area, V is the impact velocity and N is the nose performance coefficient given as

N
For ogive nose shapes
0.18 L
N =n + 0.56 (3)
d
For conical nose shapes
0.25 L
N =n + 0.56 (4)
d
Where Ln is the penetrator's nose length and d is its diameter
Where Ln is the penetrator's nose length and d is its diameter.
Optimum combination of concrete and sand layers

It is possible to reduce the penetration of projectile into earth and hence reduce the vulnerability of the underground
structures by emplacing one or more layers of concrete separated by layer of sand over the soil mass. By varying the
thicknesses of the concrete and sand layers, it is possible to obtain an optimum combination of these layers which result in
minimum penetration. The average deceleration of the projectile during the penetration of the n-th (n = 1, 2…) target is
obtained from the relation
Vn2 (5)
an =
2 Dn
The exit velocity from the n-th layer is obtained as
2 1/2 (6)
Vn +
1 = ( Vn -
2 a n Tn )
Where Dn is the penetrating distance in the n-th layer as if the n-th layer is infinitely thick (this is used, either part of the
total distance, or to calculate the average deceleration using (2.3)); Tn is thickness of the n-th layer. The steps are repeated
for the required number of layers till the final penetration depth is determined.
For penetration into a thick concrete layer (i.e. one whose thickness is the greater of one penetrator nose length or one
penetrator diameter), the exit velocity is calculated as follows
Ln (7)
[ Vn2 -
Vex = 2 an ( Tn - )]
K
Where
K =
{ 2
3
5000
for air over and under the concrete layer;
for air on one side of concrete layer;
for air on neither side of concrete layer.
Following ref [1], the S-number of sand fill between two concrete layers is reduced by a factor of two.
Model for earth shock propagation in different types of soils

When the detonation of a warhead takes place below the ground, there is a strong coupling between the explosion and
ground causing high level of transient stresses that may be a potent threat for underground structures in the vicinity of the site of
the detonation. Damage to underground structures due to earth shock is caused by ground stress, displacement of soil particles
and acceleration of soil particles.
The mechanism of ground shock production and propagation is quite complex, as it may be modified by reflection
and refraction by various layers of soils of varying densities or underlying rocks. Thus a complete analysis of underground
shock propagation is much more difficult than the corresponding problem of shock propagation in air or water. The problem is
further compounded by extreme variability of soils and their properties (see ref [2]).

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A surface or subsurface detonation of a warhead would cause both body waves and surface waves to propagate
through the earth material. In the present case, only near field effects are considered in which the longitudinal or P-waves
dominate for causing damage to buried structures in the vicinity of the point of explosion. The general term 'seismic velocity' is
defined as
E (8)
c=
r
Where E is the modulus of elasticity obtained by uniaxial, unconfined compressive test for the soil or the rock.
Seismic velocity plays an important role in the determination of the propagation characteristics of stress waves in geologic
materials and is one of the important parameters in the survivability analysis of underground structures. The numerical values
of the seismic velocity vary over a wide range: from less than 200m/s for loose, dry sands to values in excess of 1500 m/s for
saturated clays.
Wave energy and amplitude decrease with distance from the site of explosion for two reasons: firstly due to geometric
divergence the energy in the transient pulse is being spread over an increasing area as the spherical wave front expands;
secondly, the energy is being dissipated in the soil as work is done in plastically deforming the soil matrix. A high seismic
velocity implies low hysteresis and low hysteric attenuation with range. The loss of energy is more pronounced in loose sand
while there is much less energy loss in highly saturated soils due to comparatively low compressibility of liquid water. In fact,
in highly saturated soils, the stress waves approaches the attenuation in water.
Ground shock prediction

Based on extensive trials, empirical relationships have been established which permit prediction of ground shock
parameters (ref [3]) as summarized below.
(i) Peak particle Displacement (ppd):
n
1-
60 f c W 1/3 æ
2.52 R ö (9)
x= ç
c èW 1/3 ÷
ø
where x is the peak particle displacement due to an underground detonation, W is the charge mass fc is a dimensionless
coupling factor described below, c is the seismic velocity , R is the range and n is a dimensionless attenuation coefficient
(ii) Peak Particle Velocity (ppv):
n
- (10)
2.52 R ö
æ
48.8 fc ç1/3 ÷
u=
èW ø
(iii) Free Field Stress:
(11)
s
o =
sCu
where is the density of the soil and C is the loading wave velocity. The loading wave velocity C depends on both
the seismic velocity and the ppv. At short range, C is high due to high values of ppv, but its value decays to the seismic velocity
as range increases. The value of C is given by
C =c for fully saturated clays

n+
æ1ö
C = 0.6c+ ç ÷
u for saturated clays
n-
è2ø (12)
n+
æ1ö
C = c +ç ÷
u for sand
n-
è2ø
Where n is the attenuation coefficient.

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(iv) Free Field impulse:

(13)
io =
sCx
Coupling Factor
The effectiveness of a weapon increases with the degree of coupling between the explosion and the ground. This is a
function of the depth of burial (DOB). This is characterized by a coupling factor fc, whose functional dependence on DOB is
graphically represented in ref [3]. The coupling factor fc has a value 0.4 for the surface burst and approaches 1.0 with increase in
DOB.
Transmission and reflection of stress wave at an interface

When a ground shock pulse meets an interface between two dissimilar soils or rocks (e.g. geo-media with different
densities or seismic velocities), or an interface between a soil and a denser material such as concrete, both transmission and
reflection of the stress wave from the interface occur. The intensity of the transmitted stress óT and the reflected stress óR can be
expressed in terms of the incident stress ó1 as (see ref [3])
æ2r 2 c2
ö (14)
s
T = ç s
÷
1
1c1 +
r
è r2 c2 ø
æ
r2 c2 -
1c1
r ö (15)
s
R = ç s
÷
1
r
è2 c2 +
1c1 ø
r
Where r 1, r 2 and c1 ,c2 are densities and seismic wave velocities in the media ahead of and behind the interface
respectively.
Protection of a buried structure by a granular backfill
It is worth noting that significant benefits can be derived by surrounding a buried structure by loose sand or gravel. If we
consider a structure made of reinforce concrete (RCC) with density r 2 and seismic velocity c2 is buried in soil with density
r 1 and seismic velocity c1 then the density as well as the seismic velocity in the concrete are much higher then those in soil. It
is easily seen from (2.12) that the stress transmitted to concrete from the soil would be much higher then that in the latter. If the
RCC structure is surrounded by a layer of loose sand or gravel whose density r 3and seismic velocity c3 are much lower than
the corresponding values of the soil, then there would be a considerable reduction in the transmitted stress when the stress
wave enters the sand from the soil. When the stress wave finally hits the much denser RCC structure, then the rise in the stress
level would be much lower than that in the absence of the backfill.
Model for assessment of damage and damage criterion

The damage potential of an explosive blast wave depends on: (1) the force it exerts on the target, (2) how long the
force is applied, and (3) the ability of the target to withstand the blast effect. Thus a criterion for blast damage capability is
based on aspects concerning both the blast waves itself, and those concerning the target. There are mainly two approaches to
establish the criterion for blast damage, namely the overpressure criterion and the pressure-impulse criterion as described
below.
Overpressure criterion for blast damage capability

Historically, the damage capability of an explosive blast has been associated with the POP at its shock front. The
damage caused to a particular target is correlated to the incident blast overpressure. A target is assumed to suffer damage if the
imposed shock POP exceeds the ultimate strength capability of the target material. Elaborate tables have been prepared (for

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example, see ref [4]) where such a correlation is presented. Overpressure has also been used as a structural damage criterion for
blasts from nuclear warheads (see ref [5]).
However, renowned experts like W.E. Baker do not recommend the use of overpressure criterion (see ref [6]). This
criterion can cause serious overestimate of structural damage from relatively small explosions where impulsive response
predominates. These authors also mention that it is usually inappropriate to use damage threshold for situations where the blast
duration is shorter, or even not much longer than characteristic structural response time.
Pressure – impulse criterion

This criterion for damage emphasizes the combination of applied load and impulse for defining the threshold for
damage. The basic principle involved here is to specify that the work done on the target structure by the blast pulse is entirely
converted to strain energy as the structure deforms.
We consider an underground RCC structure of given dimensions: say length, breadth and height given as 2X, 2Y and
2Z respectively. We consider a surface burst of a conventional warhead with charge mass equivalent to W kg of TNT vertically
above the given structure. Let R be the distance of the centre of burst from the top of the roof of the structure; and let h be the
thickness of the roof slab. The roof of the structure, being closest to the centre of the burst, is subjected to more severe loading
than the other walls and consequently, it is the most vulnerable part of the structure. Hence, we confine the analysis to the roof
only, which is regarded as an elastic slab, clamped on all the edges (a reasonable approximation of the actual situation).
We take the origin of the Cartesian coordinate system at the centre of the slab, with the x- and y-axes along the
length and breadth of the roof slab, and z-axis perpendicular to the surface of the roof slab(in vertical direction for the
present case). The roof slab can be now regarded as an elastic plate with clamped-in boundary conditions along all the
edges; and with half spans X and Y and thickness h. A possible deformation shape for the roof slab consistent with the
boundary conditions is
1 æ p xö
æ p yö (16)
w=w0 ç
1+
cos 1+
÷
çcos ÷
4 è X ø è Y ø
where w0 is the maximum deflection of the slab, occurring at its centre. The strains in the slab are given by (see ref [7]
2 2 2
¶ w ¶ w ¶ w (17)
e
xx = -z 2
; e
yy = -z 2
; e
xy = 2z
x
¶ y
¶ x¶
¶ y
The strain energy per unit volume is given by
SE 1 æ 1 ö (18)
Vol
= (
s
òd es
2 de
+xx +
s )
de= Eç
xx e+e xy
2 è (1 +n)
+
e÷xy yy yy xx
2
xy
2
yy
2
ø
Where E is the Young's modulus and õ is Poisson's ratio. Substituting from (2.14) into (2.15) to obtain the strains, and
using them in (2.16), we obtain the strain per unit volume. Integrating this over the volume of the roof slab, and taking the
Poisson's ratio õ as 0.30, the total strain energy is obtained as
2 2
p4
w 2 E h3 é
Y ö
æ X ö
æ ù
SE =0 ê
ç ÷ +
0.2564 +
ç ÷ ú (19)
128 XY Xø
è
ê
ë Y ø
è ú
û

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The kinetic energy imparted to the slab by the blast pulse is given by
X Y
( I0 dxdy)2 2 I 0 2 XY (20)
KE = 4 ò ò hdxdy) =
0 0 2( r h
where I0 is the specific blast impulse.
Impulsive loading realm asymptote
Equating the kinetic energy to the strain energy, the maximum displacement w0 is obtained as
16 XYI0
w0 = 1/2 (21)
2 2
2 2
é
Y ö
æ 1/2 Xö
æ ù
h ( E h) ê
p ç ÷ +
0.2564 +
ç ÷ ú
Xø
è
ê
ë Y ø
è ú
û
The reinforced concrete (RCC) possesses considerable ductility due to the presence of steel reinforcements. A ductile slab will
neither rupture nor deform plastically even though it has reached yield locally at the centre. In this case, a collapse mechanism
is formed by creation of yield lines before permanent deformation is observed. This behavior gives a ductile material much
more energy absorbing capability than its brittle counterpart. A ductile slab would fail when the yield lines originating at the
centre reach the corners of the slab. Collapse is caused by shear stresses reaching the appropriate yield condition, which in the
present is given as
s
y (22)
t
xy =
3
Where is the yield stress under uniaxial loading. The shear strain at the corners of the slab, i.e. at x = X/2, y = Y/2 and at
thickness z = h/2, is obtained as
4I 0
e
xy at corner = 1/2
2 2
é
Yö
æ 1/2 Xö
æ ù (23)
h(r
E) ê
ç÷ +
0.2564 +
ç÷ ú
Xø
è
ê
ë Yø
è ú
û
The shear stress ôxy is related to the shear strain e
xy by the usual constitutive relation
E (24)
t
xy = Ge
xy = e
xy
(1 +n)
The impulsive loading realm asymptote for the ductile roof slab is obtained by substituting for shear stress at the slab corner
from (2.21) and (2.22) into (2.20), as
2 2 1/2
0.3753s é
yh æ
Yö Xö
æ ù
I0 = êç÷ +
0.2564 +
ç÷ ú (25)
E ê
ëXø
è Yø
è ú
û
r
Quasi-static loading realm asymptote
The maximum possible work is estimated by integrating the pressure times the deflection over the loaded area
X Y
Wk = 4 ò
òPwdxdy = Pw0 XY (26)
0 0

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Where P is the incident blast POP and w is the deflection of the slab given by (2.14). The values of blast peak overpressure and
specific impulse are calculated following ref [4].
As in the impulsive loading case, the ductile slab in the quasi-static loading realm is assumed to form a collapse
mechanism when the shear stresses in the corners reach yield. The quasi-static realm asymptote is obtained as
2 2
é
Yö
æ 2 Xö
æ ù
yh ê
0.463s ç÷ +0.2564 +
ç÷ ú (27)
Xø
è
ê
ë Yø
è ú
û
p0 =
XY
Iso-damage curves: The computations of the impulsive realm asymptote and the quasi-static realm asymptote) enable us to
derive the iso-damage curve using the pressure p and the impulse In as x- and y-axes respectively. If we take p = p0 and I = I0 as
the equations for the quasi-static and impulsive realm asymptote respectively, then the equation for the iso-damage curve,
which is of the form of a rectangular hyperbola is given by
pI =
p 0 I + p I0 (28)
Criterion for damage: The iso-damage graph is a simple but very useful tool for establishing a damage criterion for various
types of target structures. The damage criterion is stated as follows (ref [6]): “If a maximum displacement or a particular
combination of stresses is defined as a threshold for damage, the pressure-impulse curve indicates the combination of load and
impulse that will cause failure. Combinations of pressure and impulse that fall on the left of and below the curve will not induce
failure; whereas those to the right and above the curve will produce damage in excess of allowable limit.”

As an illustration for the models described in section 2, we consider a well known earth-penetrating weapon Guided
Bomb Unit - 28 (GBU-28), developed in USA in 1991 during the first gulf war. The data available in open literature for this
weapon are as follows: mass of the penetrator: 1997.6 kg, diameter: 0.3683 m, explosive filling: 293.74 kg of Tritonal; with
TNT equivalent 314.3 kg. Exact shape and length of the nose is not available, it is estimated (or guessed) as conically shaped
with nose length 0.54 m.
The penetrating capability of this bomb versus impact velocity in various types of soils and rocks is shown in Figures
1 and 2 respectively. The S-numbers for these geological materials is taken from ref [1]. An attempt has been made to estimate
the optimum combination of concrete and sand layers to minimize the total penetration of the bomb into earth. It is observed
that in most cases, a thick concrete layer at the top, followed by a much thicker layer of sand, which is followed by a second
layer of concrete of much less thickness is the most effective arrangement for minimizing the total penetration. As a typical
case, we consider the entry of the bomb into earth with impact velocity of Mach number 1.05. The optimum thicknesses of the
first concrete layer, sand layer and the second concrete layer are 3.25 m, 6.25 m and 0.25 m respectively. The bomb penetrates
into the sand layer up to a distance of 6.0509 m and it does not reach the second concrete layer; the total penetration being
limited to 9.3 m.
Next in Figure 3 we consider the underground burst of the bomb after it has penetrated the soil. The earth shock
propagation is considered in a number of geo-media with widely varying properties, namely loose dry sand, sandy loam, dense
sand, wet sandy clay, saturated sandy clay, heavy saturated clay, granite, sandstone and limestone. A buried RCC structure with
grade designation M 30 (i.e. compressive strength 3×107 Pa) and of length 16 m, breadth 12 m and thickness 0.25 m is
considered. The bomb is assumed to detonate in the vicinity of the buried structure. For the illustration of the methodology, we
have taken the distance between the structure and the point of detonation as 16 m. As expected, the damage of the structure is
dependent on the nature of the surrounding media: there is no damage in the case of loose sand and sandy loam, there is
considerable damage in the cases of dense sand, wet sandy clay and saturated sandy clay and there is very heavy damage in the
case of heavy saturated clay. Among the rocks, there is considerable damage in the cases of granite and sandstone and only

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threshold damage in the case of limestone.

The protection provided by surrounding the buried structure by a layer of granular backfill is quantitatively evaluated
as follows: the stress transmitted to the structure directly from the geo-media (i.e. in the absence of the backfill) is compared
with the stress transmitted to the structure when it is surrounded by the backfill. This reduction in stress is also strongly
dependent upon the geo-media surrounding the structure. It is observed that the reduction in stress transmitted to the structure
(in % ) is 53.2, 73.8, 75.7, 89.1, 93.7, 94.8, 92.6 and 84.3 when the geo-media surrounding the buried RCC structure happen to
be sandy loam, dense sandy soil, wet sandy clay, saturated sandy clay, heavy saturated clay, granite, sandstone and limestone
respectively.
The safety distance between two consecutive underground structures has been defined as the maximum distance up to
which a single bomb can destroy both. If underground structures are placed in such a manner that the separation distance
between two consecutive structures exceeds the safety distance, then a single bomb would not be able to damage more than one
target. For the RCC structure considered above the safety distances are 13.7 m, 16.0 m, 16.5 m, 27.5 m, 103.1 m, 42.5 m, 31.1 m
and 19.6 m when the surrounding media happen to be those mentioned in above paragraph in the respective order.
Fig1: Penetration distance for different types of Soils.

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Fig2: Penetration distance for different types of Rocks

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Fig 3: Effect of a GBU-28 Bomb on an underground structure in different geomedia.
REFERENCES
1. Young, C.W. Penetration Equations, Contractor Report No SAND 97-2426, Sandia National Laboratories, 1997.
2. Elements of Terminal Ballistics, Part I: Introduction, Kill Mechanisms and Vulnerability, Engineering Design
Handbook, AMCP 706-160, HQ US Army Material Command, 1962.
3. Smith, P.D. and Hetherington, J.G. Blast and Ballistic Loading of Structures, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, 1994.
4. Kinney, G.F. and Graham, K.J. Explosive Shocks in Air, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, 1985.
5. Glassstone, S. and Dolan, P.J. The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, US Department of Defense and Energy Research and
Development Administration, Washington DC, 1977.
6. Baker, W.E., Cox, P.A., Westine, P.S., Kulesz, J.J. and Strehlow, R.A. Explosion Hazards and Evaluation, Elsevier,
1983.
7. Timoshenko, S.P. and Woinowsky-Krieger, S. Theory of Plates and Shells, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1970.

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DESIGN OF MIL-STD-1553B COMMUNICATION INTERFACE

PROTOCOL AND COMPUTER MODELS FOR RTOS BASED
DISTRIBUTED MISSION CRITICAL ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC
CONTROL SYSTEM
Abhijit D Kamble, Guru Prasad, Vandana Gandhi
Research & Development Establishment (Engrs.), Pune – 411015
ABSTRACT
A communication bus in a distributed control system is a backbone of the whole control system. A robust
communication channel is required for sharing the sensor data, sending actuation commands, synchronization etc. In a mission
critical application this communication link must possess some of minimum qualities such as real time response, high data
integrity, redundancy in communication channels, and higher throughput.
MIL-STD-1553B communication interface is a Time division Multiplexed, strictly command and response serial
communication interface, which is proven for mission critical applications over two decades. MIL-STD-1553B was
developed by DOD, USA originally as an Avionics bus but later became popular for underwater and ground application
because of its real time performance, simplicity in wiring, redundancy and unbeatable data integrity. MIL-STD-1553B is not
just a standard; it's a specification for physical media, communication engine, protocol, and messaging. A VxWorks RTOS
based distributed control system for an Electro-Hydraulic plant has been realized, which is interfaced through MIL-STD-
1553B communication link for command and data exchange to three external systems. In the present architecture Compact
PCI based MIL-STD-1553B COTS modules are used and the entire protocol is designed, developed, coded, simulated and
validated on the final product for an underwater platform.
In a MIL-STD-1553B communication there is a Bus Controller (BC) which has the complete control of the bus.
There are Remote Terminals (RT) which receive or transmit data and there may be a Monitoring Terminal (MT) which can
monitor the bus activity. There are two redundant communication channel BUS-A and BUS-B, when BUS-A fails
communication is done through BUS-B. The message formats are predefined in the standard, user has to define data words,
periodicity and sequence of the messages, minor frames, major frames, broadcast messages and non periodic messages if any.
The function of the control system developed here is to control and monitor the Hydraulic, Pneumatic, and Water
Systems and ensure the satisfactory exploitation of the electro-hydraulic plant maintaining the safety interlocks. The control
system is interfaced to three external systems, out of these three external systems, two are imported. To verify the protocol in
absence of these systems we have designed and developed computer models where the full protocol is implemented along with
the BC and RT software.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the early 1950 and 1960 all the aviation electronic systems used to be standalone and there was no need to share the
information among them but in the early 1970s it became necessary to share critical sensor data between the various systems as
more and more distributed control systems were developed.
Eventually development of MIL-STD-1553 was started and after various reviews by the US authorities finally a
MIL-STD-1553B was released in 1978. MIL-STD-1553B communication interface is a Time division Multiplexed, strictly
command and response serial communication interface, which is proven for mission critical applications over two decades.
MIL-STD-1553B was developed by DOD, USA originally as an Avionics bus but later became popular for underwater and
ground application because of its real time performance, simplicity in wiring, redundancy and unbeatable data integrity. MIL-
STD-1553B is not just a standard; it's a specification for physical media, communication engine, protocol, and messaging.
The function of the control system developed here is to control and monitor the Hydraulic, Pneumatic, and Water
Systems and ensure the satisfactory exploitation of the electro-hydraulic plant maintaining the safety interlocks. The control
system is interfaced to three external systems which send command / data over MIL-STD-1553B and GOST26765.52-87 dual
communication link at regular intervals.

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2. EXTERNAL SYSTEM INTERFACES

The control system under discussion is interfaced to three independent external systems. The interface for System-A
and System-B is MIL-STD-1553B and interface for System-C is on GOST 26765.52-87 standard which is Russian version of
MIL-STD-1553B. Fig 1 shows the interfacing of plant controller with external systems.
All the three nodes of control system are configured as Remote Terminal but the protocol is entirely different for each
system. Considering the mission critical nature of the system, redundancy in communication link is provided by using two
different RT addresses apart from the built in redundancy of MIL-STD-1553B. Only in the case of System-C interface because
of unavailability of the addresses the advantage of simultaneous message transfer is exploited by connecting BUS-A to Main
and BUS-B to standby system.
Fig 1. Interface to external Systems
3. COMPATIBILITY OF MIL-STD-1553B WITH GOST26765.52-87 STANDARD

As per the Russian's GOST standard unlike MIL-STD-1553B, communication is carried out by two independent non-
redundant data exchange buses operating simultaneously and asynchronously to increase the reliability of data exchange. A
synchronism of data transmission between buses does not exceed 300ìSec.
All other electrical characteristics of GOST26765.52-87 standard are same as MIL-STD-1553B and both the
communication standards can seamlessly be interfaced with each other with little software considerations in some cases.
4. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF MIL-STD-1553B PROTOCOL

In MIL-STD-1553B three types of node exists one Bus Controller (BC), one optional Monitoring Terminal (MT) and
maximum of 31 Remote Terminals (RTs). The MIL-STD-1553B communication takes place over a dual redundant channel,
generally known as bus BUS-A and BUS-B. Initially BUS-A is active and BUS-B is in hot standby, if BUS-A fails then the
communication automatically switches to BUS-B. If BUS-A is restored again, the communication switches back to BUS-A.
Role Identification
The design, development and implementation of the MIL-STD-1553 protocol were carried out in various stages
considering one system at a time. First of all the role of different sub systems are identified like BC, RT and MT. The BC role
can be given to the one who has one or more of the following:

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(a) Resources
(b) Processing capacity
(c) Controllability
(d) Vital Information of common interest
(e) Redundancy etc….
BC is the Master of the communication bus. All the data exchange takes place under the command and control of BC.
The implementation of MT is optional. The purpose of the MT is to log the messages being exchanged on the bus may
be for post-analysis later and / or to take over as BC if necessarily programmed to do so.
RTs are the consumers of the 1553B bus and maximum of 31 RTs can exist in one network. RTs can receive and
transmit the information on the bus under control of BC.
Data Exchange Matrix

Once the roles of the sub systems are decided and the assignment of RT addresses is done. The next major step is to
prepare a Data Exchange Matrix, where the commands, data, and mode codes exchanged between all the sub systems are
arranged in to tabular formats along with the message IDs, source, destination, message intervals and their periodicity. After
careful analysis of the this first draft matrix one can optimise the message types, i.e. whether it is a Broadcast, BC to RT, RT to
RT or a Mode code message. A sample Data Exchange Matrix is shown in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Data Exchange Matrix
Sub-Address fields for transmit and receive messages are to be filled in sequentially without repeating the same
address for two messages. Further each message is to be elaborated stating the command word, header, and number of data
bytes along with bit level definition of these data bytes and check sum at the end. After several iterations one can finalise the
Data Exchange Matrix with details like sub-addresses and command words. Above process may be repeated several times
along with the consultation with interface agencies and the protocol may be finalised.
Message Timings
The timing diagrams showing the graphical representations of messages were also prepared to give the broader and
clearer picture from which the Minor frame and Major frame cycles were identified. Similar exercise was carried out for
System-B and System-C Interface. Fig 2 shows the timing diagram between System-A and controller.
Major Cycle is a set of Minor cycles which repeats after the Major cycle time. Each Minor cycle consist of one or
more messages with identical or different messages patterns. Like in Fig 2 the last Minor Cycle of the Major Cycle consists of
M4 message along with M1, M2 and M3.
Fig 2 : Timing Diagram

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5. MESSAGE FAILURE MODES ON A CHANNEL

The MIL-STD-1553B is equipped with various error checking and reporting mechanisms like status transmission for
every message, parity check, terminal and message error flag etc.
In order to make the communication more robust and to increase reliability, we have added checksum and special “Status
Request Mode code”. Despite all these precautions if there is communication error then channel can be declared faulty in
following conditions:
I. - Two successive packets missing - unavailability.

- Check sum error in 2 successive packets - unreliable.
II. Two non - successive packets in one minute gap
- Missing: unavailability
- Checksum error - unreliability
III. Simultaneous failure of both channels.
6. MIL-STD-1553B HARDWARE AND ACCESSORIES

MIL-STD-1553B is not just a standard but a specification. There are strict guidelines provided for hardware as well as
software. The hardware consists of MIL-STD-1553B Communication interface cards/Modules, Bus couplers, and Data
cables, and Terminators. The data couplers with transformer coupling are used for larger stub lengths up to 20feet long and the
direct coupled stub length can not be more than 1 foot. The main bus is terminated with 78? of terminators at both the ends. Fig
3 shows the various accessories required for establishing a MIL-STD-1553B link.
The MIL-STD1553B interface card used here can be configured as BC, MT or RT. These interface cards uses Frame
Controller architecture when configured as BC which minimizes the software load and allow the terminal to run
independently. The BC and RT connect to each other on a twisted pair cable through transformer coupled Data Couplers. For
the MIL-STD-1553B computer model simulators two industrial portable PC with ISA bus based Add on cards along with other
MIL-STD-1553 accessories were used.
Fig 3: MIL-STD-1553B Hardware accessories

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7. SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
The software for the computer model simulators is developed on DOS platform using C programming language. The
functionality for both BC and RT was coded in order to test and validate the communication protocol for computer models in
the laboratory.
The application software calls Application Programme Interface (APIs) provided along with the interface card to
access the 1553B functionality. A Graphical User Interface (GUI) is also provided along with the data logging facility.
The software modules developed by us perform following activities

a) Configuring the interface module as BC or RT
b) Composing the message
c) Triggering the message transmission
d) Receiving the message
e) Checking the message integrity
f) Updating of the real-time data to be transmitted
g) Decoding the commands received and pass them to main application layer
h) Detection of the channel failure.
The Computer Model Simulator developed by us consisting of two industrial portable PCs with MIL-STD-
1553B accessory is shown in Fig 4 below.
Fig 4: Computer Model Simulators
8. BUS LOAD CALCULATION

Bus loading is the percentage of time for which the bus is busy. For any real life system as a thumb rule bus load
should not exceed beyond 50% of total bus time.
The bus load calculation was carried out for all the external system interfaces. The bus load for none of the systems
exceeded 10% value.
Following method was adopted to calculate the total bus load:

[A] Calculate the Message Time for each message in the protocol and then find out the Total Bus Time
Message Time = (20 x N) + R + G + Command Word Time

+ Status Word Time

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Where:
N = Number of Data Words
R = RT Response Time
G = Inter Message Gap
As Data rate is 1MHz (1Sec for 1 bit)
Command Word Time= 20 Sec (20bit)
Status Word Time = 20 Sec (20bit)
[B] Calculate the Total Message Time
Total Bus Time = MT1 + MT2+ MT3+ ………….MTN
Where:
MT = Message Time
N = Number of messages in one second
[C] The Final Bus Load is calculated with reference to 1 Second, which is generally a Major Cycle time.
Considering Major Cycle of 1 Sec (1 x 106 Sec)
% Bus Loading = (Total Bus Time / 106) x 100
9. CONCLUSION
A COTs based computer models for MIL-STD-1553B protocol design and development have successfully been
realised. It is clear from the bus load calculations that presently bus load is sufficiently low and it can further accommodate
additional data traffic it needed. The MIL-STD-1553B simulators have been validated during Factory Acceptance Trials
successfully.
10. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to thank Shri B. Rajagopalan, Director, R&DE (Engrs.), Pune-411015, for his encouragement and
co-operation to publish this paper without which it could not have been possible. Thanks are also due, to the entire design team
of Control System for their valuable suggestions and support.
REFERENCES
1. MIL-STD-1553 Designer's Guide, Data Device Corporation®, New York, 1998.
2. MIL-HDBK-1553 Multiplex applications handbook, Revision A, section 20, November 1988.
3. MIL-STD-1553 Tutorial, Condor Engineering, Santa Barbara, CA-93101, June 2000

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SWARM INTELLIGENCE BASED ALGORITHMS FOR

DESIGN OPTIMIZATION OF STIFFENED CYLINDRICAL
SHELLS FOR UNDERWATER WEAPONS
KKK Sanyasi Raju, D Chakraborti

Naval Science & Technological Laboratory, Visakhapatnam
ABSTRACT
Stiffened Cylindrical Shells for use in Underwater weapons are generally designed with minimum structural weight
for better performance resulting in either increased speed , higher endurance or for accommodating higher payloads. An
attempt is made in the present study to utilize swarm intelligence based algorithms for design optimization of Stiffened
Cylindrical Shells subjected to constraints on suitable safety factors on inter-frame buckling stress , overall buckling stress
and hoop stress. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Ant Colony Optimization(ACO) based on collective intelligence of
group of birds or ants belong to the class of Swarm Intelligence based algorithms Shell thickness, stiffener width, stiffener
spacing are considered as the design variables and the various buckling stresses are computed using BS5500 pressure vessel
codes. The ACO algorithm is proved to be an efficient optimization procedure for minimizing the structural weight of shells
and the optimized results are compared with standard FEA package.
KEYWORDS: Swarm intelligence optimization, , pressure vessel, Ant colonies , Stiffened shells
1. INTRODUCTION
Optimization Problems are of high importance both for the scientific world as well as for the industrial world. The
design optimization has a paramount importance to both designers and owners, since it provides for more efficient structures.
The goal of design optimization mainly to maximally utilize the geometry and material of the proposed design elements to
result in the lightest structure while satisfying the geometrical as well as technical constraints. Ant Colony Optimization
technique (ACO) is a metaheuristic to solve combinatorial optimization problems may using principles of communicative
behavior found in real colonies .An efficient approach ACO, proposed by Marco Dorigo in 1992 [ 1,2] and applied for the
combinatorial Problems like Traveling Salesman Problem, Job Shop Scheduling.etc. The Ants find the optimal solutions by
the indirect communication called stigmergy in terms of depositing a biological liquid called Pheromone. Ants can smell
pheromone. When choosing their way, they tend to choose, in probability, paths marked by strong pheromone concentrations.
The pheromone trails will guide other ants to find the routes .This helps ants in finding the shortest path between food sources
and their nest. Later on, the concept of these principles are widely accepted in many fields. Ant Colony Optimization, A part of
Swarm Intelligence technique [4] is applied to engineering design problems [3]. Weight is an important parameter in the design
concepts to be optimized so that can control many parameters.
2 . METHODOLOGY
Ant Colony Algorithms are typically used to solve minimum cost problems. We may usually have N nodes and A
undirected arcs. The two points in which we want to establish a minimum cost path are called the source and destination nodes.
In the Ant Algorithms, the source and destination nodes are deemed the nest and food source
The ants, while building a solution, may generate loops, with the pheromone updating, these loops tend to become
more attractive. Due to problems created with forward updating, it seems as though the algorithm should be limited to only
backward updating, but the algorithm will not work in this case. We generate artificial ants for the optimization instead of real
ants for finding global optimum. The Pheromone concept in ACO is explained in figure 1
Artificial ants must retain properties of real ants, which will allow them to solve the minimum cost problem. They are
given a limited form of memory, where they can store the partial paths they have followed, as well as the cost of the links they
have traversed. Using this memory, the ants can build solutions to the minimum cost path problem.

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These behaviors are
1. Probabilistic solution construction biased by pheromone trails, without forward updating the trail.
2. Deterministic backward path with loop elimination and pheromone updating
3. Evaluation of the quality of the pheromones to deposit. It is also known that the pheromones will evaporate with time.
Figure 1 Understanding the pheromone Concept in ACO
There are two working modes for the ants: either forwards or backwards. The forward mode is in effect when ants are
moving from nest to food, while they are in backwards mode, when moving from food to nest. Once the ant reaches the
destination (food), it will immediately go into backward mode. The ant moves forward by probabilistically choosing the next
node to move to among the nearest neighbors. The probabilistic choice is based on pheromones trails. The higher probability
node will be selected. Ants move to that node in order to complete the path .The Pheromones are only deposited in backward
mode. This will help in avoiding loops.
The ant's memory allows them to retrace the path it has followed while searching for the destination node, the ants
also improve the system by loop elimination. Before moving backward on their memorized path, they eliminate any loops
from it. While moving backwards, the ants leave pheromones on the arcs they traversed.
The ants evaluate the cost of the paths they have traversed, thus modulated the deposited pheromones. The shorter paths will
receive a greater deposit of pheromones. An evaporation rule will be tied with the pheromones, which will reduce the chance
for poor quality solutions. In General, the ACO approach attempts to solve the optimization problems by repeating the
following two steps.
(i) Candidate solutions are constructed using a pheromone model that is a parameterized probability distribution over the
solution space.
(ii) The candidate solutions are used to modify the pheromone values in a way that is deemed to bias future sampling toward
high quality solutions
The Basic Algorithm

Each arc is defined (I ,j) of the graph G(N,A). The variable t
ij is named the artificial pheromone trail. Pheromone
trails are read and written by the ants. The amount of pheromone is proportional to the utility
Ant Searching Behavior

Each ant builds, starting from the source node, a solution by applying a step by step decision policy. At each node,
local information is stored on the node, is read by the ant and used in a stochastic way, to decide which node to move to next. At
the beginning of the search process, a constant amount of pheromone is assigned to all arcs. When located at a node i an ant k
uses the pheromone trail t ij to compute the probability of choosing j as the next node:

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a
ì tij
ï a if j ÎN ik (1)
k
å
pij =
í t
Nik il
lÎ
ï
0
î if j Ï N ik
where N ik is the neighborhood of ant k when in node i. The parameter ? represents the importance of the pheromones. The
neighborhood of node i contains all the nodes directly connected to node i in the graph G=(N,A), except the predecessor node i
(the last node visited before i). This will prevent the ants from returning to the same node visited immediately before node i. If
k
N i is empty, which corresponds to a dead end in the graph, node i's predecessor is included in N ik An ant goes from node to
node until it reaches the destination node.
Path Retracing and Pheromone Updating

Before returning to the source node (backwards mode), the ant will eliminate any loops that it created while searching
for the destination node. This is done by a scanning procedure. The longest loop may not necessarily be eliminated, due to the
dependence on the sequence of elimination.
k
During the return, the kth ant deposits D
t of pheromones on arcs it has visited. When the arc (i,j) is traversed , the
pheromone value changes as follows
k
(2)
t
ij ¬
tt
ij +
D
By using this rule, the probability increases that forthcoming ants will use this arc.
Pheromone Trail Evaporation

The decrease in pheromone intensity favors the exploration of different paths during the whole search process.
This favors the forgetting of poor choices in path selection. This also bounds the maximum value achievement by
pheromone trails. After each ant k has moved to the next node, the pheromones evaporate by the following equation to all
the arcs
(3)
t
ij ¬ p )t
(1 - ( i, j ) Î
ij , " A
Where p Î (0,1] is a parameter. Iteration is a completer cycle involving ants' movement, pheromone evaporation, and
pheromone deposit.
3 . STEPS FOR SOLVING A PROBLEM BY ACO

(i) Represent the problem in the form of sets of components and transitions, or by a set of weighted graphs, on which ants
can build solutions
(ii) Define the meaning of the pheromone trails
(iii) Define the heuristic preference for the ant while constructing a solution
(iv) If possible implement a efficient local search algorithm for the problem to be solved.
(v) Choose a specific ACO algorithm and apply to problem being solved
(vi) Tune the parameter of the ACO algorithm.
4. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
In under water applications, space vehicles, and aircrafts and in other defensive applications weight becomes important factor.
So in these weight sensitive applications importance of light weight materials have become significant.
Though the metals have given excellent service for the construction of shells in hydro space applications, the requirements for
service at greater depths has created considerable difficulties with metal owing to problems of weight. A point is reached where
the shell becomes so thick that all buoyancy is lost and the pay load is reducing to bare minimum.

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Types of Failures
There are three primary modes of failure of a stiffened cylindrical shell. These are buckling of the shell between ring
stiffeners identified by the forming of dimples or lobes around the periphery of the shell plating.
i) Yielding of the shell between ring stiffeners, usually appearing as an axi symmetric accordion pleat rather than lobes
ii) General instability, characterized by large dished – in portions of the stiffened cylinder wherein the shell and the
ring stiffeners deflect bodily as a unit as shown in figures 2, 3 and 4 .
iii) The last mode of collapse is sensitive to the spacing of the rigid bulk heads, wing bulk heads , or deep frames and
may occur if the length between them is too long or the supporting ring frames or too small.
Fig 2 Failure by General Instability Fig 3 Failure by Buckling Fig 4 Failures by Yielding
Shell buckle and shell yield area analogous to the behavior of a long slender column and a short stubby column,
respectively when shell is relatively heavily and the frame spacing is close the shell will fail in yield. However, if the shell is
relatively thin and the frames are widely spaced the shell may buckle in lobes. These mechanisms of collapse are obtained with
an ideally perfect structure. For optimum design, i.e. minimum weight, the shell should be designed to fail by yielding, while
the frame should have the minimum size necessary to prevent premature failure by general instability.
Methodology
As explained above, the Design optimization of stiffened cylindrical mainly depends on the primacy of three distinct
failure modes
? Plating yield
? Lobar or Inter-stiffener instability
? General or Overall Instability
If it is assumed that these failure modes can control, then the following procedure lead to the optimum shell design
?
Size of shell plating thickness to meet membrane yield criterion with appropriate safety factor.
?
Define the frame spacing to avoid Lobar buckling with safety factor
?
Use Bryant equation to define plating / stiffener moment of inertia in order to avoid general instability
?
Choose frame geometry and proportions to provide the required “I” without introducing local instabilities.?
?
Calculate W/D for the plating/ stiffener geometry

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5. PROBLEM FORMULATION
Objective: mass minimization of the stiffened cylindrical shell
Minimize f(x) = W
Where W= W1 + W2
W = Overall weight
W1 = Weight of the shell
W2 = Weight of the ribs
Subjected to constraints
Inter frame buckling > 75MPa
Overall Buckling > 18 MPa
Hoop Stress < 200 MPa
Spacing between ribs > 60 mm
Frame Stress < 200 MPa
Input data
Material Properties : ACO data :
Material : Aluminum No Of Ants = 20
Elastic Modulus : 71 Gpa No of iterations = 500
Poisson's Ratio : 0.3 =1 (Trail Parameter)
Density : 2700 kg/m3 =0.8 (Evaporation Rate)
Yield Strength : 240 Mpa
Tensile Strength : 280 Mpa Design Variables :
X1 = width of rib
Geometrical Properties : X2 = rib spacing
Overall Length : 820 mm X3 = thickness Fig 6.1 The graph representing the optimized value of
Mean Radius : 262 mm a shell by using ACO method
Boundaries :
Rib height : 20 mm
10 ≤x1 ≤30
70 ≤x2 ≤130
7 ≤x3 ≤13
Output :
FOPT (weight) = 43.1685 kgs Rib Width = 10 mm
Rib Spacing = 101 mm
Thickness = 10 mm

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and the corresponding constraint values are
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5
18.03 80.49 196.5 91 mm 119.22MPa
MPa MPa MPa
Table 1 Constraints values for Shell Problem
The Present Optimization gave a weight of stiffened cylindrical shell of 43.12 Kgs, from the figure 5 under the given
conditions. The Optimized values of the stiffened cylindrical shell are checked with FEA analysis values using the standard
ANSYS Package. The figures 6 and 7 showing the graphs corresponding to the wave number Vs Inter frame Buckling pressure
and Overall Buckling pressure. From the optimization results it is observed that the values of the Inter frame buckling pressure
and over all Buckling pressure are as shown in Table 2
Inter frame Buckling

18.03 MPa
Pressure
Over all Buckling Pressure 80.49 MPa
Table 2 The Optimized results of pressures of shell
The values representing the minimum pressures that are to be withstanding by the shell to get a good stability design
using the Optimization concept. From the Figure 5 it is observed that the value of the mass of the stiffened cylindrical shell is
decreased in each iteration by using the taken optimization approach Ant Colony Optimization Technique and finally the value
is converged to a single value means all ants are showing a single optimized value . The FEA Analysis results are shown in the
figures 8, 9, 10 and the FEA values are compared with the Optimized Shell values to check with that the design is with in the
safe limits.
Fig 6 The Graph for Shell showing Fig 7 The Graph for Shell showing
Wave Number Vs Over all Buckling Pressure Wave Number Vs Inter frame Buckling Pressure
Fig 8 The ANSYS values corresponding to the Optimized values

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Fig 9 The First mode shape Fig 10 The third mode shape
8 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper Ant Colony Optimization method is used for solving the engineering design optimization problems.
Starting from the many points of research, ant colony algorithm uses pheromone feedback to learn by itself and moves to the
best minimum step by step. From the results discussed above, it is observed that the proposed approach yielded best results and
compared with the standard FEA package and observed that the design is with in the safe limits.
REFERENCES
1. Marco Dorigo, Christian Blum , “Ant Colony Optimization Theory : A Survey ” , A journal in Theoretical Computer
Science 344 (2005) 243 -278 .
2. M. Duran Toksari, “Ant Colony Optimization for finding the global minimum”, A Journal in Applied Mathematics
and Computation , 176 (2006) 308 - 316.
3. D. Sameer Kumar, Dr .K. Ravindra, K.K.K. Sanyasi Raju and Dr .D. Nageswara Rao, “Ant Colony Optimization
based Algorithms for Engineering Design”, proceedings of CAE – 2007 at IIT, Madras, (2007), 736-743.
4. GUO Chuang-xin, HU Jia-sheng, YE Bin , CAO Yi-jia “Swarm intelligence for mixed variable optimization”,
Journal of Zhejiang Univ SCi (2004) 5(7) : 851 -860
5. CAPT Harry A.Jackson, “ Fundamentals of Submarine Design” , SNAME Transactions , Vol .100 ,1992.
6. Dorigo, Marco and Stützle, Thomas. Ant Colony Optimization, Cambridge, MA: (2004) The MIT Press.
7. Ant Colony Optimization Homepage http://iridia.ulb.ac.be/~mdorigo/ACO/
8. BS 5500 Pressure vessel code

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EVALUATION OF PROBABILITY GRID USING SIMULATION OF

FRAGMENTATION PATTERN ON GROUND
RS Deodhar
Anupam Anand
Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory, Chandigarh - 160030
ABSTRACT
To find fragmentation pattern and lethal area on ground of fragmenting shells, bombs and rocket warheads are two
important problems in terminal ballistics. Fragmentation pattern of a given shell can be used by designers for optimizing the
design parameters. This can also be used to evaluate probability grids on ground and hence, the lethal area associated with the
shell.
Existing approach for evaluating probability grids is based on assumptions that all fragments travel in a straight line.
Experimental data is used for evaluating probability of hit in a given area.
In this paper, we present simulation approach to find the fragmentation pattern on ground of a bursting shell.
Experimental data is used for simulation of a burst using probability distribution models. This allows us to take into
account variability in mass and spatial distribution. Trajectory of each fragment is calculated using 2-D point mass model.
Remaining velocity and mass is used to determine the lethality of the fragments using Zuckerman's lethality criteria.
Multiple simulation runs are used to evaluate the probability of at least one lethal hit in a given area. Using this, we have
developed probability grid for lethality of a shell.
KEYWORDS : Fragmentation pattern, probability grid, simulation, terminal ballistics
NOMENCLATURE
ni = number of fragments in a given angular zone and in a given weight group
Ni = total number of fragments in the given weight group
n = total number of fragments in the given angular zone
N = total number of fragments from the shell
È = Angle of projection
v = Velocity of fragment
c = Super/subsonic drag of fragment
á = Angle of descent of shell
1. INTRODUCTION
Anti-personnel lethality for fragmenting shells is expressed in terms of lethal radius. A damage function of the type
cookie cutter [3][4] or a continuous function like, Gaussian, exponential or any other circular symmetric function is used to
evaluate expected damage area [1][4]. But, in reality, fragmentation is a discrete phenomenon.
Weapon effectiveness for anti-personnel lethality of artillery shells, bombs and rocket warheads varies greatly with
angle of descent, height of burst and remaining velocity of shells and fragments [2]. These parameters also decide the
fragmentation pattern [5] of the shell on ground. When a shell detonates, fragments move out from the surface of the shell with
high velocities. The lethality of the fragment when it hits a person depends on the mass and remaining velocity. Fragmentation
pattern even at the same angle of descent varies from round to round due to inherent variability in the shells and variability in
height of burst. Moreover, angle of descent of shells will decide number of fragments tracing straight line trajectory making
direct hits or parabolic trajectory making indirect hits. Direct hits almost surely contribute to lethality.
To be more realistic, any anti-personnel lethality definition for weapon effectiveness [2] must include all these
variability and indirect hits. In this paper, Simulation approach is used to find the fragmentation pattern on ground of a bursting
shell. Experimental data is used for simulation of a burst using probability distribution models. This allows us to take into
account variability in mass and spatial distribution. Trajectory of each fragment is calculated using 2-D point mass model [6].

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Remaining velocity and mass is used to determine the lethality of the fragments using Zuckerman's lethality criteria. Multiple
simulation runs are used to evaluate the probability of at least one lethal hit in a given area. Using this, we have developed
probability grid for lethality of a shell.
2. SIMULATION OF BURST OF SHELL

Horizontal burst
This approach assumes the availability of following experimental data from at least 3 bursts of shells (statically
detonated in horizontal condition).
i) Mass distribution of fragments in weight groups
ii) Spatial distribution of fragments in angular zones
iii) Average initial velocity of fragments
Experimental data shows great variability in the above data for three rounds. Standard deviation for the number of
fragments in a given weight groups varies from 5 to 288(for the shell data used in this approach). To reflect this variability,
burst of shell is simulated. It means mass and spatial distribution data is recalculated in each simulation run using appropriate
probability distribution models. The distribution of number of fragments in each weight group is approximated by normal
distribution with mean as average number of fragments and variance as variance of number of fragments in that weight group.
Weight of fragments in each weight group is assumed to be uniformly distributed. To maintain the adaptability of the code for
all types of shells, spatial distribution is calculated using empirical distribution of fragments.
These new data is used to workout detailed mass and spatial distribution of fragments which gives number and mass
of fragments in each angular zone and in each weight group by the following expression.
At this stage, we have simulated the burst giving us number of fragments in each angular zone and mass of each
fragment.
Simulation of trajectory of fragment

In this step, we first decide plane of movement and angle of projection of a fragment. Then, trajectory for each
fragment is simulated using 2D point mass model. Assume that the shell is at origin (0, 0, 0). Consider a unit sphere with center
at origin. Based on the simulated data, we assign to every fragment a point P (x, y, z) on the unit sphere through which it will be
projected out. Let È1 denote the angular projection angle for a fragment and È2 denote the angle which OP makes with the
vertical. The distribution of È2 is assumed to be uniform in the range 0 to 3600 (Refer figure1 (a) and 1(b)).
The plane of movement of fragments is determined by the vectors OP and its projection on XY plane. The angle of
projection for this fragment in its plane of motion is the angle between these two vectors. For a horizontal burst, fragments with
È2 between 900 to 2700 results into direct hits and remaining fragments contribute in the indirect hits. The following equations
[6] are used to calculate the trajectory and to determine the point at which the fragment will hit on the ground.
2
d v 1 v
=-gsin( θ)-
1/3
d t 2 m c
d θ
=-gcos( θ)/
v
dt
dx
=vcos( θ)
dt
dy Simulation of all fragments gives fragmentation pattern on ground

=vsin( θ)
dt

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SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF BURST VISUALIZED INSIDE A UNIT SPHERE
Figure 1(a) Figure 1 (b)
iii) Burst with angle of descent 'á'

To simulate burst with angle of descent 'á', first, horizontal burst is simulated to obtain a point of ejection P (x, y, z) for
each fragment. Then, we apply a transformation P→AP=P', to obtain a point P' on the unit sphere which will be the point of
ejection in this case.
A=
Once P' is determined, the trajectory and hence point of hit on the ground is determined as in the case of horizontal burst
3. DETERMINING LETHALITY OF FRAGMENTS

Mass and remaining velocity of fragments at point of hit on ground is then used to find out the lethality of each
fragment using Zuckerman's lethality criteria. As per Zuckerman's lethality criteria, only those hits are considered which give a
lethality of 1, that is, probability of kill given a hit is one.
The process is repeated for multiple simulation runs and probability of at least one lethal hit is calculated in a given
area of 0.5m X 0.5m just large enough to accommodate no more or no less than single personnel. This gives probability grid for
lethality of the shells. Lethal area is also found out by taking weighted sum of total grid area with weights being probability of
at least one lethal hit.

1.Results of fragmentation pattern and probability grid at different angle of descent and at 5m height of burst obtained from
100 simulation runs are shown below.
i)Angle of descent is 200 and Height of burst is 5m.
Figure 2 (a) Figure 2 (b)

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Lethal area for probability of at least one lethal hit is greater or equal to 0.5=44.50 sq m.
ii)Angle of descent is 500 and Height of burst is 5m.
Lethal area for probability of at least one lethal hit is greater or equal to 0.2=164 sq m.
.
iii)Angle of descent is 900 and Height of burst is 5m
Lethal area for probability of at least one lethal hit is greater or equal to 0.5 = 34 sq m.
2. Table – I shows distribution of indirect hits based on their probability of kill given a hit. This is obtained using average of 100
simulation runs and by Zuckerman's lethality criteria. Number of lethal indirect hits is small but not negligible. But, this
number is not small enough to be ignored for lethality of multiple shells where lethality (probability of at least one lethal hit)
will grow cumulatively as number of shells increases.

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TABLE - I
Probability of kill Number of lethal Number of lethal Number of lethal

given a hit indirect hits at indirect hits at indirect hits at
á = 200 á = 500 á = 900
0.0 – 0.1 1293.80 1104.90 1018.60
0.1 – 0.2 679.78 577.88 931.47
0.2 – 0.3 290.12 248.11 244.44
0.3 – 0.4 187.00 158.26 152.87
0.4 – 0.5 153.24 130.65 122.21
0.5 – 0.6 98.16 82.85 92.56
0.6 – 0.7 101.35 86.35 84.45
0.7 – 0.8 61.52 52.83 64.80
0.8 – 0.9 72.78 60.40 67.73
0.9 – 1.0 57.41 54.97 93.43
5. ADVANTAGE
i) Approach works for any type of shell, bomb or rocket warhead, be it natural, preformed or pre-fragmented type.
ii) It takes into account, lethality of indirect hits also. So, will help to work out lethality of multiple shells more
accurately.
iii) Approach being statistical in nature, inherent variabilities in the phenomenon is taken in to account.
6. FUTURE SCOPE
To include the posture and height of target (target modeling) and type of terrain (terrain modeling) in the approach so
as to calculate percentage casualty and lethal area with the users point of view.
REFERENCES
1. Jaiswal N.K., Military Operations Research: Quantitative Decision Making, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Boston/Dordrecht/London, 1997
2. Army Material Command, Handbook on warhead-General, Engineering Design Handbook of the Army Material
Command, chapter-4
3. Schroeter Gerhard, Expected coverage of a randomly located Target by Multiple Independent Salvos, Operations
Research, vol. 28, No.6, 1299-1318,1980
4. Przemieniecki J.S., Mathematical Methods in Defense Analyses, Third Edition, AIAA Educational series, 2000
5. Lt. col. Wm. C. Farmer, Ordnance Field Guide, Military Service Publishing Company, Vol. III, 1945
6. Robert L. McCoy, Modern Exterior Ballistics, Schiffer Publishing Ltd., Atglen, PA, 1999

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DEVELOPMENT OF FUZES, SAFE/ARM SYSTEMS AND SEEKERS
Philippe Ecolivet
Thales Missile Electronics (UK & France)
ABSTRACT
This paper pesents the range of Thales missile electronics activities and capabilities with a special
focus on Semi Active Laser developments.
Thales is a world leader in specialised missile electronics, advanced proximity fuzes, hard target safe
arm units and RF and electro optical seekers.
Thales proximity fuzes employ laser (optical), radio frequency (RF) and dual mode techniques, and
are used in the MBDA Mica, Rapier, Sea Dart, Sea Wolf, and ASRAAM anti-air missiles, the Raytheon
TOW-2B anti-armour missile, and the Denel Umkohnto anti-air missile.
Thales has developed mechanical and electronic elements of Safe & Arming Units (SAUs) for
'normal' and hard target defeat weapons so that they can survive severe impact shocks (>80,000g). It has
provided lethal packages comprising warhead, SAU and proximity fuze. Thales products include the
Multi Function Bomb Fuze (MFBF) for all UK RAF bombs and Paveway weapons, the Multi
Application Fuze Initiation System (MAFIS) for the MBDA Storm Shadow/SCALP EG and Raytheon
JSOW AGM-154C missiles, the Aurora SAU for the Raytheon Paveway IV weapon, the UK Further
Improved TOW (FITOW) and LMM (Lightweight Multi-Role Missile) programmes.
Thales is the European leader in the field of seekers and its experience covers the domain of active and
semi active seekers (RF, IIR and Laser), especially the Semi Active Laser seeker which equips
ammunition with a metric accuracy capability. Thales has produced SAL seekers for the AS30L and
Arcole missiles. Thales is recently developing a generic SAL seeker based on components fitted to
various types of ammunition (mortars, shells, rockets, missiles) to function in complex battlefield
environments.
It has developed high “g” products and also seekers, fuzes and hard target fuzing able to withstand
thousands of “g” acceleration and deceleration. Developments in laser technologies has led to a four
quadrant detector that gives to the seeker the capability to meet the criteria of metric accuracy, high “g”
constraints, low sensitivity to ECM and low cost.

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MODELING & SIMULATION ON EXPLOSIVE DYNAMICS PHENOMENA

DURING STAGE SEPARATION MECHANISM
K Sunil Kumar, CH Surya Kiran, M Jaya Ramiah, S Vara Prasad Rao, Dr. VG Sekharan
Advanced System Laboratry, Hyderabad
ABSTRACT
Stage separation mechanism is a mission critical event in long range systems employing multi-stage vehicles. Hence,
it is important to understand the explosive dynamics phenomena behind this stage separation event. An attempt has been made
to capture all the explosive dynamics which are validated through experimental observations which are in close agreement.
This study can be extended for any future stage separation applications employing multi-stage vehicles. Usage of AUTODYN
software reduces the product development cost and time. It is successfully used in our programs during the development to
deployment phase of our systems.
Flexible Linear Shaped Charges (FLSC) are widely used in staging and destruction of missiles and launch vehicles.
FLSC works basically on the 'Munroe effect' principle i.e., total cut by explosive in target material comprises of jet penetration
and shock severance. FLSCs are tested on flat plates in simulated flight configuration with explosive encased in between target
plate and backup segments. With EN-24 backup segments, target plate is being cut at more than two locations. Whereas,
single cut is observed with aluminum alloy backup segments.
This paper deals with the simulation study on Explosive dynamics in FLSC by using 2D model of AUTODYN
software. The simulations could predict well the performance of FLSC in the above configurations. It is observed that with
EN-24 backup segments, the target plate severance is mostly due to shock wave, whereas with aluminum alloy, severance is by
jet penetration. Severance is explained by considering the strength of the two materials EN-24 and Aluminum alloy.
KEYWORDS
Stage Separation System, FLSC, Autodyn Simulations, EN-24 & HE-15 Backup Segments
1. INTRODUCTION
To maximize the payload carrying capacity of aerospace vehicles, they are configured in multi stages. After the
successful completion of lower stage fuel, it is required to be jettisoned from the ongoing stage.
In most of the aerospace launch programs, Flexible Linear Shaped Charge (FLSC) based stage separation system is
employed. FLSC consists of an inverted v-shaped seamless metal sheath containing a column of high explosive material.
FLSC works on the 'Munroe effect' principle i.e., when an explosive encased in a metal is detonated, it produces a high velocity
jet (6 to 8 km/sec) and also produces shock wave. On initiation, FLSC cuts the skin circumferentially and separates the spent
stage from the ongoing stage. FLSC initiation generates large shock and hence its design should be ensured that the ongoing
stage should not be damaged and the electronic packages that are mounted on the structure have to perform perfectly. To meet
this requirement, the skin has to cut cleanly without leaving any protrusions on the ongoing stage hardware and the shock
levels are to be minimum or their durations are to be reduced to a level where their influence is negligible [1].
Ideally initiation of FLSC has to produce a single cut on target. But protrusions and multiple cuts are observed in
many tests [2]. Protrusions on the skin of ongoing stage increase the drag on vehicle. Also, fragments may hit the electronic
packages or damage the motor nozzle. So, experiments and simulations are planned for obtaining single cut on target material.
Explosive dynamics can be captured well in AUTODYN simulations.
AUTODYN is an explicit analysis tool for modeling the non-linear dynamics of solids, fluids and their interactions.
AUTODYN is an integrated product with the preprocessing, post processing and analysis modules tightly integrated for
maximum productivity. It finds application mostly in solving non-linear physics problems such as explosives, projectile
impacts, deflagration, detonation etc.,. AUTODYN simulations can yield much more technical data, which may be impossible
to generate in experiments.
This paper deals with the experiments and simulations carried out on flat plates with two different backup segment
materials EN-24 and HE-15 Aluminum alloy (Al 24345).

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2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Figure 1: Stage separation assembly

in flight configuration
Electric signal initiates detonator, which in turn initiates booster. Booster strengthens the shock wave for initiation of
RDX based FLSC, which severs the skin[3]. Back-up segment provides the support for FLSC. Inner stiffener as well as Outer
stiffeners provide the strength for target material for obtaining the clean severance across the skin.
During developmental trials, FLSC is first proved in simulated flight hardware on Flat plate tests. Flat plate tests are
carried out on same material and thickness for target and stiffeners. The number of fasteners and the pitch distance is
maintained the same. Fig. 2 shows the configuration of flat plates assembly. FLSC-3 with core load density of 8.3 g/m of
injected RDX is used. 12.9 class M8 fasteners are used in these tests. The target material is 5 mm thick HE 15 Al alloy.
Figure 2: Flat plate assembly
Case 1
In this set of experiments, the backup segments, outer and inner stiffeners are made of EN-24 material. Fig. 3 shows
the test results along the flat plate and over the cross section of plate.
It is observed that the target is cut at the plane away from the stiffeners on either side. Due to the failure of material at 2
planes, the third debris piece of 5 mm is formed. On the hardware, it is observed that the target is cut partially by jet penetration
and separation occurred mostly due to the shock severance. The deflection observed on the stiffeners is negligible and it acted
as a closed vessel for the buildup of shock wave. So, the plate was cut at either ends by the intensity of shockwave.
Figure 3. Flat plate tests with EN-24 back up segments

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Case 2
In the second case, the backup segments, outer and inner stiffeners are changed to HE-15 Aluminum alloy. Fig. 4
presents the test results along the flat plate and over the cross section of plate.
Figure 4: Flat plate tests with Aluminum alloy back up segments
It is observed that the target plate is cleanly cut at the separation plane without leaving any debris. The
deformation observed on HE 15 backup segments is larger compared to EN-24 material. Major part of the explosive
energy in shock wave is utilized in deforming the backup segments. Hence, the plate is cut mostly by jet penetration. It is
also observed on the hardware that the plate is cut mostly by the jet penetration alone.
3. AUTODYN SIMULATIONS
An attempt was made to predict the experimental observations in AUTODYN software. In the present study, three
different cases are studied. In the first case, detonation of FLSC alone is modeled. In the second case, FLSC is simulated along
with target plate and EN-24 stiffeners. In the third case, simulation is carried out on FLSC, target plate and HE-15 Al alloy
backups segments.
Numerical Modeling:
Geometric model is generated in the built-in preprocessor of AUTODYN. The ability of the numerical model to
predict the response of materials depends largely on the selection of appropriate material models and associated input data. All
the components were modeled using Euler and Lagrange type of grids.
In solver part, Euler processor is used for FLSC, where the grid is fixed but the material moves along the grid.
Lagrange processor (solver), is selected for solving target and stiffeners, where the numerical grid distorts with the material.
Usage of Lagrange processor is computationally efficient and it gives a good representation of material interfaces.
AUTODYN's Euler-to-Lagrange contact algorithm couples between two different solvers and it allows surfaces to contact and
separate as required [4].
In penetration simulations, the grid quickly distorts in regions local to the penetrator. To improve efficiency, highly
distorted cells can be automatically removed from the calculation using an erosion algorithm based on plastic or geometric
strain[5]. In the present case, the geometric strain erosion process is taken into account for projectile and target material with a
value of 150%.
Problem methodology:
? Autodyn 2D software is used to model the problem.
? Lagrange solver is used for target plate and stiffeners.
? Euler solver is used for construction of casing, liner and the explosive which is filled inside the casing
? All units are in milli meters, milli seconds and milligrams.
? Material Data is extracted from AUTODYN material library.
? Material data for FLSC and target is given in tab-1.1, 1.2.

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?
Thickness of the target plate is 5mm.
?
200*50 refined mesh size is used for projectile and 200*180 mesh size is used for target. Mesh is refined near the
impact area.
?
Initiation point for detonation is given at the center of FLSC.
?
Euler / Lagrange interaction logic is used for projectile target impact.
The type of material models used for the computation is summarized below.
Material RDX Lead Al alloy

EOS JWL Shock Shock
Strength Steinberg
Hydro Hydro
model Guinan
Effective
Failure
None None plastic
model
strain
4. RESULTS
Case-1
Fig 5. shows the model of FLSC with a core load density of 8.3 g/m of RDX. Results of the simulation on FLSC are
shown in Fig. 6 where the Jet formation has been captured at 1, 1.8 2.6, 3.5 and 4.3 microseconds.
Figure 5: FLSC model
Fig 6. FLSC detonation at various times

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Maximum jet-tip velocity is 6.8 km/sec, whereas slug velocity is 2.1 km/sec. Maximum velocity is reached at 4.2
microseconds, thereafter the velocity started decreasing. Maximum length of the jet is around 3.2mm.
Figure 7: Internal energy of RDX Figure 8: Kinetic energy of lead.
The profiles of internal energy of explosive material and kinetic energy of lead are shown in Fig 7 and 8. The
explosive energy is transferred to the liner within 2.5 microseconds. Maximum pressure reached in the liner part is around
5260 bar and that in explosive material is 1360 bar. Total weight of jet and slug is around 17.5 mg and weight of jet is around
7.9mg.
Case 2
Aluminum alloy with EN-24 backup segments and stiffeners is simulated. The material status results are shown at 0,
3, 7, 10, 25 microseconds in Fig. 9. It can be seen that the deflections in backup segment and stiffeners is negligible. Also, target
is cut at 2 planes resulting in the third piece as debris. This type of cut is undesirable. Fig. 10 shows the revolved view of 2D
model around 180 degrees to obtain 3D model.
Fig 9: AUTODYN simulations with EN-24 back up segment.

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Fig 10: 3 D AUTODYN simulations with EN-24 backup segments.
Case 3
FLSC impact on target plate with HE-15 backup segments is shown in Fig. 11 at 0, 3, 10 and 25 microseconds. It can
be seen that the deflection in backup segments is large. A single cut is observed on the target plate, which is desirable. As the
backup segment is deflected outwards, the severance might be due to jet penetration alone but not with shockwave.
Fig. 11: AUTODYN simulations with Al 24345 backup segments

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5. CONCLUSIONS
Explosive dynamics of FLSC on target with EN-24 and HE-15 Aluminum alloy backup segments is simulated in
AUTODYN software. The simulations could predict well the experimental observations. It is observed that with EN-24
backup segments, the target plate severance is mostly due to shock wave, whereas with aluminum alloy, severance is by jet
penetration.
Usage of AUTODYN software reduces the time and cost for the product development. It is successfully used in our
programs during the development to deployment phase of our systems.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express sincere gratitude to The Director, ASL and Program Director SF&D for extending support during
the course of this work. The authors also thank engineers of Ms Anatha Solutions Pvt Ltd, Hyderabad for guidance on
AUTODYN simulations.
REFERENCES
1. “Experiences in the design and development of FLSC based stage separation system”, RA Srivardhan et al, Dec,
2003, Aerospace technology: challenges in the millennium, AeSI, Hyderabad.
2. “FLSC based separation system requirements for clean cut”, SV Prasad Rao et al, ARMS 99, AeSI, Hyderabad.
3. “Document for the first full scale stage test of stage separation system”, SV Prasad Rao et al, DRDL/5388/B/PMD/3,
ASL, Hyderabad
4. “Quantitative code evaluation for predicting shaped charge jet stability and characteristics”, Tien Chen Phua,
Proceedings of the 19th Int'l symposium on Ballistics, Midrand, South Africa, vol 2, 2003
5. “AUTODYN interactive non-linear dynamic analysis software, theory manual (Rev 4.3), Century Dynamics, Inc
(2003)

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AMMUNITION STORAGE, TRANSPORT AND

HANDLING SAFETY REGIME IN INDIA:
COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES
Chitra Rajagopal, Amit Saini

Centre For Fire Expolisive and Environment Safety, Delhi
ABSTRACT
The manufacture, handling, storage, conveyance, use and eventual disposal of military explosives are operations
which present inherent risks to persons and property. All member countries of the United Nations are signatories to the
agreements covering the marking of packages, articles and substances containing dangerous goods of all classes, covered in
'The Recommendations on the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods (Orange Book)' published by Committee of Experts (COE)
established by United Nations Economic & Social Council (ECOSOC), based in Geneva. The recommendations are now
universally used for safe storage, handling and transportation of military explosives.
The Ministry of Defence (MoD), India, through its Storage and Transport of Explosives Committee (STEC) chaired
by SA to RM, and with heads of various MoD organisations as its members, is responsible for ensuring that the explosives
present the minimum degree of risk.
This paper presents the International safety regime with respect to ammunition/ explosives storage, transport and
handling. The regulatory mechanism including organisational structure existing in various countries is presented. The
classification criteria, quantity distances corresponding to safe storage/ handling of military explosives, licensing procedures
and risk based approach adopted by countries like US and UK has been compared with that of India. While similar norms are
followed by different countries in designing conventional explosive storage buildings, design of special type of explosive
buildings show some variations. A case study is presented on comparative design and evaluation of Igloo type explosive store
houses.
NOMENCALTURE
ALARP - A low as reasonably practicable
CASG - CNAD Ammunition Safety Group
CCE - Chief Controller of Explosives
CIE - Chief Inspector of Explosives for UK MoD and endorsed by the DOSB
CNAD - Conference of National Armament Directors estd by NATO countries
COE - Committee of Experts constituted by ECOSOC
COSHH - Control of exposure to substances hazardous to health
D - Distance in metres
DASE - Directorate of Armament Store and Equipment
DGOF - Director General Ordnance Factories
DGOS - Director General Ordnance Services
DGQA - Director General Quality Assurance
DOSB - Defence Ordnance Safety Board, UK
ECOSOC - United Nations Economic & Social Council
ESTC - Explosives Storage and Transport Committee, UK
HAZOP - Hazard and Operability Studies
HD - Hazard Division
HEMRL - High Energy Materials Research Laboratory, DRDO
HSWA -Health & Safety at Work Act, UK, 1973
JSP - Joint Service Publication of UK MoD
Member A&E – Member, Ammunition & Explosives, OFB
MoD - Ministry of Defence
NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NEC - Net Explosive Content
OFB - Ordnance Factory Board
OQD - Outside Quantity Distance
PIQD - Process Inside Quantity Distance
PSN - Proper Shipping Name
Q - NEC in kg
QD - Quantity Distances
QRA - Quantitative Risk Assessment
SIQD - Storage Inside Quantity Distance
STEC - Storage and Transport of Explosives Committee
TNT - Trinitrotoluene

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1. INTRODUCTION
The safety of Munitions and Explosives is of fundamental importance to the military user and to the public at large.
Each nation has a responsibility to ensure the ammunition used by their armed forces is intrinsically safe to use and will remain
so under normal operational and storage conditions. All Ministry of Defence (MoD) establishments have a responsibility to
handle, store and transport their munitions and explosives in a safe manner and in compliance with international and national
legislation. It is essential to minimize the risk of ammunition or explosive accidents so as prevent loss of lives & assets, and
damage to the environment.
2. INTERNATIONAL SCENARIO - UN SYSTEM

The rules and regulations governing explosives safety adopted internationally, are based on 'The Recommendations
on the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods (Orange Book)', published by the Committee of Experts (COE), established by
United Nations Economic & Social Council (ECOSOC), based in Geneva. The purpose of the Orange Book is to recommend
standard rules for the transportation of dangerous goods, which could be used for all modes of transport, world-wide. All
member countries of the United Nations are signatories to the agreements covering the marking of packages, articles and
substances containing dangerous goods of all classes.
The Orange Book aims to ensure that accidents do not happen and if they do, to ensure the amount of damage is
minimised by identifying the types of danger / hazard, the substances which are incompatible with each other and the amount
of danger in moving particular chemical. It covers the UN System of Classification, Packaging, Marking, Labelling and
Documentation.
The recommendations are now universally used for safe storage, handling and transportation of military explosives.
Classification
The elements of classification include the UN number ( e.g. UN 0209 for Trinitrotoluene (TNT)), Proper Shipping
Name (PSN) and Classes. Of the 9 classes of dangerous goods, explosives are covered under Class 1. Explosives are further
subdivided into 6 divisions, as given in Table 1.
Table 1 : UN System of Classification for Class 1 Explosives
Sub-divisions Major Hazard
1.1 Mass explosion hazard, instantaneous e.g. Gunpowder
1.2 Projection hazard, but not mass explosion hazard e.g. Rockets & missiles
1.3 Mass fire hazard & minor blast / projection hazard e.g. Propellants,
1.4 Small hazard. e.g. Small arms
1.5 Insensitive explosives e.g. Blasting explosives
1.6 Extremely insensitive detonating substances
Compatibility Groups
Explosives are subdivided into 13 groups labelled A B C D E F G H J K L N & S, which indicate whether explosives
of different divisions can be carried in the same vehicle or freight container.
Packaging
This covers the types of Packing to be used for different Classes & Packing Groups, the test procedures for packing
material, Drop test / leakproofness test / hydraulic test /stacking test, certification of packages by the competent Authority / test
houses. The type of packaging affects the Hazard Division (HD) - e. g. detonators packed individually come under HD1.4
whereas detonators packed loose in box come under HD1.1.
Marking / Labelling
This includes the UN Number, Proper Shipping Name (PSN), Hazard Labels (diamond shaped) to indicate class/
division - primary & if necessary, secondary labels, Risk phrase & Safety phrase, UN Package Specification Marking, Name &
address of the manufacturer, importer, etc
Documentation
The purpose is to convey information to the transporters & the emergency services / enforcement agencies on what is
being carried, where it is stowed, how it is packed and how to deal with emergencies.

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3. NATO
The CNAD Ammunition Safety Group (CASG), established under the Conference of National Armament Directors
(CNAD provides the forum for NATO, Partner and Mediterranean Dialogue nations to develop common standards and
procedural guidance on munitions and explosive safety in order to foster interoperability in NATO led operations, the potential
for inter-changeability of ammunition and a basis for coordinated procurement of munitions and explosives. The CASG was
formed in May 2003 and assumed the responsibilities previously accorded to the former Group of Experts on the Safety
Aspects of Transportation and Storage of Military Ammunition and Explosives and the former Group on the Safety and
Suitability for Service of Munitions and Explosives.
Six sub-groups have been constituted with specific functions :

Sub-Group 1 , Energetic Materials develops standards intended to ensure that the energetic materials used in munitions and
explosives serve their intended purpose and that they do not deteriorate and become liable to spontaneous explosion during the
life time of the parent ammunition or explosive device.
Subgroup 2, Initiation System is concerned with the safe operation of initiation systems and develops design principles,
safety criteria and test techniques for land, air and sea employed munitions. The group also addresses interoperability of
military fuzes.
Sub-Group 3, Munition System addresses the design requirements for the development of munitions that are safe and
suitable for service and the testing, qualification and classification methods and procedures to ensure compliance.
Sub-Group 4 Transport Logistics provides guidance for NATO forces on procedures for planning, organizing and
conducting the logistic transportation of munitions and explosives in war, crisis and peacetime operations.
Sub-Group 5, Logistic Storage and Disposal addresses the hazards of munitions and explosives, using as a basis the UN
hazard classification system for dangerous goods, and provides guidance on methods and procedures to ensure the safe and
secure storage, processing and disposal of all types of munitions and explosives.
Sub-Group 6, Operational Ammunition Safety provides guidance on assessing and limiting this risk in operations, based
on collation and analysis of trials, tests and accident data from participating nations. Guidance is also provided on the safe
storage of munitions and explosives in operations, when safety considerations have to be balanced against operational
imperatives.
4. UK MoD
Ministry of Defence explosive safety regulations, JSP 482, issued by the Chief Inspector of Explosives (CIE) for
MoD and endorsed by the Defence Ordnance Safety Board (DOSB), are produced for the guidance and instruction of all
personnel, both Service personnel and MOD employed civilians (including supporting contracted staff), who are concerned
with the management, storage, maintenance, inspection, processing, handling and disposal of explosives and explosives
storage facilities within the Ministry of Defence. The regulations are based on mandatory provisions, in the form of legislation,
and on the recommendations of the Explosives Storage and Transport Committee (ESTC) and NATO AC326, which set MOD
standards and safety principles. The conditions provided by these regulations and such necessary ESTC recommendations are
to be treated as the mandatory minimum safety regime that must be applied to explosives in the MOD.
The Secretary of State's Health and Safety Policy Statement : JSP 375 contains the Secretary of State's Health and
Safety Policy Statement which requires the MoD to comply with the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 (HSWA) and
includes internal MoD health and safety (H&S) standards in the UK. The Statement requires the MOD to provide working
conditions which will ensure, as far as reasonable practicable, a healthy and safe working environment. Fundamental to this
policy is that risks from and to explosives are to be kept both tolerable and as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP).
ALARP - Guiding principles

The application of the principle of ALARP to explosives storage, handling, etc, is a matter of judgment. In deciding
what is reasonably practicable about fulfilling the duty of care, cost will continually re-emerge as a factor. However, the
definition of reasonably practicable concerning cost must be carefully studied alongside HSE guide-lines and not dismissed
because finances or other resources are considered to be in short supply locally. While small risks might only be worthy of
cursory consideration, larger risks demand detailed analysis to properly justify the risk imposed on people. An example of
good practice enshrined in law is that in use for Control of exposure to substances hazardous to health (COSHH) regulations
where a step by step method of Prevention, Engineering Control Measures and Personal protective Equipment is adopted.
5. INDIAN SCENARIO
The manufacture, handling, storage, conveyance, use and eventual disposal of military explosives are operations
which present inherent risks to persons and property. The Ministry of Defence (MoD), India, through its Storage and Transport

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of Explosives Committee (STEC) is responsible for ensuring that the explosives present the minimum degree of risk. The
regulatory mechanism and existing organisational structure are compared with those for NATO countries, UK and US in
Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4. The classification criteria, quantity- distances corresponding to safe storage/ handling of Military
explosives and design of explosives buildings, adopted by countries like US and UK has been compared with India. A case
study is presented on comparative design and evaluation of Igloo type explosive store houses.
Role of STEC
STEC was found in 1973 vide Letter No. 95300/X/STEC/RD-20/9877/D(R&D) dared 27th September, 1973. Being
the main enforcement agency, the basic aim of STEC, is to regulate and control the storage, transportation and processing of
explosives in such a way that in the event of an accident, enemy attack or sabotage, the adjacent explosive stocks, facilities near
to the explosion site will be protected to a predetermined, practical standard.
Policy
w "The Cardinal Principle“or the three minimums (3-M) rule is to provide a maximum of protection for personnel and
property involved in explosives operations by limiting the exposure to a minimum number of persons, for a minimum time, to
the minimum amount of ammunition and explosives consistent with safe and efficient operations.
wAmmunition and explosives safety standards promulgated by STEC, are applicable to MOD ammunition and
explosive facilities and shall govern siting and construction of new MOD facilities.
wStandards described herein are to be considered minimum and greater protection shall be afforded when practicable.
The prescriptions for Quantity Distances (QD) contained in these regulations do not assure absolute safety. It is impracticable
to prescribe distances which would guarantee absolute immunity from the risks of propagation, damage or injury. The risk,
therefore, inherent in these regulations represents a sensible balance between absolute safety and practical considerations of
cost and operational requirements.
Terms of Reference of STEC

wTo consider and make recommendations regarding matters of principle relating to (i) Siting, construction and
maintenance in Defence Installations of Magazines / Explosives Storehouses or Any other structure for storage and
processing of ammunition / explosives and allied chemical preparations, and Ammunition Workshops and
Explosives Laboratories; (ii) Transport of Service explosives / ammunition and allied chemical preparations by road,
rail, sea etc.;
wTo frame rules and regulations for the storage and transport of Service explosives and ammunition and allied
chemical preparations and to keep them under periodical review.
wTo consider and make recommendations for acceptance or otherwise of deviations from regulations governing
storage, processing and transport of Service explosives and keep under periodical review all sanctioned deviations as
to their continuance or modification.
wTo consider and lay down conditions for storage and transport of dangerous goods, belonging to the Defence
Services, India and not covered by Civil Regulations.
wTo advise on any matter referred to the Committee by the Services Headquarters, DGOF, public sector undertakings
and other Ministries / Departments of the Govt of India in connection with the storage, transport and safety aspects of
processing of explosives, ammunition and allied chemical preparations.
wTo recommend / arrange trials and experiments with explosives / ammunition and allied chemical preparations for
obtaining necessary technical date of interest to the Committee.
STEC Panels
STEC works through six panels, as given below, which make recommendations to the Main STEC chaired by SA to RM.
wQuantity -Distance Panel (Chairman: Director HEMRL)
wStorage Panel (Chairman: DGOS)
wTransport Panel (Chairman: CCE)
wElectrical Installation and Lightning Protection Panel (Chairman: Member A&E, OFB)
wFire Fighting Panel (Chairman: DASE)
wSafety Audit Review Panel (Chairman: DGQA)

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STEC Publications
STEC has brought out 25 publications in hardcopy and electronic forms dealing with various aspects of regulations
for storage and transport of explosives / ammunition. These publications, listed in Table 2, are updated from time to time after
approval by STEC, as more information is generated from trials / literature and regulations.
Table 2 : STEC Publications issued by by CFEES

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6. LICENSING
The purpose of periodically inspecting explosives areas and Potential Explosion Sites (PES), is to ensure that MoD
Explosives Regulations are being complied with and those explosives facilities are fit for the purpose. Compliance with the
terms of the Explosives Licence is essential. Should the permitted quantities of explosives be exceeded, or unauthorised
operations be carried out, the risk of propagation of fire or explosion between PES may be significantly increased. Similarly,
there will be an increased risk to other Exposed Sites (ES).
In UK, the system of inspection in MoD, is therefore paramount in providing visibility to Chief Inspector of
Explosives (CIE) and ultimately Secretary of State (SoS) that explosives safety management within the MOD is beyond
reproach.
In India, compliance monitoring is carried out by CFEES through annual safety audit inspection for MoD
establishments as per STEC. The concept of licensing exists only in the civil sector, with Chief Controller Explosives (CCE),
Nagpur as the licensing authority.
7. CASE STUDY – DESIGN OF SPECIAL TYPE OF AMMUNITION STORE HOUSE (IGLOO)

Igloo concept
Igloos are earth covered above-ground magazines, which by virtue of better resistance to blast loads and directional
attenuation effects, offer the promise of reduced inter-magazine separation distances also called Storage Inside Quantity
Distances (SIQD), as compared to conventional magazines. Design of conventional magazines adopted by various countries
follows similar norms. However, the special case of an 'Igloo' has been taken up for comparison in this paper to highlight the
significant differences. The concept of using 'Igloo” structures made of RCC has been in use in various countries for the
storage of high explosives and ammunition since the early sixties.
Igloo trials
The first full-scale trials on Igloos were carried out by US in 1962-63. UK conducted five blast trials with Igloos in
1971-72 followed by United states which conducted ESKIMO III Trials in 1974. Based on these trials, blast data were
compiled at various separation distances between two adjacent igloos ie. 0.5 W1/3, 0.6 W1/3, 0.8 W1/3, 1.0 W1/3, 2.0 W1/3, 8.0 W1/3
which correspond to various Inside and Outside Quantity Distances for conventional storages. The results showed that a
minimum separation distance of 0.77 W1/3 is required between two igloo storage buildings to ensure serviceability of
ammunition in adjacent Igloo, in case of explosion in one Igloo.
Igloo design
On the basis of data from structural analyses, model tests and full-scale trials of the response of structures to explosion
blast loads, the following designs have been considered suitable by different NATO countries for prescribed Inter-Magazine
Distances. These designs do not necessarily equate to each other.
? French Igloo-Magazine Types
? German Reinforced Concrete, Portal Type
? German Reinforced Concrete, Stradley
? German Reinforced Concrete, Portal Type 180B and 90B
? German Corrugated Steel, Oval Arch Type180S and 90S
? Norwegian Reinforced Concrete, Arch Type
? United Kingdom Reinforced Concrete, Portal Type
? United State Earth-Covered Magazine
Status in India
In India, outside the Defence, no work has been carried out on the design of igloo structures for storage of high
explosives. In DRDO, the Centre for Fire, Explosive & Environment Safety (CFEES) has designed, tested and evaluated LRC
based Igloos. LRC constructional techniques impart more ductility and better energy absorption capacity to structures as
compared to conventional RCC adopted in earlier designs. This increased ductility results in the reduction of reinforcement by
40 to 50% as compared to conventional RCC resulting in compact layout of explosives storage facilities and saving in real
astate acquisition by Defence without compromising on the explosive safety stipulations / regulations.
Full scale tests with 15 T Ammunition ( 5 T NEC) and 25 T NEC ( 75 T Ammunition) have been carried out. A short
clip is presented. Based on the results of these tests, design approvals for up to 50 T NEC capacity Igloos are being given to
MoD and trial for 75 T NEC capacity is scheduled for end of 2008, subsequent to which, design for full scale Igloo (136 T NEC)
capacity can be released to user.

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8. RISK BASED APPROACH TO EXPLOSIVE SAFETY

Quantity-Distance (Q-D) criteria have been used in making safety judgments for 70 years. For the last 30 of those
years, it has been recognized that Q-D, which considers only the explosive quantity and hazard class to determine a safe
separation distance, could be improved upon by including other considerations such as the type of activity, number of people,
building construction, and environment to assess the overall risk of the operation.
As per Dr. John Connor, Chairman of the UK ESTC, “A risk-based approach to safety requires more openness of the
experts, it presents decision makers with choices and responsibility, it is available to public scrutiny. The goals of explosives
safety will be unchanged; the ways of achieving those goals will be very different.”
UK
\The Ministry of Defence United Kingdom (MoD UK) Explosives Storage and Transport Committee (ESTC) funded
work to study the feasibility of quantitative risk assessment (QRA) for explosives storage in 1983. The method developed
provides an estimate of an upper bound to the annual risk of fatality of an individual from the handling and storing of
explosives as the product of two components: the maximum expected frequency of initiation and the expected lethality
consequence of the worst credible accident. The ESTC method requires the user to define details of the potential explosion site
(position coordinates, store size, shape and construction), store contents (net explosive quantity and weapon type), and other
relevant information.
Norway
The ammunition storage regulations used in Norway are similar to NATO recommendations. Risk assessment is used
to complement the regulations for approval of some ammunition storage. During the late 1970's, one third of the licenses that
were issued had a concession included with them. Many of the waivers were issued because of minor infringements with the
quantity distance rules. In 1989, it was decided that the number of waivers needed to be reduced. This was accomplished by
seeking approval to license storehouses on the basis of risk assessment, building new storage facilities, and accepting reduced
availability. The Norwegians use a quantitative risk assessment approach that is similar to the Swiss approach. The model used
to estimate risk is a modification of the Swiss AMMORISK software program.
Australia
General licensing practices for storage and handling of explosive ordnance within the Australian Defence Force are
based on criteria commonly referred to as Q-D rules. The principles are similar to those defined by NATO Manual AASTP-1.
Current Defence policy is that risk assessment may be used to support applications for public and departmental risk waivers,
and to assist in the licensing of ordnance handling and storage operations. Risk assessment is not used as an alternative to Q-D
rules. Risk assessment methodology is similar to that applied by the MODUK ESTC with only a minor variation in the
techniques used to assess risk. Australia has two software models available for QRA: AUSRISK for site risk assessments, and
Q-RISK for “quick-scan” risk appraisals.
United States
Within the United States (U.S.), risk-based standards have been infrequently used in the explosives safety
community. A risk-based approach, NOHARM, was first proposed by Keenan (1978, 1980 ) and the project was supported by
Naval Facilities Command (NAVFAC). All of the essential ingredients in a risk analysis were defined in that project, but data
were lacking for determining event probabilities and vulnerabilities of structures. The PRA (Probabilistic Risk Analysis)
concept developed under the oversight of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (WASH 1400, 1975) has been used to establish
the risk of rocket launches. Recently the U. S. explosives safety community has become more aware of the need for risk-based
approaches in explosives safety, and numerous papers have been written on the subject. Two notable papers are the Pacific
Northwest Study and the 1996 Corps of Engineers Huntsville Division (COEHD) study. A third study performed by the Risk
and Lethality Commonality Team (RALCT) is also noted because of its work in standardizing risk acceptability for rocket
launches.
India
While Q-D criteria as per STEC are used for siting and compliance monitoring of MoD establishments, risk based
approach has been adopted for assessment of hazards and risks in specific cases, based on User requirement. An integrated
Risk Assessment and Disaster management software ahs been developed at CFEES, DRDO, which incorporates specially
designed modules for Explosive handling facilities. These include modules for Rapid Hazard Ranking, Hazard identification
based on Expert HAZOP, Fuzzy Fault Tree analysis for Probabilistic Risk Analysis, Consequence Analysis (bought out
software), Risk analysis and Management. Based on these studies, recommendations for preventive and protective measures
to bring down the risk to acceptable levels are made.
9. CONCLUSION

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A detailed comparison of the various aspects of explosive safety regulations covering organisational structure,
licensing criteria, Quantity-Distance criteria, storage, transportation, electrical safety and lightning protection, among others,
in force in different countries, would be exhaustive and is beyond the scope of this paper. However, based on such comparative
studies already carried out at CFEES, some salient features have been presented in this paper. Table 3 presents specific
comparisons between safety regulations of STEC, DRDO, India and ESTC of UK.
Table 3: Comparison of Salient features of STEC (India) and ESTC (UK) Regulations
S. No. Nomenclature STEC ESTC
1. Hazard Further subdivided into two Comprise those munitions that contain a high
divisions for outside quantity explosive charge and may also contain a propellant
Division 1.2 -
distances (OQD).The damage to or pyrotechnic charge such that the NEQ of the
Projection stocks at the exposed site (ES) is individual item is 0.73 kg or greater. This HD is
hazard, but not likely to be localized even in the further subdivided in Storage sub Division (SsD)
mass explosion event of propagation. The extent of 1.2.1, 1.2.2 and 1.2.3.
loss will be dependent on the
hazard
effectiveness of the fire fighting
arrangements.
(a) Criteria for Calibre of the ammunition, which Range of fragments and lobbed explosives items
further determines the size and range that may be projected from a Potential Explosion
subdivision
of fragments and lobbed explosives Site (PES) in an explosive event and the explosive
items that may be projected from a content.
Potential Explosion Site (PES) in an
explosive event.
Sub – division I: Projectile and SsD 1.2.1 :
cartridges of caliber from 20 to 60 · More hazardous items
MM which will give small fragments
· Individual HE content ≥0.73 kg.
of moderate range.
· Large fragments over an extended range
generated.
Sub-division II: Projectile and SsD 1.2.2:

cartridges exceeding 60mm caliber, · Less hazardous items.
rockets and rocket motors in a · Individual HE content < 0.73 kg.
propulsive state which do not have a · Smaller fragments of limited range
mass explosion hazard which will generated.
give large fragments with a
considerable range.
SsD 1.2.3 : Those items that have gained
qualification as Insensitive Munitions (IM).
(b) Quantity SIQD and PIQD are independent of SIQD, PIQD and OQD are independent of storage
distances (QDs) sub-divisions. OQDs are based on subdivisions. It is impractical to specify distances
the calibre of ammunition. that will allow for the maximum flight ranges of
projected or propelled items.
2. Hazard This division comprises substances and articles of Class 1 which have a mass fire hazard
Division 1.3 - and either a minor blast hazard or a minor projection hazard or both, but not a mass
explosion hazard.

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(a) Criteria for No subdivisions are made in this A distinction is made between the more hazardous
subdivision hazard division. items and those of lesser hazard.
(b) Sub-divisions SsD 1.3.3 contains bulk packed propellants, which

produce a fireball with intense radiant heat,
firebrands and some fragments.
SsD 1.3.4 contains the less hazardous items that

burn sporadically, with minor projections and
firebrands but limited thermal effects.
(c) Quantity The prescribed distances for HD1.3 The QDs for SsD 1.3.3 are based on the measured
distances (QDs) essentially provide high degree of thermal effects from the most hazardous
protection against immediate explosives in the division (i.e. propellants). The
propagation of fire to the contents at effect of quite normal winds may increase the
an exposed site (ES) by flame, flame radius by 50%. Additionally, buildings of
radiant heat, fire brands, fragments asymmetrical construction, such as igloos, or
and loaded items. buildings with a protective roof and walls but with
one weak wall, or with windows or doors, induce
directional effects (jetting) from flames and the
projection of burning packages.
The QDs for SsD 1.3.4 are based on the smaller

thermal hazard from the less hazardous explosives
in the division. Firebrands and minor projections
are likely, and the projections may include
fragments, but these are less hazardous than those
from HD 1.2.
Storage Distance function : D1= 0.22 Q ½

Process Inside Distance function: D3= 3.2 Q 1/3
3. Licensing for STEC is the regulatory body under The 2nd Parliament Under Secretary (PUS)
MOD the chairmanship of SA to RM, for assumes ultimate responsibility for the licensing
Explosives evaluation, modification or and regulation of MOD explosives facilities. He
amendment in Explosives safety exercises this responsibility through the Chairman
rules and regulations in MOD DOSB, who formally delegates to Chief Inspector
establishments. of Explosives (MOD) (CIE(MOD)).
STEC is not a licensing authority. CIE(MOD) delegates his authority through
respective Service and Inspectors of Explosives
(IEs).
IEs review annually and issue / reissue licenses at
least once every 5 years.

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4. Design of Design of LRC based box type RCC based Igloos. Serviceability of ammunition
Special type of Igloos upto 50 T NEC capacity in adjacent Igloo assured only upto SIQD of
magazine given to User, based on trials. SIQD 0.77 Q1/3 (m).
'Igloo' reduced to 0.5 Q1/3 (m), while
ensuring safety and serviceability of
ammunition stored in adjacent
Igloo. 40-50% lesser reinforcement
required compared to RCC Igloos.
5. Quantitative ?CFEES has developed a ?The Explosives Storage and Transport

Risk integrated quantitative risk Committee currently uses the RISKWING
Assessment assessment (QRA) software model for their quantitative risk
to introduce a risk based a ssessments.
approach to safety. ?Outputs are calculated in terms of the
risks to individuals at exposed sites from
?This includes modules on all potential explosion sites which pose a
Rapid Hazard Ranking, threat.
Hazard Identification by ?Output are used to support QD
Hazop, fuzzy fault tree regulations in accordance to ESTC
analysis, consequence
analysis, risk assessment and
management, emergency
planning.
?This module is used for QRA

studies on user requirement.

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Storage and Transportation of Explosives Committee (STEC),

DRDO, Ministry of Defence, INDIA
Fig 1 : Regulatory mechanism and organisational structure of STEC
Fig 2 : CNAD Ammunition Safety Group (CASG) for NATO countries

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Fig 3 : Existing regulatory framework for UK
Fig 4 : Existing regulatory framework for DoD, USA

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REFERENCES
Transportation
JSP 335 Dangerous Air Cargo Regulations
JSP 341 Joint Service Road Transport Regulations
JSP 445 Transport of Dangerous Goods by Road, Rail and Sea
'The UN Orange Book' UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous
Goods – Model Regulations
IMDG Code International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code
ADR Regulations – 'The Green Book', European Agreement Concerning International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by
Road (ADR)
Health and Safety

JSP 375 MOD Health and Safety Handbook
12974 Casualty Procedure (
JSP 412 Radio Frequency Hazards (RADHAZ) Associated with EEDs
JSP 418 Environment Manual
Statutory Instrument 1988/1657 The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
Regulations (COSHH) 1988
JSP 424 Guide to COSHH Assessors
JSP 426 MOD Fire Services Manual
JSP 498 MOD Major Accident Control Regulations
Def Stan 13-129 Requirements for Explosives Hazard Data Sheets
NATO Regulations
AASTP-1 Manual of NATO Safety Principles for the Storage of Military Ammunition and Explosives
AASTP-2 Manual of NATO Safety Principles for the Transport of Military Ammunition and Explosives
AASTP-3 Manual of NATO Principles for the Hazard Classification of Military Ammunition and Explosives
CFEES, DRDO
Safety Assurance Methodology Document for DRDO Work Centres dealing with Explosives, 2005 & 2006
Safety Health & Environment (SHE) for DRDO laboratories
Draft document on Disaster Preparedness and Management Plan for Fire/Explosion and Toxic releases for DRDO

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DISPOSAL OF UNSERVICEABLE / LIFE EXPIRED

/ REJECTED AMMUNITION: AN OVERVIEW
Dr. GK Mishra
Center For Fire Explosive and Environment Safety, Delhi
ABSTRACT
Disposal and demilitarization of Unserviceable / Life Expired/ Rejected Ammunition is the final step in the life-cycle
management of ammunition.
A large stock of unserviceable life expired or rejected ammunition is held by (i) Services (Army, Navy and Air Force)
(ii) Ordnance Factory Board .This poses a problem both in terms of (i) Occupation of land which is often a scarce resource (ii)
Hazards posed by this ammunition to close-by stored ammunition and surrounding population. The disposal of munitions is
mostly concerned with obsolete and unserviceable stocks, which is quite substantial in Indian scenario.
Main technical problems associated with the disposal of munitions on a large scale are ( i)The materials are explosive
in nature and require special handling, storage, packaging and transportation as per existing STEC regulations(ii)The
material to be destroyed has been procured investing huge sums. Mere destruction would mean irretrievable loss of value
invested. (iii)Goods like steel or brass scrap can easily be reclaimed, but energetic materials pose a serious chemical challenge.
Recent studies showed that it is possible to recycle energetic materials to yield fertilizers.
Prioritizing of demilitarization should consider the following factors: (1) Safety (2) Reclamation of usable
components (3) Storage requirements (4) Recycling of sale-able residue (5) Economics and (6) Environmental considerations.
New Disposal / Demilitarization Technologies Criteria are: (i) Results in less hazardous waste ii) Be economically
feasible (The sale of residue may be considered) (iii) Be environmentally safe and (iv) Reclaim or make use of waste
material.
Procedures in developing new technologies or testing them before final approval are( i) A hazard analysis will be
conducted to determine the level of risk involved and the required safety measures needed( ii)A written procedure will be
developed before running a test( iii)A dry run will be conducted before using live explosives to verify the mechanics of the
procedure and ( iv)Only the minimum number of personnel using the minimum amount of explosives will be used to verify the
proposed technologies.
The main process of demilitarization is to destroy complete ammunition, ammunition shells, fuses and detonators,
primers/capped cases, grenades and bombs. The main stress is for the development of safe, efficient and environmentally
acceptable process for the resource recovery and recycling (R3) or disposal of strategic, tactical, and conventional munitions
including explosives.
The Disposal / demilitarization process of unserviceable ammunition basically consists of two important steps: (i )
Disassembly Process (ii ) Thermal Treatment of Ammunition and Explosives.
A large number of industries are offering complete plant for demilitarization of unserviceable ammunition. The
disassembly process is nearly similar offered by various firms. However, the thermal treatment process for demilitarization of
the disassembled ammunition parts is slightly different which is offered by the various firms. Firms considered for this
purpose are (i)Day & Zimmerman, USA (ii)Bowas Induplan Chemie, Switzerland (iii)Dr. Ing F Munder (Ammunition
Disposal Center Organisation), Germany (iv)Nammo Buck Gmbh, Germany (v) Force Ware Gmbh, Germany (vi) Buck
System Gmbh, Germany (vii) Russian Technology Centre Pvt Ltd , Russia (viii)NAB Co Inc, USA (ix) UXB International
Inc, USA(x) ARCTECH Inc. USA
The last firm ARCTECH Inc. USA has offered a plant, where it is possible to convert explosive into fertilizer.
1. INTRODUCTION
Demilitarization and disposal of Unserviceable / Life Expired/ Rejected Ammunition is the final step in the life-cycle
management of ammunition. Demilitarization of ammunition involves depriving it of its military characteristics and thereby
rendering it unusable for its originally intended purpose. Assets requiring demilitarization and disposal are generated at most
sites that receive, store, ship, maintain, or use conventional ammunition.
A large stock of unserviceable life expired or rejected ammunition is held by Services (Army, Navy and Air Force) &
Ordnance Factory Board. This poses a problem both in terms of Occupation of land which is often a scarce resource & hazards

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posed by this ammunition to close-by stored ammunition and surrounding population. The disposal of munitions is mostly
concerned with obsolete and unserviceable stocks, which is quite substantial in Indian scenario as projected in Tables 1 & 2.
Table.1: Quantum of Ammunition to be Demilitarized
Table.2: Quantity of Ammunition to be demilitarized by OFB
Conventional methods of disposing off ammunition by dumping at sea or into lakes, old mineshafts and
burning/detonation in the open are not environment friendly and cannot be resorted to on a large scale due to environmental
considerations.
A search for demilitarization technology which offers minimum environmental impact and maximum
recycling of material was undertaken by scientists and engineers all over the world.
2. TECHNICAL PROBLEMS
Main technical problems associated with the disposal of munitions on a large scale are:
(i) The materials are explosive in nature and require special handling, storage, packaging and transportation as per
existing STEC regulations.

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(ii) The material to be destroyed has been procured investing huge sums. Mere destruction would mean irretrievable
loss of value invested.
(iii) Goods like steel or brass scrap can easily be reclaimed, but energetic materials pose a serious chemical challenge.
(iv) These energetic materials can be recycled to materials useful in civil industry (blasting agents, detonators etc.).
(v) Recent studies showed that it is possible to recycle energetic materials to yield fertilizers.
Prioritizing of demilitarization should consider the following factors :( 1) Safety (2) Reclamation of usable components
(3) Storage requirements (4) Recycling of sale-able residue (5) Economics and (6) Environmental considerations.
3. DEMILITARIZATION / DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGIES

New Demilitarization /Disposal Technologies Criteria are:
(i) Results in less hazardous waste
(ii) Be economically feasible (The sale of residue may be considered)
(iii) Be environmentally safe and
(iv) Reclaim or make use of waste material.
Procedures in developing new technologies or testing them before final approval are (i) A hazard analysis will be
conducted to determine the level of risk involved and the required safety measures needed. (ii) A written procedure will be
developed before running a test. (iii) A dry run will be conducted before using live explosives to verify the mechanics of the
procedure and (iv) Only the minimum number of personnel using the minimum amount of explosives will be used to verify the
proposed technologies.
4. DEMILITARISATION PROCESS
The main process of demilitarization is to destroy complete ammunition, ammunition shells, fuses and detonators,
primers/capped cases, grenades and bombs. The main stress is for the development of safe, efficient and environmentally
acceptable process for the resource recovery and recycling (R3) or disposal of strategic, tactical, and conventional munitions
including explosives. The need is to seek alternatives over that of open burning/open detonation. The whole process can be
divided into five areas dealing with disassembly, removal, R3, destruction and waste stream treatment.
The ammunition to be demilitarized is mainly life-expired and rejected ammunition. The rejected ammunition comes
mainly from rejections during production or proof. The total ammunition to be demilitarized are stored separately from normal
stores; special care should be taken to segregate copper-azide affected ammunition and that captured during military
operations from enemy, which need to be stored separately.
Unpacking & Inspection of Ammunition to be disposed off/demilitarized are carried out by safe manner. Each category of
ammunition to be demilitarized are properly unpacked and inspected by qualified staff for its identity, compared with the
accompanying documents, its completeness and damages which have occurred during the transportation. Only those
ammunition which successfully passed this check are taken up for demilitarization.
The demilitarization process of unserviceable ammunition basically consists of two important steps: (i) Disassembly
Process (ii ) Thermal Treatment of Ammunition and Explosives.
Disassembly Process
The ammunition is to disassembled into its components. Deactivate the ammunition by removing the arming system,
detonators, plugs, fuzes etc. The cartridge case is separated from HE. HE and propellants from the cartridge are segregated and
stored separately as per required safety distances.The process of disassembly can be done by using precision equipment to be
operated neumatically / hydraulically with remote control using CCTV. The various systems available for disassembly of
ammunition are :\
( i) Fuze Removal Machine
This machine is capable of removing fuzes and boosters from projectiles with sizes from 57 mm to 155 mm. These
machines are pneumatically controlled and commercially available with a capacity to process 40-100 rounds per hour.

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(ii) Bullet, Primer Separator for Small Arms Ammunition

This device is capable of separating small arms (<0.50 inches caliber) bullets from cartridge case, propellant and primer.
These machines are commercially available with a capacity to process 3000-5000 rounds per hour. These commercially
machines have also additional feature of either returning the brass casing in a condition ready for reload or can deform the case,
preventing its reuse.
(iii) Hydraulic or Pneumatic Cartridge Separator

This device can separate projectiles from cartridges of larger ammunition and is powered pneumatically or hydraulically.
The machine is capable of handling rounds of varying caliber. Suitable adaptor/fixer are available for different caliber
ammunition.
(iv) Saw based Ammunition Cutter

It is a conventional system where the ammunition to be cut is put on a lathe machine and a saw made of non-sparking alloy
is used for cutting the ammunition. During the process of cutting, water jet continuously pour water over the saw. This system
is capable of cutting caliber 50-260 mm. The whole operation is done in a closed room and monitoring is done with CCTV. The
capacity this system for 75 mm HE shells is around 50 rounds per hour; for higher caliber ammunition, capacity is around 30
rounds per hour. The sawed parts are pushed by the feed system into a receptacle. The available machines can saw ammunition
bodies up to a diameter of 260 mm and length 2200 mm.
(v) Water Jet Ammunition Cutter

This system comprises of a water jet cutting head of diameter 1.7 – 2.5 mm and high pressure of 35 – 65 MPa, capable of
moving with sub-sonic speed. High pressure water jet is produced by using a Reciprocating Pump and Accumulator. Such
machines can cut munitions greater than 75 mm caliber, high explosive anti-tank (HEAT) and similar shaped charges and anti-
amour ammunition safely. It can cut a 105 mm projectile in less than 120 seconds.
5.TREATMENT OF AMMUNITION AND EXPLOSIVES
Thermal Treatment of Ammunition and Explosives:

purpose are
(i) Dr. Ing F Munder (Ammunition Disposal Center Organisation), Germany
(ii) Russian Technology Centre Pvt Ltd , Russia
(iii). Day & Zimmerman, USA
(iv) Nammo Buck Gmbh, Germany.
(v) Force Ware Gmbh, Germany
(vi) Buck System Gmbh, Germany
(vii) Bowas Induplan Chemie, Switzerland
(viii )NAB Co Inc, USA
(ix) UXB International Inc, USA
(x) ARCTECH Inc. USA
The last firm ARCTECH Inc. USA has offered a plant, where it is possible to convert explosive into fertilizer.
(i) Dr. Ing F Munder, Ammunition Disposal Center Organisation, Germany

The process used for the thermal treatment is schematically presented in the flow chart given below.
The ammunition components, portioned TNT or propellants, fuzes or others are conveyed to the deflagration reactors by
conveyer system.
Deflagration (also referred to as cook-of or bake-of) is a relatively slow-burning process that converts the material in the
ammunition components or the explosives into basic products of combustion as carbon dioxide, water, dust and other
pollutants.

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One of the reactors is designed as an Armoured Rotary Kiln for the disposal of TNT, propellants and fuses. The other one, a
Tunnel Kiln, is equipped with a special lining to prevent any corrosion caused by aggressive media. Indirect heating is used by
a circulating gas flow, to ensure safe degeneration of the explosive portion of the ammunition. The temperature in both reactors
is adjustable and controlled between 250 ºC and 650 ºC to ensure that all the explosive material is consumed .The off gas from
both reactors flow to a cyclone to eliminate all the dust and then to an afterburner to ensure complete decomposition of any
organic at a temperature of 1,200 ºC, more than 6% oxygen with a 2-second residence time.
The afterburner finalizes combustion of all gases and particulate matter and ensures that no un-reacted explosives material
can reach the downstream equipment.
(ii) Russian Technology Centre Pvt. Ltd, Russia

The ammunition to be demilitarized are divided in six classes depending on explosive types and ways of filling; these are
listed below:
Class–1: Ammunition of separately explosive & cartridge filling. This class includes artillery shells of 57-130 mm calibers,
aircraft unguided rocket system (URS) S-5, S-8, engineering ammunition etc.
Class–2: Ammunition with explosive TNT charge. This class includes artillery shells and mines 76-240 mm calibers, aircraft
bombs of calibers up to 9 tons, sea mines, torpedoes etc.
Class–3: Ammunition with mix explosive charge having meltable (fusible) component not less than 20 %. This class includes
artillery mines, rocket and torpedo warheads, sea mines, and aircraft bombs of different types, Unguided Rocket Systems
(URSs), antitank and antipersonnel mines.
Class–4: Ammunition with mix explosive charges without meltable component or having meltable component less than 20 %.
This class includes high-explosive fragmentation (HEF) shells of increased power, high explosive antitank (HEAT) warheads
of anti-tank guided missiles (ATGM) etc.
Class–5: Ammunition with liquid, plastic, elastic explosives. This class includes non-separable clusters with anti-personnel
mines, explosion sources of sound, mine clearing systems etc.
Class–6: Cluster ammunition. This class includes cluster bombs with submunitions, antitank air bomblets, incendiary air
bombs, rocket cluster warheads, submunition block etc.
Categories of Munitions
All types of munitions can be divided into three categories for demilitarization purposes depending on their explosive
material, quantity and end use.
Category I Munitions
Munitions of this category constitute the bulk of demilitarised munitions with the most modern militaries. Key elements
of category I munitions are as follows:
These munitions generally feature a removable fuze and booster cup that can be manually separated from the munition
with relative ease (sometimes with the aid of special tools).Most of munitions of this category are melt-pour, vacuum, or press
filled. These munitions are filled with TNT or composition B high explosive. Category I Examples are2000 lb Bomb , 500 lb
Bomb, 240 mm Projectile/Mortar , 203 mm Projectile, 155 mm Projectile ,122 mm Rocket, 120 mm Mortar , 105 mm
Projectile, 81 mm Mortar , 60 mm Mortar etc. These are easiest munitions to process, at least on a net weight basis. This is due
to the relatively high speed of the steam-out process vis-à-vis other demilitarization processes. For example, the smaller
configuration of the Steam-out system demilitarizes 2000 tons of munitions per year.
Category II Munitions
Munitions of this type feature relatively low amounts of high explosive fill, as such, their explosive force is
limited.Munitions of this category can be directly fed into a Static Kiln or other competitive process, depending upon the net

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explosive weight of the munition and the rated explosive capacity of the demilitarization technology.
Category II Examples are 20 mm Projectile/Cartridge,30mm Projectile/Cartridge and 40mm Projectile/Cartridge,50 mm

Projectile,60mm Projectile,75 mm Projectile,81 mm Illuminating Mortar,105 mm Illuminating/Smoke/Incendiary/Chemical
Projectile,122 mm Incendiary/Chemical Rocket and155 mm illuminating /Smoke/Incendiary/ Chemical Projectile.
The demiltarisation rate for category II munitions is driven by the net explosive weight limit of the static klin, A static klin
of capacity 2000 g TNT is commercially available and can dispose off 40 kg TNT per hour. This amounts to an annual capacity
of approximately 3000 tons NEC.
Category III Munition

Munitions of this category cannot be fed directly into the intended demilitarization process, and as such, must be pre-
processed prior to disposal within a Static Kiln or other process. Typical reasons for a munition to be classified as Category III
are as follows:
The munition has non-accessible propellant or main explosive charge that exceeds the rated explosive capacity of the
Kiln. The munition features a shaped charge warhead (such as anti-tank round) or a hardened penetrator that could damage the
Kiln if it detonated.
Category III Examples are RPG7, RPG15, LAW rocket, AT4 rocket, 57 mm HEAT Projectile, 75 mm HEAT Projectile,
120 mm HEAT/ Penetrator and Projectile of all munition types, this one presents the most processing difficulties. Most of the
commercially available plants have a maximum capacity of 1000 tons of this category of ammunition.
6. RESOURCE, RECOVERY AND RECYCLING (R3) THRUST AREA

The resource recovery and recycling (R3) thrust area consists of technology development projects that enhance the
departments' ability to safely, efficiently, and beneficially recover useful material from excess, obsolete, or unserviceable
munition items. Some of the projects explore opportunities for using the existing material in new or existing commercial or
military applications, while other projects may use existing material as a feedstock for other products such as fertilizer.
Current methods for demilitarization of Navy gun propellant are destructive in nature and are conducted under RCRA
regulations. The gun propellant reuse project is designed to provide an alternative use for the excess material. This project has
the potential to reduce the cost associated with gun propellant disposal by developing alternative commercial uses. In this case
selected propellants are physically processed and loaded into .38 Special, .357 Magnum, .45 ACP, and .40 S&W handgun
cartridges. The performance has been compared to equivalent commercial items with favorable results. Other opportunities
include 5.56mm ammunition and “black Powder” for muzzle loaders and re-loaders. Another commercial product that can be
made from military explosives is picric acid. Picric acid, used in the commercial dye industry, can be obtained from the
chemical conversion of ammonium picrate (Explosive D). This process, if proven successful, has the potential to eliminate the
requirement for open detonation of this insensitive explosive altogether and adverse environmental impacts.
The five main operations of the process are bulk explosive De-loading, reaction/separation unit, evaporator, crystallizer,
and solids handling. While each of these operations have been shown to work independently of the other an integrated system
has yet to be fully realized at this time. Additional similar work is also being pursued that expands the use of this conversion
process to other explosive materials like TATB. This expansion is necessary as loss of cost benefit to the government for picric
acid has plummeted from $5.00 per pound to a present market rate of approximately $0.50 per pound. TATB is an explosive
that is more widely used by the Department of Energy across their weapons program and if TATB can be successfully
converted, an overall net gain for the government may yet be realized. Bench scale efforts that use TATB in the conversion
process have been successfully completed with promising results now under review. Given the general shortage for TNT
materials DoD has been working to offset this concern matter by developing reclamation processes for TNT from excess, and
obsolete munitions. These processes have been developed in prior years within the program and have largely focused on the
recovery and characterization of HMX explosives from LX-14, PBXN-9 and PBXN-110.
The HMX recovered from these explosives has been classified and transported to independent government laboratories
for characterization, comparison to virgin material and current production formulations and demonstrations. To date several
problems have been encountered and are being addressed. These problems include contamination from prior formulations,

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crystal morphology, and shape. Development of this process will provide an alternate source for HMX and will reduce the
requirement for OB/OD of the munition items that currently contain explosives with the HMX formulation. Propellant
conversion to fertilizer is an attractive alternative to open burning of this material. The key reactant material in this conversion
process carries the reagent material out in a reaction vessel operating at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature of 160 to
80oF. Following completion of the reaction (between 2 and 4 hours), the product is neutralized with phosphoric acid and is then
ready for application as a fertilizer, thus eliminating the need for RCRA regulated treatment technologies.
A commercial company is planning to market the resulting product.
7. NEW DEMILITARISATION OF MUNITIONS

Actodemil Technology (ARCTECH, Inc., USA)
Actodemil is a trademark of M/S ARCTECH Inc USA. It is a reagent based on naturally occurring coal – derived humic
acid. It is optimised to achieve a series of useful reaction in the decomposition of highly toxic or hazardous chemicals. Humic
acid is a water–soluble colloidal medium which, being a reducing agent, promotes reductive hydrolysis. Additionally, it has a
strong affinity for organic molecules and metal ions. Therefore, it is effective in absorbing reaction products. The active
material, 'A-HAX' reagent is proprietary of M/S ARCTECH Inc USA. This reagent along with phosphoric acid is taken in a
TECHNOLOGYFOR
TECHNOLOGY FORCONVERSION
CONVERSION OF
OFAMMUNITION
AMMUNITIONTO TO
FERTILIZER
FERTILIZER
Ammunition
A-HAX Water Phosphoric Explosives/

Reactant Acid Propellants
Mixing Tank
Fertilizer
The residue can be safely used in applications such as fertilizers. Actodemil complies with EPA Toxicity
Characteristics Leaching Procedure (TCLP) universal treatment standards. It is not mutagenic, as determined by the Ames
assay test and is not phyto-toxic to plants.
The Actodemil technology has been successfully tested to neutralise propellants (NC based, NC – NG based & NC-
NG-NQ based) and other explosives like HMX, RDX, TNT, DNT, Lead azide & PETN etc. It addition, this technology can be
used to decompose nerve and blistering agents (CW) as well as BW agents like E Coli. Mobile demilitarization plant with 1-2
ton capacity per day is commercially available. The process is more cost-effective than conventional thermal treatment
techniques.
8. TECHNOLOGIES TO CONVERT THE EXPLOSIVES/PROPELLANTS UNSERVICEABLE AMMUNITION)

FOR CIVIL USE:
Nammo As (Nordic Ammunition Company) commercially offers the technology for demilitarization and revision
(reuse through modernisation and /or conversion) of obsolete ammunition. The various steps followed are disassembly,
removal of explosive content and recycling in an environmentally safe manner. Extracted explosives and propellants are
processed and delivered to the civil industry in the form of ready commercial charges and boosters, for example, for
construction work or mining.

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Some more Technologies to convert the explosives/propellants (Unserviceable ammunition) for civil use
(i) SCWO Supercritical Water Oxidation (SCWO)

Super Critical Water Oxidation (SCWO) takes place at moderate temperatures but requires high pressure. It
capitalizes on the property of water to dissolve hydrocarbons when in the supercritical state (above 374 0C and 218 bar). The
principle is already being used commercially for the treatment of toxic organic waste. CW agents dissolved in the supercritical
water can similarly be oxidized by air, oxygen or hydrogen peroxide to water, CO2 and harmless metallic salts. In trials
conducted at Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland in 1994, conversion rates of 99.999 per cent were achieved. Here the
destruction environment was 250 bar and 4000C. The exothermic reaction raised the temperature further, to 600 to 6500C. To be
effective, dilution of the supercritical water by CW agent should remain in the range 2 to 25 per cent with a residence time of
about 5 minutes.
This time can be reduced by raising the temperature to 5000 C. Even further increase in temperature (to 6000 C, for
example) can reduce the residence time to as little as one minute. SCWO has the advantage that it is a single phase, closed
process, avoiding the need to further treat toxic gaseous or solid products. It is also quick. However, the environment is
extreme and explosion is possible if firm control is not maintained on the temperature. Also a leak in the reactor would release
highly toxic products under high pressure. The SCWO environment is also highly corrosive, forcing designers to use
expensive materials to construct the pressure vessels. Additionally, inorganic salts can form a sludge with the potential to block
valves and pipes. SCWO development has been undertaken by a number of organisations including General Atomics and
Lockheed Martin. The latter offers the Lockheed Martin Integrated Demilitarisation System (LMIDS), which recognizes that
no single technology can provide the complete solution and the all processes in the demilitarisation chain have to be considered
in order to deliver a turnkey solution. These range from transport from site through personnel monitoring to final safe dispersal
of residue into the atmosphere or into ground or waste-water systems. A SCWO reactor, patented by Modar, avoids this
problem by cooling the bottom of the vessel to below supercritical conditions, forcing inorganic slats back into solution again.
(ii) Plasma Arc (PLASCON)

Plasma Arc process involves directing an electric current through a low-pressure gas stream, creating a thermal
plasma field which can reach 5000 to 15000oC.The intense high temperature zone is used to either dissociate waste into its
atomic elements by injecting the waste into the plasma, or as a heat source for combustion or pyrolysis. The National Research
Council (1993) described the waste streams from plasma arc destruction of wastes as “essentially the same as those from
incineration…” such as combustion by-products and salts. Various plasma reactors have been developed for the thermal
destruction of hazardous waste but only the PLASCON In Flight Plasma Arc System falls into the definition of non-
combustion. In the PLASCON system, a liquid or gaseous waste stream together with argon is injected directly into a plasma
arc. Organic chemicals in the waste disassociate into elemental ions and atoms, recombining in the cooler area of the reaction.
The resulting end products include gases consisting of argon, carbon dioxide and water vapor and an aqueous solution of
inorganic sodium salts (including sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate and sodium fluoride).
Plasma arc treatment involves a much lower quantity of combustion gases than incineration, thus reducing the risk
associated with the discharge of the emissions to air and the cost of air pollution control. Given the very low process inventory
in the PLASCON system (i.e. less than 1 g in the reaction chamber), the risk associated with release of partially treated wastes
following a process failure is very low. The capital cost of a 150kW PLASCON unit is approximately US$1million, depending
on the configuration. Operating costs including labour vary depending on the work to be treated and the location of the site. A
significant advantage of the PLASCON system is the low process inventory. The process is electrically powered and can be
shut down or started up in seconds. Process control interlocks are provided to prevent the release of incompletely treated waste,
in the case of power failure or similar process upset. Other safety hazards relate to the storage of hazardous materials prior to
treatment and the use of high temperatures. Emissions from the treatment system are limited to an emission to air containing
argon, oxygen, water vapour and carbon dioxide. Dioxin formation is avoided by the use of pyrolysing conditions. There is a
risk of explosion from internal cooling water leaks and molten metal or slag discharges.

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(iii) Pyrolysis:
Pyrolysis is a well-known method of heating in an oxygen deficit atmosphere resulting in gasification of organic and
melting of mineral components. A plasma torch (~15,000°C) is used inside a cylindrical reaction vessel containing mixed bulk
gases. Plasma feed gases (air, argon, CO2 or nitrogen) are introduced and product gases removed at the top of the chamber and
waste materials (solid, liquid or gas) plus steam are fed in from the side. Inorganic portions of the waste remain in the reactor as
reduced metals and a glassy slag. Off gases are polished through scrubbers and filters, and can be reused as synthesis gas. These
processes are endothermic and thus require feeding significant levels of heat into the furnace, thereby increasing power in the
power sources. The recuperation of energy is possible only due to combustion of obtained pyrolytic gas (syn-gas).The Plasma
Waste Converter forces gas through an electrical field to ionise the gas into plasma. The plasma operates at temperature in the
order of 3,000 to 5,000º C. The plasma chamber operates at normal atmospheric pressure. The PWC may best be described as
plasma heated pyrolysis system, where wastes are reduced to their metallic components, a slag and a gas that can be used as a
fuel.
Organic and inorganic wastes can be introduced into the plasma chamber as solids, liquids, gases, and sludges, where
they dissociate into their elemental atomic components. Gas recovered from the top of the chamber is treated and can be reused
as chemical feed stock or fuel gas. Molten solids are removed from the bottom of the chamber and can also be reused. Solid
wastes fed into the system do not ordinarily need to be pre-conditioned or shredded, and can be in bulk form. Feeding is
automatic through an air locked infeed port and is normally on a continuous basis, but can be batch fed. Liquids, gases and
sludges can also be fed or pumped directly into the chamber through a pipe port, and can be fed in with bulk solids at the same
time if required. The STARTECH Plasma Waste Converter was developed in the US by the Star-tech Environmental
Corporation and is a closed-loop system in which wastes, depending on their type, may be converted into recoverable
commodity products. Recovered gas, "Plasma Converted Gas", may be used for chemical feed stock to produce, for example,
polymers, or fuel gas for plant heating or to produce electricity. Recovered solids include metals, and an inert silicate stone
which can be used as aggregate in the building and construction industry, or as an abrasive. Pilot plant with a capacity of 50 –
100 kg/hr was successful running and commercial unit for 10 tonnes /day capacity are planned and likely to be available soon.
(iv) Battelle Acid Digestion Process:

Battelle has developed a process that uses a single step to access the contents of munitions and metal containers, treat
certain hazardous compounds and prepare them for secondary processing.
Batelle's laboratory and pilot-scale testes have demonstrated that the Acid Digestion Process is an effective treatment
method for a variety of hazardous materials, regardless of type, quantity or condition. This process provides a cost-effective,
on-site solution by using the latest treatment systems to reduce disposal by-products to solid wastes or reusable materials. It
eliminates the need to purchase and maintain additional equipment to disassemble the metal casings or containers to access
hazardous materials. It also makes it easy to destroy partially decomposed or corroded items. The process consists of four
steps:
Loading – The munitions or hazardous material containers are placed in a sealed reaction vessel or processing tank.
Digestion – The primary step of the treatment system occurs once the processing tank is filled with an acid solution. This
solution accesses the contents of the munitions and metal containers, treats certain hazardous compounds and separates any
non-soluble items (paint, for example) into liquid and solid waste products.
Final processing – A secondary treatment system completes the process by preparing the liquid and solid wastes for recycling
or land-filling. The Acid Digestion Process treats hazardous items to a level at which any one of several secondary treatment
technologies could be selected to further process the liquid and solid wastes from the processing tank.
Recycling and landfill – The waste products from the secondary treatment system are recycled or sent to a hazardous- waste
landfill. The principal by-products that can be recycled or land-filled will vary, depending on the secondary treatment process
Some by-products include iron, nitrates, acid and water.

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The design of the processing tank seeks to minimize the risk to workers. Container handling is limited, and operation
is controlled remotely. Chemical exposure to the processing tank system is limited, and the process automatically
decontaminates, including process vapours, with a continuous flow of dilute acid before anything is released to the secondary
treatment system. The process operates at low temperatures (120 ï to 160 ï) and slightly below normal air pressures. The
design uses separate batch processing. The use of several smaller systems instead of one large disposal system allows operators
to control the process safely during upset conditions. It allows other systems, in a fixed facility, to continue processing items if
a single processing system is not operating. The design is flexible enough to treat any quantity of hazardous materials. It can be
modified to develop a variety of systems ranging from a mobile treatment system for small quantities of waste in remote
locations, up to a fixed facility to process large stockpiles of material. The pilot-scale facility demonstrated that the Acid
Digestion Process completely dissolves simulated munitions in one to three hours.
(v) Molten Salt Oxidation

Molten salt oxidation is a thermal means of completely oxidizing (destroying) the organic constituents of mixed and
hazardous waste. The flameless reaction takes place at 700 to 950°C in a pool of benign salts, which is usually either sodium
carbonate or a eutectic of alkali carbonates. Oxidant air is added with the waste stream into the salt bath, and the reaction takes
place within the salt bath virtually eliminating the fugitive inventories found in incineration. The organic components of the
waste react with oxygen to produce CO2, N2, and water. Inorganics like halogens, sulphur and phosphorus are converted to
acid gases, which are then “scrubbed” and trapped in the salt in forms such as NaCl and Na2SO4.Other incombustible
inorganic constituents and heavy metals are held captive in the salt, either as metals or oxides, and are easily separated for
disposal. The materials to be processed are normally conveyed into the oxidizing chambers using pneumatic feed systems and
at times, solids have to be reduced to small particle sizes for pneumatic conveying. Liquid wastes are injected using
commercial oil gun systems. The reaction product gases contain nitrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen and steam, along with
reaction salts, depending on the wastes. As part of its ancillary demilitarization and waste reduction mission, Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory has developed methods for the safe and environmentally friendly destruction of difficult waste
streams.
Molten Salt Oxidation (MSO) is a thermal, flameless process that has the inherent capability of completely
destroying organic constituents of mixed wastes. MSO can treat a wide variety of solid, liquid, and gaseous waste streams
while producing low levels of fugitive emissions in the off-gas. Organic materials are converted into carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
and water vapor.
Metals and other inorganic materials in the waste stream are captured and held in the salt. Chlorine, fluorine, bromine,
phosphorous, sulfur and other acid-producing components are captured in the salt as chlorides, fluorides, bromides, and
sulfates, respectively.
MSO is an environmentally friendly alternative to incineration for the treatment of a variety of organic wastes. The
process has been shown to be robust with very low risks of failure. The Department of Energy and the U.S. Army Defense
Ammunition Center direct the technology development. MSO is an ideal way to destroy a variety of difficult waste streams. It
has been demonstrated to be a safe and effective method to destroy wastes of interest to both the Department of Defense and the
Department of Energy. LLNL built an integrated MSO facility in 1997 to demonstrate the technology. Over 30 types of waste
streams were demonstrated in the facility from 1997 to 1999. DOE has transferred the MSO facility to Richland, Washington in
2000 for further implementation of the technology at an industrial scale with real mixed waste streams. Moreover, a Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) designed unit is currently at Eglin Air Force Base, and another is under construction at
LLNL for the U.S. Army to be installed in the Republic of Korea (ROK). The ROK MSO system is anticipated to be fully
operational in the spring of 2001. Another MSO facility is planned for the Blue Grass Army Depot in Kentucky in 2002.
The disadvantages of this technology are large volume of potentially hazardous salts generated in process requiring
disposal. The operating costs are high and the system requires bag-houses for the metal/ particulate content in the off-gases.
Sodium carbonate is the only preferred salt and materials like phosphorus, chlorine and sulphur are converted into inorganic
salts and they are part of the salt overflow collected as waste.

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9. DEMILITARIZATION PLANT: COMPARISON OF VARIOUS FEATURES OF COMMERCIALLY

AVAILABLE SYSTEMS:
(i) Day & Zimmerman, USA

Dis-assembly by Mechanical Methods, Explosives Removal by Washout or Steam out and Treatment/ recovery of
explosives by Incineration of materials in slurry form or Blending, drying, flaking, grinding. Deactivation & Decontamination
by Rotary type for small items, Tray type flashing furnace for moderate size items and hot gases for large items. Capacity of the
Plant is 5000 – 10000 MT/Annum. Complete plant supplied on turn key basis is available.
It follows environment and industrial safety considerations. It is Eco-friendly system ( No waste water Generation ) and
meets the user requirements of smaller plant of 1000 MT.
(ii)ADC Germany
Dis-assembly is two step process by Disassembly Portioning of explosive charges, Explosives Removal by Melt- out
and Treatment/ recovery of explosives by Thermal treatment using Rotary Klin for 20 mm Ammn. & TNT. Deactivation &
Decontamination by Counter current flue gas for removal of noxious gases, scrubbing of gases and Treatment of scrubber
solution.
Capacity of the Plant is 150 kg TNT/ 1000 MT Ammn.
(iii) Bowas AG
Dis-assembly by Mechanical Methods, Explosives Removal by Popping and Treatment/ recovery of explosives by
Thermal Tunnel Furnace. Deactivation & Decontamination by Flue gas cleaning & scrubbing.
Capacity of the Plant is 4000 large caliber/ shift of 8 hours, and 1 lakh small caliber/shift it does not meet requirements for all
types of Ammn. Stocks
(iv) Buck System GMBH

Dis-assembly by Automatic for small arms, Explosives Removal by Melt - out and Treatment/ recovery of explosives
using Tunnel furnace (15 kg TNT) & Popping furnace(200 g TNT). Deactivation & Decontamination is by
Flue gas cleaning .Capacity of the Plant is 8000 MT/ Annum (min). It is Environment friendly and Suitable for high capacity
above 8000 MT/Annum.
(v) UXB International

Dis-assembly by Manual separation for Cat I munition and Mechanical breaking ( 1500 T/yr ) ; Water- jet cutter for Cat
III munition (60 /hr).Explosives Removal by Steam-out for TNT and composition B from mortars, bombs & projectiles.
Treatment/recovery of explosives using Static klin for destruction of bulk explosives, propellants and munitions 40mm and
white phosphorous 105mm.Deactivation & Decontamination by standard methods. Capacity of the Plant is 1000 T/annum of
Cat III ammunition (rockets, projectiles).It offers Environment friendly recovery of explosives and Transportable modules. It
caters only to Cat III(rockets and projectiles) ammunition. It does not cater to other types of ammunition stores.
(vi) NABCO & Integrated Environmental Services, INC

Portable total containment vessel for destructive detonation of linear shaped charges. System components are
Trailer, Explosive containment vessel, Munition opening system, Fragment suppression system and firing system
Capacity of the Plant is 2000 rounds of obsolete 30mm high explosive ordnance. Environmental enclosure is for the entire
facility. It does not meet requirement of all types of ammunition stocks.
(vii) Nammo Buck GmbH Germany

Dis-assembly by Mechanical methods,Explosives Removal by Melt-out/ Hot water bath and Treatment/ recovery of
explosives using Rotary Incineration furnace with air emission treatment facility.
Deactivation & Decontamination by Recycling of recovered explosives for civilian explosive products like charges &
boosters. Capacity of the Plant is 2000 rounds of obsolete 30mm high explosive ordnance, Small arms ammunition to large
mines and missiles in environment friendly manner.

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(viii) Russian Technolo-gy Centre Pvt Ltd

Dis-assembly by Water-jet Cutter, Explosives Removal by Extraction and Melt-out.Treatment/ recovery of explosives
by Out-washing / separation and Rotary Incineration Armor Furnace Chamber.
Deactivation & Decontamination by Conversion to low explosives and gunpowder. Capacity of the Plant is 20,000 MT /
annum. It offers Mobile modular complex / Self Contained units which can treat various types of ammunition, mines, grenades
etc.
(ix) Force Ware GmbH, Germany

Dis-assembly by Water-jet Cutter , Explosives Removal by Melt-out/Hot water bath and Treatment/ recovery of
explosives using Rotary klin furnace . It offers Pollution Abatement System. Deactivation & Decontamination by standard
methods.Capacity of the Plant is 50 rounds/hr(2.5 kg TNT equivalent per charge). It demilitarise fuzes, primers, propellants,
projectiles, HE
(x) ARC-TECH Inc. USA Actodemil Technology

Dis-assembly by Mechanical methods, Explosives Removal by Melt-out (Heating at 900º C for 45 mt.) and
Treatment/ recovery of explosives by Converting Ammunition into fertilizer.Technology neutralize bulk explosives (RDX,
TNT, HMX, Comp. B). All propellants/energetic chemicals irreversibly destroyed by chemical process using A-HAX
reactant & phosphoric acid.
Capacity of the Plant is 400-700 MT/ annum. It is Environment friendly. Mobile plant can neutralize chemical & biological
agents apart from Ammunition Stocks. The treatment is more cost effective (cheaper by 2-4 times than thermal treatment
process).It is fully automatic and safe.
Table : Parameters of industrial detonation chambers
Chamber Chamber Maximum Overall dimensions Total weight

code type charge lxwxh
weight
KV-0.2 Vertical 0.2 kg TNT 1930 x 1190 x 1980 mm tons
KV-2 Vertical 2 kg TNT 2840 x 1800 x 2740 mm tons
RADUGA Horizontal 2.6 kg TNT 5300 x 2800 x 2600 mm tons
KV-5 Vertical 5 kg TNT 4640 x 2800 x 4300 mm tons
KVG-8 Horizontal 8 kg TNT 16360 x 2200 x 2460 mm tons
KVG-16 Horizontal 16 kg TNT 27210 x 2200 x 2460 mm tons

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(xi) Main applications of industrial detonation chambers
(i) Environmentally friendly disposal (demilitarization) of munitions
(ii) Safe destruction of explosive wastes or improvised explosive devices
(iii) Explosive forming of metals – hardening, welding, cutting, pressing
(iv) Quality control in manufacture of explosives and munitions
(v) Research, development, evaluation and testing of explosives, ordnance and confined explosions
(vi) Manufacture of artificial diamonds
10. CONCLUSION
Demilitarization and disposal of Unserviceable / Life Expired/ Rejected Ammunition is the final step in the life-cycle
management of ammunition. The disposal of munitions is mostly concerned with obsolete and unserviceable stocks, which is
quite substantial in Indian scenario. Main technical problems associated with the disposal of munitions on a large scale are (
i)The materials are explosive in nature and require special handling, storage, packaging and transportation as per existing
STEC regulations(ii)The material to be destroyed has been procured investing huge sums. Mere destruction would mean
irretrievable loss of value invested.( iii)Goods like steel or brass scrap can easily be reclaimed, but energetic materials pose a
serious chemical challenge.
New Disposal / Demilitarization Technologies Criteria are: (i) Results in less hazardous waste ii) Be economically
feasible (The sale of residue may be considered) ( iii) Be environmentally safe and( iv)Reclaim or make use of waste
material.
Procedures in developing new technologies or testing them before final approval are( i) A hazard analysis will be
conducted to determine the level of risk involved and the required safety measures needed( ii)A written procedure will be
developed before running a test( iii)A dry run will be conducted before using live explosives to verify the mechanics of the
procedure and ( iv)Only the minimum number of personnel using the minimum amount of explosives will be used to verify the
proposed technologies. The main process of demilitarization is to destroy complete ammunition, ammunition shells, fuses and
detonators, primers/capped cases, grenades and bombs. The main stress is for the development of safe, efficient and
environmentally acceptable process for the resource recovery and recycling (R3) or disposal of strategic, tactical, and
conventional munitions including explosives.
The Disposal / demilitarization process of unserviceable ammunition basically consists of two important steps: (i)
Disassembly Process (ii) Thermal Treatment of Ammunition and Explosives.
purpose are (i)Day & Zimmerman, USA (ii) Bowas Induplan Chemie, Switzerland (iii)Dr. Ing F Munder (Ammunition
Disposal Center Organisation), Germany (iv)Nammo Buck Gmbh, Germany (v) Force Ware Gmbh, Germany (vi) Buck
System Gmbh, Germany (vii) Russian Technology Centre Pvt Ltd , Russia (viii)NAB Co Inc, USA (ix) UXB International
Inc, USA(x) ARCTECH Inc. USA .The last firm ARCTECH Inc. USA has offered a plant, where it is possible to convert
explosive into fertilizer.
11. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author is grateful to Sh. J.C.Kapoor, Director CFEES and Dr. Chitra Rajagopal, Sc. G & Group Head, for providing
encouragement for writing this paper. Special thanks to Shri Amit Saini Sc.'C' for his co-operation.

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FIRE SAFETY ASPECTS OF ARMAMENTS AND AMMUNITION
Dr. KC Wadhwa
Centre for Fire, Explosive & Environment Safety, Delhi
1. INTRODUCTION
Before we enter upon discussion on Fire Safety Aspects of Armaments and Ammunition, we need to know the nature
of hazard and consequent level of risk situation which we are expected to handle in any fire or like incident.
First step, therefore, towards fire safety is to classify the ammunition and explosives into the UN Hazard Divisions.
Subsequently from fire protection and fire fighting point of view UN Hazard Divisions are classified into Fire Divisions.
Based upon classification into Fire Divisions (FD 1 to FD 4), required measures on account of fire prevention, fire protection
and fire fighting are worked out.
Based upon available hazard situation, safety measures need to be planned based on certain importance information
and executed in the manner of complete perfection.
Planning and provisioning of fire protection and fire fighting arrangements essentially require a systematic approach.
Measures which invariably are required to be taken under such circumstances are listed below.
(a) Hazard identification and display of Fire Division and supplementary symbol.
(b) Display of information(s) for use in the event of emergent situation.
(c) Arrangement of alarm and communication system.
(d) Arrangement of first aid fire fighting equipment / appliances.
(e) Arrangement of major fire fighting equipment as per the requirement.
(f) Arrangement of dependable source of water supply for fire fighting.
(g) Arrangement of rescue equipment.
(h) Mutual Aid Scheme with local Civil / Defence Units.
(i) Liaison with Police and Medical authorities.
Finally, how to execute fire fighting operation involving ammunition and explosives?
As a matter of rule; fires involving ammunition and explosives should not be fought. All efforts should be directed in
not letting the other buildings get involved with fire or explosion by employing water curtains, cooling or resorting to measures
compatible with situation.
Ordinarily, in a fire developing situation we should put all resources at our command to use and do not let ammunition
/ explosives get involved into fire. While executing any fire fighting operation, training is the most important aspect. Ignore it
at your own peril.
2. FIRE SAFETY ASPECTS

The buildings intended for processing , handling and storage of explosives fall under highly hazardous category from
fire protection angle. Depending upon the quantity and nature of explosive involved in a fire, appropriate fire fighting
measures have to be provided to tackle the fire scenario successfully. While fire protection measures are taken to minimize the
chances of occurrence of fire, the risk of an incident can not be completely eliminated. It is, therefore, considered necessary to
provide first aid fire fighting appliances to deal with incipient fires which, if allowed to grow unchecked, might pose hazard to
personnel, plant and property.
Fire protection to explosive buildings can be achieved by providing the following facilities
( a ) Special fire prevention and protection measures for air-conditioning plants and ancillary facilities required for
storage and processing of sophisticated explosives.

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( b ) First Aid Fire Appliances – To tackle the fire situation in the incipient stage, it is essential to have sufficient number of
fire points dully equipped with first aid extinguishers.
( c ) Fixed Fire Fighting Installation – Fixed installation envisages provisioning of sprinkler system, drenching system,
CO2 installation and foam installation. The extinguishing system could be automatic in operation or manually
operated by inserting remote controlled mechanism. It can be total flooding or local application system.
( d ) Sources of Water Supply – Large quantity of water is required for quenching fires involving explosives. Water could
be made available in the form of static tanks, underground sumps and gravity tanks.
( e ) Protection to Electrical Installation – To obviate chances of out-break of fire due to short circuiting, adequate fire
protection facilities are required.
( f ) Manual call Points / Warning Systems – As all buildings are not covered with fixed fire fighting installations, manual
call station ( call points ) should be installed near each building for alerting emergency services.
3. MAINTENANCE AND TESTING

Fire equipment must be maintained and tested regularly if it is to work efficiently when required. It is the
responsibility of the Fire Brigade to carry out regular maintenance as per the laid schedule of the fire fighting equipment /
systems.
4. TRAINING
It is pointless to install costly equipment when personnel are not competent to use. It is essential that all personnel are
given appropriate training in the use of equipment provided. Good house keeping and training go a long way in ensuring a high
degree of fire safety for the establishment.
5. CONCLUSION
It is evident that unlike other combustible and flammable chemicals substances/ liquids, the explosives once involved
in a fire do not give any time for making a sizeup of the situation and any action needed to avoid catastrophe must be preplanned
and embodied in well laid down procedures. As such with a view to dealing with fires involving explosives very effectively, a
knowledge of the behaviour/characteristics of the different explosives/ammunition when involved in a fire is very much
essential.

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ENHANCEMENT OF EXPLOSIVE SAFETY IN INDIAN ARMY AND

REDUCE LAND REQUIREMENT BY CONVERTING AMMUNITION OF
UN HAZARD DIVISION 1.1 TO 1.2
Col N K Aguru
Centre for Fire, Explosive and Environmental Safety, Delhi
ABSTRACT
By converting UNHD 1.1 to UNHD 1.2, the safety on ammunition during storage and transportation is greatly
enhanced as sympathetic detonation is avoided. There is a very large difference in the QDs required for UNHD 1.1 as
compared to QDs required for UNHD 1.2. The conversion can be achieved by increasing the inter-se distance between two
adjacent shells/ammunitions by merely modifying the package. Due the large variation in QDs, the storage capacity of a given
area increases 55 times. For a given area of 7.6 sq km the storage capacity increase from 7200 MT to 400,000 MT. At the same
time the safety is enhanced considerably as size of explosion in case of an accident, is reduced 16000 times for a standard
450MT magazine. The immediate savings to the army is to the tune of Rs 2,000 crores in terms of infrastructure and land
savings. This is an innovative idea conceived by the author and the concept has been proved by trials for 155mm Bofors Shells
(HEER).
1. INTRODUCTION
There are many examples of catastrophic losses from ammunitions accidents in the depots involving fire and
conventional munitions. There were a series of such accidents in the Indian Army between year 2000 and 2008. The latest
being 21 FAD in Aug 2007. The investigations revealed that the major causes were the lack of infrastructure and
thousands of tons of ammunition lying in the open. The Quantity Distances required for UNHD 1.1 ammunition is large
because of which each of the ammunition depots occupies 1000- 4000 acres of land which is extremely difficult to
manage and maintain. Besides problems of acquiring land to meet required quantity distances and putting a stop to
encroachment, providing fool proof security to such massive establishments, in the present terrorists prone environment;
is just impossible and a big drain on the exchequer. So undoubtedly, there is a need to bring down the quantity distances
and cut down the size of the sprawling depots. The quantity distances adopted in India are those specified by International
standards such as NATO and ESTC and hence, cannot be changed without establishing the same through extensive trials.
The OQD (Outside Quantity Distance) for a 450 MT storage shed meant for UNHD 1.1 is 1145 m while the IQD (Inside
Quantity Distance) is 125 m. Even modern explosive storehouse designs like the LRC (Laced Reinforced Concrete)
Igloos do not make much of a difference as they are only able to reduce the IQD to a certain extent and not the OQD
which is a major concern.
The solution was in converting UNHD 1.1 ammunition to UNHD 1.2 as the OQD required for a 450 MT shed of
UNHD 1.2 ammunition is reduced from 1145 m (as required in UNHD 1.1) to 560 m while the IQD reduces from 125 M (as
required in UNHD 1.1) to 30 M only. The idea is totally original and has not been even tried out anywhere else in the world to
enhance safety and reduce land requirement. The Author had conceived this idea and initiated a project for converting Bofors
Ammunition from 1.1 to UNHD 1.2. 155mm Bofors ammunition was chosen as it was the highest caliber held in Indian army
and contains maximum NEC as compared to other shells. As on date, Bofors ammunition constitutes a major portion of
UNHD 1.1 ammunition held by the Indian Army. On Mediumization (converting the field guns to 155mm Bofors) the
percentage of UNHD 1.1 will further increase considerably.
3.A demonstrative trial with the newly designed pallet was carried out at CAD Pulgoan in December 2007 which was
attended by Senior Officers from Army, DGQA, OFB and DRDO. The trials were successful and the concept was proved. At
present, the pallet is being modified to make it user friendly.

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2. CONCEPT
It is essential to understand the major difference between the behaviors of 'UNHD 1.1 ammunition' as compared to
'UNHD 1.2 ammunition' in case of an accident. In case of an accidental initiation in any one of the rounds of 'UNHD 1.1
ammunition', all the ammunition in that location / storehouse will sympathetically detonate in a millionth of a second. Hence,
the blast over pressures is extremely high and the effects are devastating. However, in the case of 'UNHD 1.2 ammunition' if
one of the rounds gets accidentally initiated; the ammunition in the location will not detonate sympathetically but will
progressively explode one round or a few rounds at a time. Here, in this case; the over blast pressures are much lower and the
effects are not so devastating and unlikely to spread to other storehouses. Hence, converting to 'UNHD 1.2 ammunition'
means ensuring no sympathetic detonation takes place incase of an accidental initiation. The various methods to achieve the
same are as under.
(a) Packing ammunition such that the gap between shells is large enough not to transmit the detonating wave to
sympathetically detonate the adjacent shell.
(b) Packing material between the shells that absorb the blast wave and ensures that the adjacent shell is not
sympathetically detonated.
3. ADVANTAGES
4.The benefits of converting UNHD 1.1 ammunition to UNHD 1.2 is many fold and the results are overwhelming.
(a) Reduced size of accidental explosion (16000 times smaller), limit accident to one storehouse, and no
devastating effects. Firstly, STEC permits two regulated sites each with 136 MT(NEC) of high explosive separated by 125m
with traverses in between to prevent sympathetic detonation and prevent the effects from spreading to the adjacent buildings;
thereby avoiding a 272 MT explosion. However, a 136 MT explosion by itself is catastrophic. If the same is converted to less
hazardous UNHD, only one shell at a time or few shells at a time would explode in one go. The explosion size would reduce
from 136000 kg NEC to a mere 8.4 kg or small multiples of the same only as amongst the conventional ammunition held in our
country, 155mm Bofors HE shell is having maximum net explosive content (NEC) equal to 8.4 kg amongst conventional
weapons. (The reduction in size of explosion is approximately 16000 times smaller). This would also reduce the chances of the
accident propagating to the nearby explosive site too. This would mean that in future the possibility of a major accident in our
depots will be reduced considerably, if ammunition is converted to 1.2 as suggested in this paper. Accident, in these cases
would be limited to one shed where the explosions would progress slowly and not spread to other sheds.
(b) Enhance storage capacity of land by 55 Times The second major advantage is that the land requirement for
storing ammunition of lower hazard division is much lesser as compared to ammunition of 1.1 HD. Approximately 7.6 sq km
(1878 acres) land is required for storage of 7200 MT of UNHD 1.1 ammunition. If this ammunition is converted to lower
Hazard division like UNHD 1.2, approx 4 lakh MT can be stored in the same area of 7.6 sq km. The quantity of ammunition
stored in the example is enhanced 55 times more. The following two figures illustrate the same.
1145M+519M+1145M=2809 M
OQD+( length of sheds+ IQDs) + OQD
(36x4) + (125x 3) = 519 M

length of shed x 4 + IQD x 3
1145M
1145M+447M+1145M=2737 M
OQD+( breadth of sheds+ IQDs )+ OQD
(18X4)+(125X3)=429M
breadth of shed x 4 + IQD x 3
AREA FOR1,1 UNHD ( 16 MAGAZINE X 450) = 7200 MT

2.809 X 2.737 = 7.6 SQ KM (1878 acres)

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AREA FOR ( 34X26=884)ESH X 450MT =3,97,800 MT

2.806 X 2.722 = 7.6 SQ KM (1878 acres)
(c) More Secured Depots, Reduced Infrastructure Costs And Maintance.

To quote a realistic example, one of our major depots occupies 7500 acres of land while catering to store
approximately 100,000 MT of ammunition. In the event, all UNHD 1.1 is converted to UNHD 1.2 by some means the land
required reduces to 184 acres only (Land requirement in this case is 40 times lesser). Not only does the infrastructure of this
magnitude is reduced drastically and it becomes much easier to maintain and secure. The expenditure incurred in providing
high standards of security and maintaining the infrastructure is significantly reduced. Even the cost of constructing the ESH
will reduce considerably as no traverses will be required for building containing 'UNHD 1.2' ammunition. The land saved by
cutting down the size of depots can be put to good use by the Army.
(d) Resolve Problems Of Encroachment And Acquiring Land For New Formation Dumps.
The overwhelming problem of encroachment, acquiring land for new formation dumps and problems connected with
the camouflage and concealment would just fade with the drastic reduction of land requirement once ammunition is converted
to UNHD 1.2.
(e)More Suitable For Underground Storage.

Indian army has always wanted to construct underground magazines for ammunition storage especially in forward
locations because of their obvious advantages of camouflage and concealment and its protection against direct fire and air
attack. The Quantity Distances required for 'UNHD 1.1 ammunition' in underground shelters overrides the advantages.
However, underground facilities are specifically suited for 'UNHD 1.2 ammunition' with nominal quantity distances. Hence,
converting all 'UNHD 1.1 ammunition' to 'UNHD 1.2 ammunition' means that we can go in for underground storage facilities
where ever possible without hesitation drawing all its benefits including lesser Quantity Distances.
4. LITERATURE SURVEY
While carrying out literature survey, the author found certain hazard classification test reports which states that by
providing adequate spacing (air gap) between the bombs (shells) the chances of sympathetic detonation can be avoided. This
spacing can further be reduced by providing suitable partition of wood between the shells. The spacing between the HE filled
shells can be calculated from the empirical formula reported in the literature:-
S = 9 C2 W -3/2
Where S is space in cm,
C is weight of HE filling in g,
And W is the weight of the filled shell in g.

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It has also been established in previous classification trials that 10.8 cm air gap is equivalent to 1.25 cm thick plywood
partition. In this connection following trial reports of erstwhile Directorate of Explosive Safety, now CFEES, may be referred
to, which date back to year 1984 -1987.
(a)Verification of the design of wooden racks for storage of un-fuzed 75/24 Pack How shells in inter storage
buildings. - Report No: -DES/4/1985
(b) Hazard Classification of 2” Motor Bombs in different pickings' - Report No:-DES/1/1986.
(c) Hazard Classification of 81mm Motor Packed in Ammunition Container Assembly 131A - Report No:-DES/1/1984
(d) Verification of the design of wooden racks for storage of un-fuzed 105mm IFG HE shells in inter storage buildings.-
Report No :-DES/3/1987/1.
5. CLASSIFICATION TEST METHODOLOGY

In the STEC Pamphlet No 1, the test mentioned to determine the correct hazard division and applied to packaged
and unpackaged explosive articles (ammunition) and to packaged explosives. Consists of 3 types of tests as follows:
(a) Single Package Test
(b) Stack Test
(c) External Fire (Bonfire) Test
6. DEMONSTRATIVE TRIAL
UN Hazard Classification trials were carried out for 155 mm HEER ammunition i.e. Shells and Charges packed in
one pallet alternatively as per new design of the pallet. These trials were carried out at Demolition ground of CAD Pulgoan on
13th Dec 07. The following photographs illustrate the results. The trials were attended by Senior Officers from Army, DGQA,
OFB and DRDO. The trials were as expected i.e. six 155mm HEER Shells and six charge 9, arranged alternatively in a
modified pallet behaved as UNHD 1.2 ammunition in all the classifications trials conducted. Director CFEES appreciated the
results and issued a letter stating that the concept has been proved.
SINGLE PACKAGE TEST
SINGLE PALLET TEST
STACK TEST

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BON FIRE TEST
BONFIRE TEST
RESULT
• (A) 01 SHELL WAS INITIATED AND COMPLETELY
DETONATED
• (B) THERE WAS FIRE WHICH CONTINUED OVER 45
MINUTES SPACED WITH A NUMBER OF LOW
INTENSITY BLASTS AND CONTAINERS OF CHARGES
BEING THROWN OUT LIKE ROCKETS.
• (C) 7 SHELLS WERE INTACT, WHILE 17 SHELLS WERE
OF LOW ORDER DETONATION.
• (D) VIDEO RECORDING OF ALL BLASTS ON. RECORD
PALLET DESIGN
EXSISTING PALLET MODIFIED PALLET
7. USER TRIALS AND UN HAZARD CLASSIFICATION TRIALS

10.At present the pallet is undergoing user trials to examine its effects on gun drill and rate of fire. Once this is
completed the UN Hazard classification trials will be carried out with the modified pallet to confirm the UNHD.
8. CONCLUSION
11.On successful completion of this project, other UNHD 1.1 ammunition will be taken up for modification of
package to bring down the Hazard division. Preliminary trials for converting detonator from UNHD 1.1 to 1.4 UNHD have
already been undertaken.
9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
12.The authors express their sincere thanks to Mr J C Kapoor, Director CFEES, for his encouragement and kind
permission to publish the present work. Authors are also thankful to Dr Chitra Rajagopal, Head of Explosive Safety, Mr Rajiv
Narang, Sc 'F' and my colleagues for providing the necessary guidance and support in the project. I am also thankful to DGOS
and Brig Ravi Shankar of the Army Ordnance Corps all the assistance in carrying out the trials.

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NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF EXPLOSIVELY

FORMED PROJECTILE
B Sewak, AC Sharma, DR Saroha, Manjit Singh
Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory, Chandigarh 160030
ABSTRACT
The paper presents a work in which the computational techniques of Lagrange and Euler solvers
and their interaction using Autodyn 2D hydrocode have been used to simulate the formation of
explosively formed projectiles. Simulation was done to estimate the projectile velocity with the distance
travelled and the evolution of shape of the projectile till the time it becomes integral. Iron Armco liner
and Iron CE casing were modeled with Lagrange solver while RDX/TNT explosive was modeled using
Euler framework. Zerilli Armstrong and Piecewise JC models were used to define material strength for
liner and casing respectively and JWL EOS was assumed for explosive. Figure 1 shows a sequence
several snapshots at different time intervals showing formation of EFP form an explosive assembly of
L/D ratio 1.19. Spherical liner of radius of curvature 165mm and thickness 8mm was used for the
simulations as well as experimental trial. Figure 2 shows velocity history of the projectile. It is clearly
seen that after certain distance whole of the projectile is integral and moving at the same velocity.
Numerical results were compared with experimental results obtained from flash radiography and very
good agreement has been found.

S6
Explosives
Propellants
Pyrotechnics
Propulsion Technology
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CFD SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS OF FLOW THROUTH A

SUPERSONIC COMBUSTOR
Girish S Barpande
Maharashtra Institute of Technology, (MIT) Kothrud, Pune.
Dr. Amarjit Singh
Defence Institute of Advanced Technology (DIAT),Girinagar, Pune.
ABSTRACT
“Scramjet has been intensively research due to its strategic importance. The main task in developing an operating
Scramjet is to achieve the combustion in a supersonic stream over the complete flight range and all operating conditions. In the
presented work simulation of combustor geometry with strut injection behind a rearward facing step is done for which the
experimental results are available. A commercially available CFD package, STAR-CD is used to do the simulation. Certain
charactaristics of the combustor geometry like flame holding, mixing and static pressure are studied by plotting ususal XY
graphs and contour plots. Typical inlet condition for a Scramjet flight of Mach 6 is considered for the analysis, i.e. a total
temperature of 1500 K and total pressure of 1´ 10 6 Pa. Cases with only air flow, with non reacting hydrogen injection and with
equivalence ratio of 0.34 and 0.52 are simulated.
Inviside analysis of the ‘only air’ flow through the combustor provides a basic idea of the shock structure existing
inside the combustor and especially that around the strut region. In the viscid analysis of ‘only air’ case, top wall static pressure
plots are observed to be matching closely with the experimental results. Also the results for equivalence ratio of 0.34 are seen
to match with the experimental case. This validates the results and encourages further analysis with higher equivalance ratio.
NOMENCLATURE
K = Kelvin
T0 = Total temperature
P0 = Total Pressure
X = Stream wise location from inlet mm
M = Mach number
Pa = Pascals
o
C = Degree celsius
1. INTRODUCTION
Injection and mixing of a fuel in a supersonic air stream inside a scramjet combustor is a technological challenge. At
hypersonic Mach numbers, the temperature due to intake shock compression may become higher than the temperature of
combustion products. In such a case, adding fuel to the air stream will cause dissociation of the fuel and no energy can be
extracted from the fuel. Though supersonic combustion is less effective, it is preferable because it produces comparatively
fewer intake losses at same flight conditions if subsonic combustion is made to occur.
2. COMBUSTOR GEOMETRY AND COMBUSTION

Geometry plays as important role as that of mixing and the combustion efficiency in the design of supersonic
combustors. It is seen that the use of the strut injection further reduced the critical equivalence ratio for self-ignition. Oblique
shock wave impingement onto the jet is one method known to enhance the molecular mixing between supersonic air and
gaseous fuel. The vortices generated when a shock wave interacts with a shear layer have immediate significance to the mixing
enhancement in supersonic flows resulting in enhanced combustion efficiency. While combustors with shorter length of
constant area section can avoid potential thermal choking, the accompanying penalty is the difficulty in self-ignition and flame
holding. Optimizing both the parameters of combustor geometry for full range of equivalence ratio and the full range of
incoming stagnation conditions is a big challenge. Mixing enhancement and flame stabilization techniques are used to reduce

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the combustor length though they may be at the cost of some loss of total pressure. One important methodology for active
flame stabilization is to create a local low velocity and possibly high chemical reactivity regions so that the flame segment in
this region anchors the bulk flame [1]. Three dimensional bow shocks upstream of the injector formed due to transverse injection
results the upstream wall boundary layer to separate. This separation region acts as a flame-holder in combusting situations [1].
Achieving combustion in a supersonic stream over the complete flight range and all operating comnditions is the
main task in developing an operating Scramjet. Present work has attempted simulation of supersonic combustion so that
various aspects of supersonic combustion and the combustor geometry can be revealed. A commercially available package
STAR-CD is used for the simulation. Geometry of combustor selected for analysis is the one for which experimental results[2]
are available. The simulation results are compared with those results.
3. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Typical conditions for a flight of M 6 as in the experiment is considered. Air velocity of 1293 m/s is calculated for
isolator inlet at M 2.5 where, total temperature T0 =1500 K and Total pressure, P0= available package STAR-CD is used for the
simulation. Geometry of combustor selected for analysis is the one for which experimental results[2] are available. The
simulation results are compared with those results.
4. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Typical conditions for a flight of M 6 as in the experiment is considered. Air velocity of 1293 m/s is calculated for
isolator inlet at M 2.5 where, total temperature T0 =1500 K and Total pressure, P0= Two inlet boundaries are applied one at the
combustor inlet and the other at the fuel injection positions. Fuel inlet is made by cluster of boundaries having equivalent area
that of the actual fuel injection hole of 2.5 mm diameter. Considering fuel at 30o C (as the case with the experiment), the value of
injection velocity for fuel calculated as 1322.64 m/s for H2 for sonic injection. Change in equivalence ratio is achieved by
varying the density of fuel at injection boundaries. Outlet boundaries and symmetry plane boundaries as specified in codes are
applied at combustor outlet, and at the symmetry plane passing perpendicular to strut and along the combustor length.

The results presented here are in the form of XY graphs and the second in the form of contour plots. Contour plots of
different parameters are obtained for a reacting case to derive general conclusions about the phenomena inside the combustor
whereas, the graphs are plotted with the desired variable viz. pressure, temperature, Mach number etc. along ordinate and the
distance from the combustor inlet (hereafter referred as X value in mm) along the x-axis for the following cases.
1. Only air flow' through the combustor duct.
2. Non-reacting hydrogen' injected in the airflow.
3. Reacting hydrogen' injected in the airflow, Equivalence Ratio of 0.34.
4. Reacting hydrogen' injected in the airflow, Equivalence Ratio of 0.52.
Only air flow' through the combustor duct.

Inviscid analysis of the 'only air' flow through the combustor provides basic idea of the shock structure existing inside
the combustor and especially that around the strut region.(Figure 1). For a viscous case Figure 2 shows a good comparison
obtained for the calculated wall static pressure values with the experimental values. However, beyond the middle of the
divergent portion of the combustor the experimental curve diverges at about 620 mm from the inlet till the end of combustor
probably due to the sudden boundary layer separation [3]. In the isolator section, pressure is found to be more or less equal to the
experimental values. The pressure rise just ahead of X=239 is caused by the impinging shock wave generated by the leading
edge of the strut. The pressure rise is followed by a sudden local pressure drop due to the expansion corner of the step on
combustor wall (x = 239mm). The strut leading edge shock gets reflected from the top wall and impinges back on the strut to
again get reflected towards the top wall. The shock gets diffused in the divergent section after successive reflections. The
successive pressure peaks due the reflected shocks can be seen to be matching well with the experimental curve

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Figure1. Mach Contour Inviscid Flow of Air without Combustion
Figure 2. Top Wall Static Pressure Plots for Only Air Flow
Effect of Hydrogen Injection

The area averaged static pressure curves for reacting and non-reacting cases coincide until the step (i.e. X=239) is
reached, (Figure 4). It shows the effectiveness of 2 mm step in restricting the pressure interaction effects of combustion from
travelling upstream. Also, a sharp rise in temperature at the strut step location is seen as usefulness of strut step as a flame,
(Figure 5).
Almost parallel curves of average mach numbers of reacting and non reacting cases leads to the conclusion that in this
particular design of Scramjet combustor, the Mach number is a geometry-dominated phenomenon and is very little affected by
combustion, (Figure 5).
Discussion on results of Equivalence Ratio of 0.34 and 0.52

The CFD and experimental curves of top wall static pressure for 0.34 case in Figure 3 are seen to be matching closely
up to X=250 as well as in the divergent portion of the combustor. However a very complex flow structure is developed at the
fuel injection points and the curves do not match.
Figure 5 shows that the temperature gradient in the combustor divergent section varies with the equivalence ratio. The
gradient is steeper for an equivalence ratio of 0.34 than that of 0.52 cases. In fact, the temperature gradient for an equivalence
ratio of 0.34 is very similar to that of non-reacting case inside the divergent section of the combustor. It shows that no
combustion is taking place for the case of 0.34 equivalence ratio in the divergent region of the combustor. However, for the case
of 0.52 further combustion and hence increase in temperature takes place inside the divergent section. Maximum combustion is
observed there leading to maximum temperature of around 2800 K for 0.34 equivalence ratio case.

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Figure 3: Top Wall Static Pressure for Equivalence Ratio 0.34 and 0.52
Higher static pressure for higher equivalence ratio can be clearly seen to exist inside the combustor (Figure 4) and it
starts dropping from X= 268 mm where flow passage area increases due to end of the strut. Fall of pressure from this point
continues till the end of the combustor mainly due to diverging cross section area. However, the gradient reduces as the flow
advances. The reduction in the gradient is possibly due to the combustion that is taking place after proper mixing inside the
divergent portion. No remarkable difference in this gradient is observed for the increase in equivalence ratio from 0.34 to 0.52.
In the experimental study the upstream interactions were observed for an equivalence ratio of 0.52, however it is not observed
in this simulation. The observed difference is to be noted and the possible reasons need to be worked out. Figure 5 shows a
gradual but marginal reduction in Mach number of same magnitude for all the cases in the isolator region, as expected for
Raleigh flow in a duct with wall friction. Figure 9 shows the Mach contours on a plane of symmetry of the combustor for
viscous case with equivalence ratio of 0.52. Almost same contours were observed for case of 0.34 equivalence ratio. A low
Mach region in the wake zone of the strut is clearly seen where the fuel is getting burned, combustion is dominant and the
temperatures are high.
Figure 4: Area Averaged Temperature Plots along the Length of Combustor

Figure 5: Area Average Mach number and Temperature along the Length
Though the average Mach number value in that region goes below 1, the reality is that this subsonic region is
surrounded by envelop of a supersonic air stream of Mach 1.2 to 1.4 and as soon as the flow enters in the divergent part of the
combustor, it accelerates due to the area increase. However the Mach number at the exit is substantially reduced to Mach 1.5
after combustion as against Mach 2.1 for without combustion case.
For 0.52 cases the temperature curve in the divergent section is flatter indicating burning and liberation of heat that
still occurring in the divergent combustor duct. One can go on increasing the equivalence ratio till the temperature curve in the
divergent portion becomes completely flat (i.e. horizontal) to overcome this cooling effect by the diverging geometry. But this
cannot be done at the expense of combustion efficiency which is observed to be reducing for higher equivalence
ratio[2].Controlling the slope of the average temperature curve can also become a parameter for designing the length of
combustor and divergent angle of the combustor.
Figure 6: Contour of Mach number for 0.52 Equivalence Ratio Case.
Contour Plots of Temperature

A significant and fairly uniform level of burning in the re-circulation area confined by the separation wave upstream
of the injector is visible in Figure 7. However, further downstream a significant decrease of temperature is observed indicating
S6.1 / 5
that the mixture expands around the fuel jet indicating a partial quenching of the combustion originating in the re-circulation
and bow shock region.
Figure 7: Temperature Contours
Three fuel jets are penetrating the air stream generating streams of cold flow. Shear layer develops between the two
fuel streams and combustion occurs in region of shear layer. Sharp turning of the main air stream particles is seen when they
hits the jet pipe in the main stream. The turning causes mixing and re-circulation zone behind the strut step giving time for
ignition and burning.
Figure: 8 Temperatures at Exit Plane

The jet near the sidewall deflects more air at sidewall which forms a big circulation region in the corner formed by side
wall and strut surface. Higher and higher temperatures are seen developing in the interfacial regions of air and fuel stream as the
flow proceeds, which clearly reveal that the mixing process is mainly due to the shear layer growth. The boundary layer flow at
the sidewall acts as a flame holder creating a continuous high temperature flow near the sidewall boundary. The temperature
S6.1 / 6
plots in Figure 8.shown at the exit plane of can provide valuable information regarding the actual mixing in the combustor. We
can see a cold core at the centre of combustor surrounded by partially burned mixture of fuel and air. Cold spots of rich mixture
can be seen at the centre clearly positioned at the Z location of fuel injectors (jet1 and jet2). The surrounding regions of the core
are the burnt gases whose thickness can be identified as the mixing layer thickness of the fuel stream. Temperatures in the
surrounding regions of the core are not maximum, as there is a heat transfer to the gases during the travel to the exit plane. These
higher temperatures can be seen in Figure 7 in between the two fuel streams. The regions of high temperature of 2300 K are seen
near to the sidewall. The highest combustion efficiency in near wall region is due to comparatively higher mixing associated
with the wall friction turbulence and boundary layers. The combustion efficiency is reported to be higher at the sidewall region
in the experiment [2].
Contour Plots Related To Mixing

Contour plots of U components of velocity are superimposed on the resultant vector plots of U-V components of
velocity in Figure 9. It is intended to show the flow pattern especially behind the step regions, wake region of the strut and
wake region of the injected fuel jet. A re-circulation region is observed behind the strut step. The presence of the mixing
can be very well felt with the temperature changes caused by the injected reacting fuel jet.
Figure 9: Resultant U-V Superimposed on Temperature Contours
Figure 10: Effects of Recirculation Zones and Jet Penetration
Another plot of superimposed temperature contours on the resultant U-V vector plot is shown in Figure 10. It is clearly
showing the travel of the injected fuel jet, it's spread and fuel entrapment in the recirculation zones. The fuel jet penetration in to
S6.1 / 7
the main stream can also be well visualized from this plot. The observed penetration depth 'Y' is 8mm, measured at the core of
the fuel stream. The fuel jet turns completely horizontal along the main air stream after injection.
5.6 O2 and H2O Concentration plots

Oxygen plot clearly show that there are regions having rich O2 concentration at the top and bottom of the core flow.
The potential for the down stream injection to the existing fuel injection scheme is underlined by the above observation, (Figure
11). The H2O concentration contours shown in Figure 12 indicate that H2 is being consumed immediately after injection and is
converted in to good amount of H2O concentration near the wake region of the strut. Thereafter no significant rise in the H2O
concentration is observed through out the length of the combustor. Most of the concentration gradient is in the envelope to the
core flow. It appears that combustion is vigorous in the constant area region than in the divergent portion of the combustor.
Figure 11: O2 Concentration Figure 12: H2O Concentration
6. CONCLUSIONS
Though this analysis shows sufficient agreement with the experimental results the solution parameters can be fine
tuned to increase their credibility further. However, facts made available by this analysis came at comparatively lesser cost, the
importance of which cannot be ignored.
Top wall Static pressure plots revealed that after the injection the pressure rise is restricted to the step on the combustor
wall upstream. Step height can be optimised for equivalence ratio and an acceptable total pressure loss. Substantial ignition of
the fuel is observed to be occurring also at the end of strut i.e. around 20 mm away from the point of injection. The isolated
ignition earlier to the injection point i.e. behind rearward-facing strut step, is causing intense local heating at the strut and
creating cooling and structural problems.
Noticeable effect of combustion over the Mach number is seen beyond the step i.e. X>239mm and up to the constant cross
section area of combustor, further it is controlled by the divergent geometry of combustor. No substantial effect of combustion
on the Mach number is observed in the divergent region of combustor. From the inferences for the concentration plots in
totality, we can say that, most of the combustion is occurring in the strut region and the constant cross section area region. Fuel
jet penetration was not observed to be sufficient leaving unutilized oxygen streams at top and bottom wall inside the combustor.
This reveals need for, either deeper jet penetration in to the main flow or down-stream fuel injection for oxygen utilization.
Divergent geometry of the combustor was observed to have dominating influence on the flow fields. Combustion pressure
rise, temperature rise etc. are nullified by the divergence in the duct, which indicates the need to optimize the divergence angle.
Sidewall regions near the strut corners are getting heated excessively due to efficient and continuous burning at the corners
creating a need for state of art cooling requirements.
REFERENCES
1. Nobuo Chinzei, Tomoyuki Komuro, Kenji Kudou National aerospace Laboratory,Miyagi 981-15, Japan. “Effects of
Injector Geometry on Scramjet Combustor Performance” Journal of Propulsion and Power Vol.No.9, No.1, Jan –
Feb.1993.
2. Sadatake Tomioka, Atsuo Murakami, Kenji Kudo and Tohru Mtani, National Aerospace laboratory Kimigaya Japan.
“Combustion Tests of Staged Supersonic Combustor with a strut,” Journal of Propulsion and Power, Volume 17
No2.March-April 2001.
3. Dr F.S.Billig, “Research On Supersonic Combustion.” Journal of Propulsion and Power Vol.9 No.4 July-Aug 1993.
4. Edward T.Curran “Scramjet Engines: the First Forty Years” Journal of propulsion & power Vol. 17 No 6. November
–December 2001.
S6.1 / 8
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Studies on effect of Picrite on Insensitive

Nitramine Gun Propellants
RR Sanghavi, SD Shelar, BG Tope, TK Chakraborthy,
Amarjit Singh & A Subhananda Rao
High Energy Materials Research Laboratory, Sutarwadi, Pune-411 021
ABSTRACT
Nitramine based gun propellants are currently used for high performance, insensitive tank gun ammunition. These
propellants are developed to improve the combat survivability and effectiveness of the weapon system. The aim of the present
study was to improve the performance of gun propellants by partial replacement of cyclotrimethylene trinitramine (RDX) by
picrite (Nitroguanidine). Nitroguanidine is a promising energetic ingredient for tank gun ammunition due to its various
advantages like low flame temperature, flashlessness, low barrel erosion and long shelf life. Therefore, it will continue to be
used in the field of gun propulsion systems for several years to come.
In the present work, the propellant formulations comprise RDX, nitrocellulose, inert binder, cellulose acetate,
glycidyl azide polyer (GAP) as an energetic plasticizer and picrite. In this work, in addition to ballistic parameters like
vulnerability, mechanical properties and stability of picrite based propellants were also determined. Details of the
experimental studies carried out on incorporation of picrite in three nitramine based gun propellants are discussed in this paper.
It can be concluded that partial replacement of RDX by 5, 10 and 15% of picrite in the nitramine based gun propellant
formulations achieved reduced detonability behaviour, low sensitivity to impact & friction alongwith lower flame temperature
and reduction in pressure exponent.
KEYWORDS : Picrite, nitramine propellants, GAP, detonability behaviour, low vulnerability
1. INTRODUCTION
Today, all over the globe efforts are on developing insensitive gun propellants. The focus has been on propellants
which exhibit enhanced energy while at the same time possess low vulnerability1-5. Weapon designers are faced with the twin
task of defeating ever more challenging armoured targets as well as developing less prone low vulnerable ammunition (LOVA)
systems. These tasks are highly challenging as contradictory requirements of high performance and reduced vulnerability
have to be satisfied. Consequently, programmes are aimed at developing enhanced energy LOVA propellants are pursued.
The use of high energy materials as a component to meet Insensitive Munitions (IM) requirements means a range of factors
have to be studied viz. threat, ingredients, formulation and processing. It is the integration of all these different facts which
when properly used in design allow IM to be achieved6. Now-a-days, implementation of NATO standards (STANAG) tests
and MURAT7 criteria has become all the more essential.
Present work was undertaken with an aim of developing a propellant formulation for use in high caliber tank gun, by
incorporating picrite partially at the cost of RDX. Picrite was chosen due to its selective advantages over RDX with respect to
low flame temperature (2347 K), low sensitivity to impact & friction and also because of its successful role, being the work
horse energetic ingredient in triple base gun propellants. It has been reported that the pressure exponent, Ü of picrite
containing mixture is better and these mixtures also have higher decomposition temperatures8. However, systematic work has
not been carried out so far for evaluating various parameters like force constant, pressure exponent, friction & impact
sensitivity, ignition temperature, detonability behaviour and mechanical properties. In order to study the effect of picrite on the
combustion behaviour, graphs have been plotted of Pressure exponent Vs % Picrite and dP/dt Vs Pressure for the various
compositions.

N
2. EXPERIMENT
Materials
Nitramine based composition selected for this study comprises of 75% fine RDX (5 ìm), 10% nitrocellulose (NC) of
12.2% nitrogen content, 8.5% cellulose acetate, 0.5% carbamite, 6% GAP (Composition 1). Chemical formulations of three
modified compositions (Nos.2, 3, & 4) processed by replacing RDX by picrite in the base composition No.1 are given in Table-
1.
Table-1 : Details of Gun Propellant Compositions
Compositions Propellant Compositions
Ingredients Comp.1 Comp.2 Comp.3 Comp.4

Fine RDX, 5 ìm 75 70 65 60
NC (Type A) 10 10 10 10
CA 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5
GAP (low mol. Wt.) 6 6 6 6
Carbamite 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Picrite -- 5 10 15
Methods
All the four propellant formulations were processed by conventional solvent process using ~20 percent solvent (by
weight) comprising a mixture of acetone and alcohol in 70 : 30 ratio. All the components were incorporated in sigma blade
mixer for 6 hours to obtain homogenous propellant dough, while maintaining temperature in the range 35 - 40°C by circulating
hot water through the external jacket. The dough was subsequently extruded in a heptatubular geometry (die size of
8.00/4.36/0.72/0.76) by applying 5 MPa pressure using a vertical hydraulic press of 60 ton capacity. Extruded strands were cut
to 16.5 mm length and dried in a hot air oven at 40°C till the volatile matter was brought to the level of <0.5 percent. The dried
propellant samples were tested for physical measurements like web, length, diameter and density. All these propellant
formulations were studied for ballistic constants by closed vessel (CV) firing at 0.2 g/cm3 loading density in a 700 cm3 vessel.
Ballistic constants such as force constant (FC), linear burning rate coefficient (â1) and pressure exponent (Ü) were computed
from closed vessel data. Vulnerability of the propellants was assessed by determining impact and friction sensitivity.
Detonability behaviour of the propellant was studied by conducting the card gap test. Compression strength and percentage
compression were determined on a Hounsfield H25 KS Material Testing Machine. Stability of the propellant was determined
by Heat Test, Methyl Violet Test and Bergmann & Junk Test.
Table-2 : Closed Vessel Evaluation Results (0.2 g/cm3) loading density
Parameters Propellant Compositions
Comp.1 Comp.2 Comp.3 Comp.4

Force constant, J/g 1166 1146 1112 1080
Flame temp. K 3211 3114 2936 2920
Pmax, MPa 286 281 274 266
Pressure exponent, Ü 0.83 0.81 0.76 0.75
â1 , cm/s/MPa 0.1145 0.1117 0.0995 0.0915
dP/dt, MPa/ms. 54.1 51.4 42.8 39.1
Rise time, ms 9.0 9.4 10.4 11.0

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3. RESULTS & DISCUSSION

From the analysis of the results in Table 2, it is seen that there is decrease in maximum pressure (Pmax) from 286 to
266 MPa alongwith a corresponding decrease in force constant from 1166 to 1080 J/g as well as in flame temperature from 3211
to 2920 K from compositions 1 to 4 with increase in percentage of picrite upto 15. The reduction in energy level is due to
negative heat of formation of picrite (-19.4 kcal/mol) as compared to RDX (+16.80 kcal/mol). The decrease in flame
temperature (FT) may be attributed to (i) lower FT of picrite (2347 K) than RDX (4086 K) (ii) the higher nitrogen percentage of
picrite (53.8%) as compared to that of RDX (37.8%) will lead to reduction in erosion level. The other ballistic parameters
which have indicated a positive change are (i) reduction in pressure exponent from 0.83 (Comp.1) to 0.75 (Comp.4), the same
has been for better appreciation, graphically depicted in Fig.1 (ii) reduction in dP/dt from 54.1 MPa/ms (Comp.1) to 39.1
MPa/ms (Comp.4). This has been graphically shown in Fig.2 wherein it exhibits the smooth profile for Composition 3 (10 %
picrite). These two parameters viz. reduction in pressure exponent and reduction in dP/dt are interesting findings from
application point of view as they will help in controlling the pressure sensitive aspect of RDX based propellants. From Table 3
it is evident that there is considerable improvement in stability of propellant on incorporation of picrite as the heat test value has
increased from 18 to 27 minutes. This aspect may be attributed to the higher decomposition temperature of picrite (232°C) than
RDX (204°C). This finding is in line with that reported by Schedlbauer8. Table 4 brings out the crucial findings related to the
vulnerability. There is improvement in the insensitivity behaviour of compositions (1 to 4) i.e. for impact sensitivity the height
for 50% explosion has increased from 29 to 34 cm with a corresponding rise in the Figure of Insensitivity from 37 to 43. Also,
the friction insensitivity remains unaffected at 36 kg, wherein there is increase in the percentage of picrite from 0 to 15. Also
there is improvement in the non-detonability behaviour of compositions 3 and 4 comprising 10 and 15% picrite respectively as
the non-detonation level has improved from 62 to 93 and further to 118 kbar pressure levels. On incorporation of picrite in the
propellant compositions the mechanical properties studied (Table 5) indicate that there is increase in compression strength
from 440 to 455 kg/cm2 with increase in percentage of picrite and decrease in percentage compression from 8.9 to 5.7 %.
Table-3 : Stability Test Results

Heat test at 71.1°C, 18 22 27 27
min
Methyl violet test at 80 70 55 55
120°C, NBF, min
B&J test at 120°C, 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5
5g
Table-5 : Mechanical Properties at 27°C

Compression 440 434 448 455
strength, kg/cm2
Percentage 8.9 7.6 7.9 5.7
compression

N
Table-4 : Vulnerability Properties


Impact sensitivity, 29 29 32 34
Ht for 50%
explosion of sample,
cm
Height for 50% 55 55 55 55
explosion of
standard, cm
Figure of 37 37 41 43
Insensitivity
Standard = Tetryl, RH = 53%, RT = 30°C
Friction insensitive 36 36 36 36
upto, kg
Card cap test, not 62 90 93 118
detonated at pressure
kbar,
Ign. Temp. °C >220 >220 >220 >220
0.83
a
Nil Picrite
0.81 5% Picrite
10% Picrite
15% Picrite
,
nt
0.79
ne
po
ex
0.77
re
su
es
0.75
Pr
X : 30 MPa/div Y : 7 MPa/ms/div
0.74
0 5 10 15
%
Picrite
Fig 1 : Pressure exponent a
v/s % Picrite
Fig 1 : Pressure exponent a
v/s % Picrite

N
4. CONCLUSION
The present studies clearly indicate that partial replacement of RDX by picrite in nitramine based gun propellants
can be an effective means of achieving (i) lower impact sensitivity (ii) improved non-detonability behaviour (iii) lower flame
temperature and (iv) reduction in pressure exponent and rate of rise of pressure w.r.t. time.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Shri PJ Kamale TO “C” and MAR Shaikh Sc “C” for active role in processing these
propellant formulations. The authors also thank Officers and Staff of Instrumentation, QARD, Pyro & NDT Division for
conducting the relevant tests for the evaluation of the propellants.
REFERENCES
1. AA Juhasz and JJ Rocchio, “Combustion properties of LOVA propellant”. International Annual Conference of
Fraunhofer Institut fur Chemische Technologie (ICT) on use of Plastic Materials for Propellants and
Explosives, 30th June to 2nd July 1992, Karlsruhe, Federal Republic of Germany, 1982, 545-61.
2. S Wise and H Law, “The low vulnerability ammunition programme”, Army Research Development Acquisitin
Magazine, Sep-Oct 1983, 22-23.
3. S. Wise and JJ Rocchio, “A development process for low vulnerability propellant”, International Annual
Conference of Fraunhofer Institut fur Chemische Technologie (ICT) on use of Plastic Materials for Propellants
and Explosives, 30th June – 2nd July 1982, Karlsruhe, Federal Republic of Germany, 1982, 539-44.
4. M Megger, B Straus, S Roy, J Prezelski and P Lu, “The development of insensitive explosives”, Joint
International Symposium on Compatibility of Plastics & other materials with Explosives, Propellants,
Pyrotechnics & Processing of Explosives & Ingredients, 18-20 April 1988, New Orleans, USA, American
Defence Preparedness Association, Arlington, Virginia, 1988, 2-8.
5. HP Mackowiak, “Recent investigations on gun propellant formulations for LOVA” Proceedings of Joint
International Symposium on Compatibility of Plastics & other Materials with Explosives, Propellants and
Pyrotechnic & Processing of Explosives, Propellants & Ingredients, 22-24 April 1991, San Diego, California,
American Defence Preparedness Association, California, 136-143.
6. AS Cumming, “UK Energetic Materials Studies in support of Insensitive Munitions”. Proceedings of 5th
International High Energy Materials Conference & Exhibit, DRDL, Hyderabad, Nov 2005, 174-183.
7. Neil Gibson and Rupert Pengelley, “Insensitive Munitions make military less accident prone”, Jane's
International Defence Review, Vol.38, Oct 2005, 29-40.
8. Fritz Schedlbauer “LOVA Gun Propellants with GAP Binder”, Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics, 17,
1992, 164-171.

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PREDICTION OF IMPACT SENSITIVITY OF CaHbNcOd

EXPLOSIVES USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS
A Sudheer Babu,
High Energy Materials Research Laboratory, Pune 411021
ABSTRACT
Our research is focused on developing computational capabilities for the prediction of impact sensitivity of energetic
materials. By achieving this goal it is hoped that the development procedure for energetic materials would be improved. The
impact sensitivity is usually measured by drop-weight impact test, where a 2.5kg mass is dropped from a predetermined height
onto the striker plate and evidence of reaction or no reaction is recorded. The current process is lengthy and expensive due to the
heavy reliance on experimentation and measurement of variety of candidate materials, from which only a few will be selected
as most suitable to meet specified objectives. Elimination of any poor candidate of energetic materials due to sensitivity or
performance through predictive capabilities at early stages of development is highly desirable. A generalized scheme is
introduced for predicting impact sensitivity of any explosive by using artificial neural networks. Experimental values for the
impact sensitivity of 291 compounds containing C, H, N and O have been used for training set and composite compounds of
different ratios of basic explosives have been used as testing set. The input descriptors include aromatic character, hetero-
aromatic character (N and O),the number of N-NO2 bonds and the number of á-hydrogen atoms as well as the number of
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen atoms divided by molecular weight .Impact sensitivity of energetic materials mainly
depend on the mentioned input descriptors. Methods based on data analysis using Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) is simple
and time saving, so this method have being attracted more and more interests.EBP(Error Back Propagation) algorithm is used
to train the network. To increase the speed of learning, various measures like initial weights, controlling the weights, different
activation function gains for different neurons, adaptive learning rate parameter are implemented. The model gives root mean
square errors of 42cm and 38cm for training and testing sets, respectively, of the h50 quantity.
1. INTRODUCTION
Prediction Of Impact Sensitivity Of CaHbNcOd Explosives
In this report we use artificial intelligence algorithmic techniques to create a predictive module for predicting impact
sensitivity of CaHbNcOd explosives. Here, the Principal Component Analysis-Conjugate Gradient (PCA-CG) algorithm is
applied to the structure of a neural network for the purpose of finding optimal domain-specific topologies which facilitate both
learning and generalization.
The topology of a neural network plays a critical role in whether or not it can be trained to learn a particular set of data.
The question of how many nodes and connections to have in a neural network cannot be answered easily. There are many ways
to approach this problem. Clearly, the simpler a topology, the simpler a function the neural network is computing. Too simple a
topology will result in a network that cannot learn to approximate a complex function. Too large a topology has been shown to
result in a network losing its generalization capability. A loss of generalization is the result of overfitting of the training data.
Instead of approximating a function present in its data, a neural network which has an overly complex structure may have the
ability to memorize the data set, allowing noise within the data to be learned resulting in inaccurate approximations by the
neural network. This report attempts to find a network topology that is best able for prediction. The idea is that a certain type of
data should have a neural network topology associated with it which is complex enough to learn the training set, but is simple
enough to avoid overfitting.This will be done by applying an optimization technique called the PCA-CG algorithm[1].
Need For Prediction

The development, manufacture, testing of new energetic materials are lengthy and expensive due to the heavy
reliance on experimentation and measurement of variety of candidate materials, from which only a few will be selected as most
suitable to meet specified objectives. Elimination of any poor candidate of energetic materials due to sensitivity or

N
performance through predictive capabilities at early stages of development is highly desirable. The impact sensitivity is usually
measured by drop-weight impact test, where a 2.5kg mass is dropped from a predetermined height onto the striker plate and
evidence of reaction or no reaction is recorded. A sequence of tests is carried out until the impact sensitivity or the sensitivity
index, h50 is obtained.
The h50 value is the height that a given mass must be dropped onto the sample to produce an explosion of 50% of the
test trial. This work demonstrates that the impact sensitivity can be modeled by back propagation neural network. Considering
the difficulty and large uncertainty of different measurements by users, neural network can be an effective alternative. The
composition and various structural factors approach presented here is novel and proves to be a powerful tool for predicting the
impact sensitivity of pure explosives from only their molecular structure.Inspite of fact that many methods for predicting
impact sensitivities have been developed, a generalized method is still needed for the explosive users in industry. The purpose
of this work was to study the possibility of applying artificial neural networks for impact sensitivity computation from a general
point of view for any kind of data. If we have trained a neural network, it is possible to predict the required parameters
immediately.
Model For Prediction Of Impact Sensitivity

Considering a broader range of structural variety of explosive compounds in this study, some of the important factors
that can effect the sensitivity of explosives are chosen as descriptors. The following ten structural descriptors were used for
modeling of CaHbNcOd explosives in neural network:(1) a/MW ,(2)b/MW ,(3)c/MW ,(4)d/MW (MW-Molecular Weight of the
explosive), indicator variables for (5)aromatic,(6,7)hetero-aromaticity (N and O), (8)N-NO2 bonds, (9)á–hydrogen,(10)salt.
The value ranges of above indicators are presented in Table I.
Table I. Ranges of molecular descriptors covered by different classes

of explosives in the training set of 291 explosives.
Variables Absence/Presence
Aromaticity 0/1
Hetero aromaticity(N) 0/2 x Number of N atoms in hetero aromatic ring
Hetero aromaticity(O) 0/2 x Number of O atoms in hetero aromatic ring
N-NO2 0/1
á-Hydrogen 0/2
Salt 0/1
The model was constructed and tested with MATLAB.6.5 code with 291 CaHbNcOd explosives.h50 values of 237 basic
explosives are taken from [2] and 54 basic explosives from [3].Several artificial neural network architectures were tried and
the one that best simulate the impact sensitivity was retained. The final neural structure consists of the three layers; input,
output, and hidden. The input layer has a number of descriptors, which is equal to ten here. The network is composed of fully
connected two layers: 10 input nodes, 11 hidden-layer neurons and a single output neuron corresponding to impact sensitivity
of explosive as shown in figure 1.

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a/MW X1 1
b/MW X1 2
c/MW X1 3
X1 4
d/MW Y1
X1 5
Aro
maticity Number of hidden neurons Impact
according to PCA CG algorithm
- sensitivity
X1 6
Hetero aromatic -N
X1 7
Hetero aromatic O
-
X1 8
N NO
- 2
Hydrogen
á- X1 9
Salt X1 10
Input layer Hidden layer Output layer
Figure 1.Proposed neural network model for predicting impact sensitivity of CaHbNcOd explosives
If a certain input in the network not exists in a molecule, an input value of zero was assigned to that input. A sigmoid
function was used as the transfer function of each neuron. The training and testing sets were arranged as shown below in Table
II.
Table II.Testing data base format for 291 explosives with 10 of its descriptors as inputs
and their impact sensitivities as outputs (Yk, k=1, 2,…,291)
Training Inputs Xmn Output

th
sample m–m Explosive(1,2,…290) , n-nth input YK
descriptor(1,2,….7,8,9,10)
1 X11 X1 2 X1 3 X14 X15 X1 6 X1 7 X18 X19 X1 10 Y1
2 X21 X2 2 X2 3 X24 X25 X2 6 X2 7 X28 X29 X2 10 Y2
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
291 X2911 X2912 X291 3 X291 4 X2915 X2916 X291 7 X291 8 X2919 X29110 Y 291
The connection weights of the network were adjusted iteratively by back propagation algorithm. An epoch is
completion of training the network with entire training set for a single time. It is found that 1500 epochs were sufficient to
achieve the convergence of learning. Using PCA algorithm the best number of hidden neurons is 11.The operation of output
layer is linear.

The overall performance of neural network is evaluated in terms of Root-Mean-Square (RMS) error. Where Yk is
desired output (means measured data of training set) and y'k is the actual output of the network and n is the number of explosive
compounds in training set.
n
2
RMS= 1
n å
(Yk -
y'k)
k

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Table III.Comparision of predicted h50 of the present work in test set

with experimental data.
CaHb NcOd Compound Experimental Predicted

h50 (cm) h50(cm)
Tetra nitrate pentacrythritol (C5H8N4O12) 13 14.421
PETN (C5H8N4O12) 28 12.59
Hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitrotriazine (C3H6N6O6) 32 12.59
Octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine
(C4H8N8O 8) 34 39.478
N,N’-Dinitro-1,2-ethenediamine (C2H6N4O4) 43 42.559
2,4,6-Trinitroresorcinol (C6H3N3O 8) 54 52.374
2,2’,4,4’,6,6’-Hexanitrostilbene (C14H6N6O12) 55 35.2
1,4-Dinitroimidazole (C3H2N4O4) 68 133.17
2,4,5-Trinitroimidazole (C3HN5O6) 105 195.03
1,1-Diamino-2,2-dinitro ethyl (C2H4N4O 4) 126 129.38
2-Methoxy-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene (C7H5N3O7) 192 144.13
3-Nitro-1,2,4-triazole-5-one (C2H2N4O3) 291 176.8
Nitro guanidine (CH4N4O2) 320 284.81
Pentolite :50/50 TETN/TNT 18 78.291
Octol:75/25 HMX/TNT 42 38.389
Octol:65/35 HMX/TNT 42 37.136
CompB:60/40 RDX/TNT 65 38.667
Cyoclotol:75/25 TDX/TNT 42 36.575
Cyoclotol:70/30 TDX/TNT 37 35.977
20/80 TATB/HMX 46 38.119
30/70 HMX/TNT 65 27.315
50/50 HMX/TNT 59 45.248
90/10 HMX,TATB 35 39.889
10/90 HMX,TNT 78 112.05
20/80 HMX,TNT 85 117.81
70/30 HMX/TNT 43 36.574
90/10 TATB/HMX 80 35.901
· RMS Error of impact sensitivity of above mentioned 27 compounds compared to experimental (Actual) data is
38.62cm
The predictive ability of the artificial neural network model can be demonstrated by training it with 291 explosives.
The trained network was then applied to predict impact sensitivity of composite explosives in the test set, which were not
included in the training set. Test set includes 27 explosives with 13 basic explosives and 14 composite explosives The
predicted results of test sets impact sensitivities are given in Table III. The results indicate that the model obtained can correctly
represent structural-impact sensitivities relationships of various basic and composite CaHbNcOd explosives as shown in figure
shown in figure 2.

Figure 2.Plot showing the experimental h50 and predicted h50 for above mentioned 27 compounds
5. CONCLUSION
A new method for prediction of impact sensitivity using artificial neural networks has been presented. The training
data for neural network contains patterns of inputs together with the corresponding outputs, and the network learns to infer a
relationship between inputs and outputs. The proposed method is superior to that of quantum mechanical procedure in terms of
accuracy, generality and simplicity as it requires only the molecular structure of the explosive compound, generally known.
The proposed method is not only giving better prediction results for basic explosives used for training but also for the
composite explosives not included in the training set. This ability of prediction helps in research as a small-scale proof-of-
concept prototype for approximate impact sensitivity value of different proportions of basic explosives at an early stage of
processing the composite explosives.
Finally, I would like to state that even though neural networks have a huge potential we will only get the best of them when they
are integrated with computing, fuzzy logic and related subjects. Incorporating fuzzy logic for tuning various parameters used
for neural network learning to decrease the training RMS error, which decreases the testing RMS error is the future work to
increase the accuracy of predicting impact sensitivity of composite CaHbNcOd explosives.

REFERENCES
[1] ZVI BOGER 1, 2 AND RENÉ WEBER 3, Finding an Optimal Artificial Neural Network Topology in Real-Life
Modeling - Two Approaches.
[2] Chemistry and Physics of Energetic materials, SURYA N.BULUSU.
[3] BETSY M. RICE AND JENNIFER J.HARE, A Quantum mechanical investigation of the relationship between
impact sensitivity and the charge distribution in energetic materials. J.Phys.Chem A, 106, 1770-1783.
[4] Artificial Neural Networks, SIMON HAYKINS.
[5] Introduction for Artificial Neural System, JACEK ZURADA.
[6] Neuro-control system, MADAN M.GUPTA, DANDIA H.RAO.
[7] BETSY M. RICE AND EDWARD F. C. BYRD, Theoretical Chemical Characterization of Energetic Materials,
Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. Vol. 896, 2006 Materials Research society.
[8] E.B.MARTIN, A.J.MORRIS, J.ZHANG.Process performance monitoring using Multivariate Statistical Process
Control (MSPC).

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DEVELOPMENT OF ALUMINISED EXPLOSIVE COMPOSITIONS FOR

THERMOBARIC WARHEAD APPLICATIONS
J Saji, AK Vishwakarma, S Roy, A Apparao

High Energy Materials Research Laboratory, Pune - 411 021
ABSTRACT
Thermobaric (TB) weapons belong to the emerging class of enhanced blast munitions having capability to defeat
soft targets in confined spaces like caves, tunnels or multi-room structures in urban environment. Most of the reported TB
weapon systems belong to either man portable rockets like RPO-A Shmel and SMAW-NE or aircraft delivered guided
bombs like BLU-118/B and KAB-500 OD. The increasing instances of modern day urban warfare have triggered renewed
interest worldwide to develop thermobaric versions of existing warheads. TB weapons produce enhanced blast and
thermal effects which are achieved by use of excess quantity of metal fuel (aluminium/magnesium) in the base explosive
composition. Thermobaric explosive (TBE) compositions can be of either solid fuelled or liquid fuelled type and resemble
Fuel Air Explosive (FAE) in operation and weaponisation. Processing and evaluation of solid and liquid based TBE
compositions have already been established at 2 to 5 kg level by blast pressure and temperature measurements. Based on
the results, selected TBE compositions were evaluated at 50 kg level with a view to assess their performance for various
warhead applications. The prepared compositions were filled in serrated containers (canister) and initiated using co-axially
located burster charge. Cast solid TBE compositions consist of RDX and aluminium with HTPB binder whereas liquid
TBEs are based on isopropyl nitrate (IPN) with aluminized RDX as the burster charge. The comparative performance of
various TBE formulations is presented in the paper. Results showed that both solid and liquid based TBEs gave enhanced
blast and thermal performance.
1.INTRODUCTION
Thermobaric Explosive (TBE) technology has recently gained interest due to their potential application against
targets in enclosed spaces such as those frequently encountered in urban warfare situations.1-3 TBEs take advantage of mixing
explosive/fuel reactants or products with the surrounding volume of air for undergoing detonation/deflagration reactions.
TBEs are reported to produce enhanced thermal and blast effects achieved by the addition of excess metal fuel to the basic
composition. Two types of TBE compositions, viz., solid based and liquid based are feasible for development. Liquid TBEs
are based on exothermically decomposable fuel with excess metal powder in the base composition whereas solid TBEs are
powder or cast in nature containing high explosive and higher percentage of metal fuel. Aluminium has been the primary
choice for metal fuel due to the high heat of combustion, cost and availability. After the main detonation reaction, the late stage
combustion of aluminium and under oxidized gaseous detonation products with oxygen in air results in a sustained shock and
thermal output making TBE detonation very effective against soft targets especially in confined environments.
In an earlier study at HEMRL, the processing and evaluation of solid and liquid based TBE compositions have
already been established at 2 to 5 kg level by blast pressure and temperature measurements.6-8 Based on the results, selected
TBE compositions were evaluated at 50 kg level with a view to assess their performance for various warhead applications in
futuristic missiles and guided bombs. Liquid TBEs are based on isopropyl nitrate (IPN) with aluminized RDX as the burster
charge whereas cast solid TBE composition consists of RDX and aluminium with HTPB binder. Liquid TBE compositions
based on aluminized IPN gels were also prepared and evaluated in this study. The prepared compositions were filled in serrated
containers (canister). The compositions are dispersed and simultaneously initiated using a burster charge fitted in the co-axial
tube of the canister. The performance of the selected compositions is evaluated in static detonation trials by measuring blast
pressures and temperature. The comparative performance of various TBE formulations is discussed in the paper.

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2.EXPERIMENT
Materials/chemicals
Isopropyl nitrate (Spec. no. JSS 1375-06-1993), RDX/Wax (92.5/7.5) (Spec. no. IND/ME/816(a)-prov.), RDX/Wax
(95/5) [Spec. no. IND/ME/816(a)] and DOP coated RDX(5-6 µ size) (Spec. no. HEMRL/HE/PS/283) obtained from ordnance
factory is used in the preparation of TBE compositions. Al powders of 15µm (Spec. no. ERDL/TRIM/PROP/RM/2) and 125-
250 µm (Spec. no. JSS 1370.03, 1988) sizes are procured from trade. Hydroxy terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) having
molecular weight (Mn) of 2560 with hydroxyl value of 43 mg KOH/g and Diphenylmethane-4,4-diisocyanate (DDI) were
procured from trade and used as binder and curative respectively in the preparation of cast solid TBE compositions.
Polybutadiene - acrylonitrile (PBAN) and paraffin wax (Spl. no.8 CS-5317) procured from trade were also used in the study.
Electrical detonator No.33 (Spec. no. 8599E-b) is used for initiating the compositions.
Preparation of TBE compositions

IPN gel prepared using PBAN as gellant was found to be stable on storage upto 120 hrs and was selected for the scaled
up studies. Viscosity measurements of IPN-PBAN mix showed that the apparent viscosity of the gel increases with increase in
time upto 48 hrs and remains constant thereafter. Hence, a period of 48 hrs is considered as the required duration for
completion of gelling process. The IPN-PBAN gel is prepared in a cylindrical container (25 litre cap., size - 300 x 500 mm) by
mixing the ingredients thoroughly at 25°C±1°C for 15 min. with a fixed stirrer speed. Al powder (15µm size) was then added to
the homogeneous IPN gel for the preparation of aluminised IPN gel.
Preparation of solid TBE composition based on RDX/Al/HTPB was prepared by following the procedure as
described elsewhere.8 Liquid ingredients (except curator) were charged into mixer and the whole system was mixed well for 30
minutes followed by vacuum mixing for another half an hour to drive out entrapped air. After this, solid ingredients were added
in installments to attain homogenous mixing. The overall mixing temperature was maintained at 351OC. After addition of all
solid ingredients, the mixing was continued under vacuum for 30 minutes. The temperature of the mixer was then brought
down to 25OC and curative [Diphenylmethane-4,4-diisocyanate (DDI)] was added followed by mixing for another 15 minutes.
The composition is then cast into stainless steel canister and left at room temperature for 48 hrs for complete curing of charge.
Preparation of burster charge

RDX/Al/wax compositions were prepared by mixing the ingredients in the required proportion in a sigma blade mixer
(capacity-10 lits, rpm – 8, temp.-70 0 to 80 0C). After incremental addition of the ingredients, the final mix is blended for about
30 min to get a homogeneous composition. The hot composition is then sieved through 8 BS sieve and cooled. Samples from
individual batches of composition are analyzed for chemical composition to ensure homogeneity and tested for impact/friction
sensitivities for conforming the safety parameters. The required quantity of composition is pressed into pellets by a hydraulic
press capable of applying a load of 1.5 T.
Performance evaluation of thermobaric explosive compositions

Stainless steel canister having dimensions of 1100 x 250 x 3 mm as shown in Fig 1 is used for filling liquid TBE
compositions. 24 equispaced vertical serrations each of 1.5 mm depth provided on the canister, help in uniform dispersion of
composition. A burster tube is co-axially fixed in the container for accommodating the burster charge based on pellets of
RDX/Al/wax composition. The composition is dispersed and simultaneously detonated by the central burster charge. In case
of solid TBE composition, it is cast into a serrated stainless steel container (300 x 500 x 1.6 mm) and initiated using a small
quantity of booster charge based on pressed pellets of RDX/Wax (95/5).
TBE compositions are evaluated by blast pressure and temperature measurements using the experimental set up as
shown in Fig. 2. Blast Peak Over Pressures (POP) were measured using ICP free field pressure transducers placed at different
distances from canister by keeping a stand-off of 2.0 m. The thermal performance in terms of temperature and duration is
measured using two colour pyrometer by non contact method from a safe distance of about 100 m. The trial events were video
recorded.

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Performance evaluation of liquid TBE compositions based on IPN and aluminized IPN gel
The blast and thermal performance of liquid TBE compositions containing IPN as main filling were evaluated by
varying the quantity of RDX/Al/Wax (54/40//6) burster charge and the results are given in Table 1. The results show that the
blast POPs measured at any given distance (11, 13 or 15 m) increased with increase in the burster charge to fuel wt. (B/F) ratio
from 0.164 to 0.208. Similarly, the temperature also increased with increase in burster charge loading resulting in
improvement in thermal impulse. The increase in blast output can be attributed to the increase in RDX quantity in the burster
charge whereas the increase in aluminium quantity has resulted in increase in the thermal impulse.
The effect of aluminium percentage in the burster charge on the blast and thermal performances of liquid TBE
compositions based on aluminized IPN gel at a B/F ratio of 0.145 is given in Table 2. The results show that improved blast
POPs and thermal impulse were realized with increase in the aluminium content of the burster charge. Comparison of results in
Tables 1 and 2 indicate that the blast POPs of aluminized IPN gel compositions are superior to that of virgin IPN based
compositions in spite of the lower B/F ratio. Most of the aluminium particles surrounding the reaction zone during the
detonation of gelled IPN is contributing to enhance the blast output. Further, the post detonation of IPN gel is providing
support to the combustion of the remaining aluminium particles resulting in sustained thermal output. The complete duration
of thermal output could not be measured in these tests. However, the available data indicates that higher thermal output is
feasible to realize with aluminized IPN gel.
Comparative performance of solid and liquid TBE compositions

The performance of cast solid TBE composition based on RDX/Al/HTPB is compared to that of liquid TBE
compositions based on IPN / aluminised IPN gel and RDX/Al/wax (54/40/6) burster charge in Table 3. Results show that the
blast performance of solid TBE composition based on RDX/Al/HTPB (45/40/15) is higher than that of IPN and aluminized
IPN gel compositions. On the other hand, the thermal impulse of liquid TBE compositions based on IPN/ aluminised IPN gel
was found to be higher than that of cast solid compositions based on RDX and aluminium. The study also reveals that the blast
and thermal performances of liquid TBE compositions are influenced by the aluminium content and loading of burster charge.
In the case of solid TBE composition, the lower value of thermal impulse indicate lower level of aluminium combustion in the
open air tests. The testing of these compositions in confined conditions, probably improve the level of Aluminium content. The
solid TBE composition (density, d ~1.7g/cc) has advantage of higher warhead loading as compared to liquid compositions (d
~1.1g/cc). Further, insensitive solid TBE compositions, having higher shelf life will find applications in warheads involving
penetration into caves/bunkers.
4. CONCLUSION
The following conclusions are drawn from this study:
1. The IPN/Al/PBAN based gelled compositions produced superior blast and thermal performance as compared to that
of virgin IPN based compositions.
2. Solid TBE compositions based on RDX/Al/HTPB produced higher blast output with relatively lower thermal
impulse when compared to that of aluminised IPN gels.
3. Cast solid TBE compositions with higher density and longer shelf life are preferable for applications in warheads
involving penetration into caves/bunkers.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to Dr. A. Subhananda Rao, Outstanding Scientist & Director, HEMRL, Pune, for his valuable
suggestions and permission to present the paper in the conference. The authors are also thankful to High Explosives division
and Instrumentation division for the support and help extended during the course of the study.

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REFERENCES
1. Gaissmaier, A.E.W., “Aspects of Thermobaric weaponry”, ADF Health, 4 (2003), p3-6.

2. Biass, E. H., “Warheads at turning point”, ARMADA International, 4 Aug-Sept 2004.
3. Hall, S., Knowlton, G.D. “Development characterization and testing of high blast thermobaric compositions”,
Proceedings of the 31st Int. Pyrotechnics Seminar (2004), p663-678.
4. Chan, M.L., Mayers, G.N., “Advanced Thermobaric Explosive Compositions”, U.S. Patent 6,955,732 (2005).
5. Hahma, A., Palovuori, K., Yair S, “TNT- Equivalency of Thermobaric Explosives”, Int. Annu. Conf. ICT, 36th, p10/1 -
10/12, 2005.
6. A. Apparao, Achuthan, C.P., Saji, J., Samudra, R.R., Shaikh, M.S., and Gaikwad, R.N. “Development of
Thermobaric Explosive Compositions – A Study” 5th International High Energy Materials Conference and Exhibits
(HEMCE-2005), DRDL, Hyderabad, 23 -25 Nov 2005.
7. A. Apparao, J. Saji, R. R. Samudra, M. S. Shaikh, G. D. Prasad Rao and G. S. Deshpande “Preparation and testing of
isopropyl nitrate based Thermobaric Explosive Compositions”, 6th International High Energy Materials Conference
and Exhibits (HEMCE-2007), Chennai, 13-15 Dec 2007.
8. A. Apparao, R.R. Samudra, P.P. Vadhe, R.S. Punekar, N.G. Waghmare and S.H. Sidi “Evaluation of Castable
Thermobaric Explosive Compositions for enhanced blast and thermal effects”, 6th International High Energy
Materials Conference and Exhibits (HEMCE-2007), Chennai, 13-15 Dec 2007.

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Table 1 Blast and thermal performance of liquid TBE compositions based on IPN [Main filling - IPN (50 ? 2.5 kg),
Burster charge - RDX/Al/Wax (54/40/6)]
Table 2 Blast and thermal performance of liquid TBE compositions based on aluminized IPN gel. [Main filling –
IPN/Al/PBAN (71/14.5/14.5) (50 ± 2.5 kg), Burster charge - RDX/Al/Wax, B/F ratio - 0.145]
Table 3 Comparative blast and thermal performance of solid and liquid TBE compositions
[Charge wt. - 50 ± 3.0 kg]
# Booster charge - RDX/wax (95/5) pellet, wt. - 600 g,

* Burster charge - RDX/Al/Wax (54/40/6), wt. - 8.0 kg

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DEVELOPMENT OF LASER INITIATED PYRODEVICES FOR

FUTURISTIC DEFENCE APPLICATIONS
Reuben Daniel, SM Danali, MJ Kohadkar, KC Raha, A Subhananda Rao

High Energy Materials Research Laboratory, Sutarwadi, Pune 411 021, India
ABSTRACT
HEMRL has undertaken a study to assess Laser ignition of pyrotechnics for replacement of electrically initiated
pyrodevices by laser initiated pyrodevices. This was one of the first steps initiated to use laser energy to fire ordnance. A 1W
semiconductor diode laser based on In/Ga/As was fabricated and used in the present study. The laser had a wavelength of 980
nm with 100 µm glass fibre optical cable. This was used to test the opto sensitivity of various pyrotechnic compositions and
HEM's. This on ignition could be used to further initiate a secondary charge of explosive composition to get the required end
effect of pressure and hot particles to match the performance of established electro explosive devices (EED's) like PC – 50, PC
– 100 and PC – 110.
A pyrodevice similar in external dimensions to the established EED's like PC – 50, PC – 100 was designed and
evaluated. This design was tested rigoursly and design parameters were finalized. This proved pyrocartridge design was
further used to test fire three Ballistic Evaluation Rocket Motors. The unique feature of the laser source design is that it can be
interfaced with instrument setup required for measuring various parameters of the rocket motor like thrust, specific impulse,
pressure time curve, ignition delay etc. The development of six point laser ignition source was then undertaken. It is proposed
to use this system in futuristic missile applications to initiate pyrodevices which are at present being initiated by electrical
means.
The paper presents unique features of multipoint laser ignition device, design optimization of pyrodevice,
experimental results, their interpretation and analysis.
KEYWORDS : Semiconductor diode laser, pyrocartridge, optosensitivity, optical fibre.
1.INTRODUCTION
The problems associated with electrically initiated explosive devices and their sensitivity to accidental initiation by
electrostatic discharge, electro – magnetic disturbances / threats are well known. Researchers / designers have put efforts to
make them insensitive by increasing their all fire energy level beyond 1W and by shielding the electric cables etc. In spite of all
these efforts the design still remains prone to accidental initiation by stray charges.
The ignition process in energetic materials is directly related to the chemical reactions taking place between the
ingredients of the high energy materials (HEM's) that may be subjected to a sudden change in its ambient conditions. This
change can be affected either by an electrical pulse, shock by detonation or heat by a laser. Radiative heating of HEM's has
several advantages over conventional methods like electrical initiation which are prone to accidental initiation by stray
electrical pulses or static discharge.
Laser ignition of HEM's provides a known amount of heat flux to the sample that can be measured accurately,
increased or decreased as per the requirements of the process and can be reproduced with a high degree of accuracy. Since the
laser ignition process is the volumetric absorption of the radiant energy in the HEM, repeatability of ignition process is assured
to a very high level. One of the objectives of the U.S. Army Research Laboratory was Laser Ignition in Guns, Howitzers and
Tanks (LIGHT) program to determine the feasibility of replacing gun igniter systems with Lasers.1 Pyrotechnic compositions
based on zirconium, titanium, boron etc., as fuels and potassium nitrate, potassium perchlorate etc., as oxidizers were
evaluated and found to be suitable as primary source of initiation by the laser. The optosensitivity of a series of pyrotechnic
compositions based on B : KClO4 was studied using the 1W semiconductor diode laser.2 Also the laser sensitivity of a selected
few compositions based on Zr : Fe2O3 (nano) were evaluated and presented3
Laser diode ignition of an array of eight explosive devices has been achieved at Sandia National Laboratory using
multiple laser diodes packaged together to ignite the explosive charges at predetermined 100 ms interval4. McDonnel Douglas

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Missile Systems Company has developed a laser ignition subsystem for air – to – air missile applications to activate batteries,
unlock fins and sequence propulsion system events5. The Propulsion and Pyrotechnics office CNES Toulouse of the French
Space Agency has successfully tested laser diode initiated systems for space applications6. They have tested the design of opto
pyro initiator to initiate pyrotechnic compositions, secondary explosives, double base powders etc., and satellite system
analyses for opto pyrotechnic applications with ALCATEL SPACE and EADS ASTRIUM µ Sat in the year 2000 – 2004.
In conjunction with Los Alamos National Laboratories, CFRDC has developed a laser ignition system for use in
rocket engine applications. The novel multi – pulse laser format for the igniter has already demonstrated the ability to ignite
hydro carbon propellants at some of the lowest chamber pressures and laser energies ever achieved. This system can be readily
adapted to a wide range of other rocket engine and gas turbine ignition applications.7
To overcome the problem and to achieve inherent high order safety, technology developments including initiation of
energetic materials by optical / light energy are underway all over the world. LASER has proved to be a useful energy source
for direct initiation of energetic materials. LASER ignition of energetic materials provides an opportunity to remove the bridge
wire and electrically conductive pins from the composition thus isolating the explosive from stray electrical ignition sources.
Many research institutions are working in this area and the technology has advanced to the use of LASER diodes as a source of
optical energy and the use of fiber optic cable for pulse transmission for the initiation of energetic materials.
2. EXPERIMENT
1W Semiconductor Diode Laser Units
Diode laser units used were based on In/Ga/As lasing at 980 nm wavelength, having a 1 m and 25m long optical fibre
cable having core diameter of 100 µm with collimating lens and varying pulse durations ranging from 10, 20, 50 & 100 ms. The
focal length of the collimating optics was 6 mm. These diode units were used for studying the opto sensitivity of various
pyrotechnic compositions ranging from initiators to delay compositions and were also used for firing of rocket motors.
Six Point Laser Unit

This unit consists of six synchronized semiconductor diodes with 100 µm optical fibre cables of varying lengths from
1 to 4 m. These can be programmed as per the requirement of the designer and the pyrodevices can be fired at predetermined
time intervals. The unique feature of this system is that only selected pyrodevices can be fired at one time and the remaining can
be fired subsequently by programming the system accordingly.
Filling of Pyrodevices
Pyrodevices designed on the basis of existing pyrocartridges PC – 50, PC – 100 etc. were filled with primary charge
composition based on boron and booster charge compositions based on LFCN : KClO4 and secondary charge composition
based on Al : KClO4 filled in pyrodevices to stimulate the required pressure.
3. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

A systematic study was undertaken on the use of laser initiated pyrodevices. The formulations that were considered
promising from the laser initiation point of view were studied in detail. Some of them were as follows
a) Zr : KClO4 ( 57 : 43 ) b) Ti : KClO4 ( 40 : 60 ) c) B : KNO3 ( 30 : 70 )
d) B : KClO4 (varying the % of boron from 5 to 50 in increments of 5%)
e) Zr : Fe2O3 (nano) (varying the % of Zr from 10 to 40 in increments of 5%)
All the compositions were prepared and characterized with respect to safety in handling and reliability to initiation
with a laser pulse. The composition B : KClO4 (30:70) was found to be the most promising composition of the series of
compositions studied. This composition was finalized as the primary charge composition for further studies. Opto sensitivity
of this composition was studied at hot, cold and ambient conditions (+ 60 °C, – 40 °C & at room temperature respectively). The
effect of various laser parametric studies was also completed like varying pulse duration from 20 to 100 ms. Exact power
output / energy density could not be measured accurately as matching energy meter could not be procured. The wavelength was
measured and found to be between 970 ± 10 nm. As the work progressed a pyrocartridge was designed on lines of existing
electrically initiated pyrocartridges PC – 50 having a rear obturating mechanism to restrict the blow back from the initiation of
the secondary charge which was finalized as LFCN : KClO4 (45 : 55) as the booster composition and Al : KClO4 : NC ( 25 : 72.5:

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2.5) as the main charge. This design was tested repeatedly and used for Ballistic Evaluation Rocket Motor Firing. Two rocket
motor firings were carried out one with 25 m optical fibre cable unit both the trials were successful. After completion of trials
with a single unit, a new design was planned having six laser outputs which could be fired in a synchronized manner as per the
set program having time interval between subsequent firings. This design has also been tested successfully. The opto
sensitivity characterization results are given in table 1.
Table : 1 Opto sensitivity Characterization of different pyrotechnic compositions
Percentage of Ignition
Priming 20 ms 50 ms 100 ms
Composition Pulse width Pulse width Pulse width
B : KNO3
(30 : 70) 10 % 55 % 100 %
B : KClO4
(30 : 70) 60 % 100 % 100 %
Zr : KClO4
(57 : 43) 20 % 40 % 100 %
Ti : KClO4
(40 : 60) 20 % 30 % 60 %
Zr : Fe2O3 (nano)
(70 : 30) 20 % 40 % 100 %
LFCN : KClO3
(50 : 50) Not ignited Not ignited Not ignited
Mg : BaO2
(20 : 80) Not ignited Not ignited Not ignited
Considering, the design philosophy from interfacing point of view in respect of final application and laser source,
initially the design was restricted to enable the filling and optosensitivity characterization of compositions. All the
compositions referred above were undertaken for the experiments. The promising results were obtained with B: KClO4 (30:
70) composition. Further more tests were conducted to assess the ignition reproducibility and the effect of pulse duration of the
laser beam. The pulse duration was varied from 100, 50 and 20 ms. The satisfactory performance of the laser source unit and
pyrotechnic composition B: KClO4 (30:70) offers good confidence to go further for design of complete pyro device. Figure 1
shows the components of the pyrocartridge with the internal assembly of primary and secondary charge holders with the rear
obturating mechanism.
Figure : 1. Components of Laser Initiated Pyrocartridge

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A pyrodevice similar in external dimensions of established electrically initiated pyrocartridge PC – 50 was designed and
tested for the ignitability of the explosive train and to get the required flash as given by other pyrodevices. A typical firing of
pyrotechnic charge by the laser is shown in Figure 2.
Figure : 2. Firing of Pyrotechnic Charge by the Laser
4. CONCLUSION
? 1 W semiconductor diode laser unit with 1 m optical fibre cable was used for ignition studies of various
pyrotechnic compositions.
? 1 W semiconductor diode laser unit with 25 m optical fibre cable was used for rocket motor firings.
? Six point laser unit with synchronized programmer was developed as a technology demonstrator, to be used in
future for missile applications.
? Pyrodevice designed for initiation by the Laser source.
? Test firing of three BEM Rocket Motors completed successfully.
REFERENCES
1. L. Strakovskiy, A. Cohen, R. Fifer, R. Beyer & B. Forch, “Laser Ignition of Propellants & Explosives” Army
Research Laboratory, TR – No. 1699.
2. Reuben Daniel, C.K. Ghatak, R.G. Sarawadekar, K. Raha & S. Jayaraman, “Studies on Ignition of Boron Potassium
Perchlorate based Pyrotechnic Compositions”, Proceedings of the 5th Int. HEMCE, Hyderabad, India, p – 64.
3. Reuben Daniel, P.R. Arya & K. Raha, “Ignition Studies of nano Iron Oxide based Pyrotechnic Compositions by a
Laser Diode”, Proceedings of the International Conference on Nano Materials for Electronics” CMET, Pune, 2006, p
– 103.
4. Kass, William J., Andrews, Larry A., Boney, Craig M., Chow, Weng W., Clements, James W., Merson, John A., Salas,
Jim F., Williams, Randy J., Hinkle, Lane R., “ Laser Diode Ignition (LDI)” The 2nd NASA Aerospace Pyrotechnic
Systems Workshop, Feb. 1994, 8, p – 71 – 78.
5. David R. Sumpter, “Laser – Initiated Ordnance for Air – to – Air Missiles”, American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Inc., 1993, 93 – 2360.
6. Denis Dilhan, “Laser Diode Initiated Systems for Space Applications”, the first ESA – NASA Working Meeting on
Optoelectronics: - Fiber Optic system Technologies in Space, ESA/ESTEC – October 6, 2005.
7. CFDRC site, Laser Igniter / Propulsion Devices, “Laser Igniter for Rocket Engine Applications”.

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EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON ACCURACY IMPROVEMENT OF

PYROTECHNIC DELAYS
SM Danali, NG Swarge, VD Gaikwad, MJ Kohadkar, KC Raha, A Subhananda Rao
High Energy Materials Research Laboratory, Sutarwadi, Pune-411021
ABSTRACT
Pyrotechnic delays are extensively used in military devices primarily in fuzes to provide bore, muzzle & flight safety
and self destruction of hazardous unexploded ammunitions.
The basic requirements for a military timer include simplicity, ruggedness, very high reliability and long shelf life. A
pyrotechnic delay meets these requirements; however the main drawbacks are safety norms to be observed, hygroscopicity,
temperature sensitivity and poor time reproducibility. Delay time accuracy within ± 10% (spread 20%) was considered
satisfactory as there are more than 20 factors that affect the performance and practically it is impossible to routinely duplicate
all the parameters during processing, filling, assembly, storage and combustion. 4.8 s delay with improved accuracy was
required for air bursting of a smoke grenade within 10 m altitude at target end. An accuracy of ±0.1 s as against ±0.5 s was
aimed to achieve without changing the existing delay design so that the ballistics and manufacturing processes remain
unchanged. Three types of delay tube designs were experimented. Delay tube – I design was in regular production whereas II
and III were designed for experimentation. 50 Units of each delay tube design were filled and evaluated at room temperature.
The performance of ambient, hot and cold conditioned units was assessed by testing 10 nos. in each condition. The
performance of delay tube-III was observed highly satisfactory. 4.8 and 2.9 s delays were experimented. The change in delay
tube material from steel to brass and further change in column diameter from 6.4 to 5 mm, realized the accuracy within ± 0.1 s
at a given temperature condition. The performance of smoke grenades in respect of burst time was found highly improved
leading to 100% air bursting within close variation in burst height with the development of accurate pyrotechnic delay.
KEY WORDS: smoke grenade, pyrotechnic delay, time accuracy, steel & brass delay tube , effect of temperature
1. INTRODUCTION
A Pyrotechnic delay is a self contained device in which a low explosive mixture burns linearly like that of a
cigarette to provide a controlled time delay. Pyrotechnic delays are extensively used in military devices primarily in fuzes
to provide bore, muzzle & flight safety and self destruction of hazardous unexploded ammunitions. The time requirement
ranges from milliseconds to a minute. The basic requirements for a military timer include simplicity, ruggedness, very
high reliability and long shelf life. A pyrotechnic delay meets these requirements, however the main drawbacks are
hygroscopicity, temperature sensitivity and poor time reproducibility.
A wide range of factors influence the burning rates of pyrotechnic compositions, including those intrinsic to the
compositions themselves and other factors introduced by the device into which they are filled or the operational combustion
environment1& 2. Considering this, it might not seem possible that a pyrotechnic delay could ever give a consistent time. No
model is available for calculation or prediction of burn rate of a pyrotechnic delay composition. However attempt has been
made for an illuminating composition by Thomas Widlund 3. K.L. and B.J.Kosanke have reviewed the principles playing an
important role in controlling the pyrotechnic burn rates4. Elie Shachar and Alon Gany studied the steady propagation of
tungsten delay mixtures by activation energy data derived from a DSC analysis5. Kai Tai Lu, Ching Chyuan Yang and Yang
Hsiung Ko have studied the effect of thermal conductivity of composition and tube material on burning properties of slow
propagation tungsten based delay compositions6. The proven merits of pyrotechnic delays outweigh the limitations and
ammunition/armament system designers still prefer to go for them. The delay time of various types of delays developed by
HEMRL in last decade, ranges from 70 ms to 30 s. The designs include right from a weapon fired grenade to the most
sophisticated and advanced missile 7.
Delay time accuracy within ± 10% (spread 20%) was considered satisfactory as there are more than 20 factors that
affect the performance and practically it is impossible to routinely duplicate all the parameters during processing, filling,
assembly, storage and combustion. The time reproducibility within ± 3% from a single batch at a given temperature and under
the most controlled laboratory conditions is considered highly satisfactory 8.

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Red-phosphorus based land bursting type smoke grenades are used for obscuring the visual, thermal sight and laser
range finders for enhancing the survivability of main battle tanks in close fighting wars. These designs cater for pyrotechnic
delay for providing bore, muzzle and flight safety and leading to bursting of a grenade. 8, 6 & 5 s delays were successfully
developed with ±10% accuracy for meeting different range requirements of a grenade. 4.8 s delay with improved accuracy was
required for air bursting of a grenade within 10 m altitude at target end, 90 m range to meet Users' revised QR. An accuracy of
±0.1 s was aimed to achieve without changing the delay design so that the ballistics and manufacturing processes remain
unchanged.
In a given development time frame there was very little scope to undertake the study on improving the delay
composition for its steady burn rate. The major limitations were that none of the ingredient is manufactured exclusively for
pyrotechnic applications and secondly, the composition processing methods have definite restrictions. Hence, keeping
the delay composition, delay train, filling schedule and production process same, an attempt was made to improve the design
by changing delay tube material and column diameter. Systematic experiments were conducted to assess the delay time
accuracy.
The original delay design was realizing a time spread of 21.3%, standard deviation 0.2 and only 58% readings were
observed within ±0.1s at ambient condition. Excellent improvement in accuracy of 4.8 s delay was observed with brass delay
tube and 5 mm column dia. The time spread has been reduced to 6.12%, standard deviation to 0.07 and 96% readings lying
within ± 0.1s. The effect of small variation in burn rate of delay composition has also been studied. The delay time spread at a
given temperature, i.e. at ambient, +60 °C and -40°C was observed to be 5, 6 & 5.7% respectively. However, the performance
over operating temperature range i.e. from -40°C to +60°C, indicated a delay time spread of 16.9% with standard deviation
value of 0.24.
The finalized delay design of 4.8 ± 0.1s was further evaluated for dynamic performance and the variation in air burst
timing of grenades was observed within ± 0.2 s. The study was further extended to achieve an accuracy of ±0.1s on 2.9 s
average delay time required for modified design of a grenade ranging 55 m.
Such accurate and highly reliable pyrotechnic delays will be very useful for futuristic ammunition/armament designs and for
enhancing the effectiveness of existing products.
The paper describes the design features, comparative experimental results and statistical analysis of data generated of all the
three designs.
2. EXPERIMENT
Delay Tube : Three types of delay tube designs were experimented. They are shown in Fig.1. Delay tube – I design was
in regular production whereas II and III were designed for experimentation.
Compositions : The details of pyrotechnic compositions used with designation & role are given in Table 1.
Sr. Com position Role Ingredients and their percentage by weight
No. Designation
1. M E-433 Prim ing Zr/Pb 3 O 4 /APC-217 (25/75/2 parts)
and Relay
2. M E-466 Booster Zr/Pb 3 O 4 /BaCrO 4 /Sb 2 S 3 /KClO 4 /APC-217
(12.5/37.5/36/10/4/2 Parts)
3. M E-412 Delay BaCrO 4 /Sb 2 S 3 /KClO 4 /APC-217
(72/20/8/1 part)
Table 1: Details of compositions

Preparation of compositions: Each composition was prepared by hand mixing of ingredients, homogenized,
granulated using the binder, sieved and dried.
Determination of inverse burn rate (IBR) of composition: The IBR of each composition was determined by recording the
total time taken for burning 20 cm long lead tube filled with composition and drawn through a specially designed rolling
machine having seven grooves and dies with reducing diameter (outside and inside diameter of drawn lead tube 4 & 2 mm
respectively).

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Filling of delay tube: The delay tube was assembled in a filling mould. Each delay tube was filled by incremental method,
loading requisite quantity (by weighing) of composition, applying the specified dead load for a given dwell time. Arbor
press (hand operated) was used for pressing the composition in delay tube. The filling schedule is shown in Fig.2.
Recording the filled column height: This was recorded for each filled delay tube by taking the depth from top end (flange
side) of delay tube to top surface of filled column. This was indirectly a measure of filled column height.
Hot and cold conditioning: The filled delays were directly loaded in an electric oven (indirect heating) set at 60 °C for 6 hours
for hot conditioning, while in case of cold conditioning, the filled delays were sealed in polythene bag (to avoid the
deposition of condensed matters on the exposed surfaces of composition) and then loaded in cold chamber set at -40 °C for
16 hours.
Testing of filled delays: Each delay tube was tested by assembling in a holder and igniting it by a strip of standard primed
cambric. The test method is shown in Fig.3.
Delay time measurement Delay time is the time interval between ignition of delay and flash output from relay charge.
This was recorded manually by two persons with electronic stop watch (Resolution 10 ms). Average of two readings was
recorded.
50 Units of each delay tube design were filled and evaluated at ambient temp. The results are presented in Table 2. The
average delay time is different as the IBR of delay composition used for filling was different. However, the main aim was to
assess the spread on average delay time. The performance of ambient, hot and cold conditioned units was assessed by testing
10 nos. in each condition.
The results are given in Table 3.

The experiments were aimed to assess the accuracy of delay time and improve the design to achieve within ± 0.1 s
without going for major changes. The average, % spread w.r.t. average value, standard deviation and % coefficient of variation
have been tabulated. It is clear from Table 2 that the performance of delay tube – I was not satisfactory and that of delay tube –
II was found improved. The only change was the delay tube material from steel (to IS : 513) brass (to IS 319). The
improvement could be due to the change in thermal properties of delay tube material and secondly the dimensional control was
observed better as the variation in filled column height was found maintaining in close limit. Further, a very good improvement
was observed when the column diameter (internal diameter of delay tube) was reduced to 5 from 6.4 mm for delay tube- III.
The pressing load was reduced from 600 kg (adopted for delay tube I and II, column ö 6.4 mm) to 410 kg for delay tube- III (5
mm column ö). The design parameters might have been optimized leading to the good thermal management in reproducing the
performance.
The performance of temperature conditioned (ambient, hot and cold) units was also in the same order as above as
shown in Table 3. Further, the spread over the military operating temperature range was observed to be 22.1, 19.6 and 16.9 %
for design I, II and III respectively. The results in brief are presented in Table 4.
The column height/depth from top end of delay tube to top surface of filled column was recorded for all the filled units. The
depth wise delay time values are shown in Table 6. The variation in depth was observed more (1.47 to 2.1 mm) in case of delay
tube design-I, probably due to manufacturing (deep drawing) method adopted. Though all the units were gauged for internal
diameter, the variation in volume might be the cause. The variation in depth for delay tube design II & III (manufactured by
machining) was observed ranging from 0.2 to 0.97 mm and the corresponding delay times were observed almost same for each
design. This indicated that if the depth is maintained within 1 mm, the accuracy of delay time gets maintained within close
limit. More than 1000 delays were filled during experimentation and not a single failure was observed.
The delay tube-III design was finalized. 5 Pilot batches (Qty. 400 Nos.) were produced. The delay time accuracy was found
within ± 0.1 s in static trials conducted on > 200 nos.
The explosive train of grenade functioning is as shown.
Electrical Pulse Primer Propellant Delay Burster Charge

Grenade Bursting Smoke Composition

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The dynamic performance was assessed by assembling the filled delays in smoke grenades. 120 grenades were fired
on 10 different occasions. The variation in grenade burst time was observed within ± 0.2 s. This was highly satisfactory when
compared with almost ± 1 s in case of delay tube design – I which is under regular production.
The study was further extended to develop 2.9 ± 0.1 s delay for meeting revised QR of the grenade (50 m range). This delay
time was achieved in delay tube III by changing the IBR of delay composition to 1.65 s/cm and assessing the charge mass to
650 mg. Other parameters of the filling schedule were kept unchanged. 300 Nos. were evaluated. The accuracy was found
within ± 0.1 s in static testing and ±0.2 s in dynamic condition.
Brass, S.S. & Al alloys with suitable protective finish have been found compatible materials for delay tube with most
of the pyrotechnic compositions. Experimental studies in these aspects have shown almost no change in delay time accuracy
though they differ in density, specific heat and thermal conductivity. Detailed study is required to be carried out.
4. CONCLUSION
Three designs of delay tubes were assessed. The performance of delay tube-III was observed highly satisfactory. 4.8
and 2.9 s delays were experimented. The change in delay tube material from steel to brass and further change in column
diameter from 6.4 to 5 mm, improved the delay time accuracy. The realized delay time accuracy was within ± 0.1 s at a given
temperature condition. The coefficient of variation could be reduced to 1.44 from 4.25 %. However, over the extreme
temperature range (from -40 °C to +60 °C), the spread in delay time was observed more and further research is needed to
reduce this spread.
The performance of smoke grenades in respect of burst time was found highly improved leading to 100% air bursting
within close variation in burst height with the development of accurate pyrotechnic delay. Such accurate and highly reliable
pyrotechnic delays will be highly useful for futuristic ammunition/armament designs and for enhancing the effectiveness of
existing products.
REFERENCES
1. AMCP 706-188, Engineering Design Handbook, “Military Pyrotechnics”, Part IV, “Design of Ammunition for
Pyrotechnic Effects”, HQ, US Army Material Command, March 1965.
2. M.A.Wilson & R.J. Hancox, “ Pyrotechnic Delays & Thermal Sources”, Journal of Pyrotechnics, Issue No. 13,
Summer, 2001,pp 9-30.
3. Thomas Widlund, “ An Attempt to Calculate the Burning Rates of Pyrotechnic Compositions”, 16th International
Pyrotechnics Seminar, pp 543-557.
4. K.L. & B.J.Kosanke, “ Pyrotechnic Ignition and Propagation:A Review”, Journal of Pyrotechnics, Issue No.6,
Winter, 1997, pp 17-29.
5. Elie Shachar & Alon Gany “ Investigation of Slow- Propagation Tungsten Delay Mixtures”, Propellant, Explosives,
Pyrotechnics, 22, ,1997, pp 207-211.
6. Kai Tai Lu, Ching- Chyuan Yang & Yang- Hsiung Ko,” Investigation of the Burning Properties of Slow- Propagation
Tungsten Type Delay Compositions” Propellant, Explosives, Pyrotechnics, 33, No.3, 2008, pp 219-226.
7. S.M.Danali, N.G.Swarge, N.R.Shah & V.D.Gaikwad, “ Pyrotechnic Delay: A Reliable Timing Device”, Shastra
Shakti, Vol 15, No.2, Issue 32, 2007, pp 12-16.
8. AMCP 706-205, Engineering Design Handbook, “Timing Systems and Components” HQ, US Army Material
Command, December, 1975.

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Table 2: Experimental results of delay tube designs tested at ambient temp

Delay time (s)
Max Limit
Delay time (s)
Max Limit Avarage
Avarage Min. Limit
Min. Limit
Max Limit
No. of Readings
Delay time (s)
Avarage
Min. Limit
2. b) Delay tube – II 2.c) Delay tube – III

2. a) Delay tube – I

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Table 3: Experimental results of delay tube designs tested at ambient, hot & cold temperature
Sr. Delay (s)

Sr. Delay (s) Sr. Delay (s)
No. AMB HOT COLD
No. AMB HOT COLD
No. AMB HOT COLD
1 4.80 4.45 4.97 1 4.98 4.72 5.31
1 4.72 3.98 4.74
2 4.95 4.41 5.05 2 5.02 4.79 5.23
2 4.36 3.97 4.61 3 4.89 4.36 5.15
3 5.02 4.61 5.34
3 4.49 4.03 4.66 4 4.80 4.35 5.08
5 5.03 4.39 5.02 4 4.92 4.74 5.34
4 4.78 3.97 4.70
6 5.00 4.53 4.88
5 5.03 4.75 5.25
5 4.49 4.04 4.65
7 4.86 4.70 5.08
6 4.43 4.16 4.63 6 5.09 4.78 5.16
8 4.98 4.33 5.19
7 4.15 3.90 4.66 9 4.72 4.25 5.00 7 5.07 4.72 5.26

10 4.94 4.53 5.08
8 4.19 4.05 4.82 8 5.16 4.88 5.25
9 4.25 4.08 4.74 9 4.91 4.77 5.38

10 4.41 3.93 4.87 10 5.10 4.82 5.46
5.5
5.4
Cold 5.3 Cold
5.2
Cold
DELAY (s)
5.1
Ambient
Ambient 5
4.9
Hot
Hot 4.8
4.7
4.6
Ambient 4.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Nos.
Hot
Delay Ambient Hot Cold Delay Ambient Hot Cold Delay Ambient Hot Cold
Min 4.15 3.90 4.61 Min 4.72 4.25 4.88 Min 4.91 4.61 5.16
Max 4.78 4.16 4.87 Max 5.03 4.70 5.19 Max 5.16 4.88 5.46
Av. 4.43 4.01 4.71 Av. 4.90 4.43 5.05 Av. 5.03 4.76 5.46
SD 0.21 0.08 0.08 SD 0.10 0.13 0.09 SD 0.08 0.07 0.08
3.a) Delay tube -I (b) Delay tube -II (c) Delay tube -III

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Cold to Hot Temp

Delay Performance at Ambient Temp (Tested:50 no.s of each design) Tested:10no.s at each
Tube temp
Design Av Delay time S.D Delay S.D
No. Delay spread (%) time
Time ± 0.1s ± 0.2s ± 0.3s ± 0.4s ± 0.5s ± 0.6s Spread
s (%)
I 4.70 58 78 94 96 98 100 21.30 0.20 22.10 0.32
II 4.40 75 94 100 - - - 11.40 0.13 19.60 0.28
III 4.87 96 100 - - - - 6.12 0.07 16.90 0.24
Table 4: Experimental results in brief
Delay tube design features Comp ME 412 Min. Actual Max. Actual Av. Av.
filling details Depth Delay Depth Delay Depth Delay
Design Material OD ID IBR Charge mass mm s mm s mm s
mm mm s/cm (mg)
I Steel 8.0 6.4 2.38 1300 1.47 4.60 2.10 4.5 1.80 4.7
II Brass 8.0 6.4 2.30 1300 0.26 4.30 0.97 4.4 0.59 4.4
III Brass 8.0 5.0 2.75 720 0.20 4.92 0.97 4.8 0.49 4.9
Table 5: Relation between column height & delay time

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Fig. 1 : D elay Tubes
DELAY TUBE-I
DELAY TUBE-II DELAY TUBE-III
Fig. 2 : Filling Schedule
COTTON PRIM ED
CA M BRIC
HOLDER
DELAY UNIT
Fig. 3 : Test M et hod

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High Intensity Illuminating Flares Based on Energetic Binder

RS Palaiah, RR Soman, BR Thakur, MJ Kohadkar, KC Raha, A Subhananda Rao
High Energy Materials Research Laboratory, Pune - 411021 (INDIA)
ABSTRACT
Effect of energetic binder GAP on performance of illuminating flare compositions has been studied. The
compositions are evaluated for impact and friction sensitivity, calorimetric value and also compressive strength. Thermo-
chemical calculation in aerobic condition has also been carried out. The results of GAP based compositions are compared with
Epoxy resin based compositions. The burn rate of the composition Mg / NaNO3 / GAP (63/27/10) is two fold higher than Mg /
NaNO3 / E – 605. GAP based compositions results in high (almost 10 times) visible light output as well as 4.5 times more
efficient than the epoxy based composition. GAP based compositions shows high calorimetric value. All the compositions are
insensitive upto 36 kg and may be considered safe for handling. Compressive strength of GAP based compositions is low as
compared to epoxy based composition.
1. INTRODUCTION
The use of pyrotechnic compositions for the production of light has along history. The earliest application was the use
of torches prepared with pitch or tar, ignited and used to ward off darkness. Illuminating ammunition extensively used to
support night warfare. It provides intense illumination for identification and engagement of all types of moving and stationary
objects. It is useful for warning of infiltrating troops by illuminating the field of the advancing enemy.
Reported data indicates that effective Illumination is based on Magnesium, Sodium Nitrate and binder1. The binder plays very
important role in imparting the desired performance in the illuminating composition, where they serve to maintain
homogeneity of the composition while in process. It holds the composition together and bonded to the container during
functioning. The binder also provides an initial reaction with the oxygen released from the sodium nitrate to provide a
transition to burning magnesium. Binders which contain energetic groups may be better because they decompose
exothermically, thus effectively reducing the level of oxidizer required to sustain the deflagration.
As an energetic binder for solid propellants and cast curable explosives, Glycidyl azide polymer (GAP) has been studied in
many countries in the world because of its high positive heat of formation + 1.180 KJ / g 2. Higher burn rate compositions were
achieved on replacement of DEP and NG by GAP in double base and composite modified double base propellants
compositions respectively .
Practically it has been observed that the best luminous efficiency is obtained with compositions which contain excess
fuel. However, fuel rich compositions may not be useful for high altitude applications. At high altitude the availability of
oxygen is less and pressure is also less as a result burn rate reduces and hence luminosity is also reduces. Energetic binder GAP
based compositions may be useful for high altitude applications because the burn rate may be high even at low fuel content and
also it contains a certain fraction of oxygen and thus requires less ambient oxygen to burn.
Effect of GAP on performance of illuminating flare compositions has been studied. Ten numbers of compositions have been
formulated and are studied for impact and friction sensitivity, calorimetric value and compressive strength. Thermo-chemical
calculation in aerobic condition has also been carried out. The results of GAP based compositions are compared with Epoxy
resin based compositions.
2. EXPERIMENT
Materials
Magnesium Gr 'O' used in this study was procured from ECKART WERKE Germany, having a purity of 99% ,
Sodium Nitrate with purity 98% was obtained from M/S Sun Rise Chemicals, Pune was ground and used after passing through
120 BSS Sieve. Diphenyl methane diisocyanate is used as a curing agent obtained from Emerck Ltd and ferric acetyl acetonate
is used as a curing catalyst supplied by Emarck Ltd.

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GAP was synthesized in the lab in two stages; in the first step poly epichlorohydrin was prepared by using SnClO4 as
catalyst and butanediol as a initiator. In second step poly epichlorohydrin converted into GAP by azidation. The GAP has a
number average molecular weight ~ 2000, functionality 2 and viscosity in the range of 1000 – 1200 cps.
Methods
To required quantity of GAP, diphenyl methane diisocyante and ferric acetyl acetonate was added and mixed. The
GAP resin was coated to magnesium powder, to the GAP coated magnesium powder sodium nitrate was added and mixed. The
composition was pressed into the paper tubes of ID 45.00 mm at dead load of 10 ton.
Compositions were subjected to impact on Fall Hammer apparatus using 2 Kg drop weight. Sensitivity to friction was
measured by Julius Peter friction Sensitivity apparatus. The calorimetric value was determined using Parr 1241 adiabatic
bomb calorimeter in Argon atmosphere. The Instron Universal Testing machine was used to measure the compressive
Strength. For measurement of light intensity and burn time EG and G make photometer is used with help of photometric filter,
which measures the radiations in visible band. Burn rate was calculated from the burn time and filled height of the candle.

The measured burning rate in air as a function of binder percentage for the six compositions (1-6) of test samples is
shown in fig.1. Burning rate as a function of Magnesium percentage for the compositions (Comp. No.5 & 7–10) of test samples
are shown in fig.2. The burning rate for the compositions (1-6) decreases as the binder percentage increases. Burn rate of the
composition (Comp. No.5 & 7–10) increases with increasing magnesium. Thermal conductivity increases with increase in
magnesium content and hence burn rate increases. The burn rate of the composition Mg/NaNO3/GAP (63/27/10) is almost two
fold higher than Mg / NaNO3 / E – 605 ( 63/27/10 ). Because the azide polymers decompose exothermically and contribute to
the higher burning rates as compare to inert binders.
The visible light output and luminous efficiency are presented in Table – 1. Light output reduces as LBR decreases on
increase in binder content. This reduction in light output is mainly due to reduction in mass flow rate. But luminous efficiency
shows increasing trend with increase in binder content up to 10 %. The efficiency of the composition depends on light output
and burn time ie luminous efficiency = Light out put x burn time/mass of the composition. Reported data5 shows that light
output and efficiency increases upto 70/30 Mg/NaNO3 ratio in case of epoxy binder. However, light output and efficiency
increases up to 75/25 Mg/NaNO3 ratio and beyond that there is reduction in light output as well as efficiency was observed for
the composition with constant binder percentage viz 10% binder. Luminosity curves of representative samples of GAP and
Epoxy resin based compositions are given in Fig. 3 & 4. GAP based compositions results in high visible light output (almost 10
times) as well as high efficiency (4.5 times more) as compare to epoxy based composition, this is due to high light out put of
GAP based compositions as compared to epoxy based composition.
Impact and friction sensitivity and calorimetric value data presented in Table – 2. The composition becomes sensitive
to impact on increasing the binder content in the system. All the compositions are friction insensitive up to 36 Kg. The GAP
based compositions are more sensitive to impact than the epoxy based composition. The same trend was observed with the
HTPB based compositions6 also and probably due to adiabatic compression of entrapped air7. Calorimetric value increases
with increase in GAP content in the system upto 6% then decreases. The Calorimetric value of the GAP based composition is
higher than the epoxy based composition, indicates the energetic nature of the GAP based composition.
The compressive strength of the compositions are given in Table –3.The compressive strength of the compositions
decreases and percentage compression increases on increase in binder percentage whereas the epoxy based compositions have
got very high mechanical strength as compared to GAP.
Thermo-chemical data of the compositions in anaerobic conditions are presented in the Table – 4. Flame temperature
reduces on increasing the binder and metallic fuel percentages. Flame temperature of the GAP based composition is higher
than the epoxy based compositions because of high positive heat of formation. Combustion products like Magnesium Oxide
and Sodium of the system reduce with increase in binder and metallic fuel percentage.

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4. CONCLUSION
1. The burn rate of the composition Mg / NaNO3 / GAP is two fold higher than Mg / NaNO3 / E – 605.
2. Light output reduces as LBR decreases on increase in binder content but luminous efficiency increases.
3. Light output and efficiency increases up to 75 / 25 Mg / NaNO3 ratio beyond that there is a reduction in light output as
well as efficiency.
4. GAP based compositions result in better visible light output as compared to epoxy based compositions with efficiency
4.5 times more than the epoxy based compositions.
5. All the compositions are friction insensitive up to 36 Kg.
6. The Calorimetric values of the GAP based compositions are higher than the epoxy based composition.
7. GAP based compositions shows adequate mechanical properties as compared to Epoxy.
8. GAP based compositions can find potential applications in high intensity illuminating flares.
REFERENCES
1. David. R. Dillehay, “ Illuminants and Illuminant Research” Journal of pyrotechnics, Issue 19 , 53 – 60, Summer 2004.
2. Changing, L, Wang ping, Huang Yue et al, “ Investigation of glycidyl azide polymer”, Proceedings of the
th nd
17 International Pyrotechnic Seminar combined with 2 Beijing International symposium on pyrotechnic and
explosives, 451 – 459, 1991.
3. G Nakashita & N. Kubota, “ Energitic of Nitro / Azide Propellants”, Explosives Propellants, Pyrotechnics, vol. 16, 177
– 181, 1991.
4. E. A.Miller, J. M Rubitischek, W. F. Bellamy, F. M. Bush , U S patent 407199, Nov 17, 1987.
5. R. S. Palaiah, P. H. Joshi, S. S. Deo , M. H.Valiv , B. R. Thakar and J. P. Agarwal “ A comparative study of Illuminating
compositions based on HTPB and BR-80 binders” , 29 th International Pyrotechnic Seminar, 435-444 , 2002.
6. R. S. Palaiah, P. H. Joshi, S. S. Deo , D. K. Jawale, M. H. Valiv and M.R. Somayajulu, . “ Development of luminous
efficient compositions based on Epoxy Resin” , Defence Science Journal, Vol.56, No.3, 339-343, 2006.
7. Lin K. Lin YT HO W D, Lin W.M and Chin H. S “Impact Sensitivity of ammonium per chlorate with polymers”
proceedings. 10 th International Pyrotechnic Seminar Karlsruhe , Germany, 54 , 1985.
Table 1: Burn Rate, Luminosity and Luminous Efficiency
Sr. No. Mg/NaNO3 Mg/NaNO3/GAP LBR Average Luminous

ratio (%) (mm/s) Luminosity efficiency
(cd ) 105 (cd.s/g) 104
1 60:40 58.8/39.2/02 6.40 4.24 3.02
2 60:40 57.6/38.4/04 5.00 4.28 3.82
3 60:40 56.4/37.6/06 4.10 4.01 4.29
4 60:40 55.2/36.8/08 3.50 3.51 4.52
5 60:40 54.0/36.0/10 2.90 3.15 4.82
6 60:40 52.8/35.2/12 2.50 2.92 4.93
7 65:35 58.5/31.5/10 3.28 4.27 5.66
8 70:30 63.0/27.0/10 3.93 5.30 6.00
9 75:25 67.5/22.5/10 4.31 5.72 6.07
10 80:20 72.0/18.0/10 4.87 5.01 4.86
11 70:30 63.0/27.0/10, E605 1.74 0.51 1.30

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Table 2: Sensitivity and Calorimetric Value
Sr.No. Mg/NaNO3 Mg/NaNO3/GAP H 50 % FOI FRICTION Cal.Val.

ratio (%) (cm) INSENSITIVE UPTO (cal/g)
(kg)
1 60:40 58.8/39.2/02 71 69 36 1515
2 60:40 57.6/38.4/04 61 55 36 1606
3 60:40 56.4/37.6/06 56 50 36 1650
4 60:40 55.2/36.8/08 51 46 36 1545
5 60:40 54.0/36.0/10 48 46 36 1500
6 60:40 52.8/35.2/12 45 44 36 1464
7 65:35 58.5/31.5/10 45 50 36 1440
8 70:30 63.0/27.0/10 42 47 36 1240
9 75:25 67.5/22.5/10 45 50 36 994
10 80:20 72.0/18.0/10 46 51 36 880
11 70:30 63.0/27.0/10, E605 66 73 36 1050
Table 3: Mechanical Properties
Sr.No. Mg/NaNO3 Mg/NaNO3/GAP UCS Compression

ratio (%) (kgf/cm2) (%)
1 60:40 58.8/39.2/02 145 6.0

2 60:40 57.6/38.4/04 152 6.5
3 60:40 56.4/37.6/06 92 9.0
4 60:40 55.2/36.8/08 74 10
5 60:40 54.0/36.0/10 73 13
6 60:40 52.8/35.2/12 54 16
7 65:35 58.5/31.5/10 79 11
8 70:30 63.0/27.0/10 85 13
9 75:25 67.5/22.5/10 94 12
10 80:20 72.0/18.0/10 102 13
11 70:30 63.0/27.0/10, E605 600 7.0

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Table 4: Thermo-chemical Data In Anaerobic Condition
Mg/NaNO3/GAP Flame MgO Na

Mg/NaNO3
Sr.No. (%) Temperature ( Mass ( Mass
ratio
(K) Parts ) Parts )
1 60:40 58.8/39.2/02 3042 0.499 0.105
2 60:40 57.6/38.4/04 2956 0.485 0.103
3 60:40 56.4/37.6/06 2854 0.470 0.101
4 60:40 55.2/36.8/08 2731 0.452 0.099
5 60:40 54.0/36.0/10 2581 0.432 0.097
6 60:40 52.8/35.2/12 2397 0.334 0.053
7 65:35 58.5/31.5/10 1953 0.385 0.085
8 70:30 63.0/27.0/10 1907 0.391 0.072
9 75:25 67.5/22.5/10 1605 0.364 0.060
10 80:20 72.0/18.0/10 1591 0.300 0.048
11 70:30 63.0/27.0/10, E605 1764 0.421 0.072
F ig .1 : L in e ar B u rn R ate o f G A P B as e d C o m p o s itio n s
as a fu nc tio n o f b in d e r %
6
LBR ( m m / s )
0
0 5 10 15
B i n de r ( % )

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Fig.2 Burn Rate of GAP Based Compositions as

Function of Magnesium %
6
LBR (mm/s)
0
50 60 70
Magnesium(%)
Fig. 3 Luminosity of Mg/NaNO3/GAP( 63/27/10) System

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Fig. 4 Luminosity of Mg/NaNO3/E-605( 63/27/10) System

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STUDIES ON THERMAL AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF

PYROTECHNIC THERMITE SYSTEM DESIGNED FOR FAST
MELTING OF METALS
S Debnath, Rohit, VP Ambekar, PM Deshmukh,
SM Danali, V Ramaswamy, KC Raha
High Energy Materials Research Laboratory, Pune – 411021
ABSTRACT
There are number of ways to melt the metals e.g. electrical heating, fossil fuel burning etc. But in some of the closed
systems used in underwater and aerospace applications, it is required to melt the metal in a very short time with constrained
resources and space. Thermites are known for very high heat output and negligible amount of combustion gases. Such
composition was therefore used for one of our project, where the main requirements was to develop a pyrotechnic composition
which gives high rate of heat generation and minimum amount of combustion gases. In the present study an indirect heating
method was studied by combustion of Thermite (Al/Fe2O3) in a confined space and heat was transferred to the metal via
conduction. Both Tin and Lithium metals were used for the study. Due to the closed nature of the combustion chamber it was
necessary to conduct the thermal and structural analysis of the system.
The studies were done in two stages. Feasibility studies were done initially using FEM simulations1 and then experiments were
designed based on the simulation, which uses Tin metal as the heat sink initially and after sufficient data generation, design and
experiments on lithium metal were done in place of Tin. Different thickness and L/D ratios were tried out to get the desired
temperature pattern. Combined structural and thermal boundary conditions were applied for structural analysis and thermal
analysis was done to find out the rate of heat transfer and the final temperature of the metal bath. Heat transfer coefficients were
found by matching the temperature – time curve of experimental results with FEM simulation results. Conduction, Convection
and Radiation were considered as the heat transfer mode for FEM simulations.
Experiments conducted with Tin which was based on FEM simulations showed that melting took place within 10s and
temperature recorded at 40s was 773 K. Based on the experiments with Tin, FEM simulations were carried out to redesign the
setup for Lithium as heat sink. Quantity of Thermite charge to melt the required amount of metal depends upon its heat output
and can be optimised accordingly. This approach of melting metals in a very short time best suits for the closed system
applications.
KEYWORDS: Pyrotechnic Thermite Composition, Transient FEM analysis, Heat transfer analysis, Structural analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
For development of one of the armament system, there was a need to melt Lithium equivalent to 5 kg and the molten
Lithium would react with an oxidizer (which would purge into Lithium once it is melted and raised to a temperature in excess of
773 K) and the heat of the reaction would be used to generate steam. In order to realize the objective, a scale down model was
designed and the design was simulated using FEM for both Thermal and Structural analysis. The scale down model was
designed to accommodate 680g of Lithium. Since Lithium was dangerous to handle in open atmosphere, as it needs an inert
atmosphere to handle, initial experiments were designed using Tin as a heat sink.
An indirect method of heat transfer is the safest to start with as this would fulfill one of our requirements which states
that the combustion products of the Pyrotechnic charge should not interfere with Lithium or should be compatible with lithium.
Since Pyrotechnic Thermite charge upon ignition releases large amount of heat with negligible gaseous products, it was best
suited source of thermal energy for such applications. Since the system was a closed one, with high pressure and temperature
inside, failure of hardware was a critical factor. Initially Without going for FEM analysis experiments were carried out during
which hardware failure took place. In order to nullify the Structural failure of the hardware, Transient FEM analysis was carried
out to assess the system in terms of both the Structural and Thermal analysis.
2. EXPERIMENT
Evaluation of Pyrotechnic Thermite charge
Out of several combinations of metal and metal oxides2 which were examined for this purpose, Al/Fe2O3
compositions3 were selected based on their ease of availability, ease of composition preparation, low sensitivity to impact and
friction, ease of ignitability, low volume of gaseous reaction products and high heat output. Although other combinations had
very high heat output as compared to the selected compositions, they were discarded mainly due to high volume of gas output,
higher sensitivity to impact and friction, and problems in availability of ingredients. The various thermo chemical parameters2
arrived at for the selected composition is listed in Table 1.

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Comp. Fuel Oxidiser Stoichiometric Flame Heat Vol. of Main

No. Ratio Temp. o/p products products of
Fuel Oxidiser (K) (Cal/g) (m 3/kg) combustion
Al2 O3 (c)
1. Al Fe2O3 25 75 3126 950 0.297
Fe (c)
Table 1. Thermochemical output of Pyrotechnic Thermite composition
Table 1 shows the various parameters like flame temperature, heat output, volume of products and the major products
of combustion. The above calculations were obtained using Thermo chemical calculation code `REAL'.
The Height of 50% explosion values was found out from experiments conducted on a locally fabricated Fall Hammer
apparatus. The friction sensitivity values were found out from Julius Peter Apparatus. These sensitivity values were considered
safe for handling and processing. The ignition temperature was obtained by Simultaneous Thermal Analyzer and it ignited at
973 0C. The data is presented in Table 2.
Comp. Fuel Oxidiser Stoichiometric Impact Friction Ignition temp

No. Ratio Sensitivity Sensitivity (0 C) at
Fuel Oxidiser 40 0 C/min
heating rate
0% of E Insensitive
1. Al Fe2 O3 25 75 973 (1246K)
at 170 cm upto 36 kg
Table 2. Impact, Friction sensitivity and Ignition temperature data
Al/Fe2O3 Thermite composition preparation

The composition was prepared by dry mixing Al (15 micron) and Fe2O3 (0.7 micron) and sieving the mixed
composition to ensure uniform mixing. Dough of Al/Fe2O3 with acetone was made and the composition was granulated and
sieved . The granulated composition was then taken up for pelleting.
Loading of Thermite charge

The system requirement was to go for a compact design. This necessitated the loading of thermite composition at
maximum density possible. The theoretical density of Al/Fe2O3 (25/75) thermite composition is 4.6 g/cc. The mechanical
strength of charge filling is best obtained by consolidating in a tube. But it burns linearly taking more time to release the heat.
Hence a pre pressed pellet loading technique was adopted. Based on prototype thermite tube design, experiments were carried
out to finalise the pellet density and its size from loading and mechanical strength point of view. The pellet density was 2.75
g/cc. A central flash hole was provided for simultaneous ignition of all the pellets by the igniter. The pelleting technique was
well established. The thermite pellet and the Thermite tube after the pellets are assembled are shown in Fig. 1.

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(a) (b)
Fig. 1 a) Thermite pellet and b) Thermite tube after assembly
Prototype design
The design of the final setup using Lithium as the heat sink was done in stages. Since lithium cannot be handled in
open atmosphere, an alternate/simulating metal like tin was considered. The comparative properties4 are given in Table 3.
Metal M.P B.P Thermal Density Specific heat

(K) (K) conductivity (g/cc) (cal/deg mol)
(Cal/cm s K)
Tin 505.0 2543 0.142 7.280 6.90
Lithium 453.7 1615 0.200 0.534 5.92
Table 3. Properties of different metals
Firstly a prototype design of a vessel for accommodating 1.5 kg Tin was done. This would need to accommodate a
single tube in which Pyrotechnic Thermite charge (165g) would accommodate. 15 Thermite pellets are needed for this
purpose. This design was later scaled up to accommodate 9.2 kg of Tin (equivalent to 680 g of Lithium loading) for which three
tubes were required to accommodate the Pyrotechnic Thermite charge (500 g). This design could also accommodate 680 g
Lithium. After conducting no. of experiments, generating data and improving on the multitubular design, Lithium (680 g)
loaded vessel having 500 g thermite charge was used to conduct further experiments.
For the experiments with Tin loaded setup, pressure transducers were fitted at the top end of all the tubes. Each tube
was made up of Steel EN 24 to BS 970 (Hardness 45 HRC), ID 26 mm and 140 mm long. Experiments conducted showed that
the maximum pressure recorded was around 48 MPa which dropped to 18 MPa in around 4s. Temperature was measured with
K-type thermocouples pasted over the external surface of each tube at a distance of 5, 75 and 115 mm from the top end of each
tube. Thermocouple pasted near the top surface recorded the lowest temperature while that pasted near the bottom end recorded
the maximum temperature. For the Lithium loaded setup, pressure recorded would remain the same since the Thermite

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composition and its amount remained the same. Six thermocouples were positioned at different locations in the Lithium matrix
as shown in Fig. 2. No leakage would be allowed since Lithium reacts with moisture in the atmosphere, hence leak test of the
whole setup was done. Thereafter Lithium was melted and it was transferred to the experimental vessel under inert atmosphere.
Then the required amount of Thermite pellets were introduced into the three Thermite tubes and pyrocartridge PC 50 were
assembled to each of the tubes. The experimental setup with Lithium loaded vessel is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig.2 Experimental setup of Lithium loaded vessel

Single tube design for Tin experiments
Preliminary design of a vessel for accommodating 1.5 kg Tin was done initially. For this purpose 165 g (15 no. of
pellets) of Al/ Fe2O3 pyrotechnic thermite charge was required to melt the Tin and take its temperature to 773 K. A single tube
would accommodate this charge. The main objective to carry out experiments with this setup was to initially collect data for
fitting these data to that of FEM simulations and finding out the Thermal and Structural boundary conditions to design the
multitubular setup. A nonlinear transient FEM analysis5 for both Thermal and Structural analysis was carried out for the setup.
Steel (EN 24) was used as the material for the tubes, and the thermal conductivity and enthalpy of Tin was taken to change with
temperature. 2D axisymmetric was used and Meshing was done using PLANE 77 element for thermal analysis. The following
thermal boundary conditions were applied.
n Heat Flux is applied for the inner surface of tube at different rates up to Time (t) = 0 to3 sec during w h i c h
Thermite reaction product condense to form slag.
n The temperature profile of the slag has been applied from 3 sec to 32 sec. The temperature range is assumed to be from
2730OC to 2465OC based on the experimentally obtained pressure time curve and assuming the condensation temperature
of Fe as 2730OC.
n Different Heat Transfer Coefficient (HTC) values were defined for the gas zone and the slag zone assuming both
convection and radiation as the primary modes of heat transfer.
n The heat loss from outer surface of CCTS is due to convection and radiation.
Using different values of HTC, the FEM curve was tried to fit on to the experimentally obtained curves for temperatures,
which is shown in Fig. 3 for one of the experiment at a certain point on the tube.
The values of HTC thus obtained can be used for any similar design for the tube, as far as geometric similarity is
maintained. Since slag was deposited at the bottom of the tube while gas was deposited at the top portion of the tube,
different HTC values were obtained for slag and gas region. Convection and radiation boundary conditions were applied
on the outer surface of the tubes with 40 W/m2 OC.

900
800
700
600
Temp (C )
500 Exp
400 FEM
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40
Time (s)
Fig. 3 Curve fitting for temperature obtained by experiment and FEM analysis
Also, since the tube withstood the pressure load, as per the experimental pressure-time graph, different pressures were
applied at different times combined with the thermal loads, which are shown in Fig. 4.
All Bolt positio n are fix ed
Pressure:
At 1 sec, 29.41 MPa
At 3 sec, 22.12 MPa
At 6 sec, 19.61 MPa
Thermal loads from thermal analysis

at 1 sec, 3 sec, 6 sec
Symmetric BC
Fig. 4 Pressure loads and thermal loads applied to the single tube design

With the boundary conditions obtained by curve fitting, they were used to simulate and obtain a feasible multitubular design.
Multitubular design(3 tubes) for Tin experiments

The data obtained both by experiments and transient FEM simulations were used to scale up and design vessel for
accommodating 9.2 kg Tin (equivalent to 680g Lithium). One third symmetry Model was used for modeling. The setup was
created as per the experimental setup with all material properties for all materials included in the analysis. The model was
meshed with SOLID70 (first order thermal brick) element for thermal analysis. The boundary conditions were applied on the
inner surface of the tubes and the convective coefficient was applied to all the external surface of the vessel and exposed surface
of tin. The meshed model, thermal boundary conditions- both heat flux and heat transfer coefficient to inner surface of tubes.
The temperature-time pattern as found out by experiment and the FEM analysis is presented in the graph shown in Fig. 5.
Exp 1, TC 3
900
800
700
600
Temp (C)
500 Exp
400 Simulation
FEM
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40
Time (s)
Fig.5 Temperature-time curve of FEM analysis and experiment of thermocouple embedded in tin
Both the curves agree with each other closely. 59.16% of tin melted after 40 s. Maximum temperature reached in tin
(sim1) after 40 s is 691 K. This is shown in Fig. 6.
Also, the Structural analysis was done and boundary condition was applied similar to that applied as shown in Fig. 4. At 1 s, the
Von Mises stress throughout is better than yield point for Steel EN24 (1000 N/mm2) which is the material of construction for
tube, however the skin stress inside the thermite tube is very high, in range 1412 N/mm2 to 2117 N/mm2. This is because the skin
temperature inside is much higher than elsewhere and hence the high compressive stress. At 3 s, Von Mises stress plot shows,
high skin stress in range 1224 N/mm2 to 2447N/mm2. Otherwise the stress value is below yield stress. At 6 s, Von Mises stress
throughout the body is below yield stress.
A total of 15 experiments were conducted with setup loaded with Tin and then the setup was cleared for Lithium
loading.

Tin
Tin Melted 59.16%
All plots are in oC
Fig.6 Temperature plot at 40s

Von Mises Stress at 3 sec
Fig.7 Von Mises stress in N/mm2

Stress in N/mm 2
S6.8 / 7
Multitubular design (3 tubes) for Lithium experiments
Transient FEM simulations were carried out and the temperature-time profile for Lithium was obtained at different
positions. Based on the simulations, experiments were carried out which confirms the simulation results and they tend to agree
each other closely. Lithium (680 g) was found to melt and temperature reached around 773 K in 10s. The plot of temperature-
time with thermocouple positioned at different places in the Lithium matrix is as shown in Fig. 8. Six thermocouples (marked
as T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 and T6 in Fig. 8) were embedded into the Lithium matrix and three thermocouples showed that
temperature of Lithium rose to more than 773 K in 10s while other three thermocouples showed that temperature of Lithium
rose to less than 773 K in the same time. This may be because HTC as found out by FEM analysis, was more at the bottom of the
tube and so Lithium temperature was high near the bottom than at the top and hence temperature rise near the top surface was
less. A required impulse of 12 A current was provided to all the three Pyrocartridge PC 50, which is also shown in Fig. 8. The
confirmatory experiment was conducted with the same setup and it showed consistency in all respects.
1000 14
900
12
800
700 10
T1
T2
600
8 T3
500 T4
6 T5
400
T6
CURRENT
300 4
200
2
100
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time (s)
Fig.8 Temp - Time graph of Lithium loaded test setup
4. CONCLUSION
A Pyrotechnic Thermite composition based on Al/Fe2O3 was found meeting stringent requirements of the Armament
system. The Pyrotechnic Thermite composition was evaluated for its different properties, sensitivity parameters, mixing,
granulation and pressing technique. Transient FEM analysis was done and suitable boundary conditions were obtained by
curve fitting technique with different HTC values taken and simulations done and the simulation curves fitted to the
experimentally obtained curves. The HTC values obtained were thus used for simulations for Multitubular design (3 tubes) and
the curves for simulations and experiments found matching to each other. Tin was found to melt and temperature reached in
vicinity of 773 K. Since thermal conductivity and Specific heat of Tin and Lithium is different, much more time was required
by Tin to melt and raise its temperature. Based on the results obtained, Tin was replaced by Lithium and both simulations and
experiments were carried out. Both the temperature – time curve were found to match each other and Lithium was found to melt
and temperature was raised to 773 K in 10s. Also, initial failure of Thermite tube was nullified using Transient FEM analysis.
FEM analysis thus played a very crucial part in designing the system in respect to both the Thermal and Structural integrity.
This provides a good input for designing a system to melt 5 kg Lithium requirement for an advanced armament design. The
design can also be tailored to applications such as underwater welding6, forging in space, melting of metals and raising of the
bath temperature of special fuels for effective reaction with oxidizer.
S6.8 / 8
5. REFERENCES
1. Belytschko T. and T.J.R Hughes, “Computational methods for transient analysis, Elsevier Science Publishers, B.V.
Amsterdam, Netherlands, Vol 1, 1983.
2. Carter and Greg, “Pyrotechnic Thermite composition”, U.S Patent 6627013, 2003.
3. V.V Zhalnin, N.N Bakhman, G.V. Lukashenya and Yu. S. Kichin, “Effect of aluminium and iron oxide on the temperature
coefficient of the burning rate of condensed mixtures”, Combustion, Explosion and Shock Waves, Volume 6, No. 4, Oct.
1970, pp. 374-376.
4. Perry R.H., Green and D.W., “Perry's Chemical Engineers' Hanbook (7th Edition), McGraw-Hill, 1997.
5. Fischer S.H. and Grubelich M.C., “Theoretical energy release of Thermites, Intermetallics and Combustible metals”, 24th
International Pyrotechnics Seminar, 1998, pp. 240-286.
6. Hagen and Nils Chr., “Method and device for Thermite welding at water depths, U.S 6131801, 2000.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Director, HEMRL, Pune for providing his constant support and valuable suggestions.
S6.8 / 9
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ESTIMATION OF FLOW PARAMETERS OF

EXPLOSION AT SHOCK FRONT FOR DIFFERENT EXPLOSIVES
Umesh Swami, RN Pralhad
ABSTRACT
Explosion is the sudden release of instantaneous energy into the atmosphere resulting into
destruction of the surroundings. In earlier days, explosions were confined to the battlefield during war or
the laboratory for the advancement of Science and Technology. In modern times, explosions are being
brought about anti social elements for causing destabilization in the society. Be it a war or internal strife,
the damage it may cause is always of concern to the social organization managing the society. In view of
its importance, studies pertaining to explosive sciences have been covered in the present investigation.
Flow parameters have been derived for the point mass explosion and computed for different
explosive materials. The computed results have been quantified with the other published works and its
applications in Naval Hydro- sciences and Terminal Ballistics have been highlighted.

S7
Advanced Materials
Manufacturing Techniques
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PERFORATED ARMOUR: IMPROVING THE BALLISTIC

EFFICIENCY OF HIGH HARDNESS ARMOUR STEEL
B Ramakrishna, B Mishra, V Madhu, T Balakrishna Bhat
Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory, Kanchanbagh, Hyderabad- 500058
ABSTRACT
Armoured vehicles need high degree of mobility as well as protection. Higher protection demands higher weight of
armour. However, to retain the mobility with better protection, there is a need to develop better armour systems that are light
and effective. Ballistic efficiency of a wide variety of materials has been studied by many researchers, by conducting depth of
penetration experiments, using thick backing plate technique. Steel plates made of rolled homogenous armour (RHA) steel
have been in use, as for protection to light vehicles, battle tanks and other military applications against kinetic energy
projectiles. The ballistic efficiency of these steels have been continuously improved by adopting novel compositions, heat
treatments and by innovative designs, thereby achieving better hardness, strength and toughness which are the prime
requirements to defeat a projectile.
In this work, an attempt has been made to enhance the efficiency of hard armour steel plates further, through the use
of perforated plate configuration. Square holes of dimensions near to 2/3 times the diameter of the projectile, were drilled in
high hardness armour steel plates, which also reduces the areal density. These plates were then heat treated to get desired
properties, and were subjected to ballistic impact of 7.62 mm AP projectiles by backing them with thick plate of 7017
Aluminium alloy. Depth of penetration (DOP) in the backing aluminium alloy plate was measured, when impacted with and
without the perforated armour plate in the front. Improvement in efficiency of the perforated plates was then evaluated by
comparing the DOP under different conditions of impact. It was observed that the ballistic efficiency of hard armour steel
plates was further enhanced by more than 100 % due to perforations. Computational simulations were also carried out to
correlate the effects of perforated armour. Results of experiments as well as simulations showed good correlation.
Photographs of fractured projectile recovered after the experiments along with analysis of the DOP results and improvements
in ballistic efficiency of the perforated armour have been presented in this paper.
1. INTRODUCTION
The response of metallic armour and its efficiency depends on the mode of attack. In general, immunity against
kinetic energy shots can be provided by (i) plastic flow of the target material (ii) by destructing the projectile and (iii) by
ricochet effect. Typical RHA having tempered martensitic structure has hardness in the range of 300-600 VHN [1]. The
hardness of the armour is much less, in comparison to non-deformable hard steel core projectile like 7.62 AP bullet (= 900
VHN). Hence the penetration of the projectile can only be avoided by either making the material itself very hard like by
carbonitriding etc. or by designing the armour in such a way so as to deflect the path of the projectile, as well as, to generate
high stresses on the projectile, which may break the projectile. Chocron et al. [2] has shown the defeat of the projectile and it's
core breakage under edge impact against 3 mm thick RHA plate. Perforated plates have been used in shock tubes to disrupt
shock waves by Medvedev [3] and Chaoa et al. [4]. Various perforated armour like with circular holes [5], triangular holes
[6], and other perforations [7] are employed in the front panel of the armour assembly to defeat the projectile. But there is no
information available in the open literature over effect of perforations on the ballistic efficiency and projectile-metal
interaction. In this respect an attempt has been made to understand the projectile-armour interaction and to evaluate the
ballistic efficiency of the perforated armour having square holes by experimental as well as by computer simulations. Results
of experiments as well as simulations showed good correlation.
2. EXPERIMENT
Rolled homogeneous armour plates of size 150X 150 X 5 mm, were taken and square holes of size 2/3 times the
diameter of the projectile were made in these plates, as seen in Fig. 1. These plates were than heat-treated to attain the desired
mechanical properties. The schematic diagram of the ballistic test is given in Fig. 2. The nominal diameter of the projectile
was 7.62 mm. The perforated steel plate (150 X 150 X 5 mm) was placed along with the backing plate of Al-7017 of 65 mm
thickness. Backing plate was fixed along with the target steel plate without any air gap. The whole target and backing plate
combination was then subjected to the impact of non-deformable steel core projectiles of 930 Vickers hardness. The angle of
attack was normal to the target plate. The striking velocity of the projectile was 820 m/s, which was measured using infrared
light emitting diode photovoltaic cell by measuring the time interval between the interceptions caused by the projectile

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running across two transverse beams placed 2 metres apart. The projectile was fired with a rifled gun from a distance of 10
metres. To compare the ballistic efficiency of the perforations, impacts were also done in the non-perforated area of the plate
under similar conditions. Average depth of penetration was measured in the backing plate of Al-7017. The depth of
penetration and path of the impact behaviour in perforated plate was compared with non-perforated area of the same plate.
3. NUMERICAL MODELING
The material properties employed were modified with the help of AUTODYN material library and used in the
simulations. Johnson-Cook strength model was employed for modeling the problem. The length (28.1 mm), diameter of the
Core of the projectile (6 mm) and it's ogive shape nose were modelled as per the standard dimensions of 7.62 AP projectile.
The target plate is modeled with 5 mm thick high hardness steel as mentioned above in the front and Al-7017 of 65 mm thick
block as the backing. For analysis projectile with a density of 7850 kg/m3, Bulk modulus of 159 GPa and Shear modulus of
81.7 GPa were considered.
The erosion was modeled to prevent excessive mesh distortion and entanglement. Velocity boundary condition is
another parameter which is imparted to the projectile. The edges of the target plate and backing were fixed. Perforation in
the target plate had been created and filled with air. Initial velocity of 820 m/s was given to the projectile. The sizes, end
conditions and material types used in numerical model are same as that of parts used in experimental study. The units for
calculation are gm/mass, mm/length and ìs/time. Interaction gaps of 5 ì were specified between projectile and
target.

Fig. 3 shows the front and rear portion of the target plate after impact. Region A and B shows the deformation in the
perforated area and non-perforated area of the target plate. It can be clearly seen in Fig. 3, where front high hardness steel
plate is attached to the backing Al-plate, that the bullet got broken in the perforated region attack where as there was no sign
of such breakage in non perforated attack. Crater area observed was minimum and also the impact path seems to be deflected
creating an angle between the longitudinal axis of the projectile and its new, deflected trajectory as seen. This may be
attributed due to the following mechanisms imparted as a result of perforation:(i) deflection of the incoming projectile, thus
causing formation of an angle between the longitudinal axis of the projectile and its new, deflected trajectory (ii) increase in
frictional force and (ii) creation of bending moment on the projectile. Region A and B in Fig. 4 shows the regions of
perforated and non perforated impact regions in the backing Al-plate. In the case of projectile hits the non perforated area of
the target plate, under normal impact, average depth of penetration of 30 mm is observed, where as same in the case of
perforated attack it was 12 mm. Also broken bullet can be clearly seen in Fig. 5, which represents the cross section of the
perforated attacked region.
5. NUMERICAL RESULTS
Numerical simulations give an in depth understanding of the phenomena of penetration. Data on the velocity of the
projectile, depth of penetration, stresses and many other parameters can be monitored at very close time intervals, which is
not possible in experiments. Fig. 6 shows Depth of penetration (DOP) at different time intervals in the perforated attack.
From numerical results it is clear that bullet got deflected and hence penetration capability will be reduced.
6. CONCLUSION
The depth of penetration is minimum in cases of impact at the perforated area of the target material against small
caliber ammunition. It gives better protection (more than 100 % reduction in DOP) along with low areal density (less by
40%).
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank Director, DMRL for giving permission to publish this work. The authors also wish to
acknowledge the support of staff of small arms range of DMRL for carrying out the ballistic tests.
REFERENCES
[1] T. Balakrishna Bhat, 'Principles of armour design', Transactions of The Indian Institute of Metals,
37(4), 313-335 (1984).
[2] S. Chocron, C.E. Anderson Jr., D.J. Grosch and C.H. Popelar, 'Impact of 7.62mm APM2
projectile against the edge of a metallic target', International Journal of Impact Engineering, 25,
423-437 (2001).

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[3] S.P. Medvedev, S.V. Khomik and H. Oliver, 'Experimental setup, measurement technique and test
conditions for explosions with active/passive additives', (EXPRO Deliverable Report D5, Contract
EVG1-CT-2001-00042), March 2003.
[4] J. Chaoa, T. Otsukab and J.H.S Leea, 'An experimental investigation of the onset of detonation', Proc.
Comb. Ins., 30(2), 1889-1897 (2005).
[5] Y. Trasi, D. Ben-Moshe and G. Rosenberg, 'An armour assembly for armoured vehicles', European
Patent EP 0209221 A1, 1987.
[6] R.A. Auyer, R.J. Buccellato, A.J. Gidynski, R.M. Ingersoli and N. Sridharan, 'Perforated plate armor'
International Patent No. WO 89/08233, 1989.
[7] R. Moshe and Y. Hirschberg, 'Perforated armor plates', European Patent No. EP
1705 452 A1, 2006.

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RHEOLOGICAL STUDY OF AQUEOUS PZT SLURRY

FOR TAPE CASTING
I Nithiya Priya , HH Kumar, Dr DK Kharat
ABSTRACT
In this paper, rheology of aqueous PZT slurry for tape casting has been studied with 66 wt % solid loading with two
dispersants viz. Darvan C (aqueous solution of ammonium poly methacrylate ) and sodium hexa metaphosphate. In each case,
the dispersant amount was varied from 0 – 2 wt % of dry PZT powder. The effect of the type and amount of dispersant on the
rheological behavior and stability of the slurry has been studied using rheometer and sedimentation analysis. From the
experiments optimum amount of dispersant suitable for tape casting of aqueous PZT slurry has been found and reported.
Optimized slurry composition can be used for fabricating piezoelectric multilayer actuators which have defense applications
such vibration cancellation of air craft wings, turbulence correction in deformable mirrors of telescopes and micro and nano
positioning devices.
KEY WORDS : Aqueous PZT, tape casting, rheology, multilayer actuator
1. INTRODUCTION
Tape casting technique is being widely used in the thick film industry for fabricating ceramic tapes of thickness
ranging from 50 – 250µm. It overrides the
conventional isostatic /uniaxial pressing techniques in that uniform green density is obtained over a relatively large area of the
sample. These thin layers find extensive use in multilayered capacitors, multilayered actuators, composites, solid electrolytes
and solid oxide fuel cells. This technique can be of two types: aqueous and non aqueous, based on the solvent used. Both the
solvent systems have their own merits and demerits. The non aqueous solvent based system is characterized by fast drying
rates, good suspension stability, higher solid loading, dense films and smooth surface of tapes. However, the system involves
working with harmful chemicals that pose environmental challenges. Aqueous systems use the universal solvent, water, which
is eco friendly, recyclable and cost effective [1-4].
Using suitable combination of solvent, dispersant, binder, plasticizer, defoamer, any ceramic or metal powder could
be casted as tapes of desired thickness. The particle size distribution, surface area, density, solvent/powder ratio, dispersant
quantity, binder/powder ratio, binder/plasticizer ratio all have an effect on the slurry viscosity and flow behavior and hence
affect the final tape properties such as density, percentage of shrinkage , modulus of elasticity, crack origination and warpage.
It is therefore essential to optimize the slurry formulation for better properties of the tape.
This paper deals with the dispersant study of aqueous PZT slurry. The dispersant should be compatible with the
solvent, dissolving completely so as to coat the powder surface uniformly. Dispersants are additives that modify the surface of
the particle to which they are adhered to, thereby preventing particle flocculation and hence improving stability of the system.
They act on the mechanism of electrostatic repulsion and steric hindrance. The optimum amount of dispersant is the amount at
which the slurry has minimum viscosity, slow settling rate, low sediment height and good packing density [1,3,7]. Insufficient
amount of dispersant will initiate cracks and affect mechanical properties of green tape [4]. A number of dispersants have been
reported for aqueous PZT systems : Aqueous solution of ammonium poly methacrylate, ammonium polyacrylate, methyl
cellulose, sodium salt of cellulose derivates, complex glassy phosphates etc [3,6]. In this paper, effect of dispersants: Sodium
hexa metaphosphate and Darvan C ( aq. Solution of ammonium poly methacrylate) on the rheology and stability of aqueous
PZT slurry has been studied.
2. EXPERIMENT
Calcined PZT 5A powder developed at our centre, with mass median diameter of 0.93µm was used for the studies. A
66 wt % solid loading in de ionized water was used for mixing and dispersant studies. The effect of simple mixing and ball
milling on the rheological behavior of powder water mixture was studied. In simple mixing, the powder water mixture was

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stirred with a glass rod. In ball milling, the powder water mixture with a powder : zirconia balls weight ratio of 1:4 was used. As
it was found that simple mixed slurry, rather than a ball milled slurry, offers a relatively low viscosity, further studies with
dispersants were made by simple mixing. Darvan C and Sodium hexa metaphosphate were used as dispersants. Dispersants
were first added to water, stirred and then PZT powder was added and stirred well. In order to determine the optimum amount
of dispersant, dispersant amounts were varied from 0-2 wt % of dry PZT powder and the rheological behavior of these slurries
was studied with Anton Paar Rheometer GmbH (Germany, MCR 101 model). The experiments were carried out in a parallel
plate set up with a 0.6 mm gap between the plates, at 25º C, shear rates varying linearly from 2 to 100 sec-1. For sedimentation
analysis, the slurries were poured into test tubes, sealed and sediment heights were measured after 24 hours.
3. RESULTS & DISCUSSION

a. Effect of mixing on slurry viscosity
The main aim of mixing is to ensure uniform distribution of dispersant over the powder surface. Figure 1 shows the
effect of simple stirring and ball milling on the slurry viscosity. It can be seen that the slurries, irrespective of the type of
mixing, exhibit a shear thinning behavior. At low shear rates, the applied shear force is not enough to overcome the forces
due to random particle movement and hence exhibit a high viscosity.
Pa·s 25 -1
Shear rate 2 sec
-1
Shear rate 30 sec
2.5
20
2
15
Viscosity, Pa.s
simple mixing
1.5 10
h ball mill, 2.5 hrs
ball mill, 4.5 hrs
ball mill, 24 hrs 5

1
0
0.5 0 100 200 1400
Mixing time, min
0
0 20 40 60 80 1/s 100
.
Shear Rate g Figure 2
Figure 1
Fig.1 Viscosity Vs Shear rate curve for various milling time

Fig.2 Plot of Viscosity Vs Milling time at shear rates 2 and 30 sec-1
With increasing shear rates, the particles align with the movement of the plate and hence a low viscosity is observed.
The flow pattern is not affected by the duration of milling. An increase in viscosity with increase in milling time is observed in
slurry milled for 0, 2.5, 4.5 and 24 hours.
As the initial powder is fine sized (d0.5: 0.93 µm), the milling limit could have been reached earlier and continued
impact could lead to particle repacking and agglomeration. The degree of agglomeration may be increasing with milling time
and hence the slurry milled for 24 hours has the highest viscosity. N.Traiphol [1] has reported a similar behavior with an initial
highly agglomerated PZT powder, milled for 20, 30, 40 and 50 hours.
Figure 2 is a plot of viscosity measurements at two specific shear rates 2 and 30 sec-1. Shear rate 2 sec-1 represents the
sample condition at near rest condition and 30 sec-1 represents the shear rate corresponding to typical tape casting system. It
is seen that at a shear rate 30 sec-1 viscosity values are 0.8 and 1.5 Pa.s for simple mixed slurry and 24 hours milled slurry,
respectively. This difference in viscosity is quite small and not of much significance during the slurry casting stage wherein the
slurry is sheared under the doctor blade. However, the initial viscosity of the slurries measured at near rest condition (in this

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case, a shear rate of 2 sec-1) is of much importance as the slurry at rest has to be pumped into a reservoir with doctor blade set up.
From Figure 2, it is seen that viscosity values are 7 and 24 Pa.s, for a simple mixed and 24 hours milled slurry, respectively. This
means that because of the high viscosity, the ball milled slurry would have to be pumped with a much higher pressure than that
for simple mixed slurry. This may lead to further complications of slurry getting stuck in the tubes, at low pumping pressures
and finally dry up. Hence a simple mixing that exhibits a relatively low viscosity at both rest and high shear rate conditions was
preferred for further dispersant studies.
b. Effect of dispersants on slurry rheology

Dispersants were first added to water, stirred and then PZT powder was added and stirred well. In order to determine
the optimum amount of dispersant, dispersant amounts were varied from 0-2 wt % of dry PZT powder. The following plots
show the effect of dispersants on the rheology of PZT slurry.
1
1
Pa·s
Pa·s
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0 wt %
darvanC 0.1 wt %
0.1 wt % 0.6
0.6 darvanC 0.25 wt %
0.25 wt % darvanC 0.5 wt %

0.5
0.5 h
h 0.5 wt % darvanC 0.75 wt %
0.4
0.75 wt % darvanC 1 wt %
0.4
0.3 darvanC 1.5 wt %
1 wt %
0.3 darwanC 2 wt %
1.5 wt % 0.2
0.2 2 wt %
0.1
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 1/s 100
.
0 Shear Rate g
0 20 40 60 80 1/s 100
.
Shear Rate g Figure 4
8
-1
Sodium hexa metaphosphate (2 sec )
-1
Darvan C (2 sec )
-1
Sodium hexa metaphosphate (30 sec )
6 -1
Darvan C (30 sec )
Viscosity, Pa.s
0
Table 1 Value of exponent 'b' in Ostwald model
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Dispersant wt %
Figure 5
Fig.3, Fig.4 : Viscosity Vs. shear rate curves for Aq. PZT slurry with various amounts of Sodium hexa metaphosphate
and Darvan C respectively.
Fig.5 Plot of Viscosity Vs dispersant amount at shear rates 2 and 30 sec –1
A decrease in viscosity with increasing dispersant amounts and a shear thinning behavior in general are observed in
figures 3 and 4. The plot in Figure 5 shows the variation of viscosity with dispersant amount at shear rates 2 and 30 sec-1. As the
dispersant amount varies from 0-2 wt %, a rapid decrease in viscosity followed by a near saturation region is observed. At low
concentrations, the amount of dispersant may not be sufficient enough to coat the entire powder surface. This may lead to
particle agglomeration and hence higher viscosity. When sufficient amount of dispersant is added, viscosity reaches a
minimum and thereafter further addition of dispersant does not change the viscosity significantly. This saturation region helps
in choosing the right amount of dispersant. The optimum amount of dispersant is the amount at which minimum viscosity is

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attained. Slurry viscosity reaches a minimum of 0.014 Pa.s in the case of 1 wt % sodium hexa metaphosphate and 0.011 Pa.s in
the case of 2 wt % Darvan C. In the case of sodium hexa metaphosphate, above 1 wt % , viscosity is found to increase. The
increase in viscosity may be attributed to unadsorbed dispersants. In the case of alumina slurry with Tiron dispersant
C.Pagnoux et al [5] attribute the increase in viscosity to increase in ions concentration and increase in ionic strength.
Ostwald's equation was fitted to the viscosity curves in figures 3 and 4. This model can be used to represent the flow
curves of shear thinning or shear thickening materials. If the exponent b is equal to one, the equation is identical to the Newton
model. For a shear thinning material b is smaller than one and larger for shear thickening materials.
y = a.xb : x – shear rate , y – shear stress , a - factor , b – exponent
This analysis was done for curves with dispersant amounts 0.5 to 2 wt %. The value of the exponent b, is shown in
table 1. With increasing amounts of dispersants, the curves tend towards near Newtonian behavior , as is seen by the increase in
b values. From figures 3,4,5 and table 1, it can be seen that a minimum viscosity composition ( 1 wt % for sodium hexa
metaphosphate, and 2 wt % for Darvan C) has a near Newtonian behavior.
c. Sedimentation Analysis
The optimum amount of dispersant can be further confirmed by
sedimentation analysis. In this case,'h0' represents the initial slurry height and
'h' represents the sediment height after 24hours. With increasing dispersant
amount, h/h0 decreases, indicating better dispersion of slurry [1,7]. Lower
sediment height means better packing density. From figure 6, it is seen that for
dispersant amounts 0.1-2 wt% , Darvan C has lower h/h0 values than sodium
hexa metaphosphate and reaches a lowest h/h0 at 2 wt%.
Figure 6 Sediment height Vs Dispersant amount
4. CONCLUSION
The effect of mixing and milling duration on the viscosity of aqueous PZT slurry has been studied . Powder/ water ratio,
powder/ milling media ratio and milling rpm will also affect slurry viscosity. Slurries with Sodium hexa metaphosphate and
Darvan C have similar rheological behavior. However, the sedimentation behavior of slurry with Darvan C is better than with
Sodium hexa metaphosphate. Slurry with 2 wt % Darwan C has the lowest viscosity, near Newtonian behavior and lowest
settling height and is the optimum dispersant amount. In the case of Sodium hexa metaphosphate, 1 wt % could lead to stable
dispersion. Optimized slurry formulation can be used for fabrication of monomorphs and multilayer actuators which can be
used in transducer assemblies, micro and nano positioning devices and vibration cancellation of aircraft wings.
REFERENCES
1 Nisanart Traiphol, Journal of Ceramic Processing Research. Vol.8, No2, pp.137 – 141 (2007), “ Effects of ball milling
time and dispersant concentration on properties of lead zirconate titanate aqueous suspension for tape casting”
2 Zeng Yuping, Jian Dongliang, Peter Greil, Journal of the European Ceramic Society 20 (2000) 1691-1697, “Tape
Casting of aqueous Al2O3 slurries”
3 D.Hotza, P.Greil, Materials Science and Engineering A202 (1995) 206-217, “Review: aqueous tape casting of
ceramic powders”
4 Jian-Huei Feng, Fatih Dogan, Materials Science and Engineering A283 (2000) 56-64, “Aqueous processing and
mechanical properties of PLZT green tapes”
5 C. Pagnoux, T.Chartier, M. de F. Granja, F.Doreau, J.M.Ferreira and J.F. Baumard, Journal of the European Ceramic
Society 18 /(1998)241-247, “ Aqueous suspensions for tape casting based on acrylic binders”
6 Richard E.Mistler, Ceramic Bulletin, Vol.69, No.6, 1990 1022-1026, “Tape Casting: The basic process for meeting
the need of the electronics industry”
7 K.G.Vasanthakumari, A.P.Denny, K.Sasidharan, G.Unnikrishnan and N.Raghu, Proceedings of ISSS 2005/SA-17,
International Conference on Smart Materials Structures and Systems, SA-129, “Piezoelectric and electrostrictive
multilayer actuators”

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CHARACTERISTICS OF 3-3 POROUS PZT COMPOSITES

EVALUATED BY FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
S Premkumar, B Praveen kumar, HH Kumar, DK Kharat
ABSTRACT
Porous lead zirconate titanate (PZT) composites are significant for underwater sensing and ultrasonic medical
applications. These materials have high hydrostatic figure of merit and low sound velocity, which leads to trimming down
the acoustic impedance and enhanced coupling with water. In this work, the porous PZT composites were synthesized by
BURPS (BURnable Plastic Spheres) process. The structure and electrical impedance spectrum of porous PZT discs were
evaluated experimentally in the frequency range 100 Hz to 100 kHz. The structural and electrical characteristics of porous
PZT composites were analyzed by using finite element modeling (FEM) through ANSYS software. Due to the complex
structure of porous PZT, one quarter of the 3-dimensional real structure was developed for analyzing the electrical
impedance as a function of frequency in the range 100 Hz to 100 kHz. The modeling studies are validated by experimental
results and represented in the paper. This study recommends that the transducer parameters can be optimized using
modeling to achieve better performance. The absence of sharp resonance peaks in the impedance spectrum indicates the
weaker coupling of the structure and higher losses. These materials find potential applications in the field of high
frequency ultrasound because of its high spatial resolution consequent upon short wavelength.
KEYWORDS: Porous PZT, FEM, Impedance, Composite
1. INTRODUCTION
The utilization of piezoceramics in the form of composite has drawn considerable attention in recent years due to
the improvement in some of the piezoelectric properties. Piezocomposites with various connectivities were studied
extensively [1] and among them 1-3, 2-2 and 3-3 connectivites have been found to be more useful for transducer
applications [2-4]. Porous piezoelectric materials can be classified as 3–3 piezocomposites when both the piezoelectric
phase and porosity are interconnected, as occurs in porous materials with open porosity. These materials are of interest as
they have a number of possible advantages like low density, low acoustic impedance, and high figure of merit over dense
piezoceramics, particularly for underwater sensing and ultrasonic medical applications [5]. Incorporation of porosity into
the piezoceramics reduces the sound velocity and impedance value near to water/air and thus impedance matching can be
achieved. Hydrostatic strain coefficient, dh, increases with increase in porosity. This generates higher electrical charges per
unit hydrostatic force. Permittivity 33 reduces with porosity and enhances the hydrostatic voltage coefficient, gh = dh/33,
which is a measure of electric field generated per hydrostatic stress. With increase in dh and gh porous PZT composites
have high figure of merit which is a product of dh.gh [6].
Porous PZT composite properties such as hydrostatic voltage & strain coefficients and figure of merit are strongly
related with the porosity volume fraction [6]. Various methods like lost wax, foam reticulation and Burnable Plastic Spheres
(BURPS) are employed to obtain porous PZT composites [7,8] with different pore size, shape, morphology and volume
fractions. Porous PZT composites with various porosity volume fractions synthesized by BURPS process and its properties
will be presented here.
Several analytical methods are available to model the behaviors of porous PZT composite. But most of them use
certain assumptions that limit the application of the theories to simple structures. To overcome that, finite element methods
(FEM) was employed and it is useful to analyze the dynamic behaviors of complex structures such as porous PZT composites.
Most of the FEM analyses so far worked out were utilized to study the materials properties. However, the impedance
characteristics of these materials have not been studied extensively [9]. The FEM package, ANSYS, was used for modeling the
3-dimensional structure porous composite and to study the impedance spectrum using harmonic analysis. The FEM result was
compared with experimental data and thus further utilization of FEM for geometry optimization will be discussed in this paper.

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2. EXPERIMENT
In this work, PZT-5A developed at our centre was used as a base material. Porous PZT composites were prepared by
BURPS process. These structures can be treated as 3-3 porous PZT composites, with the second phase as air. The densities of
the sintered specimens were measured from its mass and dimensions. The sintered specimens were then poled by corona poling
technique. Copper foils were applied as electrodes on the specimen to measure the dielectric properties. To study the
microstructure, scanning electron micrographs of the sintered specimens were recorded by using the scanning electron
microscope, Quanta 200 (FEI, Netherlands). A 3-dimensional porous PZT composite with 30% pore volume was modeled and
electrical impedance analysis was carried out as a function of frequency using FEM package, ANSYS. The impedance of
porous PZT composite was measured experimentally using HIOKI 3532-50 LCR HiTESTER.

Structural studies
The reduced density of the porous PZT composites, compared to the dense PZT material, is preferably used in
improving the acoustic impedance matching with water or body tissues over which the homogeneous PZT material is used as a
sensing device. This property is essential in the designing of underwater transducer for effective conversion of mechanical
energy to electrical energy. Fig. 1 shows the porosity and density as a function of the weight percentage of PMMA added in the
basic PZT 5A material, when sintered at 1270 C for 1 h. It is seen that as the PMMA content in the calcined PZT powder is
increased, the porosity of the sintered specimen also increases and the density is decreased. Porosity was calculated by using
equation (1)
Porosity (P) = (1- /o) x 100 (%) (1)
where is the density of porous PZT composite and o is the theoretical density of PZT (7.9 g/cc). From the above measured
results, material with 30% porosity is chosen for FEM study because of its optimal density and porosity values.
8
D ensity
P orosity 50
40
Density (g/cc)
6
Porosity (% )
30
20
4 10
0
10 20 30 40 50
PMM A (wt% )
Fig. 1. Effect of PMMA on density and porosity Fig. 2. SEM of 30% porous PZT composite
Fig. 2. shows the scanning electron micrographs of the fracture surfaces of unpoled specimens with 30% porosity
sintered at 1280C for 1 h respectively. The picture reveals that moderate amount of porosity in which the structure high 3-3
connectivity structure. The SEM indicates the effect of porosity and 3-3 connectivity in the material structure.
Finite Element Modeling
The porous PZT composite has complex structure because of its interconnected PZT phase and porosity that cannot
be modeled in 2-dimension. Hence a 3-dimensional model is used to characterize the porous PZT composite. Unlike the
general practice of modeling unit cell representation for porous structures, the porous PZT composite with 30% pore volume
fraction is modeled close to the practical structure despite the requirement of prolonged computing time and large memory
space. Porous composite is symmetric with the two perpendicular planes, hence a quarter is modeled to represent the whole
disc with symmetry boundary conditions applied on the xy and zy plane as shown in Fig.3. Three-dimensional coupled-field
elements (Solid 227), which include both mechanical and electrical degree of freedom, are used to build the PZT phase. The
material parameters used for this analysis is shown in Table.1. The thin electrodes are neglected in the model. However, the

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potential difference of 1 V is applied to the two major surfaces to simulate the physical conductive behaviors of the
electrodes. Using harmonic analysis the electrical impedance responses are simulated in the frequency range 100 Hz to 100
KHz.
Fig. 3. Model of porous PZT composite Table 1. PZT materials properties used for FEM
with 30% pore volume fraction used for FEM
Material Parameter Value
10 2
Elastic Coefficient 10 N/m
CE11 12.1
CE12 7.54
CE13 7.52
CE33 11.1
CE44 2.11
CE66 2.26
Piezoelectric coefficients
2 -5.35
C/m
15.7
e31
12.29
e33
e15
3 7500
Density kg/m
Dielectric Constant
KT1 1730
KT3 1700
Electrical Studies
Fig. 4. shows the impedance result of porous PZT composite obtained from FEM and the experimental data measured
using HIOKI 3532-50 LCR HiTESTER. The impedance values decreases with increase in frequency. Both the values follow
similar trend through out the frequency range of analysis. The absence of sharp resonance peaks in the impedance spectrum
indicates the weaker coupling of the structure and higher losses. It is also inferred from the figure that resonance peaks
corresponds to the radial-mode vibrations are weakened to a large extent for porous PZT composites, because of this receiving
sensitivity of material found to be reasonably flat over a wide frequency range. This potential feature of this material makes it
highly useful for wide-band response, rapid ring-down of signals (high resolution) and high sensitivity applications.
1.00E+08 ANSYS
1.00E+07 Expt
1.00E+06
Impedance Ohms
1.00E+05
1.00E+04
1.00E+03
1.00E+02
1.00E+01
1.00E+00
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000
Frequency Hz
Fig. 4. Impedance spectrum of porous PZT composite with 30% pore volume fraction.

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4. CONCLUSION
A 3-dimensional model of 3-3 porous PZT composite with 30% pore volume fraction has been developed and an
impedance analysis also been performed in the frequency range 100 Hz to 100kHz by FEM. The results are compared with
experimentally prepared 3-3 porous PZT composite with 30% pore volume fraction using BURPS process. The electrical
impedance evaluated by FEM and experimental results agree well with no significant resonance peak. These kind of porous
composites are usable in applications where a wide band response is required and as voltage source for armament applications.
This comparison suggests further that the FEM can be used to optimize the design of porous composite with variables such as
pore volume fraction, morphology, orientation etc., to achieve desired performance and to design transducers.
REFERENCES
1 R.E. Newnham, D.P. Skinner, L.E. Cross, Connectivity and piezoelectric–pyroelectric composites, Mat. Res. Bull 13
(1978) 525–536.
2 L. Bowen, R. Gentilman, D. Fiore, H. Pham, W. Serwatka, C. Near, B. Pazol, Design, fabrication and properties of
sonopanel 1–3 piezocomposite transducers, Ferroelectrics 187 (1996) 109–120.
3 Q.M. Zhang, J. Chen, H. Wang, J. Zhao, L.E. Cross, M.C. Trottier, A new transverse piezoelectric mode 2–2
piezocomposite for underwater transducer applications, IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelec. Freq. Control 42 (1995)
774–781.
4 S. Marselli, V. Pavia, C. Galassi, E. Roncari, F. Cracium, G. Guidarelli, Porous piezoelectric ceramic hydrophone, J.
Acous. Soc. Am. 106 (1999) 733–738.
5 K. Ina, T. Mano, S. Imura, K. Nagata, Hydrophone sensitivity of porous Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 ceramics, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys.
Part I 33 (1994) 5381–5384.
6 B. Praveen Kumar, H.H. Kumar, D.K. Kharat, Effect of porosity on dielectric properties and microstructure of
porous PZT ceramics, Mat. Sc. and Eng. B 127 (2006) 130-133
7 C.R. Bowen, A. Perry, A.C.F. Lewis, H. Kara, Process and properties of porous piezoelectric materials with high
hydrostatic figures of merit, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 24 (2004) 541-545.
8 B. Praveen Kumar, H.H. Kumar, D.K. Kharat, Study on pore-forming agents in processing of porous piezoceramics,
J. Mat. Sci.: Mat. in Elec. 16 (2005) 681 – 686.
9 R. Ramesh, H. Kara, C.R. Bowen, Finite element modeling of dense and porous piezoceramic disc hydrophones,
Ultrasonics 43 (2005) 173-181.

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PIEZOELECTRIC POLYMER 0-3 COMPOSITE FOR

POWER HARVESTING APPLICATION FOR ARMAMENT SYSTEM
HH Kumar, PV Koparkar, CM Lonkar, DK Kharat
Shailesh M Kolhe
North Eastern Hill University, Shillong-793022
ABSTRACT
The composite of Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) type 5A material and silicon rubber polymer in the form of film was
made at 190oC by hot press technique and under pressure 3.8 MPa. The film of about 1 - 1.2 mm thickness was fabricated using
various ratios ranging from 30/70 vol % to 70/30 vol % of PZT / Silicon rubber. All samples were made by adding a small
amount (1.5 vol %) of graphite into the composition. Further, the metallic electrodes were adhere on the surface of sample. It
was characterized for dielectric and electrical properties at various temperatures ranging from room temperature to 200 0C and
under variable frequency ranging from 1 kHz to 10 MHz. It was observed that a substantial increase in piezoelectric constant
(d33) takes place from 5 pC/N to 43 pC/N on increasing volume content of PZT in composite. This observation was supported
by an accelerated increase in remnant polarisation (Pr )and spontaneous polarisation (Ps) as observed in ferroelectric (P-E)
loop. Phase of sintered PZT powder was confirmed by XRD technique and PZT particles distribution in composite was
verified by SEM. This paper deals with the single and multilayer composites, which were tested for their electric power
harvesting.
KEYWORDS: composite, silicon rubber, piezoelectric
1. INTRODUCTION
Composite materials are mixture of atleast, two phases in which one is filler and another is matrix. Obtaining the
desired properties of these phases in the composite is a crucial task. The fillers are incorporated in the matrix in order to enhance
its physical properties [1-2]. Piezoelectric ceramic/polymer composites are useful for practical applications as they offer
excellent electro-mechanical response of piezoelectric material with excellent mechanical properties of polymer [3]. Hence
these composites are emerging as one of the potential candidates for making efficient devices for sensor application. Ceramic
/polymer composites with 0-3 connectivity patterns are popular because of easy fabrication procedure for mass production at
relatively low cost. 0-3 ceramic polymer composite would exhibit the piezoelectric properties of ceramic and flexibility,
strength and lightness of the polymer [4-5]. Silicon rubber is an important engineering material for excellent properties like
good flexibility; thermal stability form -500C to 2500C; resistance to water, oxygen, ozone and sunlight; low chemical
reactivity and toxicity. Recently, piezo/polymer composites are emerging as potential candidate for making efficient devices
for power harvesting [6-9]. Power harvesting can be described as the use of a device, usually piezoelectric to capture the
mechanical-vibration, ambient energy surrounding a system and convert it into usable electrical energy. The demand for
wearable electronics and wireless sensors is growing now a days. Considerable amount of research is being done on using
surrounding energy as a power supply to small electronics in the area of power harvesting.The present work deals with
investigation of dielectric and piezoelectric properties and useful for electric power generation by 0-3 multilayers composite.
2.EXPERIMENT
Materials, Method And Characterisation

? Preparation of composite PZT / silicon rubber film: PZT type 5A sintered powder of particle size 30-50m was used to caste
composite. Uncured high temperature vulcanizing silicon rubber in the form of semi-solid gum used as a matrix. Graphite
(1.5 %) was used for ease of poling and hence to enhance piezoelectric properties. PZT type 5A material was indigenously
developed at PZT center of ARDE. They were mixed in a suitable solvent at elevated temperature and pour to form a sheet.
Further it was cooled to room temperature for 24 hrs. Aluminum foil of 0.1 mm thickness was adhere on the both surfaces
of sheet to form a capacitive device. Then it was cured in rubber curing machine at 190°C temperature and under pressure
of 39 bar. The 0-3 composite samples in form of disc of 15 mm diameter were fabricated by die punch machine.

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?
Poling: Samples were poled in silicon oil bath at 120°C for 30 min. by applying DC voltage of 3 – 10 kV.
?
Dielectric Measurement: Dielectric and electrical properties of composite were measured as a function of temperature
and frequency. Temperatures were varied from room temperature to 200C and frequency from 1 kHz to 10 MHz using
Broadband dielectric spectrometer of make Novocontrol GmbH, Germany.
?
X- ray Diffraction (XRD) : Perovskite phase i.e. ABO3 of the PZT type 5A powder was confirmed by X ray diffraction
pattern using 'XRD ID 3000' Make- Philips.
?
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): The distribution of PZT and graphite particles in silicon rubber polymer was
examined by a SEM using model JSM-6360A of make JEOL.
?
Ferroelectric behavior: This was examined from ferroelectric hysteresis loop (P-E). It was carried out using 'AIXACT
TF ANALYSER 2000' make MeBtechnik GmbH.

It was observed that dielectric permittivity and dielectric loss decreases with temperature as well as with frequency.
The trends for 50/50 ratio of PZT/silicon rubber polymer is shown in Fig. 1. In our earlier observations [9] graphite doping in
Nylon11/PZT composite played a key role in modulating the dielectric response to a great extent. It was observed that the
addition of graphite to Nylon11/ PZT, dielectric constant increases. This may due to increase in conductivity on addition of
graphite. In such composite high dielectric losses at elevated temperatures are due to increase in the conductance [10]. The
similar type of results in case of PbTiO3 was reported by J.R. Giniwicz et.al. [4]. In present study graphite was added to
PZT/Silicon rubber polymer composite. Silicon rubber has high dielectric constant and PZT particles are not connected to
each other in 0-3 composite hence poling became difficult. Addition of graphite makes rubber conducting and provides the
links among PZT particles which results in ease of poling. It is advantageous in case of power harvesting, because generated
electrical power should not be accumulate in the supporting matrix and hence dielectric loss should be more for better
electrical output. At the same time care should be taken not to exceed the concentration of graphite because at higher graphite
concentration poling will be difficult by enhancing the conductivity at higher temperature, it results in lowering piezoelectric
property. It was also found that dielectric permittivity increases as there is increase in PZT ratio from 30/70 to 70/30. It may be
due to higher dielectric constant of PZT ceramic than silicon rubber in the composite.
6.00E+01 2.00E+00
Eps' 40 DegC
Eps' 80 Deg C
Eps' 120 DegC
5.00E+01 Eps' 160DegC
Eps' 200DegC 1.50E+00
D.Loss40 DegC
4.00E+01 D. Loss80 Deg C
Dielectric Loss
D.Loss120 Deg C
Permittivity
D.Loss160DegC 1.00E+00
D.Loss 200DegC
3.00E+01
5.00E-01
2.00E+01
0.00E+00
1.00E+01
0.00E+00 -5.00E-01
1.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.00E+02 1.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.00E+06 1.00E+07
Frequency (Hz)
Fig 1: Dielectric Permittivity and dielectric loss at various

temperature frequency of 50/50 PZT/silicon rubber polymer

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Distribution of PZT and graphite particles affects the piezoelectric properties of 0-3 composite. The SEM of cross
section of 50/50 ratio composite is shown in, Fig. 2 indicating distribution of PZT particles across rubber material with
adjacent interconnected graphite particles. It provides a continuous electric flux path between PZT particles. This also indicate
the enhanced density of composite material on increase in PZT loading Table I.
Fig 2: Scanning electron microscope of 50/50 ratio PZT/Silicon rubber polymer

Ferroelectric hysteresis (P-E) measured at room temperature (Fig. 3). Both the remnant polarization (Pr) and the
saturation polarization (Ps) increased with the PZT ratio in the composite. It was observed that as the composite with less PZT
ratio, the polarization curves becomes slimmer than higher PZT ratio, indicates that with PZT ratio number of dipoles
increases and may be improving realignment of dipoles in the direction of electric field
Fig. 3: Hysteresis (P-E) loop of the 40/60 (small) and 70/30 (wider) ratio composite
The d33 piezoelectric charge constant was measured using a Berlincourt piezo d33 meter (Channel product Inc). Table
I shows the variation of the piezoelectric constant as a function of PZT content in the composite. There was an increase in the
d33 as well as capacitance, density and dh with increasing the PZT ratio. The results suggest that the increase in PZT content by
10% and the piezoelectric constant increases almost 70% in the composite.
Table I : Properties of PZT/ Silicon rubber polymer composite
Composite d33 Capacitance dh gh Density

Ratio pC/N pC/N mV.m/N
30/70 5 12 0.31 4.76 2.09
40/60 10 21 0.77 6.58 3.61
50/50 21 40 4.7 8.07 4.51
60/40 33 71 6.10 13 4.96
70/30 46 110 8.4 9.26 5.59

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The composite 40/60 was tested for its electrical power generation. It was carried out by method designed to get
human weight pressure on the sample while walking, for that two flat surface attached with hinge was used and sample was
kept between two surfaces. When pressure applied on the flat surface the uniform pressure passed to the sample and the voltage
pulse was generated which was then recorded by Kithely electrometer. The electronic circuit was developed for harvesting
electrical energy using bridge rectifier of about 6 amp and capacitor of 4µF, 62 V. The terminals of capacitor were attached to
electrometer. The single and multiple layers together were tested for its power generation and time for charging capacitor upto
1V was recorded. The results are shown in Table II. The scope of the work is not limited to three layers and the power output
may be enhanced by increasing number of composite layers.
Table II: Electrical Power output of 40/60 PZT/ Silicon rubber polymer
ratio composite with single and multiple layers
Maximum Maximum Power Capacitor

No. of Voltage (V) Current mW Charging
layers peak to peak (m Amp) time (sec) for
P/P 1V
One 15 0.2 3 140
Two 25 0.3 7.5 116
Three 40 0.4 16 80
4. CONCLUSION
Composite containing PZT type 5A/ Silicon rubber polymer adding with graphite was prepared by hot press
method. Addition of small amount of graphite (1.0 vol%) found advantageous towards increasing the piezoelectric property.
Distribution of PZT and graphite in silicon rubber analyzed by SEM. It was also observed that piezoelectric constant increases
from 5 pC/N to 46 pC/N with increase in PZT ratio from 30/70 to 70/30. The power generation in case 40/60 increases with
increasing the layers. It was maximum 16 W for three layers. It indicated that there is scope of enhancement of power
generation by increasing the layers of composite keeping in the view of enhancing current level and overall output. Such
device may be utilized in armament in a 'smart shoes' for powerering small electronic circuit or to operate a digital encoder. It
may be utilised for low power RF signal transmitting system for sending ID code mount in the sneaker and use the energy
extracted from walking to power it without the need for a battery. It may be utilised to sense and classify vehicles by pressure.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors express their deep gratitude to Director ARDE for encouragement to carry out this work and for giving
permission to publish the paper. Authors are also thankful to officers and the staff of PZT center, ARDE, Pune to provide their
technical support.
REFERENCES
1. A. Safari, J. Phys. III France 4,1129 (1994)

2. J. E. Smay, J. Cesarano III, B. A. Tuttle, J.A. Lewis, J. Appl. Phy. ,92(10), 6119 (2002)
3. S. P. Marra, K.T. Ramesh, A.S. Douglas, Comp. Sci. Tech. 59,2163 (1999)
4. J. R. Giniewicz, R. E. Newnham, A. Safari and Dawne Moffatt, Ferroelectrics, 73, 405 (1987)
5. K. H. Lam, H.L.W. Chan, Comp. Sci. Tech. 65,1107 (2005)
6. J. Kymissis, C. Kendall, J.Paradiso, N. Gershenfeld , 2nd IEEE Int. Conf. on Wearable Computing, Drft. 2.0, 1998.
7. T. Starner, J.A. Paradiso, 'Low power electronic Design' Ed. Pigut C. 2004
8. S.R. Plat., S. Farritor, H. Haider, IEEE/ASME Transaction on Mechatrinics, 10 (2) (2005)
9. S.M. Kolhe, M.S. Roy, M. P. Chacharkar, 2nd Int. Conf. On Electroactive polymers, Materials and Devices, Goa, 442,
(2007)
10. W.K. Sakamoto, P. Marin-Franch, D.K. Das-Gupta, Sensors. Actuat. A Phyl.,100,165 (2002).

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USE OF CAD/CAM TECHNOLOGY FOR MANUFACTURING OF

CRITICAL ARMAMENT COMPONENTS
NM Chakradeo, NA Dighe
ABSTRACT
ARDE Pune has CNC milling and Turning machine shop in Prototype Manufacturing Unit (PMU). PMU has enough
manpower and expertise in conventional CNC part programming. There are many complicated components designed to meet
the functional needs of the weapon system. To fulfill the need of complex CNC programming PMU has CAM software. PMU
also successfully implemented full fledge DNC system for the various CNC machines. This paper presents the basic idea of
CAM software and the case studies of some components having complex CNC programming.
1. INTRODUCTION
CAD means design process using sophisticated computer graphics techniques, backed up with computer software
packages to aid in the analytical, development, costing, and ergonomic problems associated with design work.
The main purpose of CAD is to produce the definition of part or system to be manufactured in form of a geometric database or
drawing. This is the link between conceptuality and reality of product.
CAM concerns with any automatic manufacturing process which is controlled by computers. Purpose of CAM is to
translate CAD definition into tangible hardware based on this database. In CAM computer plays many diverse roles, such as
numerical control, process planning, robotics & factory management. This paper discusses the technology of CNC
programming with the help of Unigraphics CAM software and innovative technique of CAM software.
2. FUNDAMENTALS OF CAD/CAM TECHNOLOGY FOR MANUFACTURING

The approach to the Computer Aided Part Programming are divided in three steps
1. Definition of geometry
This is the first step of any design process. In this step we segregate the component shape up in to its primitive
geometric elements. The geometric definition of component is solid model or surface model of the component.
This acts as a basic input to the CAM module.
2. Motion statement
In this step the solid model is used as reference data for generation of Cutter Location file (CL file). Typical
machining data such as cutting tool parameters, machining strategy, spindle speed, feed are entered in this
statement. By processing this data motion statement i.e. CL file is generated. CL file remains same for any make
or model of CNC machine. This element of CAM of is handled by CAM software.
3. Post processor statement
Post processor is the package, which converts the CL file into coded instructions, which is understood by the
CNC machines. Different machine tool manufacturer have different functional interpretation according to type
of machine and CNC control. Every post processor is unique software, suitable for specific CNC machine.
Program processed by post processor is fed to CNC machines with the help of DNC software.
3. ADVANTAGES CAM SYSTEM

1. Programming time is significantly reduced due to the capability of the programming system to accept large
amount of data on machining parameters, process variables, tooling information and other auxiliary functions
related to machine tool.
2. CAM software helps the programmer to visualize the part before it is being machined. This prevents tool crashes or
scrapped material by preventing errors in programme, which manual programmer might have missed.
3. It offers ease of changing and editing programs to accommodate different part families and part configuration.
4. It eliminates the requirement of special jigs & fixtures and templates etc.
5. Ensures higher accuracies of dimensions.
6. Various intricate shapes can be manufactured with reasonable cost and time
7. There is low programming cost due to reduced programming time.

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4. ASSOCIATED DISCIPLINES
Direct Numerical Control Software (DNC)
Direct Numerical control system is a system in which controlling the many number of machines with single
Mainframe Computer.In this system a dedicated computer is used to send the data from PC to CNC machine and vice versa.
Computer generated programs are contains millions of blocks. To run such lengthy programs we need a strong
communication system from PC to CNC machine. So DNC system helps to perform such communication. Present DNC
system of our CNC shop can send the data to 8 different CNC machines simultaneously.
CNC Tooling
For implementing CAD/CAM system in manufacturing only software's are not enough. We need latest range of CNC
toolings for better programming. With wide range of Tool Holders, Inserts we can use different programming strategies to get
desired surface finish and accuracy with least machining time. PMU has all latest update of tooling for machining of hardened
materials & super alloys.
5. CASE STUDY NO-1 : MANUFACTURING OF CONTROL MOUNT

Control Mount is a very critical component with complex features of Cannon Launched Guided Missile (CLGM) Project.
Control Mount was having curved surfaces, cylindrical protrusions and 3D profiles with interrelated references. The job
involves creation of ribs of 9mm thickness removing external material by milling (Outside Diameter of Job was 115mm).
The job was having small motor mounting lugs with close tolerated. The geometry was also complex due to combination of 2D
& 3D profiles. To manufacture this job CNC machine required very complex CNC milling program. Such CNC program
contains several thousands of programming blocks and it is not possible to write such complex programs manually. So with the
help of CAM software we generated the CNC programs for such jobs.
We used Ideas-11 CAD software for model modification & Unigraphics NX-3 CAM software for CNC milling program
generation for the first time in ARDE
Steps in Machining
1. 3D solid Modeling of the component readily given by design group.
2. Modification in component solid model to suit the machining environment.
3. 3D modeling of raw material (Blank).
4. Transfer the component model & blank model to the CAM software through standard CAD translators.
5. Deciding Job set up, Tool selection, machining strategies etc.
6. Setting machining parameters such as cutting speed, feed, depth of cut.
7. Programme (CL file) generation through Unigraphics CAM software.
8. Post processing the programs to suit the desired CNC machine.
9. Job and tool setting on CNC machine as per programming parameters
10. Transfer of programme to CNC machine through DNC system
11. Actual machining of the job on the machine.
Machining Setup for Control Mount

For holding the job, we designed a stepped blank so that it can be held in CNC controlled dividing head. Center support was
given to the rear end to ensure extremely rigid clamping. All the drilling & profile milling on the periphery is performed in
horizontal setting. Use of CNC dividing head ensured angular accuracy of the drilling plan.

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Achievements During Machining

1. With 23 programs we finished the entire job with in 36 machining hrs. All these programs were run by indexing the
job as per requirement.
2. All the dimensional tolerances & surface finish requirements specified on drawing were achieved.
3. Absolute no rejection of component & there is no tool collision during machining.
latest toolings were used to get desired surface finish.
4. The job was oriented in such a way that desired surface finish lay requirements were achieved.
5. Efficient use of feed rate at the time of cutter engagement, cutter retract, cutting & rapid movement during non-
cutting movement was used. Minimum air travel during machining was ensured.
6. With the result reduction in machining time from 85 hrs (with conventional method) to 36 hrs.
Now the setup of CNC machine shop of PMU is geared up to manufacture the variety of jobs having complicated 3D profiles.
CNC MILLING PROCESS PLAN

First horizontal setting
Sr Type of Number of Type of cutter Speed Feed Machining
no programme programme RPM mm/min time reqd.
1. Drilling programs 1 Various Drills 3 hrs
2. Rouging Programs 3 Dia 20R5 Bull 2500 1200 7 hrs.
Nose cutter
3. Semi-finishing 7 Dia 8 Roughing 1200 80 8 hrs
programs End Mill cutter
4. Finishing programs 7 Dia 6 Ball nose 3500 600 8 hrs
cutter
5. Finishing programs 2 Dia 5 End Mill 800 40 2 hrs
cutter
Second vertical setting
6. Drilling programme 1 Various drills 2
7. Roughing & 2 Dia 5 End Mill 800 40 1.5 hrs
finishing program cutter
Third Vertical setting
8. Drilling programme 1 Various Drills 1.5 hr.
6. CASE STUDY NO -2 : MANUFACTURING OF ADAPTER
Brief About Adapter

ARDE has a project extended range rocket. Adapter is an important component of this project demanding very close
dimensional and geometrical tolerances.
Adapter is a big job of 220mm diameter and about 150mm long made of alloy steel
(EN-24).

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Critical Parameters Of Adapter Manufacturing

1. Close dimensional and Geometrical tolerances
2. High degree of surface finish.
3. Cutting of Buttress Threads
4. Tore spherical contour machining.
5. Machining of deep face grooving with contour.
6. Machining to be done after Heat treatment (Hardness-325 to 375 VPN)
7. Machining of sealing grooves to achieve
perfect thrust chamber sealing

Process Planning
1. Machining of Blank on conventional lathe
2. Rough drilling
3. Roughing of first side
4. Roughing of second side
5. Ultrasonic Testing for Crack detection
6. Heat treatment
7. Finishing of first side
8. Finishing of second side.
9. Drilling on precision drilling machine.
Face grooving with profile was major challenge turning. This operation consist the grooving on the face of the
component. Entire profile of face grooving is important operation in order to maintain constant wall thickness.
For face grooving type of operation for every single cut we have to plunge the tool in to the component and perform the
machining.
For plunging a tool, which have high hardness and very good toughness. The grades from IC908 are the perfect solution
for the operation. This type of inserts operation requires highly optimized cutting parameters. For such profile no standard
tools was available. Form tool from HSS cannot be used because of high hardness of the job.
The tool required to manufacture this operation is available with any standard tool manufacturer company. Hence we
accepted the challenge to modify the standard tooling and change their orientation as per our operational requirement. But
only modification of standard tooling was not sufficient.
Normally CNC machine can understand only standard tooling system. So the programming with modified standard
tooling was new challenge. The programming with Zero Shift method was used. In this program 8 different tools with
different tool orientation, 8 coordinate shift became very complex situation. But skillful handling of CNC machine,
experience in CNC turning & support of latest tooling resulted in very good surface finish of a job.
The unique combination of CAM program for roughing operation performed on CNC milling machine and finishing in
CNC turning operation. This strategy saved a lot of time and tooling cost.
REFERENCES
1. CNC programming Techniques by Peter Smith.
2. CAD/CAM by Zimmer & Groover.
3. Iscar Cutting Tool Catalog.

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MANUFACTURING OF BARREL FOR 40 MM UNDER

BARREL GRENADE LAUNCHER (UBGL)
NM Chakradeo, NADighe
ABSTRACT
Paper is based on successful manufacturing of barrel for 40 mm Under Barrel Grenade Launcher, which fits on
INSAS and AK 47 Rifle. Paper contains manufacturing process of barrel in CNC shop of Prototype Manufacturing Unit
(PMU). For barrel manufacturing we used innovative idea & optimum use of capability of Maho CNC milling machine.
Paper contains different programming features for the completion of job. It also contains details of special slotting
tool designed and developed for cutting helical grooves. The paper explains a manual part program made to finish the job on
CNC milling machine.
1. INTRODUCTION
Barrel is most critical and important component in any armament system.
Generally barrel is made of steel with different manufacturing processes such as
Cut method, Button rifling, Hammer rifling, Profiling etc.
In any barrel the bore and groove dimensions have to be
uniform down the length of the barrel, the twist rate should be
generally uniform and the groove circle should be concentric
with the bore.
Barrels are manufactured on special purpose machines.
The entire setup for barrel manufacturing is established for
parameters. So this costly setup of Barrel Manufacturing machine is not feasible both technically and economically.
2. PROCESS
The requirement of material for UBGL barrel is high strength aluminum alloy. Machining of aluminum barrel was a
challenging job for PMU, since the job involved machining of six internal helical grooves of 1200 mm lead.
To ensure above geometry we used 5 axis Maho CNC milling machine.
The width of the slot was 17.1mm and bore diameter was 40.8mm. The overall length of the barrel was 300mm initially
which was increased to 350 mm subsequently When it was decided to take up this job in PMU, different options were
considered.

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Fig.2. Tool Holder & Tool
In PMU we have one CNC controlled hydraulic slotting machine. But this heavy-duty machine is not capable for
slotting operations on such small diameters. Then we decided to manufacture this job on CNC milling machine. CNC Machine
can accommodate the design change and special fixtures are not required to hold the job. So we decided to manufacture the barrel
on CNC milling machine with rotary table. The internal diameter of the job on which riffling has to be done was very small. So
use of live tool was not possible. On slotting machine, tool does not rotate but only moves in linear direction. In milling machine,
tool has rotary motion. So to cut internal helical grooves on CNC milling machine, rotary motion of spindle has to be locked.
Length of job was 300 mm. Figure No-1 shows the profile of barrel internal grooves.
A unique feature of Maho Milling machine is its capability of spindle orientation, which was used for cutting of helical
grooves.
Cutting of helical grooves requires simultaneous motion of rotary axis and one linear axis. We used Maho 5 axis milling
machine, which has required traverses suitable for machining of the job. Important feature of spindle orientation of Maho
milling machine helped us to cut helical grooves accurately.
A form tool made up of HSS was manufactured on CNC Wire cut EDM machine. This ensured the correctness of the
profile. To hold this form tool a special boring bar was manufactured. Figure 2 shows the drawing of form tool. During
machining no coolant was required to be provided as the groove depth was very less i.e. 0.26 mm only. Job was machined using
following manual part programme.
MANUAL PART PROGRAMME FOR UBGL BARREL MACHININIG
%PM
O9001
N1 G18 ------- Machining plane selection.
N2 G55 ------- Definition of Job zero offset.
N3 S50 T42 M6 ------- Spindle speed,tool number& tool loading.
N4 G0 X0 Y10 Z1.5 B0 M3 ------- Initial positioning.
N5 G1 Y5 ------- Initial positioning at safety distance.
N6 D225 M19 ------ Spindle orientation at specific location.
N7 M5 ------ Spindle stop.
N8 G91 Z-1.6 F50 ------ Positioning of tool to take depth.
N9 G1 Y-274 B-82.2 F200 -------Actual cutting of helical groove.
N10 Z1.6 ------- Tool taken back after first slot machining.
N11 Y274 ------- Tool to initial position.
N12 B22.2 ------- Tool set for next groove cutting.
N13 G14 J5 N1=8 N2=12 ------ Repetition for next 5 grooves.
N14 G90 ------ Switch over to absolute mode.
N15 M30 ------ End of programme.

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ADVANCES IN SPRING MATERIALS FOR

ARMAMENT APPLICATION
CJ Dharia
Anant Industries, Pune
ABSTRACT
Spring is one of the highly stressed components where extreme durability and resistance to
permanent set are most crucial for weapons etc. Many researchers over the years are developing steel
which will give higher fatigue strength and higher sag resistance (i.e. higher hardness and toughness
together).
Conventional alloy spring steels are generally a combination of Si-Mn (EN45), CrV (EN47) or Chrome
silicon which was originally developed for recoil springs in anti aircraft guns where high resistance to
shock loads and long life is needed. As these steels have limitations in terms of hardenability coupled
with toughness and life, there was a need to introduce new steel. Aim was to increase Silicon which
resists softening of steel during tempering and reduces the amount of vanadium to improve toughness.
Further study on the optimization of chemical composition led to the development of Si-Cr-V steel in the
1990s, in which higher Cr content increases the strength and Si was increased to improve softening
resistance. As a result, steel with nearly double the fatigue strength and half the sag loss, increased
tensile and reduced susceptibility to cracking was introduced. Toughness of the spring was also
increased.
Introduction of these materials in the market is slowly increasing in last decade and so is its awareness
amongst the regular users in automobile industry. It is now needed to be looked into by our defence
sector also to review the DEF103, which is the theme of this paper. Some case studies are also presented.

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EFFECT OF FRACTURE TOUGHNESS AND CHARPY

IMPACT VALUE ON IN-BORE STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
OF KE PROJECTILES
Bora Muralidhar, SM Nirgude, Maryala Ashok Kumar
ABSTRACT
Tungsten heavy alloys are used for kinetic energy penetrators which are in turn used as anti tank ammunition. The
mechanical properties of the alloys are governed by composition of W, Fe, Cu etc and also upon the thermo mechanical
treatment. The properties like UTS, %E and fracture toughness of the material affect the functioning and launching of the
projectile. The malfunctioning of the round affects the gun and reduces the first round hit probability there by increasing the
threat. A mathematical model was developed to determine the fracture toughness of KE penetrators when it is subjected to
pressure and inertial loads during launching. The theoretical Charpy impact value has been determined using mathematical
equation which relates KI and Charpy value. A case study on tank ammunition KE penetrators has been presented in the
paper. Few samples of penetrators were also manufactured with the theoretical Charpy impact value determined by the
mathematical model and the same was evaluated by firings which revealed an improved performance of penetrator.
1. INTRODUCTION
The kinetic energy shot consists of a solid mass of dense material carefully shaped to provide good penetrative
performance at the targets. It does not have fuze, but it contains a built in tracer at its rear, so that the path of the projectile can
be observed by the firer. The principle of this form of attack is to hit the target with a shot which possesses high amount of
kinetic energy concentrated over a small area.
It is a two piece ammunition consisting of Primary & Secondary which is loaded into the gun as shown in the fig 1.
Any FSAPDS ammunition consists of mainly projectile/shot and propulsion system. The shot consists of Penetrator, Sabot
& Tail Unit and the propulsion system, consisting of propellant, combustible cartridges, steel base and primer. On ignition of
primer the propellant deflagrates and develops high pressure, this high pressure forces the shot to achieve muzzle velocities
in the order of 1600 m/s. As the shot exits the muzzle, the outer body (sabot) gets discarded and the penetrator with a velocity
of 1600 m/s hits the target and causes damage in the form of penetration. The functioning of FSAPDS ammunition is
illustrated in fig 2.
Fig 1. Loading of Ammunition inside the Gun
Discarding of sabot Penetrator in Flight Defeating of Armour
Fig 2
Fig 3
FSAPDS Shot

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2. DESCRIPTION OF SHOT
FSAPDS shot consists of sabot which is made up of three separate petals, a high density tungsten alloy penetrator,
rubber seal, obturating band and a tail unit for stabilisaton. Buttress threads/grooves have been machined on the ID of sabot
and OD of penetrator, which transfer the propellant energy to the penetrator.
3. MATHEMATICAL MODEL
List of Symbols
m , ms =
mass of projectile
Pc =
Chamber pressure
Pb =
Base pressure
c= charge mass
Ab = Area of the bore
&
z&
= Acceleration of projectile
s stress in penetrator
zp =
r
p =
density of penetrator
u volume of penetrator
p =
radius of the penetrator

Rp =
t= shear stress
Ap = Area of penetrator
s stress in the penetrator at the begning of sabot
0 =
s
x ,s
y ,s
z =
stress in respective direction
t shear stress
xy =
s
1,s
2 =
principal stress
KI =
stress intensity factor (SIF)
Fracture toughness of material
K Ic =
a= defect size
CV = charpy impact value
d= diameter
l=length of sabot
Projectile loading: The projectile must be designed to survive the most severe loading conditions, it is likely to experience.
Since the major forces acting during the interior ballistic cycle are the propellant gas pressure and the resultant inertial body
forces. The projectile has to be designed to withstand maximum pressure which occurs when the temperature condition is
maximum. The pressure is maximum in the chamber of the gun and the projectile does not actually experience this pressure,
since it has begun to move down the tube by this time on the pressure time curve. The inertial effects of the propellant grains and
combustion gases moving out of the chamber, into the barrel, result in damping of the maximum pressure acting on the base of
the projectile.

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Assumptions for Stress Analysis

1. Gun Tube is perfectly straight
2. Balloting of projectile is absent
3. Lateral loads due to balloting were not considered
4. Absence of driving band pressure and friction
5. No slip condition between sabot and penetrator
Base Pressure of projectile

The pressure experienced by the projectile can be determined as follows:
æc ö &
Pc Ab = ç m+ z&
÷
è2 ø
Pc (1)
Pb =
c
1+
2m
Pb Ab
&
z&= (2)
m
Using the above relations 1 and 2 the base pressure and acceleration of projectile has been determined.
Consider the free body diagram of penetrator and sabot:
Fig 4
Penetrator free body diagram
pv p &
r z&
Fig 5 Penetrator free body diagram

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ds zp
R p 2s
p zp +
rv
p p
&
&
z =
2pR p z
D t
+R
p p
2
(szp + z)
D
dz
Which reduces to
d zp 2t
p &
=&
r z - (3)
dz Rp
Shear stress in penetrator
Shear Force =
Pb ( Ab - ms &
Ap ) - z&
Area =
p
xdxl
Sher force
t
=
Area
On integrating the expression no.3, which yields to
2t
s
zp =p&
(rz&
- )z +
s0 (4)
Rp
The axial stress in the penetrator is thus the linear function of z, its value at the beginning of the sabot is
4. Fracture Mechanics: LEFM (Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics)
The stress field around the crack is given by the following relations:
s
y r d
x&d
y
q
s
x
s 1
s
s
=
(
a)
p 2 qæ q
cos ç
1-
3q
sin sin ÷
ö
x 1
(r)
2p 2 2è 2 2ø
1
s(
a)
p2 qæ q 3qö
s
y =1 cos ç
1+
sin sin ÷
(r)
2p2 2è 2 2ø
1
t
s (
pa) 2 q 3q
xy =1 sin cos
(2pr) 2 2 2
for plane strain
s z =
n sx+
()s y
s 0, for plane strain
z =

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The shear stress is zero for plane q =0. It means that for q =0 the stresses s
x and
sy are the principal stresses s 1 and s2. the third principal stress is always
perpendicular to the plate sz @s3 . The principal stresses can be determined from
Mohr’s circle which are
2
s
x + s
y s
æx -
s
y ö2
s
1,s
2 = ± ç
ç ÷
+
÷t xy
2 è2 ø
Substituting , s
x ,s xy in the above equation and also K I =
y and t sa
p
Stress intensity factor and critical stress intensity factor

KI is called stress intensity factor (SIF) which is a function of stress () and crack length a. If SIF of a crack reaches or
exceeds the upper limit (with or with an increase of crack size) of stress intensity factor the crack may grow. The upper limit is
known as critical stress intensity factor which is a material property and is usually denoted by KIc which is called fracture
toughness of a material. KI (SIF) is a parameter which measures the severity of stress at crack tip and K IC is the limit of SIF, if SIF
exceeds beyond critical stress intensity factor, the crack will propagate and the material will fail.
Stress Concentration
In tungsten alloy penetrator stress concentration can occur at the root of the thread and also it may happen due to the
inherent defect. In the present paper, fracture toughness has been determined for root of the thread.
5. STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR (SIF) FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

K I was determined for the thread assuming a defect of size a as shown in the figure bellow
The thread in the penetrator is assumed as cracked round

bar under tension.

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6. RELATION BETWEEN CHARPY AND KI

From the empirical relation available in the metal testing hand book, the Charpy value has been determined approximately as
follows:
2
ì
ï æKI ö 1 ü
ï
CV = s í ç÷ + ( 0 .01) ý (5)
ï
î ès ø 64 ï
þ
J
CV =
cm 2
K Ic =
Plane strain fracture toughness in MPa m
Stress / Yield strength in MPa
s
=
7. CASE STUDY
A case study has been presented for KE penetrator of diameter 26mm propelled with a chamber pressure of 485MPa.
Using the expression no 4 the axial stresses as a function of z can be determined, with the assumption of high strain rate, the
static stresses were calculated by dividing the dynamic stresses with a factor of 2 and with acceptable factor of safety the
working stresses were calculated. From the working stresses, stress intensity factor (KI) can be found and substituting the KI
value in the above expression, the Charpy value has been determined.
Axial stress in penetrator (MPa) with factor of safety

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Fracture Toughness Values Minimum Cv Value required for the penetrator
Z (mm) s (MPa)Axial KI MPaÖ m

stress KI MPaÖ
m CV J/cm2
0 6.1166e+008 15.56 15.56 41.025
0.017556 6.9383e+008 17.65 17.65 48.774
0.03511 7.7601e+008 19.74 19.74 57.498
0.052667 8.5818e+008 21.83 21.83 67.198
0.07022 9.4035e+008 23.92 23.92 77.874
0.08778 1.0225e+009 26.01 26.01 89.524
0.10533 1.1047e+009 28.10 28.10 102.15
0.12289 1.1869e+009 30.19 30.19 115.75
0.14044 1.269e+009 32.28 32.28 130.33
0.158 1.3512e+009 34.37 34.37 145.88
8. OBSERVATIONS
It has been observed that Charpy impact value depends upon the stress levels around the threads/grooves. Penetrator
blanks having Charpy impact value as determined by the model has been used to manufacture penetrator blanks, and as per
ASTM 10x10x55 mm test specimens were manufactured and tested for Charpy impact value and the blanks possessing
maximum impact value have been test fired to check the proper functioning of round. It has been observed that the blanks
having maximum Charpy impact value functioned satisfactorily.
9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my sincere gratitude to Shri Surendra Kumar, Outstanding Scientist, Director ARDE for his valuable
guidance and for providing experimental and other facilities to carry out this study.
REFERENCES
1. Technical report ARBRL- TR 02365: Design of kinetic energy projectiles for structural integrity- W.H Drysdale
2. Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics David Broek , fractu Research Inc. Galena, OH, USA Kluwer
Academic Publishers
3. Elements of fracture Mechanics Prashant Kumar, Professor & Head , Department of Mechanical engineering,
Indian institute of technology, Kanpur India.

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DESIGN OF CARTRIDGE SIGNAL FLARE 26mm

BY USING ALUMINUM CASE
SC Jadhav, BA Parate, LC Moon, Dr. Virendra Kumar
ABSTRACT
ARDE has designed cartridge signal flare 26 mm (Red, Green, Yellow, White) using paper case. Problem of blinds and
case separation observed during production were analysed and cartridge design was modified using Aluminum case in place of
paper case. The CSF 26 mm cartridges made as per new design has passed all Design Qualification Trials and User Trials. This
paper describes the design of CSF 26 mm using Aluminum case and results of performance evaluation. This paper describes in
detail the design of CSF 26 mm and the various exhaustive trials conducted by ARDE for proving the signal cartridges during
development, testing and its performance evaluation by using newly designed Aluminum case, instead of paper case so as to
meet all performance characteristics as per specifications [1]. This paper describes the new design of signal cartridge to suit the
requirements of system, it's testing and acceptance criterion during the developmental trials.
KEYWORDS : Design Qualification Test, Signal Cartridges, Dispenser unit, User Trials, Pyro compositions, Propellant
Actuated Devices.
1. INTRODUCTION
Armament Research Development Establishment (ARDE), the pioneer-developing agency has acquired rich expertise in
design and development of various Power Cartridges required for military Aircraft. Power Cartridges are also known as
propellant Actuated Devices (PADs), which are used to perform various operations where they are installed in aircraft. The
design and development of cartridges and their certification is, therefore, based on principle of technical matching
performance. The cartridge generally consists of means of initiation, booster and main charge i.e. propellant. Power cartridges
are life saving devices. Power cartridge for use in fighter aircraft are being developed and productioned on small-scale basis
and supplied to various users by Armament Research Development Establishment (ARDE), Pune with the available resources
and expertise. These cartridges are one shot operating device and hence requires strict quality control during development and
production. Power cartridges are installed in the aircraft cockpit, and being used to operate various systems. Hence, these
cartridges are required to be designed with utmost care to function with high reliability. The applications of these cartridges
are to jettison the canopy & ejecting the seat with the pilot in an emergency from the endangered aircraft, to drop the weapons /
empty fuel tanks, to have positive separation from the parent aircraft, to extinguish the fire in engine / aircraft in case of
accident and cartridges like cutting the cable, giving distress day & night signal. Signal cartridges are used to give the pre-
coded Signal messages with glowing colours in case failure of Air Traffic Control (ATC) wireless communication set up. The
performance evaluation of these cartridges was required to be carried out using design of CSF 26 mm aircraft dispenser unit
and cart Pyro primer mounted on a firing stand.
2 BACKGROUND
Air Force has projected requirement of indigenous development of Cartridge Signal Flare 26 mm for Trainer Aircrafts,
Transport Aircrafts of Russian origin, Iskara aircraft. ARDE has developed Cartridge Signal Flare 26 mm (Red / Green /
Yellow / White) and supplied to Air Force and Navy. Design of the cartridge was evolved by suitably modifying the existing 1”
Signal Cartridge having cambric paper casing. Design of the cartridge was finalized after successful completion of
development and technical trials at ARDE & Ordnance Factory Dehuroad (OFDR). Provisional Clearance was accorded by
Regional Centre for Military Airworthiness (Air Armament) RCMA(AA) to induct the cartridges into services based on
provisionally sealed paper particulars. OFDR has undertaken production of these cartridges against ARDE indent, using the
cartridge cases supplied by Ammunition Factory Khadki under OCRI(AA) inspection. A few lots were successfully produced
and issued by OFDR in association with ARDE. However, defects like blinds and separation of paper case from the Brass-
Head were observed during production proofs at OFDR during pre ToT phase. Fig 1 shows the photograph of cartridge signal
flare 26 mm(with paper case). The cartridge is made up of camric paper having a pressed star inside the case and brass head at
the bottom. Al mix cap is centrally located in brass head as means of initiation. The cartridge has undergone several design
changes during filling and assembly processes. The problem of case separation and blinds could not be eliminated during these
trials.

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CSF 26 mm (Red) with Aluminum case

Cartridge Signal Flare 26 mm (New design)
with paper case Fig. 2
Fig 1
3. CAUSES OF FAILURES
A detailed study was carried out and the following probable causes of blind star and separation of paper case were
identified.
Blind Star
(i) Priming Composition on the Primed Cambric cloth Disc might be inadequate/ insufficient for picking up the flash
from Booster Charge and Cap. A1 mix
(ii) Opening / Exposure required for Primed Cambric Disc to pickup flash might be less because of less Internal dia of
Tin – Zinc washer of pressed star.
(iii) Air gap required between star and the booster charge may not be adequate for development of flash.
(iv) Turnover of paper case at the top end might not be sufficient enough to hold the star till picking up of flash.
SEPARATION OF PAPER CASE FROM BRASS HEAD

(i) Paper may not be flowing sufficiently into the cavity formed by two mm flange of brass -head during heading
operation. The flowing of paper into the cavity enables the firm grip between paper tube and brass head with the help
of paper wad, pressed inside the case.
(ii) Paper may be getting cut at the corner due to sharp edge during heading/formation of two mm flange, thus detaching
the paper tube from brass head during firing due to impact.
(iii) Excessive turnover could have caused, more built up pressure and hence detachment of paper case from brass head
might have taken place.
4. DESIGN MODIFICATION
ARDE undertook the product improvement in association with OFDR/RCMA (AA)/OCR (AA) to meet the urgent
requirement of Air Force. In spite of various experimentations the lots were getting rejected in past as the problems like Blinds
and Case-separation could not be solved fully. Therefore, it was decided to develop the cartridge using aluminum case in place
of paper case. The uses of certain components were avoided to make the design more robust.
Fig 2 and Fig 3 depicts photograph of newly designed signal cartridge by using Aluminum case and its cross section
respectively. The cartridge ammunition consists of three parts v.i.z primer, Booster gun powder G-12 and star. The selection of
ammunition is explained in the succeeding paras. The cartridge consists of Aluminum case, primer 5.65 as Means of Initiation,
Booster i.e. Gun Powder and Star of Pyrotechnic composition. The cartridge is fired from aircraft dispenser unit. Four
numbers of cartridges are loaded in the dispenser at a time and mounted on firing stand and fired one after another. The order of
firing is pre-coded. Cartridge Pyroprimer (Fuze 39 mm) is used to fire cartridges through the dispenser using 24V DC supply.

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The striker pin hits the primer of signal cartridge. The primer produces the flash and booster gunpowder catches the flash and
ignites the star. On burning of gunpowder the gases are generated inside the case. The gas acts on the star and tends to eject
burning star. The gas generation exerts the force on aluminum top closing disc. The star ejects from the case and star burns in air
for nearly 5 to 10 sec, which gives the distress signal for various applications during emergencies.
Rubber Washer
Top closing Disc
Pressed Star
Al case
Felt Washer
Booster Gun Powder

G-12 2.5g
Closed Primer 5.65
Fig. 4 Cross-section of CSF 26mm with Aluminum case

Fig. 3 Cross-section of Aluminum case
5. AMMUNITION
Selection of Primer
The nature of the primer to be used will be dictated by initiating mechanism. In the case of percussion type initiation,
quality and quantity of explosive composition will be based upon the percussion energy available from the firing mechanism.
It also depends upon the quality and the distance of the booster charge from the primer. The type of explosive composition will
be decided depending on the usage life required. The percussion types of primer are preferred since mechanical firing is more
suitable and reliable in comparison with other methods of initiation.
Material used in percussion primer must have following qualities:
(i) Sufficiently strong to withstand the pin / striker blow, without being pierced, and explosion of the primer composition
(ii) Expand easily to give efficient obturation
Selection of Booster
The most commonly used booster charge is gunpowder in the loose form. Where the quantity of gunpowder required is
large, it is used in the form of pellets in which case powerful primer is required for ignition.
Metallic Case
Design drawing of case has been approved by PRC having Drawing No. ARDE 9882 - Revision 1[4]. Aluminum alloy
HE-30 material has been selected for this one-piece metallic casing to achieve best results, to avoid case separation and to have
proper turnover. Annealing process is applied to cases to give it correct degree of hardness; this may be applied uniformly. The
soft mouth is necessary so that case will start expanding as soon as the pressure rises in the cartridge case where it is positioned.
The hardness of the order of 40 to 60 VPN at 0.5 kg load is maintained at the mouth of case for smooth flow of materials during
turn over operation.

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Modified filling schedule for star

Before star pressing the layers have been suitably modified by conducting shop-tests so as to avoid blinds and to achieve
proper burning time [5].
6. DESIGN QUALIFICATION TESTS (DQT)

In order to prove the acceptability, the indigenous cartridges were subjected to vibration test as per JSG 0102[3]. The
detailed procedure for conducting vibration test is given below.
Procedure for Vibration Test [17U]

Load the cartridges in each of the housing provided in the respective vibration fixtures [Qty 10 Nos of cartridges at a time].
Fix the vibration fixture on the vibrator table using bolts. Fix the accelerometer to the base of the fixture and connect the same
to the recorder. Vibrate the store at ambient condition by using vibration fixture. Sinusoidal vibration with frequency range 5 to
70 Hz at sweep rate not exceeding 1 octave per minute. The vibration level peak-to-peak displacement of 12 mm frequency
range 5 to 11 Hz and constant acceleration of 3 g over frequency range 11 to 70 Hz for 2 and half an hours, followed by random
vibration of uniform spectral density of 0.03 g2/Hz in the frequency range of 70 - 2000 Hz for ½ hours. Change the orientation
and repeat the above procedure. Visual inspection to be carried out after vibration at each orientation. Any cartridge found
defective after vibration test will not be subjected to any further tests. Defective cartridge will be disposed off later in approved
manner. Functioning test was carried out in the dispenser after hot and cold conditioning of cartridges. All cartridges should
function satisfactorily.
Testing And Evaluation Of The Cartridge In Dispenser

After vibration test cartridges were fired through dispenser. Aircraft dispenser is mounted on the firing stand and fixed to
the table with the nuts and bolts. Connect the cable of dispenser to the 24Volt DC supply in 'off' position. Load the signal
cartridges from the bottom side of the dispenser. Position the cartridge and Fuze 39 mm shall be loaded over to cartridges with
the help of spring-loaded clamps. Give readiness of firing to the recording personnel after clearing the firing site. Trial officer
should replace the safety plug after clearance so as to complete the electric circuit of 24-volt DC supply. The electric current is
switched “on” after the order is given. Cartridge is fired and star ejected out. Star starts burning / blowing with illumination of
proper colour in the air after attaining the sufficient height. Measure the burning time of the star with the help of stopwatch. Fig
5 and Fig 6 depicts photos of dispenser unit and cartridge Pyro Primer (Fuze 39 mm) respectively [4].
Fig. 6 Cartridge Pyro Primer (Fuze 39 mm)
Fig. 5 Dispenser Unit

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7. USER / FLIGHT TRIALS
User Trials / flight trials of red colour cartridges were carried out successfully in Oct'07 at No.4 Wing Air Force Station,
Agra on AN-32 transport aircraft from the dispenser unit. All the cartridges functioned correctly and red colour signal was
observed from the aircraft \ ATC. This achieved an important milestone when it successfully test fired from flying aircraft. The
historic event was marked the induction of cartridge in the services after successful flight trials. The successful test firing was
the culmination of the task. The objectives of flight trials were validating the function of the cartridge including its safety.
8. CONCLUSION
Cartridge Signal Flare 26 mm was designed and its performance evaluation successfully tested by using aircraft dispenser
unit in association with Type Approving Authority, viz RCMA (AA), Pune. ARDE has designed and developed signal
cartridge as a nodal agency. The purpose of this design is to ensure that the cartridge should function satisfactorily under all
environmental conditions and thus system performance specifications were met. The defects like blinds in cartridges and the
separation of paper case from the brass head were totally eliminated by adapting a single metallic Al case in place of paper
case. The cartridge was subjected to Design Qualification Tests and User / flight trials. All the trials were found satisfactory. A
lot of qty 90 Nos. were manufactured and supplied to Air Force to meet their immediate requirements & thus avoided
grounding of large transport fleet. Cartridge specifications have been provisionally sealed and issued to OFDR for future
production requirement.
9. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are grateful to Shri. Surendra Kumar, Outstanding Scientist Director ARDE, Pune for providing guidance,
support, encouragement and kind permission to present this work. The authors would like to express their gratitude to Shri AM
Datar, Sc 'G' Associate Director for motivation, support & guidance during the course of this work.
Authors also thank certification agency RCMA (AA), inspection agency OCRI (AA) and user Air force for support during
the course of the work.
Lastly, we would like to deeply thank to GM, Ordnance Factory, Dehu Road, without whose support this work could
never have been completed.
REFERENCES
1. ARDE Specn No. ARDE/SPECN/600 – Revision 1: Specification to govern Manufacture, Inspection, Proof and
Supply of Cartridge Signal Flare 26 mm (Empty assembly)[Sec Ref: 312 D/25-1 to 4]
2. ARDE Specn No. ARDE/SPECN/601 – Revision 1: Specification to govern Manufacture, Inspection, Proof,
Marking and Supply of Cartridge Signal Flare 26 mm (Filled assembly)[Sec Ref: 312 D/25-1 to 4]
3. Service Guide (JSG) 0102: Environmental Testing of Armament stores
4. Joint Drawing No. ARDE 9882-Revision 1
5. Drawing of star filled (Red) (Drawing No. ARDE 9882-Rev 1/Det. 6)
6. DQT results.
7. Flight Trial results.

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Ti-BASED GATE DIELECTRIC ON Si-PASSIVATED

n-GaAs FOR MOSFET APPLICATIONS
T Das, C Mahata, PS Das, A Chakraborty, B Majhi, M.K. Hota, S. Mallick, CK Maiti

IIT-Kharagpur-721302
S.Verma
Institute of Physics, Bhubaneswar 751005
ABSTRACT
Chemical and electrical properties of TiO2 gate dielectrics deposited on n-GaAs by plasma enhanced chemical vapor
deposition (PECVD) from an organo-metallic precursor titanium isopropoxide (TTIP), with ultra thin Si interface passivation
layers (IPL) of 15Å have been investigated. It has been demonstrated that the introduction of thin IPLs effectively suppress the
oxides formation and minimizes the Fermi level pinning at the interface between the GaAs and TiO2.Using Si IPL between
TiO2 and n-GaAs improved electrical characteristics with reasonable interface state density (Dit)(~1012 eV-1cm-2), low
frequency dispersion (<7%) in accumulation capacitance, and low leakage current (~10-6 A) have been obtained compared to
directly deposited TiO2 on n-GaAs.
1. INTRODUCTION
As the end of silicon CMOS scaling is approaching, III-V compound semiconductors such as GaAs, InP, and InGaAs are
receiving special attention as channel material for future generation CMOS technology due to their high carrier mobility, large
energy band gap, and low power consumption than that of Si. However, the main impediment to the fabrication of GaAs based
MOS devices is the lack of thermodynamically stable and high quality native oxides (GaxOy and AsxOy). However, unlike Si, it
is difficult to achieve a stable native insulator by thermal oxidation and native oxides on GaAs are observed to induce high
density of interface traps and cause Fermi-level pinning which detrimentally affects the electrical characteristics of devices
[1]. Use of passivation of GaAs surface with sulfur (Na2S or (NH4)2S) prior to the deposition of gate dielectric in order to
“unpin” surface Fermi Level have been reported [2]. As improvement in device performance depends strongly on the surface
treatment, recently, deposition of several surface nitridation with NH3, AlON and use of thin amorphous Si, Ge, Si/Ge, SiGe
interfacial passivation layer (IPL) seems to be an effective approach on GaAs to reduce the interfacial state density to 1011 cm-2
eV-1 and achieve high quality interfaces [3-6].
In this paper, we have introduced an ultra thin Si interfacial passivation layer formed by rf sputter and show its potential for
passivating n-GaAs surfaces before depositing the TiO2 gate dielectric by plasma enhanced CVD as it has a wide range of
dielectric constant of 10–86 [7].
2. EXPERIMENT
MOS capacitors were fabricated on n-GaAs (100) wafers, uniformly Te doped with a carrier density of ~1x1016 cm-3. The
GaAs samples were cleaned by trichloroethane (TCE), Acetone and Methanol successively for 10 min each, followed by de-
ionized (DI) water rinsed and high purity N2 blow. Subsequently, Dilute HCl (HCl:DI water, 1:10) was used to etch the surface
native oxide. The (NH4OH) treatment is carried out by soaking the samples in (NH4OH) (29%) solution for 3 min in room
temperature to remove native oxide and rinsing in flowing de-ionized (DI) water followed by gently drying the surface using
an N2 blow. The (NH4OH) etching step removes arsenic and gallium oxides from the surface and the surface becomes covered
by elemental arsenic and a tiny amount of gallium sub-oxide. After wet chemical cleaning, the samples were dipped into 40%
ammonium sulfide solution for 10 min to passivate the GaAs surface prior to the deposition of the Dielectric. Titanium tetrakis
isopropoxides[TTIP] [Ti(OC3H7)4] were used as the organometallic sources for the deposition of TiO2 using PECVD in a
microwave (700 W, 2.45 GHz) plasma cavity (0.37 X 0.37 0.26m3) discharge system at a pressure of 66.67 Pa. A reaction
stoichiometry for the formation of gaseous TiO2 is as follows:
Ti (OC3H7)4 = TiO2 + 4C3H6 + 2H2O
For some wafers, an ultra thin layer of Si (15 Å) was deposited by rf sputter system in Ar ambient under 10-6 m.torr gas
pressure prior to TiO2 deposition. S-passivated sample was made without any IPL for comparison. Al metal gate electrode was
deposited by thermal evaporation technique with gate area of 1.96×10-3 cm2. Low resistance ohmic contact was made by using
Au/Ge/Au alloying on the back side of the wafers. Capacitance-voltage (C-V), current-voltage (I-V), was performed by
Agilent E4980A LCR meter and Agilent 4156C precision semiconductor parameter analyzer systems respectively.

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A. Physical Characterisation
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Analysis

Oxidation states of Ga and interface structure between TiO2 and n-GaAs were investigated after S and Si-passivation
prepared using the same process and analyzed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy using the VG ESCALAB 220i-XL XPS
system. The data were obtained using a non-monochromatic AlKá ( hn = 1486.6 eV) excitation source radiation at an angle of
90o between the analyzer axis and the sample normal with pass energy of 10 eV, at a residual gas pressure in the range of 10-10
Torr Figures 1(a) and (b) show the core level Ga 3d spectra after different passivation. From the deconvolution of Ga 3d peak
using Gaussian fitting Ga-As bonds were found at 18.3 eV for all samples. Presence of Ga-O bonds (GaxOy) at 19.8 eV was
found for S-passivated sample where as for Si IPL sample suboxide peak is totally vanished suggests that oxidation of Ga
(GaxOy) has been successfully suppressed by the Si interlayer at the TiO2/n-GaAs interface. Figure 1(c) shows core level Si 2p
XPS spectra of Si-passivated samples. The peak at 100.7 eV is related to Si0 energy states. After deconvolution of Si 2p we
found the suboxide levels of Si at 101.5 eV. Figure 2(a) shows the Ti 2p spectra of deposited TiO2 high-k dielectric layer. The
Ti 2p spectra show two peaks at 458.7eV and 464.5eV binding energy and are both characteristic of fully oxidized value of Ti.
Figure 2(b) illustrates the O1s photoelectron spectra of the as grown film found with two components at 531.7eV and 530.4eV
binding energy. The lower binding energy peak referred to as O1Tis -
O at 530.4 eV is from Ti-O binding.
Figure 1: XPS of deconvoluted Ga 3d after (a) S-passivation and (b) Si-passivation on n-GaAs surface. (c) High-
resolution XPS of Si 2p spectra for Si interfacial passivation layer

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Figure 2: XPS of (a) Ti 2p and (b) O1s and for as deposited TiO2 high-k gate dielectric on n-GaAs.
B. Electrical Characterisation
Figure 3 compares the capacitance-voltage (C-V) characteristics measured from inversion to accumulation of MOS
capacitors with and without Si IPLs on n-GaAs substrates as a function of frequency. It is evident that although the physical
thickness for TiO2/Si stack is thicker than the as deposited TiO2, the value of maximum capacitance in accumulation (Cox) obtained
from the MOSCAPs with Si IPLs is larger than that obtained without IPLs which reveals that the thin Si Interfacial passivation
layer on GaAs efficiently decreases the formation of GaAs oxides and suppresses the low-K interfacial layer growth, and thus leads
to the large accumulation capacitance [8] [9]. The C-V curves for all dielectric stacks deposited on n-GaAs show the frequency
dispersions both in the accumulation and the depletion regions. The amount of frequency dispersions in the accumulation
capacitance are the main indicators of the Fermi level pinning [10] [11], evaluated as ÄCox [ C10kHz - C100kHz ) / C100 kHz ] ´
100%
is shown in the inset of Figure 3 for comparison. The frequency dispersion of 18.42% for directly deposited TiO2 sample was
decreased to 6.52% after Si-IPL passivation which further indicates the suppression of low-k interfacial layer (GaxOy) formation
which was also confirmed by the XPS results. The frequency dispersion in the depletion region is mainly due to the presence of
interface traps which is observed in Figure 3 that insertion of Si IPL improves the interface quality reducing the depletion
dispersion. The flatband voltages calculated for TiO2/n-GaAs and TiO2/Si/n-GaAs was 1.25V and 0.67 V, respectively. These
flatband voltage (Vfb) shifting towards zero bias further indicate that pinning the surface Fermi level has been reduced considerably
after Si passivation [12][13]. Figure 4 illustrates the hysteresis characteristics of the MOS capacitors with and without Si-IPL. The
C-V hysteresis is estimated from bi-directional voltage sweep between -2 and 2 V. The hysteresis for the sample without IPLs is
450 mV, whereas it is 100mV for sample with Si IPL. This result suggests that MOSCAPs without IPL exhibits higher trap sites in
bulk near interface compare to Si IPL sample. The interface-trap density (Dit) determined from the combination of a single
frequency capacitance–voltage (C–V) and conductance–voltage (G–V) characteristics using Hill's method [14]. The expressions
for the interface trap density Dit is given by
(2/ qA)(Gmax / w)
Dit = 2
[(Gmax / wCox ) +(1 - Cm / Cox )2 ]
where Gmax is the maximum conductance in G-V characteristics with its corresponding capacitance Cm, Cox is the oxide
capacitance, ù is the angular frequency and A is the area of the capacitor. It should be noted that the Dit is lower for TiO2/Si stack
on n-GaAs compared to directly deposited TiO2 on n-GaAs. The interface trap densities are 9x1012 eV-1 cm-2 for directly
deposited TiO2; however, the values are reduced to 4x1012 eV-1 cm-2 for TiO2 deposited on Si passivated p-GaAs.

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Figure 4: Hysteresis characteristics of

Figure 3: Typical C-V characteristics of GaAs MOS the MIS structure at 100 kHz for
capacitor at 10 kHz and 100 kHz for TiO2/n-GaAs and TiO2/n-GaAs and TiO2/Si/n-GaAs MOSCAP.
TiO2/Si/n-GaAs MOSCAP Inset shows frequency
dispersion in % for two different structures.
The gate leakage current density versus applied bias (J-V) characteristic for TiO2 /n-GaAs and TiO2/Si/n-GaAs MOSCAPs
is shown in the Figure 5. The leakage current density at Vg=Vfb+1 V is 3.6x10-4 A/cm2 for TiO2/Si/n-GaAs which is about three
orders of magnitude lower than the value of directly deposited TiO2 on n-GaAs, with current density ~ 200mA/cm2 .This high
current density is attained for the sample without passivation due to interface trap assisted tunneling and interfacial oxides
induced lowering of conduction band offset between TiO2 and n-GaAs [15][16]. Therefore, it is anticipated that the formation
of improved interfacial layer and reduced defect inside gate oxide using TiO2/Si gate stack is the cause of large decrease of the
leakage current at low bias voltage.
Figure 5: The gate dielectric leakage current density obtained at VG-VFB = 1 V as a function of applied gate voltage for
TiO2 /GaAs and TiO2 /Si /n-GaAs MOS capacitors.

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4. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we demonstrate the feasibility of deposition and characterization of TiO2 high-k gate dielectrics on S-
passivated, as well as, Si-IPL passivated n-GaAs. XPS results indicate that Si-IPL can effectively suppress the native gallium
oxide formation at the n-GaAs surface. It was confirmed from the C-V characteristics that Si-IPL passivation reduces both the
bulk traps of TiO2 layer and interface trap which play an important role in the flatband voltage shift, hysteresis phenomenon
and leakage current characteristics.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work has been supported by DRDO New Delhi, India.
REFERENCES
1. W. E. Spicer, Z. Liliental–Weber, E. Weber, N. Newman, T. Kendelewicz, R. Cao, C. McCants, P. Mahowald, K.

Miyano, and I. Lindau, J. Vac. Sci.Technol. B 6(1988) 1245.
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3. Hyoung-Sub Kim, Injo Ok, Manhong Zhang, Changhwan Choi, Tackhwi Lee, Feng Zhu,Gaurav Thareja, Lu Yu,
and Jack C. Lee, APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS 88(2006) 252906.
4. Goutam Kumar Dalapati, Aaditya Sridhara,Andrew See Weng Wong, and Ching Kean Chia, Sung Joo and Lee
Dongzhi Chi, APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS 91, (2007)242101.
5. InJo Ok, H. Kim, M. Zhang, F. Zhu, S. Park, J. Yum, H. Zhao, and Jack C. Lee APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS
91(2007)132104.
6. M. H. Zhang, I. J. Ok, H. S. Kim, F. Zhu, T. Lee, G. Thareja, L. Yu, and Jack C. Lee, APPLIED PHYSICS
LETTERS 89 (2006) 042902.
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National Conference On Advances in Armament Technology

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National Conference On Advances in Armament Technology

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N

21-22 Nov 2008

Armament Research & Development Establishment

S1 Aerodynamics & Structures and Inbore, External & Terminal Ballistics

S1.4 Chand KK Understanding Trajectory Modeling via

S1.5 Giri SN, Chand KK Role of Applied Physics & Ballistics in

S1.6 Raj Venkatnarayan, Varadrajan S Weapon Locating Radar

S1.7 Gite LK, Padmanabham M, Joshi DK Parameter Estimation Techniques :

S2 Warheads and Non Lethal Weapons

S2.1 Rajeev Prakash Non Lethal Weapons : Naval Perspective

S2.2 Anguswamy V, Sahu AC Dual Type Fragmentation Warhead

S2.3 Brig. HSN Sastry (Retd) Non Lethal Weapons : Concepts,

S2.4 Dhote KD, KPS Murthy Velocities of Pre-made Fragments in

S2.5 Harikrishnan S, KPS Muthy, Design & Evaluation of a Light Weight

S2.6 Mohammadali Partanian, Analysis of Jet Penetration of Hollow

S2.8 Kamlesh Kumar, Satwinder Singh, Thermobaric Warhead for Under-Ground

S3 Weapons, Launch Technology, SAM, Fuze & Armament Electronics

S3.1 Sen A, Subrahmanyam S, Wahi P, Five-Degree of Freedom Dynamic Wind

S3.2 Rao MV, Mahalingam VS Pinaka Weapon System Integration With

S3.7 Khilare TB Enhancement of Lethality of Rocket

S3.12 Deodhar KD, Kharat DK Hybrid Composite Technology For Gun

S3.13 Sachin Sood, Narasimha Rao G, Development Testing, System Integration

S4 Test & Evaluation and Guidance & Control

S4.6 Saha Subhas, Kolhatkar DR Next Generation of Environmental Testing

S4.7 Bhange Niteen P, Ghosh AK Analytical Method for Predicting Sabot

S4.9 Dr. Fleming R, Dr Gorge McConnell Advanced Miniature Precision Effectors

S4.13 Mathew T, Chandel P, Rajeev Kumar, Impact Studies on Spaced Armour

S5 Modeling & Simulation and Safety, Quality & Reliability

S5.5 Deodhar RS, Anupam Anand Evaluation of Probability Grid Using

S5.6 Philppe Ecolivet Development of Fuzes, Safe/Arm System

NCAAT 2008 III

S5.9 Dr. Rajagopal Chitra Ammunition Storage and Safety Regime

S5.11 Mishra GK Disposal of Life Expired and Regiime

S5.12 Wadhawa KC Fire Safety Aspects of

S5.13 Aguru NK Enhancement of Explosive safety in

S5.14 Bhupinder Sewak, Sharma AC, Numerical Simulation on Explosively

S6 Explosives, Propellants, Pyrotechnics and Propulsion Technology

S6.3 A Sudheer Babu Prediction of Impact Sensitivity of

S6.4 Saji J, Vishwakarma AK, Roy S, Apparao A Development of Aluminised Explosive

S6.5 Daniel R, Danali SM, Kohadkar MJ, Development of Laser Initiated

S6.8 Debnath S, Rohit, VP Ambekar, Studies on Thermal and Structural

S6.9 Swami Umesh, Pralhad RN Estimation of Flow Parameters of

S7 Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Techniques

S7.1 Ramakrishna B, Mishra B, Madhu VT, Perforated Armour : Improving

S7.3 Premkumar S, B Praveen Kumar, Characteristics of 3-3 porous PZT

S7.5 Chakradeo NM, Dighe NA Use of CAD/CAM Technology for

S7.6 Chakradeo NM, Dighe NA Manufacturing of Barrel for "Under

S7.7 Dharia CJ Advances in Spring Materials for

S7.8 B Murlidhar, SM Nirgude, Effect of Fracture Toughness & Charpy

S7.10 Das T, Das PS, Chakraborty A, Ti-based Gate Dielectrics on

EFFECT OF MACH NUMBER ON SUPERSONIC WRAP AROUND

NCAAT 2008 PROCEEDINGS S1.1 / 1

2. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Configuration - I Configuration -II

Fig. 1 : Fin shapes tested for lateral characteristics

Fig. 2 : The comparative variation of Cl , Cy and Cn a

NCAAT 2008 PROCEEDINGS S1.1 / 2

3. RESTRICTED VALIDATION BY FLIGHT TEST

Fig. 3 : Trajectory variables used for estimation of CD

NCAAT 2008 PROCEEDINGS S1.1 / 3

Estimated values of CD are graphically presented in Fig. 4

Fig. 4 : Estimated value of CD as function of Mach Number

NCAAT 2008 PROCEEDINGS S1.1 / 4