PART I: CONTENT UPDATE

SOCIOLOGY AND CULTURE

I. Sociology
A. Definition and History
Sociology is the scientific study of human societies and social behavior.
Scientific study: As in other scientific studies, sociological investigations proceed systemically. Like other
scientists, sociologists investigation begin their work by proposing questions of importance to them, and
then designing a research project that will enable them to ascertain the answers to their major research
questions.
As a social science, sociology is a discipline that is organized methodical, and its endeavors are
undertaken for the purpose of enhancing knowledge.
Human societies: Sociologists examine humans, in particular, groups of humans, in an effort to understand
nature, meaning and significance of human group relationships.
HUMAN SOCITIES AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
Human Societies:
Sociologist is only interested in understanding things relevant to the human experience. They do not examine
nonhuman animal species.
A distinction between studying individuals and studying groups or the interaction patterns of many groups:
Individuals are not the focus of sociology except when they are in a social context; groups are the focus of
sociology.
Social Behavior: Sociologists examine the things that people do that affect others around them or the things
that people do after they have given thought to how others might respond to their acts, especially when the
people are aggregated into groups. Sociology seeks to understand how groups work, how groups influence
one another, and how groups influence the things that individual do.
THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Sociology the scientific study of human societies and social behavior.
Perspective to look through, see clearly, point of view, the capacity to view things in their true relations or
relative importance, mental view.
Sociological perspective:
Sociological perspective enables you to gain a new vision of social life.
Stresses the social contexts in which people live. It examines how these contexts influence peoples lives.
Fundamental question that centers the sociological perspective is, How groups influence people, especially
how people are influenced by their society? Sociologists look at social location to find out why people do what
they do.
Society a group of people who share a culture and a territory.
Social location the corners in life that people occupy because of where they are located in a society (jobs,
income, education, gender, age, etc.).
AUGUST COMTE AND POSITIVISM:
Founder of Sociology (1798-1857) France
Comte was interested in what holds society together. To answer this question properly, he asserted that it is
necessary to apply scientific method to social life. Applying scientific method would uncover the laws that
underlie society. Therefore he coined the term positivism.
Positivism applying the scientific method to the social world. Comte called this new science sociology (the
scientific study of society.
-Comte stressed that this new science not only would discover social principles but also would apply them to
social reform. Sociologist would reform the entire society, making it a better place to live.
-He asserted we must observe and classify human activities in order to uncover societys fundamental laws.
-Religion of humanity/Great Priest of Humanity
Herbert Spencer and Social Darwinism
Second Founder of Sociology (1820 1903) England
-Spencer disagreed with Comte on the purpose of sociology. He believed sociology should not guide social
reform. He asserted that no one should intervene in the evolution of society.
-Spencer thought that societies evolve from lower to higher forms (barbarian to civilize).
-As generations pass, the most capable and intelligent (fittest) members of the society survive, while the less
capable die out (and over time, societies improve).
-Society progress forward and helping the lower classes interferes in this natural process.
-The fittest members will produce a more advanced society
-Spencer coined this principle as survival of the fittest.
-Did not actually conduct studies, he just developed ideas about society.
Karl Marx and Class Conflict
1818-1883 Germany
Major theoretical contribution was the concept of class conflict. He proposed that there is a conflict in industrial
societies among two groups, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Marx suggested that society is a composite of
antithetical (oppositional) forces that generate social change by their constant tensions and struggles with one
another.
Class conflict is the struggle between the owners (bourgeoisie) and the workers (proletariat).
Bourgeoisie the controlling class of capitalists, those who own the means to produce wealth- capital, land,
factories, and machines.
Emile Durkheim and Social Integration
-Primary goal: to get sociology recognized as a separate academic discipline.
-Received the first academic appointment in sociology.
-Second goal: demonstrate how social forces affect peoples behavior, to do this he conducted rigorous
research.

Research: Suicide rates

High incidence of suicide among Protestants, males, & the unmarried
Low incidence of suicide among Catholics, Jews, females & the married
-Concluded suicide is not simply a matter of individuals here and there deciding to take their lives for personal
reasons. Instead, social factors underlie suicide. People with weaker social ties are more likely to commit
suicide
-Durkheim identified social integration the degree to which people are tied to their social group
-Central idea human behavior is impacted by social forces (external)
Max Weber and the Protestant Ethic
1864 1920 Germany
Max Weber disagreed with Marxs claim that economics is the central force in social change. Rather, religion is
the central force to social change.
Research: compared the extent of capitalism in Roman Catholic and Protestant countries. Capitalism is more
likely to flourish in Protestant countries.
Concluded: religion was the central factor of capitalism.
-Theorized Roman Catholic belief system encouraged Roman Catholics to hold onto traditional ways of life,
while the Protestant belief system encouraged its members to embrace change.
Roman Catholics church members went to heaven
Protestants looked for outside signs that they were in Gods will.
Financial prosperity became a major sign of Gods approval. Protestants lived frugal lives, saving their money
and investing to make more money.
According to Weber, this brought about the birth of capitalism.
Protestant ethic - self-denying approach to life to gain Gods approval through financial success.
Spirit of capitalism investing capital in order to make more money.
B. Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
-Study how people use symbols to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with
one another.
-Symbols define for us what relationships are. It allow relationships to exist, we couldnt coordinate our actions
with those of other people.
-Analyze how our behaviors depend on the ways we define ourselves and others.
-With symbols there are expectations
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS
(Functionalism/Structural Functionalism)
-Central idea: society is a whole unit; it is made up of interrelated parts that work together.
-The notion that society is an organism that has parts that must function together is the focal point.
-When all parts of society fulfill their functions, society is in a normal state.
-If the parts do not fulfill their functions, society is in an abnormal or pathological state.
-To understand society, look at both structure (how the parts of a society fit together to make the whole) and
function (what each part does, how it contributes to society).
CONFLICT THEORY
-Society is composed of groups that engage in fierce competition for scarce resources. (Struggle for power).
-key to human history is class struggle
-In every society, some small groups control the means of production and exploits those who are not in control.
-In industrialized societies the struggle is between the bourgeoisie (the small group of capitalists who own the
means to produce wealth) and the proletariat (the mass of workers who are exploited by the bourgeoisie
C. Sociological Research - a scientific method in investigating social phenomena
Basic goal- obtain understanding of the observable social world
Two kinds of researches:
Basic Research concerned with the development of empirically based theory
Applied research concerned with valuation and action
Levels of analysis in asking and answering question
o Individual level analysis- looks for the role played by the individual
o Group level analysis looks at the influence of group upon social behavior
o Structural level analysis examine social settings and its influences on social behavior
Research Process
A. Defining the problem
Social world is made up board and complex phenomena, therefore the scope and breadth of the
problem should be delimited and the phenomena to be focused on should be defined.
Sociological inquiry is guided by the following:
o Concept- refers to all cases of a particular class of objects, events, persons, relationships, processes and
ideas
o Hypothesis- a proposition or assumption stating what is to be resolved. It states relationships between two
or more social phenomena.
o Theory- statement of the logical relationships between facts
o Fact- an observational experience that can be repeated and verified
B. Gathering of the data
Methodological design, techniques and tools to be used
o Experimental Method- involves experimental group and controlled group
o Sample survey involves a sample which represents a universe or a particular population
o Case study- intense examination of a specific group over a long period of time
o Techniques- may be qualitative or quantitative

Observation- may be participatory or non-participatory

Interviewing- done by the use of questionnaire which may be structured or non structured or directed
interview.
o Participant Observation- where researcher-observer becomes involves in the activities of the group that is
being studied.
C. Analysis of Data- involves testing of hypothesis or answering questions or assumptions with facts that have
been gathered.
D. Verification- further checking and verification of findings
Society and culture
A. Society- a system of interacting individuals and interrelated groups sharing a common culture and territory
a group of people living together in a social system of long established relationships, recognizing and
following a certain way of life
o
o

II.

1. Two types of society: non industrial and industrial

2. Social Structure- the patterned and recurrent social relationship among persons in organized
collectives
a. Form of Social Structure
1) Primary group structures; families, friendship groups and work groups
2) Purposely organized structures: voluntary organizations and association
3) Territorial structures: city, community, neighborhood
4) Latent structures: sex or racial categories
3. Social groups and social organizations
a. Social Groups
1) Primary group and secondary group
Primary group- family and friendship group are considered the building blocks of the larger
society
Secondary groups groups where interactions among members are impersonal, business like.
Focus of the group is on development of skills and specialized know how.
2) Gemeinschaft and Gessellschaft ( Ferdinand Townies)
Gemeinschaft - a community of intimate private and exclusive living and familism. Maybe
likened to our tribal group, fishing villages, agricultural villages.
Gessellschaft - large secondary group where there is division \of labor, specialization, functional
interdependence.
3) In-group and out-group- based on sense of belonging. These are not actual groups but a kind of
relationship that exist in mind. The use of we (in group) and they (out-group) defines this
grouping.
4) Informal ad formal Based on form of organization
Informal group- arises spontaneously out of interaction
Formal group also called social organization
Formal organizations are necessary in industrialized complex societies.
Goals of formal organizations are for:
1.) Profit
2.) The spiritual needs of people
3.) Education
4.) Workers benefit
5.) Service to the poor
4. Socialization- process through which a person acquires the skills and behavior necessary for social
living.
a. Elements of socialization
1.) childs culture
2.) biological inheritance
3.) childs interaction
b. Family most important socializing agent
c. School- transmitter of culture
d. Language an important tool in socialization
e. Social order- means by which people fill their expected role
Status the position a person occupies in society by virtie of age, birth, marriage,
occupation or achievement
- ascribed status- position assigned to the individual
- achieved status- acquired through competition
5. Agencies of Socialization
a. Family
b. Peer group
c. Church
d. School
e. Mass Media
f. Workplace
6. Social interaction - refers to the various actions and interactions of individuals in a social situation.
7. Social Processes
a. Cooperation people work together for a common good
1.) Assimilation- blending/ fusing two culture
2.) Acculturation- adaptation of culture upon contact
3.) Amalgation- brought about by intermarriage

b. Competition and Conflict

B. Culture shared beliefs, norms and values that human acquires through social learning
1. Components of Culture
a. Non-material culture
1.) Social Norms rules or expectation that define what is acceptable or require in a social situation
a) Folkways- commonly known as customs, traditions and conventions of society
b) Mores- special folkways which are important to the welfare of the people and their cherished
values
c) Laws- formalized forms norms enacted by people who are vested by political and legal
authorities designated by the government
2.) Values abstract standards that persist overtime and serve as guides to what is right and proper
for people in society
3.) Knowledge- the total range of what has been learned or perceived a true. This could be natural,
supernatural, and magic knowledge.
b. Material culture (Product of technology )
1) Artifact: simple tools to computer
2. Characteristics of Culture
a. Culture is learned
b. Culture is a group product
c. Culture is transmitted from generation to generation
d. Culture is adaptive
e. Culture is varied
3. Importance of culture in Human Development
a. History of human evolution is a history of culture
b. Through development of culture, man sets aside certain laws of nature to confirm to his bidding
c. Through culture man can overcome his handicaps
4. Issues in Understanding Culture
a. Diversity and Variability
1) Cultural variability cultures differ because of great variety of solutions. People of different
societies evolve in solving life problems.
2) Cultural integration- when no contradiction exist between peoples beliefs and their behavior,
between institutional goals and means
b. Cultural relativity and Ethnocentrism
1) Cultural relativity- various elements of culture are examined n terms of its relationship to other
elements a part of the total symbolic system of the culture
2) Ethnocentrism- evaluates other culture on basis of familiar and commonly shared ways of thinking
and acting
C. Filipino Society and Culture
1. Development of the Filipino culture
a. Asian or Oriental culture
Malayan as the indigenous core with strains of Aeta, Indonesian, Hindu, Arab and Chinese culture
b. Western or Occidental Culture
a. Spanish- strongly manifested in our religious end cultural orientation
b. American- manifested in Filipino political orientation
2. basic Feature Filipino Society and Culture
a. Kinship group- a system of social relations based on blood, marriage or affinity and ritual or
compadre connection. This is the basic element of Filipino social structure
3. Filipino View of the World
a. Universe- a structural framework where humans live
1. Upper World - gods, angels saints.
2. Lower World - dwelling place of man and environment spirit (with supernatural powers)
Filipinos have personalistic view of the universe.
III. Deviance and Social control
1. Deviance- the process by which those who violate group norms are identified as norm violators
Deviants- are the people who diverges from group norms while Deviates are those who display divergent
behavior but are not identified a norms violates
2. Components of Deviant Behavior:
a. Act or unit of action
c. Social situation
b. Actor who exhibit the behavior
d. Audience of definers of the act
3. Social control- refers to all those attitudes and behaviors originating in the social environment that have
the effects or directing or restricting the attitude and behavior of an individual or groups
4. Theories on the Causes of Deviance
a. Anomie theory- groups with fewer opportunities to achieve success or goals wile have greater
motivation to violate norms and higher rates of deviance.
b. Subculture theory- the greater motivation to violate norm will result in different patterns of deviance
depending upon the availability of illegitimate opportunities in the neighborhood
c. Differential Association Theory- specific direction of a persons motivation and action depends upon
frequency and intensity of interaction with others
d. Labeling Theory- assumes that most people commit deviant acts at one time or another.
IV. Structural of Inequality: bases of Conflict
A. Social Stratification exist when there is a hierarchy of position with differences ion wealth, power and
prestige ad when there is intergenerational transmission of advantage or disadvantage stemming from ones
location in the hierarchy.

1. Caste system- made up religiously sanctioned and hierarchically ranked groupings in which
membership is fixed at birth and is permanent. This is found in India where the rank order are:
a. Brahmas
b. Ksashtriya
c. Vaishyas
d. Sudras
Untouchable is considered outcast
2. Social class system- composed of economic groups that are based upon similarities in occupation,
income and wealth. Social mobility is allowed in this system.
B. Nature of formal organization- it is a deliberately constructed social unit with explicit coordinate activities
designed to contribute toward the attainment of a stated goal.
Examples: Bureaucracy- where there is a clearly ordered hierarchy of position or officers; a
defined sphere of competence: activities are recorded; positions are filed ob the basis
of expertise; operation is based upon a system of general rules; and relationship
among people within a bureaucratic organization is impersonal.
C. Gender Inequality
1. Sex and gender : source of differentiation
Sex refers to biological differences or characteristics that distinguished laes and females
Gender- refers to the social aspects of sex or to socially defined expectation, roles feelings or concepts
associated with sex.
2. Factors that define gender roles
a. Biological- women become pregnant and give birth; men impregnate.
b. Cultural tradition- men and womens roles depend on cultural context
3. Social Change and the future of gender Roles
a. Rise of womens movements brought about a change in the role that women play in modern society
D. Racial and Cultural Minorities
1. Ethnic minorities- groups defined by national origin, language and cultural patterns that are different from the
dominant group
2. Problems encountered by minority groups
a. prejudice- an emotional attitude that is unfavorable
b. segregation setting apart or separating members of minority group from members of the dominant
group in social interactions
c. Expulsion- removal by the dominant group of an undesired population from the area they occupied.
d. Genocide- destruction of one group by another.
3. Means to minimize ethnic problem
1. Accommodation acceptance of both the minority and dominant groups of their relative
positions in society
2. Cultural pluralism- the co-existence of different ethnic group based on mutual respect for
cultural differences.
V. Institutions: the Bases of Order
A. Institutions- cluster of norms associated with important social activities.
1. Family basic social unit which is the source of intimate social relationship ad the most effective agent
of transmitting culture
a. Family structure
1. Based on membership: nuclear or extended
2. Based on descent: patrilineal; matrilineal or bilateral
3. Based on residence: patrolocal; matrilocal; avuncolocal; bilocal or neolocal
4. Based on authority: patriarchal ; matriarchal ; egalitarian or matricentric
b. Function of Family
1. Regulates sexual behavior and is the unit of reproduction
2. For biological maintenance
3. Agency for socializing the child
4. Mechanism for social control
5. Gives its members status
6. Performs economic, educational. Recreational, religious and political functions
2. Economic Institution
a. Economic is the actual organization and utilization of natural and human resources by given society
at a given time in accordance with their cultural patterns.
b. Classification of economic system
3. agricultural or industrial
4. subsistence or mechanized
5. underdeveloped or developed
6. capitalistic or communistic
c. Components of Economy: property, technology, division f labor and organization of work
d. Underdeveloped countries are resistant to economic development. The Philippines is in transition
from agricultural to industrial but as transition takes place, adjustments have to be made in value
orientation and social structure
3. Religious institutions
a. Religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to scared things. All religions involve a set
of symbols which arouses feelings of reverence of awe and are linked to rituals or ceremonies such
as church services.
b. Functions of religion
1. gives people peace of mind
2. allays fears and anxieties
3. gives people anchorage

4. provides guidance
5. serves as means of social control
6. performs welfare and recreational functions
7. maintains and regulates the value system of society
8. integrates and promotes solidarity
c. Religious pluralism exists in the Philippines with Catholicism as the dominant religion. In the
Philippines there is separation of church and state. Folk Catholicism is a special feature of the
religious pattern in the Philippines. Indigenous practices of old folks and their beliefs in spirits and
charms remain and have been interwoven into the Catholic practices.
d. Impact of industrialization and modernization necessitated reforms in the church to adapt to the
changing conditions of the modern world
4. Political Institutions
a. Studio politics by sociologist focuses on the context f political decisions. Political power is a means by
which decisions are made and social reward, are allocated
1. influence- ability to affect the political process in the making of decision
2. authority the legitimate exercise of power
b. Three types of political systems:
1. totalitarianism;
2. colonialism
3. democracy
c. Political participation involves acts of individuals and groups seeking to influence the political system.
d. Political socialization is the process by which members of a society become acquainted with the
political system and develop political attitudes. Such socialization occurs through the transmission of
political attitudes, norms and values within the culture, family, school and church are fundamental
agencies of socialization.
5. Educational Institutions
a. Social Functions of Education
1. To transmit culture
2. to prepare individuals for position in society
3. to serve as change agent in society
b. Social goals of the school are influenced by the philosophy and policies of government and these are
built into the educational system as a whole
c. Schools are complex social organizations with student and teacher subcultures. Increase in societal
complexity has caused an increase in bureaucratic regulations of schools. Student subcultures often
develop norms that are different from toed formally defined by the school.
d. Challenges to education center on the most fundamental beliefs and values of society.
VI. Developments in Modern Society
A. growth of Urban Areas
1. City is characterized by lack of cultural cohesiveness. Cities are large dense permanently settled
territories whose population engages primarily in non-agricultural pursuits
2. Metropolitan area- an urban area that extends far beyond the legal city limits
B. Urban Lifestyles
1. Complex interaction pattern city dwellers have the potential for initiating an enormous number of social
relationships.
2. Exposure to unconventional norms- size and diversity of city fosters unconventional behavior patterns
C. Future of the city requires new set of economic and political relationships with the suburbs
D. Population
1. Demographic Perspective
Demography- analysis of a population by size or number of people, territorial distribution and social
characteristics such as occupation and marital status. Birthrates and death rates (mortality) are
components of populations change.
2. Population growth is influence by 3 democratic processes: fertility, mortality, and migration
3. Population and the future the larger the size and the higher the rate of human populations, the greater
are the demands for resources and the pressures placed on natural and social environments.
4. Issues arising from Population Problems
a. abortion
b. fertility
PART II: ANALYZING TEST ITEMS
Direction: Analyze carefully each item. Choose the letter of the best answer in each item and try to justify your choice.
1. The Filipino is a mixture of different cultures. This means that
a. The Filipino has both the Oriental and Western Cultural orientation
b. The Filipino has intermarried with Westerners.
c. The Filipino is Western in his ways rather than oriental
d. The Filipino indigenous core is Malayan
2. Kinship group is the Basic feature of the Filipino Society and Culture. Kinship refers to the system of social
relationship based on blood marriage and ritual. Which social relationship based on ritual is illustrated in this
situation?
a. When your father seeks the help of your uncle to work for your immigration to USA
b. When your father calls up your Ninong Jose to facilitate your transfer as a teacher to your hometown
c. When your father request the mayor whom he help during election o give you a job
d. When your father gets the help of his BOSS to recommend you for employment in a bank

3. Family is the basic unit of society. A Filipino family is generally extended such that we usually find in such family
the ff.:
a. Father , Mother , Children
b. Father, Mother, Grandmother , Children
c. Father, Mother, Children, helper
d. Father, Mother , Adopted child , Natural Child
4. In the Philippines, Importance is given to ones status in society. A Filipinos status in society is based on income
such that some Filipinos tend to be social climbers Social climbers are best identified in this situation.
a. When affluent people go to parties more often
b. When an individual from the lowest class wears fashionable clothes
c. When an individual from the lowest class borrow money to buy dresses to attend parties in classy hotel.
d. When a not so affluent person attends a class reunion held in a classy hotel
5. Problem in society is often brought about by prejudices or biases. This is experienced especially by minority or
ethnic groups. Which activity can minimize prejudices or biases in class where a group coming from an ethnic
group is enrolled?
a. Have an activity where ethnic group competes with the other groups in the class.
b. Let the ethnic group perform a dance or render a song depicting their culture so that the rest of the class
would be aware that they are really different
c. Let the ethnic group and the other members of the class do an activity where they share ideas about their
culture
d. When doing class activities segregate the ethnic group so they can do their own thing
6. Frankness of the American can be considered rude by Filipinos. This assessment of American behavior is
attributed to
a. cultural lag
b. cultural relativism
c. cultural pluralism
d. cultural universality
7. Filipinos are particular about their relations with other people in society, they are very careful about their
behavior such that they are conscious of the means of controlling their behavior. The least effective means of
social control among the following is:
a. ostracism
b. public opinion
c. gossip
d. laws
8. Social mobility is best illustrated in ones
a. attending social gatherings
c. getting older
b. moving from one place to another
d. becoming richer
9. The least used research method in Sociology is
a. social survey
c. interview
b. participant observation
d. controlled experiment
10. Rhea is described as very much like her mother in behavior and attitudes. This is said to be the result o the
strong influence of the family as a
a. peer group
b. reference group
c. primary group
d. secondary group
11. Which among the following is not a non-material culture
a. values
b. norms
c. language
d. tools
12. Language is an important tool in transmitting messages. Which of the following indicates displeasure?
a. pensive look
c. tapping of the shoulder
b. nod of the head
d. stern look
13. The principal means through which culture is transmitted from generation to generation is
a. language
b. action
c. diffusion
d. education
14. The practice of pamamanhikan especially in the rural areas is an illustrating of a Filipino
a. value
b. folkways
c. mores
d. law
15. Philippines politics has been described as dirty. This description is best illustrated in one of the following;
a. candidates for the position do not advocate cleanliness for the community
b. candidates do not observe proper decorum
c. candidates employ black propaganda tactics
d. candidates do not resort to white washing of controversial issues
16. The peer group as an agency for socialization provides the individual
a. first experience in love and affection
b. camaraderie that develops stable personal identity
c. incentive or rewards for performance of goal behavior
d. orientation into the culture of the group
17. A nuclear family is that where the members consist of the following:
a. father, mother, son and grandparent
c. father, mother, son, daughter and grandparent
b. father, mother , son, daughter
d. father, mother, son, and cousins
18. A typical social structure which describes a pattern through which relationships at work are ordered is termed
a. Capitalistic
b. Technological
c. Communistic
d. Bureaucratic
19. Martha was born to parents who were both intellectually smart. At very young age of 2 she already exhibited
interest in reading and she could count numbers 1 to 100. She could also entertain visitors as well by performing
either singing or dancing. Given these talents, it is very clear that Martha had developed her personality and
character similar to that of the parents. This development is accounted to
a. Childs biological inheritance
c. Childs cultural and social environment
b. Childs geographical environment
d. Childs experiences
20. Social relationship in Philippine setting is illustrated in the kinship patterns that Filipinos developed. In the
kinship pattern is included the compadrazgo system. This refers to:
a. relationship by blood
c. relationship by marriage
b. relationship by ritual
d. relationship by contact
21. Which theory of society did Marx clearly adhere to?
a. Evolutionist theory
c. Integrationist theory

b. Conflict theory
d. Structural-Functional theory
22. Man is a social being. He is therefore prone to socialization. It is in socialization where man best develop his:
a. physical characteristics
c. social status
b. personality
d. idiosyncrasies
23. When we say that education is from womb to tomb we cater to the idea that:
a. education is forever
c. education is acquired following the life-process of man
b. education is ecstasy
d. education is best left to the living
24. No two individuals are the same. This saying illustrates the principle of
a. individual differences
c. cultural relativity
b. social differentiation
d. cultural ethnocentrism
25. When society becomes more urbanized, problems become complicated. In such complexity there is a need to
efficiently make things work. In such a situation a hierarchical arrangement of authority, rights and obligations
are drawn. Such arrangement is appropriately termed:
a. social structure
c. social organization
b. bureaucracy
d. social stratification
PART III: ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS
Directions: Answer the following items to enhance your test taking skills.
1. If the school is considered as agent of social and cultural change it should therefore function as
a. Transmitter of culture
c. Agent of the state
b. Perpetuator of tradition
d. Pioneer of programs
2. Which of the following best exemplifies achieved status
a. inherited real estate properties from parents c. Inherited talents from parents
b. finished law as a working student
d. Reached the age of 50
3. Which of the following best describes the goals o sociological inquiry?
a. to control deviant behavior
b. to increase our understanding of ourselves and our groups
c. to improve society
d. to help people who have problems
4. When a person says that rich people acquired their wealth through foul means the person is expressing his
a. anger
b. discrimination
c. inferiority
d. prejudice
5. In the study of a political system, sociologist would be most interested in
a. the effect of political institution on other institution in society
c. political theory
b. voting behavior
d. functions of government
6. purposely organized social structure have the following characteristics except
a. goal direction
c. intimated ace to ace associations
b. hierarchy of authority
d. impersonal social relationships
7. Which of the following is an example of an issue a sociologist would study?
a. Which political system is the best?
b. Why the rate of abortion rising?
c. What is the interaction between chemicals and behavior?
d. How do police actions influence crowd behavior?
8. Among the Bontoc Igorot in the Philippines, a women reaches her prime at age 23, while at 30 she is getting
old; before 45 she is old and by 50 she is a mass of wrinkles from foot to forehead. What does this
description speak of in so far biological traits: race, sex and age are concerned?
a. That race defines the characteristics
b. That sex defines the role of a person
c. That age is a universal criterion for assigning expectation sets.
d. That all the biological traits
9. Material culture refers to the tangible and concrete objects produced by man. Which among of the following is
not a material culture?
a. bow and arrow of the Aetas
c. ceremonial bench of the Fugue
b. stone tools of the Tasadays
d. celebration of Moriones festival
10. Which among the following is considered the raw material of personality development?
a. social environment
b. training
c. heredity
d. culture
11. Which among the following is an individuals consaguineal relation
a. stepsister
b. brother-in-aw
c. half-brother d. godfather
12. Student protest can be used to uncover features of change reflecting change-inducing movement. This action
of a group is termed
a. Deviant behavior
c. Revolutionary movement
b. Collection behavior
d. Industrialist movement
13. Contemporary Filipino values had been shaped by
a. our oriental forefathers
c. our accepted religion
b. our western colonizer
d. influences of oriental and occidental people we got in contact with
14. Man is a social being. This means therefore that
a. Man necessarily relates with other man
b. Man my choose to relate with other man
c. Man has the capacity to adopt to the ways of other people
d. Man should always be happy in the company of other people
15. The greater the knowledge of a person, the greater is his responsibility. Which among the following situations
best illustrate the given statement

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.
24.

25.

a. The teacher has greater responsibility than the pupil in the classroom
b. The teacher and pupil both assume great responsibility in the classroom
c. The pupil has a greater responsibility because he is the learner
d. The teacher shares the responsibility with the school principal when inside the classroom
Prince Charles of England is being accorded great respect because he is the heir to the throne of England.
How did he attain such status?
a. it is an achieved status because he will succeed to the throne of England
b. it is an ascribe status because he will succeed to the throne by virtue of birth/ inheritance
c. it is an accomplishment on his part because he patiently waited for the position
d. it is a blessing for him because he was favored by his mother, the queen
Despite the westernization of Filipinos, many still retain our oriental heritage. An example of this is our closefamily ties. Close family ties is usually manifested through:
a. Reunions
c. Regular correspondence
b. Recognition programs
d. Social gatherings
Which situation is a clear indication of ones expression of bias or prejudice?
a. when one who comes from the Visayas makes a wrong pronunciation of a word in English and you laugh at
his mispronunciation
b. when one corrects the mispronunciation of word said by another person
c. when one simply ignores the mispronunciation of a word said
d. when you emphasize the mispronunciation word
In the Philippines there are many religions practiced by Filipinos. Even among Christians, several sects are in
existence. Due to differences in belief and practices some may really notice the unusual practice of some
sects. In fact, the newly formed sects are very aggressive and their members very fanatical. How would you
deal with these people?
a. we will engage them in an argument
c. we will tolerate them
b. we will simply ignore them
d. we will praise them
Everyone has experienced being with a group. As long as one is with a group, a certain kind of behavior is
manifested. This is what we term collective behavior. An example of this behavior is:
a. when you do your job or plowing the field
b. when you pick up pieces of paper because you are conscious about cleanliness
c. when all of you in the audience laugh in a movie house because the scene is funny
d. when you help a person cross the street
In which situation below best illustrate Filipino personalism?
a. Marina was reminded by hid officemate about the schedule date of submission of reports but marina reacted
by saying I know my job. You do not need to remind me even if I am just your subordinate
b. Sylvia was given an award as outstanding employee. Almost of her officemate were happy for her
c. Nena was observed to have made a habit of coming late. When she was reprimanded she merely said
sorry, ill try to be punctual
d. When Linda was informed that she has to be replaced in the prestigious position which she was occupying,
she cried.
Which among the following is an example of a deviant behavior?
a. going along with the decision of the group
b. opposing the decision of the group
c. when the class went on a field trip you did not go with them
d. when you create mischiefs very often causing frequent disorder in the classroom
How would you regard observance of holy week?
a. tradition
b. belief
c. obligation
c. commemoration
When is competition a constructive one?
a. when you consider undertaking as a challenge
b. when you really determined to really put down the position
c. when try to get the cooperation of others to vouch for your competence
d. when you mislead the orientation by making it appear you are a born loser
What type of family is it where the mother is the head and the domineering personality
a. nuclear
b. bilateral
c. matriarchal
d. extended

Area: FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

Focus: Historical and Philosophical Foundations
Major Competency: Apply historical and philosophical principles in teaching-learning situations.
Specific Competencies
1. Identify the relevant philosophical principles in teaching-learning situations
2. Identify philosophies during the various educational periods
3. Identify traditional and contemporary philosophies
4. Identify outstanding educational philosophers and their thoughts about education.
A. HISTORICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION
Educational Thought
Description
A.
EDUCATION
Before the invention of reading and writing, people lived in an environment in which
DURING THE
they struggled to survive against natural forces, animals, and other humans.
ANCIENT
To survive, pre-literate people developed skills that grew into cultural and educational
PERIOD patterns.
For a particular groups culture to continue into the future, people had to transmit it,
PRELITERATE
or pass it on, from adults to children.
SOCIETIES
The earliest educational processes involved sharing information about gathering
food and providing shelter; making weapons and other tools; learning language; and

EDUCATION
FOR
CONFORMITY

B.

C.

EDUCATION IN
ANCIENT
AFRICA AND
ASIA

EDUCATION
FOR THE
PRESEVATION
OF SOCIAL
STABILITY
EDUCATION IN
ANCIENT
GREECE
ECUCATION
FOR THE
DEVELOPMEN
T
OF
INDIVIDUALITY

acquiring the values, behavior, and religious rites or practices of a given culture.
Through direct, informal education, parents, elders, and priests taught children the
skills and roles they would need as adults.
These lessons eventually formed the moral codes that governed behavior. Since
they lived before the invention of writing, preliterate people used an oral tradition, or
story telling, to pass on their culture and history from one generation to the next. By
using language, people learned to create and use symbols, words, or signs to
express their ideas.
When these symbols grew into pictographs and letters, human beings created a
written language and made the great cultural leap to literacy.
In ancient Egypt, which flourished from about 3000 BC to about 500 BC, priests in
temple schools taught not only religion but also the principles of writing, the
sciences, mathematics, and architecture.
Similarly in India, priests conducted most of the formal education. Beginning in about
1200 BC Indian priests taught the principles of the Veda, the sacred texts of
Hinduism, as well as science, grammar, and philosophy.
Formal education in China dates to about 2000 BC, though it thrived particularly
during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, from 770 to 256 BC
The curriculum stressed philosophy, poetry, and religion, in accord with the teachings
of Confucius, Lao-zi (Lao-tzu), and other philosophers.

Historians have looked to ancient Greece as one of the origins of Western formal
education.
The Iliad and the Odyssey, epic poems attributed to Homer and written sometime in
the 8th century BC, created a cultural tradition that gave the Greeks a sense of
group identity.
In their dramatic account of Greek struggles, Homers epics served important
educational purposes.
The legendary Greek warriors depicted in Homers work, such as Agamemnon,
Odysseus, and Achilles, were heroes who served as models for the young Greeks.
Ancient Greece was divided into small and often competing city-states, or poleis,
such as Athens, Sparta, and Thebes.
ATHENS
Athens emphasized a humane and democratic society and education, but only about
one-third of the people in Athens were free citizens.
Slaves and residents from other countries or city-states made up the rest of the
population.
Only the sons of free citizens attended school.
The Athenians believed a free man should have a liberal education in order to
perform his civic duties and for his own personal development.
The education of women depended upon the customs of the particular Greek citystate.
In Athens, where women had no legal or economic rights, most women did not
attend school.
Some girls, however, were educated at home by tutors. Slaves and other noncitizens had either no formal education or very little.
SPARTA
Sparta, the chief political enemy of Athens, was a dictatorship that used education
for military training and drill.
In contrast to Athens, Spartan girls received more schooling but it was almost
exclusively athletic training to prepare them to be healthy mothers of future Spartan
soldiers.
Sophists
In the 400s BC, the Sophists, a group of wandering teachers, began to teach in
Athens. The Sophists claimed that they could teach any subject or skill to anyone
who wished to learn it.
They specialized in teaching grammar, logic, and rhetoric, subjects that eventually
formed the core of the liberal arts. The Sophists were more interested in preparing
their students to argue persuasively and win arguments than in teaching principles of
truth and morality.
Socrates
Unlike the Sophists, the Greek philosopher Socrates sought to discover and teach
universal principles of truth, beauty, and goodness.
Socrates, who died in 399 BC, claimed that true knowledge existed within everyone
and needed to be brought to consciousness. His educational method, called the
Socratic Method, consisted of asking probing questions that forced his students to
think deeply about the meaning of life, truth, and justice.
Plato
In 387 BC Plato, who had studied under Socrates, established a school in Athens
called the Academy. Plato believed in an unchanging world of perfect ideas or

universal concepts.
He asserted that since true knowledge is the same in every place at every time,
education, like truth, should be unchanging. Plato described his educational ideal in
the Republic, one of the most notable works of Western philosophy.
Platos Republic describes a model society, or republic, ruled by highly intelligent
philosopher-kings. Warriors make up the republics second class of people. The
lowest class, the workers, provides food and the other products for all the people of
the republic.
In Platos ideal educational system, each class would receive a different kind of
instruction to prepare for their various roles in society.
Aristotle
In 335 BC Platos student, Aristotle, founded his own school in Athens called the
Lyceum. Believing that human beings are essentially rational, Aristotle thought
people could discover natural laws that governed the universe and then follow these
laws in their lives.
He also concluded that educated people who used reason to make decisions would
lead a life of moderation in which they avoided dangerous extremes.
Isocrates
In the 4th century BC Greek orator Isocrates developed a method of education
designed to prepare students to be competent orators who could serve as
government officials.
Isocratess students studied rhetoric, politics, ethics, and history. They examined
model orations and practiced public speaking. Isocratess methods of education
directly influenced such Roman educational theorists as Cicero and Quintilian.
While the Greeks were developing their civilization in the areas surrounding the
eastern Mediterranean Sea, the Romans were gaining control of the Italian peninsula
and areas of the western Mediterranean. The Greeks education focused on the
study of philosophy.
The Romans, on the other hand, were preoccupied with war, conquest, politics, and
civil administration.
As in Greece, only a minority of Romans attended school. Schooling was for those
who had the money to pay tuition and the time to attend classes.
While girls from wealthy families occasionally learned to read and write at home,
boys attended a primary school, called aludus. In secondary schools boys studied
Latin and Greek grammar taught by Greek slaves, called pedagogues.
After primary and secondary school, wealthy young men often attended schools of
rhetoric or oratory that prepared them to be leaders in government and
administration.
Cicero, a 1st century BC Roman senator, combined Greek and Roman ideas on how
to educate orators in his book De Oratore. Like Isocrates, Cicero believed orators
should be educated in liberal arts subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, logic,
mathematics, and astronomy. He also asserted that they should study ethics, military
science, natural science, geography, history, and law.
Quintilian, an influential Roman educator who lived in the 1st century AD, wrote that
education should be based on the stages of individual development from childhood
to adulthood.
Quintilian devised specific lessons for each stage. He also advised teachers to make
their lessons suited to the students readiness and ability to learn new material. He
urged teachers to motivate students by making learning interesting and attractive.
Education among the Jewish people also had a profound influence on Western
learning. The ancient Jews had great respect for the printed word and believed that
God revealed truth to them in the Bible.
Most information on ancient Jewish goals and methods of education comes from the
Bible and the Talmud, a book of religious and civil law.
Jewish religious leaders, known as rabbis, advised parents to teach their children
religious beliefs, law, ethical practices, and vocational skills. Both boys and girls were
introduced to religion by studying the Torah, the most sacred document of Judaism.
Rabbis taught in schools within synagogues, places of worship and religious study.
During the middle Ages, or the medieval period, which lasted roughly from the 5th to
the 15th century, Western society and education were heavily shaped by Christianity,
particularly the Roman Catholic Church.
The Church operated parish, chapel, and monastery schools at the elementary level.
Schools in monasteries and cathedrals offered secondary education. Much of the
teaching in these schools was directed at learning Latin, the old Roman language
used by the church in its ceremonies and teachings.
The church provided some limited opportunities for the education of women in
religious communities or convents. Convents had libraries and schools to help
prepare nuns to follow the religious rules of their communities.
Merchant and craft guilds also maintained some schools that provided basic
education and training in specific crafts. Knights received training in military tactics

D.

EDUCATION IN
ANCIENT
ROME
ECUCATION
FOR
UTILITARIANIS
M

E.

ANCIENT
JEWISH
EDUCATION

F.

MEDIEVAL
EDUCATION
EDUCATION
FOR
HUMANITARIA
NISM

G.

EDUCATION
DURING THE
RENAISSANCE
EDUCATION
FOR RICH,
FULL LIFE

H.

EDUCATION

and the code of chivalry.

As in the Greek and Roman eras, only a minority of people went to school during the
medieval period. Schools were attended primarily by persons planning to enter
religious life such as priests, monks, or nuns
The vast majority of people were serfs who served as agricultural workers on the
estates of feudal lords. The serfs, who did not attend school, were generally illiterate.
Serfdom, labor system under which most European agricultural workers lived during
the Middle Ages. These agricultural laborers were known as serfs and were legally
bound to reside and labor on the land owned by their lord. The word serf comes from
the Latin word servus, which means servant or slave.

In the 10th and early 11th centuries, Arabic learning had a pronounced influence on
Western education. From contact with Arab scholars in North Africa and Spain,
Western educators learned new ways of thinking about mathematics, natural
science, medicine, and philosophy.
The Arabic number system was especially important, and became the foundation of
Western arithmetic. Arab scholars also preserved and translated into Arabic the
works of such influential Greek scholars as Aristotle, Euclid, Galen, and Ptolemy.
Because many of these works had disappeared from Europe by the Middle Ages,
they might have been lost forever if Arab scholars such as Avicenna and Averros
had not preserved them.
Scholasticism
In the 11th century medieval scholars developed Scholasticism, a philosophical and
educational movement that used both human reason and revelations from the Bible.
Upon encountering the works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers from Arab
scholars, the Scholastics attempted to reconcile Christian theology with Greek
philosophy.
Scholasticism reached its high point in the Summa Theologiae of Saint Thomas
Aquinas, a 13th century Dominican theologian who taught at the University of Paris.
Aquinas reconciled the authority of religious faith, represented by the Scriptures, with
Greek reason, represented by Aristotle. Aquinas described the teachers vocation as
one that combines faith, love, and learning.
The work of Aquinas and other Scholastics took place in the medieval institutions of
higher education, the universities. The famous European universities of Paris,
Salerno, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Padua grew out of the Scholastics-led
intellectual revival of the 12th and 13th centuries.
The name university comes from the Latin word universitas, or associations, in
reference to the associations that students and teachers organized to discuss
academic issues. Medieval universities offered degrees in the liberal arts and in
professional studies such as theology, law, and medicine.
The Renaissance, or rebirth of learning, began in Europe in the 14th century and
reached its height in the 15th century.
Scholars became more interested in the humanist featuresthat is, the secular or
worldly rather than the religious aspectsof the Greek and Latin classics. Humanist
educators found their models of literary style in the classics.
The Renaissance was a particularly powerful force in Italy, most notably in art,
literature, and architecture. In literature, the works of such Italian writers as Dante
Aleghieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio became especially important.
Humanist educators designed teaching methods to prepare well-rounded, liberally
educated persons.
Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus was particularly influential. Erasmus believed
that understanding and conversing about the meaning of literature was more
important than memorizing it, as had been required at many of the medieval religious
schools. He advised teachers to study such fields as archaeology, astronomy,
mythology, history, and Scripture.
The invention of the printing press in the mid-15th century made books more widely
available and increased literacy rates.
But school attendance did not increase greatly during the Renaissance. Elementary
schools educated middle-class children while lower-class children received little, if
any, formal schooling.
Children of the nobility and upper classes attended humanist secondary schools.
Educational opportunities for women improved slightly during the Renaissance,
especially for the upper classes. Some girls from wealthy families attended schools
of the royal court or received private lessons at home.
The curriculum studied by young women was still based on the belief that only
certain subjects, such as art, music, needlework, dancing, and poetry, were suited
for females.
For working-class girls, especially rural peasants, education was still limited to
training in household duties such as cooking and sewing.
The religious Reformation of the 16th century marked a decline in the authority of the

DURING THE
PROTESTANT
REFORMATION

I.

EDUCATIONAL
THEORY IN
THE 17TH
CENTURY

J.

EDUCATION
DURING THE
ENLIGHTENME
NT

Catholic Church and contributed to the emergence of the middle classes in Europe.
Protestant religious reformers, such as John Calvin, Martin Luther, and Huldreich
Zwingli, rejected the authority of the Catholic pope and created reformed Christian,
or Protestant, churches.
In their ardent determination to instruct followers to read the Bible in their native
language, reformers extended literacy to the masses.
They established vernacular primary schools that offered a basic curriculum of
reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion for children in their own language.
Vernacular schools in England, for example, used English to teach their pupils.
As they argued with each other and with the Roman Catholics on religious matters,
Protestant educators wrote catechismsprimary books that summarized their
religious doctrinein a question and answer format.
While the vernacular schools educated both boys and girls at the primary level,
upper-class boys attended preparatory and secondary schools that continued to
emphasize Latin and Greek.
The gymnasium in Germany, the Latin grammar school in England, and the lycee in
France were preparatory schools that taught young men the classical languages of
Latin and Greek required entering universities.
Martin Luther believed the state, family, and school, along with the church, were
leaders of the Reformation.
Since the family shaped childrens character, Luther encouraged parents to teach
their children reading and religion.
Each family should pray together, read the Bible, study the catechism, and practice a
useful trade. Luther believed that government should assist schools in educating
literate, productive, and religious citizens.
One of Luthers colleagues, German religious reformer Melanchthon, wrote the
school code for the German region of Wrttemberg, which became a model for other
regions of Germany and influenced education throughout Europe. According to this
code, the government was responsible for supervising schools and licensing
teachers.
The Protestant reformers retained the dual-class school system that had developed
in the Renaissance. Vernacular schools provided primary instruction for the lower
classes, and the various classical humanist and Latin grammar schools prepared
upper-class males for higher education.
Educators of the 17th century developed new ways of thinking about education.
Czech education reformer Jan Komensky, known as Comenius, was particularly
influential.
A bishop of the Moravian Church, Comenius escaped religious persecution by taking
refuge in Poland, Hungary, Sweden, and The Netherlands. He created a new
educational philosophy called Pansophism, or universal knowledge, designed to
bring about worldwide understanding and peace.
Comenius advised teachers to use childrens senses rather than memorization in
instruction.
To make learning interesting for children, he wrote The Gate of Tongues Unlocked
(1631), a book for teaching Latin in the students own language. He also wrote Orbis
Sensualium Pictus (1658; The Visible World in Pictures, 1659) consisting of
illustrations that labeled objects in both their Latin and vernacular names. It was one
of the first illustrated books written especially for children.
The work of English philosopher John Locke influenced education in Britain and
North America.
Locke examined how people acquire ideas in An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding (1690). He asserted that at birth the human mind is a blank slate, or
tabula rasa, and empty of ideas.
We acquire knowledge, he argued, from the information about the objects in the
world that our senses bring to us. We begin with simple ideas and then combine
them into more complex ones.
Locke believed that individuals acquire knowledge most easily when they first
consider simple ideas and then gradually combine them into more complex ones.
In Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1697), Locke recommended practical
learning to prepare people to manage their social, economic, and political affairs
efficiently.
He believed that a sound education began in early childhood and insisted that the
teaching of reading, writing, and arithmetic be gradual and cumulative. Lockes
curriculum included conversational learning of foreign languages, especially French,
mathematics, history, physical education, and games.
The Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century produced important changes in
education and educational theory.
During the Enlightenment, also called the Age of Reason, educators believed people
could improve their lives and society by using their reason, their powers of critical
thinking.

K.

EDUCATION IN
THE 19TH
CENTURY

The Enlightenments ideas had a significant impact on the American Revolution

(1775-1783) and early educational policy in the United States. In particular, American
philosopher and scientist Benjamin Franklin emphasized the value of utilitarian and
scientific education in American schools.
Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, stressed the importance
of civic education to the citizens of a democratic nation. The Enlightenment
principles that considered education as an instrument of social reform and
improvement remain fundamental characteristics of American education policy.
The foundations of modern education were established in the 19th century. Swiss
educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, inspired by the work of French philosopher
Jean Jacques Rousseau, developed an educational method based on the natural
world and the senses.
Pestalozzi established schools in Switzerland and Germany to educate children and
train teachers. He affirmed that schools should resemble secure and loving homes.
Like Locke and Rousseau, Pestalozzi believed that thought began with sensation
and that teaching should use the senses.
Holding that children should study the objects in their natural environment,
Pestalozzi developed a so-called object lesson that involved exercises in learning
form, number, and language.
Pupils determined and traced an objects form, counted objects, and named them.
Students progressed from these lessons to exercises in drawing, writing, adding,
subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and reading.
Pestalozzi employed the following principles in teaching:
(1) begin with the concrete object before introducing abstract concepts;
(2) begin with the immediate environment before dealing with what is distant and
remote;
(3) begin with easy exercises before introducing complex ones; and
(4) always proceed gradually, cumulatively, and slowly.
American educator Henry Barnard, the first U.S. Commissioner of Education,
introduced Pestalozzis ideas to the United States in the late 19th century. Barnard
also worked for the establishment of free public high schools for students of all
classes of American society.
German philosopher Johann Herbart emphasized moral education and designed a
highly structured teaching technique.
Maintaining that educations primary goal is moral development, Herbart claimed
good character rested on knowledge while misconduct resulted from an inadequate
education.
Knowledge, he said, should create an apperceptive massa network of ideasin
a persons mind to which new ideas can be added. He wanted to include history,
geography, and literature in the school curriculum as well as reading, writing, and
arithmetic.
Based on his work, Herbarts followers designed a five-step teaching method:
(1) prepare the pupils to be ready for the new lesson,
(2) present the new lesson,
(3) associate the new lesson with ideas studied earlier,
(4) use examples to illustrate the lessons major points, and
(5) test pupils to ensure they had learned the new lesson.
Kindergarten
German educator Friedrich Froebel created the earliest kindergarten, a form of
preschool education that literally means childs garden in German. Froebel, who
had an unhappy childhood, urged teachers to think back to their own childhoods to
find insights they could use in their teaching.
Froebel studied at Pestalozzis institute in Yverdon, Switzerland, from 1808 to 1810.
While agreeing with Pestalozzis emphasis on the natural world, a kindly school
atmosphere, and the object lesson, Froebel felt that Pestalozzis method was not
philosophical enough. Froebel believed that every childs inner self contained a
spiritual essencea spark of divine energythat enabled a child to learn
independently.
In 1837 Froebel opened a kindergarten in Blankenburg with a curriculum that
featured songs, stories, games, gifts, and occupations. The songs and stories
stimulated the imaginations of children and introduced them to folk heroes and
cultural values.
Games developed childrens social and physical skills. By playing with each other,
children learned to participate in a group. Froebels gifts, including such objects as
spheres, cubes, and cylinders, were designed to enable the child to understand the
concept that the object represented. Occupations consisted of materials children
could use in building activities. For example, clay, sand, cardboard, and sticks could
be used to build castles, cities, and mountains.
Immigrants from Germany brought the kindergarten concept to the United States,
where it became part of the American school system. Margarethe Meyer Schurz
opened a German-language kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1855.

Elizabeth Peabody established an English-language kindergarten and a training

school for kindergarten teachers in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1860. William Torrey
Harris, superintendent of schools in St. Louis, Missouri, and later a U.S.
commissioner of education, made the kindergarten part of the American public
school system.
Social Darwinism
British sociologist Herbert Spencer strongly influenced education in the mid-19th
century with social theories based on the theory of evolution developed by British
naturalist Charles Darwin.
Spencer revised Darwins biological theory into social Darwinism, a body of ideas
that applied the theory of evolution to society, politics, the economy, and education.
Spencer maintained that in modern industrialized societies, as in earlier simpler
societies, the fittest individuals of each generation survived because they were
intelligent and adaptable.
Competition caused the brightest and strongest individuals to climb to the top of the
society. Urging unlimited competition, Spencer wanted government to restrict its
activities to the bare minimum.
He opposed public schools, claiming that they would create a monopoly for
mediocrity by catering to students of low ability. He wanted private schools to
compete against each other in trying to attract the brightest students and most
capable teachers.
Spencers social Darwinism became very popular in the last half of the 19th century
when industrialization was changing American and Western European societies.
Spencer believed that people in industrialized society needed scientific rather than
classical education. Emphasizing education in practical skills, he advocated a
curriculum featuring lessons in five basic human activities:
(1) those needed for self-preservation such as health, diet, and exercise;
(2) those needed to perform ones occupation so that a person can earn a living,
including the basic skills of reading, writing, computation, and knowledge of the
sciences;
(3) those needed for parenting, to raise children properly;
(4) those needed to participate in society and politics; and
(5) those needed for leisure and recreation. Spencers ideas on education were
eagerly accepted in the United States.
In 1918 the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, a report issued by the
National Education Association, used Spencers list of activities in its
recommendations for American education.
National Systems of Education
In the 19th century, governments in the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, and
other European countries organized national systems of public education. The
United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, and other countries in North and South
America also established national education systems based largely on European
models.
United Kingdom
The Church of England and other churches often operated primary schools in the
United Kingdom, where students paid a small fee to study the Bible, catechism,
reading, writing, and arithmetic.
In 1833 the British Parliament passed a law that gave some government funds to
these schools. In 1862 the United Kingdom established a school grant system, called
payment by results, in which schools received funds based on their students
performance on reading, writing, and arithmetic tests.
The Education Act of 1870, called the Forster Act, authorized local government
boards to establish public board schools. The United Kingdom then had two schools
systems: board schools operated by the government and voluntary schools
conducted by the churches and other private organizations.
In 1878 the United Kingdom passed laws that limited child labor in factories and
made it possible for more children to attend school. To make schooling available to
working-class children, many schools with limited public and private funds used
monitorial methods of instruction.
Monitorial education, developed by British educators Joseph Lancaster and Andrew
Bell, used student monitors to conduct lessons. It offered the fledgling public
education system the advantage of allowing schools to hire fewer teachers to instruct
the large number of new students.
Schools featuring monitorial education used older boys, called monitors, who were
more advanced in their studies, to teach younger children. Monitorial education
concentrated on basic skillsreading, writing, and arithmeticthat were broken
down into small parts or units.
After a monitor had learned a unitsuch as spelling words of two or three letters that
began with the letter Ahe would, under the master teachers supervision, teach this
unit to a group of students. By the end of the 19th century, the monitorial system was
abandoned in British schools because it provided a very limited education.

L.

EDUCATION IN
THE
20TH
CENTURY

Russia
Russian tsar Alexander II initiated education reforms leading to the Education
Statute of 1864.
This law created zemstvos, local government units, which operated primary schools.
In addition to zemstvo schools, the Russian Orthodox Church conducted parish
schools.
While the number of children attending school slowly increased, most of Russias
population remained illiterate.
Peasants often refused to send their children to school so that they could work on
the farms. More boys attended school than girls since many peasant parents
considered female education unnecessary. Fearing that too much education would
make people discontented with their lives, the tsars government provided only
limited schooling to instill political loyalty and religious piety.
United States of America
Before the 19th century elementary and secondary education in the United States
was organized on a local or regional level.
Nearly all schools operated on private funds exclusively.
However, beginning in the 1830s and 1840s, American educators such as Henry
Barnard and Horace Mann argued for the creation of a school system operated by
individual states that would provide an equal education for all American children.
In 1852 Massachusetts passed the first laws calling for free public education, and by
1918 all U.S. states had passed compulsory school attendance laws.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the writings of Swedish feminist and educator
Ellen Key influenced education around the world.
Keys book Barnets rhundrade (1900; The Century of the Child,1909) was
translated into many languages and inspired so-called progressive educators in
various countries.
Progressive education was a system of teaching that emphasized the needs and
potentials of the child, rather than the needs of society or the principles of religion.
Among the influential progressive educators were Hermann Lietz and Georg Michael
Kerschensteiner of Germany, Bertrand Russell of England, and Maria Montessori of
Italy.
Montessori
Montessoris methods of early childhood education have become internationally
popular.
Trained in medicine, Montessori worked with developmentally disabled children early
in her career. The results of her work were so effective that she believed her
teaching methods could be used to educate all children.
In 1907 Montessori established a childrens school, the Casa dei Bambini (Childrens
House), for poor children from the San Lorenzo district of Rome. Here she
developed a specially prepared environment that featured materials and activities
based on her observations of children.
She found that children enjoy mastering specific skills, prefer work to play, and can
sustain concentration. She also believed that children have a power to learn
independently if provided a properly stimulating environment.
Montessoris curriculum emphasized three major classes of activity:
o practical,
o sensory, and
o formal skills and studies.
It introduced children to such practical activities as setting the table, serving a meal,
washing dishes, tying and buttoning clothing, and practicing basic social manners.
Repetitive exercises developed sensory and muscular coordination.
Formal skills and subjects included reading, writing, and arithmetic.
Montessori designed special teaching materials to develop these skills, including
laces, buttons, weights, and materials identifiable by their sound or smell. Instructors
provided the materials for the children and demonstrated the lessons but allowed
each child to independently learn the particular skill or behavior.
In 1913 Montessori lectured in the United States on her educational method.
American educators established many Montessori schools after these lectures, but
they declined in popularity in the 1930s as American educators stressed greater
authority and control in the classroom.
A revival of Montessori education in the United States began in the 1950s, coinciding
with a growing emphasis on early childhood education.
Dewey
The work of American philosopher and educator John Dewey was especially
influential in the U.S. and other countries in the 20th century.
Dewey criticized educational methods that simply amused and entertained students
or were overly vocational.
He advocated education that would fulfill and enrich the current lives of students as

well as prepare them for the future. The activity program of education, which derived
from the theories of Dewey, stressed the educational development of the child in
terms of individual needs and interests.
It was the major method of instruction for most of the 20th century in elementary
schools of the United States and many other countries.
Piaget
The work of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget had a major impact on educational
theory in the early 20th century, particularly in Europe.
Piaget wrote extensively on the development of thought and language patterns in
children.
He examined childrens conceptions of number, space, logic, geometry, physical
reality, and moral judgment.
Piaget believed that children, by exploring their environment, create their own
cognitive, or intellectual, conceptions of reality. By continually interacting with their
environment, they keep adding to and reshaping their conceptions of the world.
Piaget asserted that human intelligence develops in stages, each of which enhances
a persons understanding of the world in a new and more complex way.
THE PHILIPPINE EDUCATION
Education in the Philippines has undergone several stages of development from the pre-Spanish times
to the present. In meeting the needs of the society, education serves as focus of emphases/priorities of the leadership
at certain periods/epochs in our national struggle as a race.
PERIOD
A.
PRE-SPANISH
PERIOD

B.

SPANISH

C.

AGUINALDOS
REPUBLIC

D.

AMERICAN

D. Commonwealth

FEATURES
As early as in pre-Magellanic times, education was informal, unstructured, and
devoid of methods. Children were provided more vocational training and less
academics (3 Rs) by their parents and in the houses of tribal tutors.
Existence of schooling like reading and writing related to the study of Koran
particularly in Maguindanao
The pre-Spanish system of education underwent major changes during the
Spanish colonization.
The tribal tutors were replaced by the Spanish Missionaries. Education was
religion-oriented.
It was for the elite, especially in the early years of Spanish colonization.
Access to education by the Filipinos was later liberalized through the enactment of
the Educational Decree of 1863 which provided for the establishment of at least
one primary school for boys and girls in each town under the responsibility of the
municipal government; and the establishment of a normal school for male teachers
under the supervision of the Jesuits.
Primary instruction was free and the teaching of Spanish was compulsory.
Education during that period was inadequate, suppressed, and controlled.
The defeat of Spain by American forces paved the way for Aguinaldo's Republic
under a Revolutionary Government.
The schools maintained by Spain for more than three centuries were closed for the
time being but were reopened on August 29, 1898 by the Secretary of Interior.
The Burgos Institute in Malolos, the Military Academy of Malolos, and the Literary
University of the Philippines were established.
A system of free and compulsory elementary education was established by the
Malolos Constitution.
An adequate secularized and free public school system during the first decade of
American rule was established upon the recommendation of the Schurman
Commission.
Free primary instruction that trained the people for the duties of citizenship and
avocation was enforced by the Taft Commission per instructions of President
McKinley.
Chaplains and non-commissioned officers were assigned to teach using English as
the medium of instruction.
A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901 by the Philippine
Commission by virtue of Act No. 74. The implementation of this Act created a
heavy shortage of teachers so the Philippine Commission authorized the Secretary
of Public Instruction to bring to the Philippines 600 teachers from the U.S.A. They
were the Thomasites.
The fundamental aims of education as set forth in the 1935 Constitution are: to
develop moral character, personal discipline, civic conscience, and vocational
efficiency and to teach the duties of citizenship.
Promulgated the so-called "Quezon Code of Ethics" which laid the foundation of
the emerging philosophy of Philippine education.
Tagalog became the basis of the national language.
Required the teaching of the Filipino national language in the senior year of all high
schools and in all years in the normal schools.

E. Japanese

F. Third Republic

G. New Society

H. Edsa Republic

The Education Act of 1940 (C.A. 586) provided for the following:
a. reduction of the 7-year elementary course to 6 years
b. fixing the school entrance age at 7 years ,
c. national support for elementary education
d. compulsory attendance of primary children enrolled in Grade 1
e. introduction of double-single session
Gives importance to the diffusion of elementary education and promotion of
vocational education
The Board of Textbooks was created.
Return to the practice of only one class under one teacher in the primary and three
teachers to two classes or five teachers to three classes in the intermediate.
Compulsory enrolment of children in the public schools upon reaching seven years
of age
Service eligibility of teachers was made permanent
The Board of National Education (BNE) was created.
A daily flag ceremony was made compulsory in all schools including the singing of
the National Anthem.
The life, works, and writings of Jose Rizal especially the Noli Me Tangere and El
Filibusterismo was included in all levels.
Elementary education was nationalized and abolished matriculation fees
The Magna Carta for Public School Teachers (R.A. 4670) was enacted
Special Education Fund and local school boards were created.
Rise of Barrio High Schools.
Created the Presidential Commission to Study Philippine Education (PCSPE).
Issuance of P. D. 6-A (Educational Decree of 1972)
The fundamental aims of education in the 1973 Constitution are: to foster love of
country, teach the duties of citizenship, develop moral character, self-discipline,
and scientific, technological, and vocational efficiency.
Bilingual Education Program mandates the use of English and Filipino separately
as media of instruction in schools.
The National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) was created.
Tertiary honor students (summa cum laude, magna cum laude, and cum laude) are
granted civil service eligibility.
Professional Board Examination for Teachers (PBET)
Education Act of 1982 was formulated.
Fundamental aims of education: shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster
love of humanity, respect for human rights, appreciation of the role of national
heroes in the historical development of the country, teach the rights and duties of
citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character and
personal discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking; broaden scientific and
technological knowledge, and promote vocational efficiency.
Free public secondary education
Government Assistance to Students and Teachers in Private Education
Teaching of values in the New Elementary School Curriculum (NESC)
Student Employment Law
Creation of CHED
Professionalization of Teaching Profession

YEAR

OFFICIAL NAME OF DECS

1863

Superior Commission
Instruction

of

Primary

1901-1916 Department of Public Instruction

OFFICIAL
TITULAR HEAD

LEGAL BASES

Chairman

Educational Decree of 1863

General
Superintendent
Secretary

Act. No. 74 of the Philippine Commission, Jan.

21, 1901
Organic Act Law of 1916 (Jones Law)
Renamed by the Japanese Executive
Commission, June 11, 1942
Renamed by Japanese Sponsored Philippine
Republic
Renamed by Japanese Sponsored Philippine
Republic

1916-1942 Department of Public Instruction

Department of Education, Health and
1942-1944
Commissioner
Public Welfare
Department of Education, Health and
1944
Minister
Public Welfare
1944

Department of Public Instruction

Secretary

Department of Public Instruction and

Secretary
Information
1946-1947 Department of Instruction
Secretary
1945-1946

1947-1975 Department of Education

Secretary

Renamed by the Commonwealth Government

Renamed by the Commonwealth Government
E.O. No. 94 October 1947 (Reorganization Act
of 1947)

1975-1978 Department of Education and Culture

1978-1984 Ministry of Education and Culture
Ministry of Education, Culture and
1984-1986
Sports
Department of Education, Culture and
1987-1994
Sports
Department of Education, Culture and
1994-2001
Sports
2001
Department of Education
Present

Secretary
Minister

Proc. No. 1081, September 24, 1972

P.D. No. 1397, June 2, 1978

Minister

Education Act of 1982

Secretary

E.O. No. 117. January 30, 1987

Secretary
Secretary

RA 7722 and RA 7796, 1994 Trifocalization of

Education Management
RA 9155, August 2001 (Governance of Basic
Education Act)

B. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
is a system of a rationally supported assumptions and beliefs about education
it uses traditional philosophical concepts and methods to show how childrens experiences, if organized in
accordance with certain assumptions, will result in the achievement of what may be considered the good
life.
Four Basic Questions:
1. What is there to know?
This involves the nature of reality and asks about the universe.
2. How do we know?
This concerns the processes and characteristics of knowledge how men acquire knowledge and
distinguish truth from falsehood and error (studied in logic and epistemology).
3. Who or what is most worth of?
This raises issues about mans preferences, and his reasons for choosing one thing rather than
another. This study of values or axiology is intrinsic to question in ethic, aesthetic, and religion
4. What is the nature of man and culture?
This concerns the characteristics of human behavior and its settings, and they are studied in
psychology, sociology, anthropology, and others.
FIVE PHILOSOPHIES
R ealism
I dealism
P ragmatism
E xistentialism
N aturalism
The Key Concepts
REALISM
Education develops ones reasoning power

IDEALISM
Education develops the personality of the
individual

Knowledge and the development of the

mind are important

Educator
THE REALIST EDUCATORS
Education is a process of learning how to acquire knowledge
and putting that knowledge to practical use.
Stresses that fact that individual must become the rational
masters of themselves since only then they will be able to
control the environment.
Realist gathers all the possible reliable data and measures
students according to standard created.
THE IDEALIST EDUCATOR
Shows great concern for the moral and spiritual values in the
society
Teaches self-control, creativity, social responsibility and regard
for other persons.

Education is the process that originates

within itself.

Education is centered around the ideals

Emphasizes the importance of rationality and the need for the

cultivation of reason.
Each persons mind must strive to realize itself.
Education is seen by the idealist as the means to an end
Learning process must be self-initiated to warrant the label
idealist
Stress the importance of self-activity because it gives the
students the impetus for learning and development.

Instructions moves from general principles or ideals that are

always known in advance to the teacher, to specific application
within the pattern of deductive thinking.

Believes that education is basic to life and that all education

should have useful purpose
Attempts to develop students in such a manner that they can
understand and make adjustments to view the real world in an

Education is for life

orderly and systematic fashion and relate to the problem of the

outside world.

Education is objective

The educational process is in an orderly

manner
The curriculum is scientifically oriented

Students are guided through a process of inductive reasoning

leading to a unified concept of the physical world

The realistic curriculum stresses science

Mastery of the fundamental facts is accomplished by means of
drill and memorization
Mastery of knowledge is implemented by experimentations,
demonstrations, and observations
Educators places great emphasis on research and scientific
facts and principles as possible

There should be standardization

measurement technique in education

of

The student is a creative being who is

guided by the teacher

PRAGMATISM
Individuals learn through experiences
Education is for social efficiency

Conceives the objectives and organizes the subject matter.

Formulates ideas through project method, lecture method, and
question and answer method.
PRAGMATIST EDUCATORS
The key to all learning and the application of intelligence to new
experiences make the educational process effective

Problem-solving is necessary in the world

of change

EXISTENTIALISM
Individuals discover the inner selves

Education is an individual process

is

centered

the

The teacher acts as stimulator

Recognizes the importance of individual differences, permitting

each student to progress at his own speed
Child is viewed as an important thing in the school

Emphasizes the importance of having knowledge to solve

problems that may arise in an ever changing world.
Students are taught how define problems, collect data, formulate
and test hypothesis and arrive at conclusions that will enable
them to find the solutions to those problems. This is problemsolving method taught by John Dewey
EXISTENTIALIST EDUCATORS
Believes that individuals discover their inner selves and have an
understanding of themselves
The school supplies the environment, the tools, and opportunity
for the discovery.

on

Teaches the students knowledge and skills that will enable them
to take their place in the society
Provides students with the necessary tools to enable them to
adjust to their environment and solve the many problems that
may arise
Gives the students the opportunity to participate in the
community affairs which will prove beneficial when they become
functional members in the society

The curriculum
individual

Education favors devising of performance for students in various

activities.
Program of students is evaluated by objective standardized
tests.

Education is child-centered

Employs objective methods of teaching, testing and evaluation

Facts are presented clearly in an objective and logical sequence
Urges the students to master the facts that are presented to
them
Uses techniques such as visual-aids to bring the real world into
the school environment

Views education as an individual rather than group process

Sets an environment that allows students to learn what they are
interested to learning
Permits great variety in its method
The Socratic method of learning is used because it forces
students to probe their minds
The existentialist program offers many courses in the arts,
humanities, and social sciences because their subjects reveal
the nature of humankind

Education is to teach responsibility

NATURALISM
Education must satisfy the inborn needs of
the individual
Education is geared to the individual
growth of each child

The teacher serves as stimulator for the students

Encourages the students to discover their own truth by prodding
their moral and intellectual curiosities

Aids the students in responsible decision-making

Develops the inner-self of students
NATURALIST EDUCATORS
It is the role of education to satisfy the basic needs of man as
there are fundamental force within the individual that seek
satisfaction

Believes that each child follows a logical pattern of growth and

development and that education must be attuned to these
natural patterns
Activities are reflected according to the developing maturity level
of the individual

Education is not simply mental in nature

Advocates the education of both mind and body

Encourages the development of moral character, self discipline
and physical well-being

Students educate themselves

Education involves self-activity

Activities are offered for exploratory purposes and for the
development of natural aesthetic and self-expressions

The teacher has an understanding of the

laws of nature

Aware that the nature is responsible for differences therefore,

each child has distinct learning needs that require individual type
of learning activities

The method of instruction used is mainly inductive, informal, and

permits students to develop naturally at their own speed and
according to their own needs and interests.

The teacher is a guide in the intellectual

process

EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES IN PHILOSOPHY

Social Philosophy Approach
PHILOSOPHY
Authoritarianism assumes that the inferences that
shape an individual are determined by forces external to
him.

Laissez-Faire assumes that the individual is shaped by

internal forces.

Democracy assumes that an individual is shaped by

both external and internal forces

Culture Oriented Approach

PHILOSOPHY
Perrenialism
Is largely a product of Aristotles rationalism and
its treatment by Thomas Aquinas.
It assumes that mans basic or essential
characteristic is his ability to reason.
Only through reason can man understand

APPLIED TO EDUCATION
1. The teacher knows the facts, judgments, and
logical organization of subject matter and use
them to create a rigid framework of instruction
2. Ideals must be learned by certain methods and
one interpretation is usually preferred over the
other
3. The teacher is placed in the moral and intellectual
center of the classroom and demands that the
students accept him and what he stands for.
1. The role of the teacher is to leave the child alone
and be ready to help when called upon
2. The teacher is more a resource than a guide or
director
3. Subject matter consists of materials connected to
the learners immediate concerns
4. It takes place according to privileges that are
based upon the natural response of the learner to
what he wishes to know when he wishes to know
it
1. The child is influenced by his culture, but he in
turn learns to exert an influence upon it
2. Students learns to be purposeful by working at his
problem in an actual way
3. The task of a teacher is to help each child
understand what is problems are and the
processes of thinking that defensible conclusions
APPLIED TO EDUCATION

In education, the task of the teacher is to help the

child rise above nature and more toward the
eternal destiny that awaits him
The pupil has the free will and can reject the truth
and his teachers authority

existence and how he is required to live

Essentialism
It is often called traditionalism or conservatism
Assumes that the values of men are embedded in
the universe, waiting to be discovered and
understood
Progressivism
It assumes that the world changes, that in the
universe is not particularly conceived with him
Man can rely only upon his ability to think straight
Reconstructionism
It assumes that the school has the role to play as
an agent of planned change

He must be prepared to suffer the consequences

that follow the dismissal of unchangeable and
universal truths

In education, there are some things the child must

learn which tend the curriculum relatively static
There is a core of essential and traditional
subjects; certain literary classic, language,
religion, mathematics, science and history, and
other materials.

In education, this means that the child must be

taught to be independent, self-reliant thinker,
learn to discipline himself, be responsible for the
consequences of his behavior

This is what the teacher must learn and the

school to teach: the skills of group discussions
that will make it possible for men to talk over their
differences until they end with discussion.

Eastern Philosophies
1. Indian Philosophies

2. Chinese Philosophies.

a. Hinduism
Emphasizes a commitment to an ideal way
of life called (Dharma), characterized by
honesty, courage,
service, faith, self-control, purity and
non-violence.
Dharma can be achieved through Yoga
Believes that one should be able to control
and regulate his desires, not to devote life
to sensual pleasure or worldly success.
Believes that religion should be practical.
God is to be realized by living in the world.
God is truth and the best way to seek the
truth is by practicing non-violence
(Ahinisa).
God is an abstraction but a living presence.

a. Confucianism
Teaches moral life through devotion to the family, loyalty
to elders, love of learning, brotherhood, civil service, and
universal love and justice
The concept of a superior individual is one who lives in a
life of rightness, virtues and propriety.
People are social beings; must interact with society
without necessarily surrendering to it and the moral
individual will attempt to change others to conform to the
moral path.
Five
Constant
Virtues:
Benevolence,
Righteousness, Propriety, Wisdom, and Sincerity
Education should build moral, character than merely
teaching skills or information
Every person should strive for the continual
development of self until excellence is achieved.

b. Buddhism

b. Taosim
-.
Advocates simplicity, frugality, and the joys of being
close to nature and being in harmony with the whole
universe.
Simplicity is the key to knowledge as patience is to
understanding
Tranquility is the assurance of the good life
Wu Wei: Do nothing that is unnatural or not
spontaneous; not strain or strive for anything. Let things
come naturally.

Believes that personal gratification is the

root of sufferings in the world
The teachings of Buddha centered on four
noble truths:
1. All in life is suffering, pain and
misery of dukkha.
2. This suffering has a cause: Selfish
craving and personal desire
3. This suffering can cease.
4. The way to overcome this misery is
through Eight Fold Path such as:
Right understanding/Right speech.
Right conduct, Right vocation/Right
concentration, Right effort, Right
mindfulness, Right thought.
Holds that the universe is a Samsara, a
stream without end in which the law of
karma operates
Stressed non-attachment, concern for
humanity, desire to become Buddhalike
and to live in harmony with the natural flow
of the Universe.

3. Japanese Philosophy ,
a. Zen Buddhism
Has no savior/s, paradise, faith on God,
no scriptures.
Proposes to discipline the mind and seeks

4. Muslim Philosophy
a. Islam
Emphasized a total commitment in faith, obedience, and
trust to one and only God
Koran, its sacred book is the word of God

the freedom of the mind

Emphasizes a dependence on oneself
rather than an outside source for answers
and wisdom,
The Third Eye helps one see things in
addition to what our two eyes show us,
should be attuned to the things around us.
Emphasizes silent meditation, aiming to
awaken the mind in each
person.
Enlightenment
comes
through
an
immediate and intuitive understanding of
reality that awakens our Buddha nature
(through rational thinking)

No intermediaries between God and humans. Any

person, no matter how sinful, can bring a plea before
God.
Each person will be tried on the last judgment when
Allah will judge all souls.
Believes in paradise, an oasis of flowing waters,
pleasant drinks, food and sensual delights.
Others who have not followed the will of Allah
overt
Five Pillars of Islam
a. Belief in one God (Allah)
b. Prayer
c. Fasting
d. Almsgiving
e. Pilgrimage

5. Christian Philosophy
Believes in the:
a. God is the Creator of all things.
b. Jesus is the Messiah, Christ, son of God
c. The Holy Trinity includes the Father, the Son, and the Spirit
d. The Human being is a sinner who requires redemption.
e. Jesus came down to earth to redeem mankind
f. The soul is immortal
g. The Old Testament and the New Testament are the guides to ideal Christian
h. Baptism is necessary for salvation.
i. There is life after death

Life

RELEVANT PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION OPERATING IN PARTICULAR

CLASSROOM SITUATIONS
Philosophies of Education
IDEALISM
SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM/
PROGRESSIVISM

EXISTENTIALISM
/
SOCIAL
RECONSTRUCTIONSSM
SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTJONISM
PROGRESSIVISM
EXISTENTIALISM
PROGRESSIVISM
RECONSTRUCTIONSM
IDEALISM
PERENNIALISM/ESSENTIALISM
SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONSM
ESSENTIALISM

Current Educational Classroom Practices

DECS Order No. 13 1998-Revised rules and regulations on the teaching of
religion in public elementary and secondary
schools
DECS Order No. 57, s. 1998 - Clarification on the changes in the Social
Studies program
Sequencing in Social Studies are as follows:
Old: Third and fourth year students to take up Ekonomiks and
Kasaysayan ng Daigdig respectively
New: Kasaysayan ng Daigdig for the third year and Ekonomiks for
fourth year students
DECS Order No. 65, s 1998 - Revised guidelines on the selection of honor
students in private and public secondary schools
DECS Order No. 106, s. 1998 - Revised rules
exemption of Scout^ from Citizen's Army Training (CAT)
DECS Order No. 91, s. 1998 - changes in the Technology and Home
Economics (THE) program of the New Secondary Education Curriculum
(NSEC)
DECS Order Mo. 70, s. 1998 - Revised system of rating and reporting of
student performance for secondary schools
DECS Order No. 67. s. 1997 - Implementation of the
Revitalized Homeroom Guidance Program (RHGP)
Regional School of the Future (SOF)
DECS Order No. 33, s 1996 Reiterating the implementation of RA 1425
mandating the inclusion of Rizals life, works, and writing, teaching and virtues
as a course.
DECS Order No. 40, s. 1995 Promoting culture and arts in schools.
DECS Order No. 54, s. 1995 War On Waste
DECS Order No. 1, s. 1993 Increasing the number of elementary school
days and time allotment in the New Elementary School Curriculum (NESC)

C. EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHERS
EDUCATIONAL
PHILOSOPER
CONTRIBUTIONS
PLATO
Plato is the earliest important educational thinker. He saw education as the key to
creating and sustaining his Republic.
He advocated extreme methods: removing children from their mothers' care and
raising them as wards of the state, with great care being taken to differentiate children
suitable to the various castes, the highest receiving the most education, so that they

ARISTOTLE

AQUINAS

MILTON

ROUSSEAU

JOHN DEWEY

could act as guardians of the city and care for the less able.
Education would be holistic, including facts, skills, physical discipline, and music and
art, which he considered the highest form of endeavor.
Plato's belief that talent was distributed non-genetically and thus must be found in
children born to all classes moves us away from aristocracy, and Plato builds on this by
insisting that those suitably gifted are to be trained by the state so that they may be
qualified to assume the role of a ruling class.
Aristotle considered human nature, habit and reason to be equally important forces to
be cultivated in education.
Thus, for example, he considered repetition to be a key tool to develop good habits.
The teacher was to lead the student systematically; this differs, for example, from
Socrates' emphasis on questioning his listeners to bring out their own ideas (though
the comparison is perhaps incongruous since Socrates was dealing with adults).
Aristotle placed great emphasis on balancing the theoretical and practical aspects of
subjects taught.
Subjects he explicitly mentions as being important included reading, writing and
mathematics; music; physical education; literature and history; and a wide range of
sciences. He also mentioned the importance of play.
One of education's primary missions for Aristotle, perhaps its most important, was to
produce good and virtuous citizens for the polis. All who have meditated on the art of
governing mankind have been convinced that the fate of empires depends on the
education of youth.
Perennialism was originally religious in nature, developed first by Thomas Aquinas in
the thirteenth century in his work The Magistro (The Teacher).
Perennialists believe that one should teach the things that one deems to be of
everlasting importance to all people everywhere. They believe that the most important
topics develop a person.
Since details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important. Therefore,
one should teach principles, not facts.
Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, not machines or
techniques. Since people are people first, and workers second if at all, one should
teach liberal topics first, not vocational topics.
Although perennialism may seem similar to essentialism, perennialism focuses first on
personal development, while essentialism focuses first on essential skills. Essentialist
curricula thus tend to be much more vocational and fact-based, and far less liberal and
principle-based.
John Milton (December 9, 1608 November 8, 1674) was an English poet, prose
polemicist, and civil servant for the English Commonwealth.
Rousseau (1712-78), though he paid his respects to Plato's philosophy, rejected it as
impractical due to the decayed state of society.
Rousseau also had a different theory of human development; where Plato held that
people are born with skills appropriate to different castes (though he did not regard
these skills as being inherited), Rousseau held that there was one developmental
process common to all humans.
This was an intrinsic, natural process, of which the primary behavioral manifestation
was curiosity. This differed from Locke's tabula rasa in that it was an active process
deriving from the child's nature, which drove the child to learn and adapt to its
surroundings.
Rousseau wrote in his book Emile that all children are perfectly designed organisms,
ready to learn from their surroundings so as to grow into virtuous adults, but due to the
malign influence of corrupt society, they often fail to do so.
Rousseau advocated an educational method which consisted of removing the child
from societyfor example, to a country homeand alternately conditioning him
through changes to environment and setting traps and puzzles for him to solve or
overcome.
(October 20, 1859 June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and
educational reformer, whose thoughts and ideas have been greatly influential in the
United States and around the world.
He, along with Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, is recognized as one of the
founders of the philosophical school of Pragmatism.
He is also known as the father of functional psychology; he was a leading
representative of the progressive movement in U.S. schooling during the first half of the
20th century.

RUDOLF STEINER

B.F. SKINNER

MARIA
MONTESSORI

Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925), a philosopher and writer, created a holistic educational

impulse that has become known as Waldorf Education.
He emphasizes a balance of developing the intellect (or head), feeling and artistic life
(or heart), and practical skills (or hands).
The education focuses on producing free individuals, and Steiner expected it to enable
a new, freer social order to arise, through the creative, free human beings that it would
develop. Regrettably, Steiner's methods have not been an unadulterated success.
Waldorf Education is based on Steiner's philosophy, known as anthroposophy, and
divides education into three discrete developmental stages; these stages predate but
have close similarities to Piaget's stages of child development
Waldorf education includes a respect for children's physical nature, rhythmic life
(technical term: ether body), consciousness (technical term: astral body) and
individuality (ego).
Anthroposophy includes teachings about reincarnation and schools often try to foster
awareness that each human being - and thus each child - carries a unique being into
this earthly life.
As both an independent educational model and a major influence upon other educators
- such as Maria Montessori - Waldorf education is currently both one of the largest and
one of the fastest growing educational movements in the world. Waldorf schools are
also increasingly operating as state-funded (in the U.S.A. charter) schools or even
state-run (in the U.S.A. public) schools.
One of B.F. Skinner's (1904-90) contributions to education philosophy is his text
Walden Two wherein he details the failings of society and education, as one is
intricately and intrinsically linked to the other.
The pedagogical methods direct instruction and precision teaching owe much to his
ideas. Behaviorist theories play largely in his proposed ideas of social engineering.
B.F.Skinner developed the theory of "operant conditioning," the idea that we behave
the way we do because this kind of behavior has had certain consequences in the past
Maria Montessori (August 31, 1870 May 6, 1952) was an Italian physician, educator,
philosopher, humanitarian and devout Catholic; she is best known for her philosophy
and the Montessori method of education of children from birth to adolescence.
Her educational method is in use today in a number of public as well as private schools
throughout the world.
Aside from a new pedagogy, among the premier contributions to educational thought
by Montessori are:
o children as natural learners
o instruction of children in 3-year age groups, corresponding to sensitive periods
of development (example: Birth-3, 3-6, 6-9, and 9-12 year olds with an
Erdkinder (German for "Children of the World") program for early teens
o children as competent beings, encouraged to make maximal decisions
o observation of the child in the environment as the basis for ongoing curriculum
development (presentation of subsequent exercises for skill development and
information accumulation)
o small, child-sized furniture and creation of a small, child-sized environment
(microcosm) in which each can be competent to produce overall a self-running
small children's world
o creation of a scale of sensitive periods of development, which provides a focus
for class work that is appropriate and uniquely stimulating and motivating to the
child (including sensitive periods for language development, sensorial
experimentation and refinement, and various levels of social interaction)
o the importance of the "absorbent mind," the limitless motivation of the young
child to achieve competence over his or her environment and to perfect his or
her skills and understandings as they occur within each sensitive period. The
phenomenon is characterized by the young child's capacity for repetition of
activities within sensitive period categories (Example: exhaustive babbling as
language practice leading to language competence).
o self-correcting "auto-didactic" materials (some based on work of Jean Marc
Gaspard Itard and Edouard Seguin)

JEAN PIAGET

PAULO FREIRE

NEIL POSTMAN

JEROME BRUNER

FRANCIS BACON

Jean Piaget [ pja] (August 9, 1896 September 16, 1980) was a Swiss
philosopher, natural scientist and developmental psychologist, well known for his work
studying children, his theory of cognitive development and for his epistemological view
called "genetic epistemology".
He created in 1955 the International Centre for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva and
directed it until 1980. According to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is "the great
pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing"[1].
The four development stages are described in Piaget's theory as
o Sensorimotor stage: from birth to age 2 years (children experience the world
through movement and senses and learn object permanence)
o Preoperational stage: from ages 2 to 7 (acquisition of motor skills)
o Concrete operational stage: from ages 7 to 11 (children begin to think logically
about concrete events)
o Formal operational stage: after age 11 (development of abstract reasoning)
Paulo Freire (Recife, Brazil September 19, 1921 So Paulo, Brazil May 2, 1997)
was a Brazilian educator and is a highly influential theorist of education.
Paulo Freire contributed a philosophy of education that came not only from the more
classical approaches stemming from Plato, but also from modern Marxist and anticolonialist thinkers.
In fact, in many ways his Pedagogy of the Oppressed may be best read as an
extension of, or reply to, Frantz Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth, which emphasized
the need to provide native populations with an education which was simultaneously
new and modern (rather than traditional) and anti-colonial (not simply an extension of
the culture of the colonizer).
Freire is best-known for his attack on what he called the "banking" concept of
education, in which the student was viewed as an empty account to be filled by the
teacher.
The basic critique was not new Rousseau's conception of the child as an active
learner was already a step away from tabula rasa (which is basically the same as the
"banking concept"), and thinkers like John Dewey and Alfred North Whitehead were
strongly critical of the transmission of mere "facts" as the goal of education.
Freire's work, however, updated the concept and placed it in context with current
theories and practices of education, laying the foundation for what is now called critical
pedagogy.
Neil Postman has been a strong contemporary voice in both methods and philosophy
of education.
His 1969 book "Teaching as a Subversive Activity" (co-authored with Charles
Weingartner) introduced the concept of a school driven by the inquiry method, the
basis of which is to get the students themselves to ask and answer relevant questions.
The "teacher" (the two authors disdained the term and thought a new one should be
used) would be limited in the number of declarative sentences he could utter per class,
as well as questions he personally knew the answer to.
The aim of this type of inquiry would be to provide the conditions for students to build
progressively what they don't know on top of what they do, and for the teacher to
understand, through close listening, what the student knows, from where he/she can
continue to provide the conditions for the learner to progress, and develop their
understanding.
This may be opposed to methods based on answers and knowing rather than
understanding.
Postman went on to write several more books on education, notably "Teaching as a
Conserving Activity" and "The End of Education."
The latter deals with the importance of goals or "gods" to students, and Postman
suggests several "gods" capable of replacing the current ones offered in schools,
namely, Economic Utility and Consumerism.
Another important contributor to the inquiry method in education is Jerome Bruner.
His books "The Process of Education" and "Toward a Theory of Instruction" are
landmarks in conceptualizing learning and curriculum development. He argued that any
subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of
development.
This notion was an underpinning for his concept of the spiral curriculum which posited
the idea that a curriculum should revisit basic ideas, building on them until the student
had grasped the full formal concept.
He emphasized intuition as a neglected but essential feature of productive thinking.
He felt that interest in the material being learned was the best stimulis for learning
rather than external motivation such as grades. Bruner developed the concept of
discovery learning which promoted learning as a process of constructing new ideas
based on current or past knowledge.
Students are encouraged to discover facts and relationships and continually build on
what they already know.
Francis Bacon (22 January 1561 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher,

WOLFGANG
RATKE

John
Comenius

Amos

John Locke

Richard Mulcaster

Francois Fenelon

St. John Baptiste de

la Salle

Johann
Pestalozzi

Heinrich

Johann
Herbart

Friedrich

statesman, and essayist. He is also known as a proponent of the scientific revolution.

His works established and popularized an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry,
often called the Baconian method or simply, the scientific method (Novum Organum).
Wolfgang Ratke (also Ratchius or Wolfgang Ratich) (18 October 157127 April
1635) was a German educationist.
His system of education was based upon Francis Bacon's philosophy, the principle
being that of proceeding from things to names, from the particular to the general, and
from the mother tongue to foreign languages.
Initiated teaching in accordance with child's nature
Principle of repetition to ensure mastery
John Amos Comenius (March 28, 1592 November 15, 1670) was a Czech teacher,
scientist, educator, and writer.
He was a Unity of the Brethren/Moravian Protestant bishop, a religious refugee, and
one of the earliest champions of universal education, a concept eventually set forth in
his book Didactica Magna.
Comenius became known as the teacher of nations.
Wrote the 1st picture book, "Orbis Pictus Sensualium" or the World of Sensible Things
Pictured
John Locke, (August 29, 1632 October 28, 1704) was an English philosopher.
Locke is considered the first of the British Empiricists, but is equally important to social
contract theory.
His ideas had enormous influence on the development of epistemology and political
philosophy, and he is widely regarded as one of the most influential Enlightenment
thinkers and contributors to liberal theory.
His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers,
as well as the American revolutionaries. This influence is reflected in the American
Declaration of Independence.
Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin for modern conceptions of identity
and "the self", figuring prominently in the later works of philosophers such as David
Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant.
Locke was the first philosopher to define the self through a continuity of
"consciousness." He also postulated that the mind was a "blank slate" or "tabula rasa";
that is, contrary to Cartesian or Christian philosophy, Locke maintained that people are
born without innate ideas.
Richard Mulcaster (c. 1531, Cumberland April 15, 1611, Essex), is known best for his
headmasterships and pedagogic writings.
Richard Mulcaster's writings remain important in the study of humanist education and
the sixteenth century
Developed teacher-training colleges
Franois de Salignac de la Mothe-Fnelon, (August 6, 1651January 7, 1715), was
a French Roman Catholic theologian, poet and writer.
He today is remembered mostly as one of the main advocates of quietism and as the
author of The Adventures of Telemachus, a scabrous attack on the French monarchy,
first published in 1699.
Pioneered the education of women.
Saint Jean-Baptiste de La Salle (John Baptist de La Salle) (born 30 April 1651 in
Reims; died 7 April 1719 in Saint-Yon, Rouen) was a French priest, educational
reformer, and founder of an international educational movement, who dedicated more
than forty years of his life to the education of the children of the poor.
In the process, he standardized educational practices throughout France, wrote
inspirational meditations on the ministry of teaching (along with catechisms, politeness
texts, and other resources for teachers and students), and became the catalyst and
resource for many other religious congregations dedicated to education that were
founded in the 18th and 19th centuries.
In 1685 La Salle founded what is generally considered the first normal school that is,
a school whose purpose is to train teachers in Reims.
He was proclaimed as the Patron Saint of Teachers in 1950 by Pope Pius XII.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (January 12, 1746 February 17, 1827) was a Swiss
pedagogue and educational reformer.
Wrote "How Gertrude Teaches Her Children"
Advocator of: object study with language, education for social regeneration, learning
through observation & experiences, discipline based on love, etc.
Johann Friedrich Herbart (May 4, 1776 - August 11, 1841) was a German philosopher,
psychologist, and founder of pedagogy as an academic discipline.
Herbarts pedagogy emphasized the connection between individual development and
the resulting societal contribution.
In Platonic tradition, Herbart espoused that only by becoming productive citizens could
people fulfill their true purpose:

Friedrich
Wilhelm
August Froebel

John Henry Newman

Herbert Spencer

Pedro Poveda

Horace Mann

Edward
Thorndike

Lee

He believed that every child is born with a unique potential, his Individuality, but that
this potential remained unfulfilled until it was analysed and transformed by education in
accordance with what he regarded as the accumulated values of civilization
Only formalized, rigorous education could, he believed, provide the framework for
moral and intellectual development. The five key ideas which composed his concept of
individual maturation were Inner Freedom, Perfection, Benevolence, Justice, and
Equity or Recompense
Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel (April 21, 1782 June 21, 1852) laid the
foundation for modern education based on the recognition that children have unique
needs and capabilities.
In 1840 he created the word kindergarten for the Play and Activity Institute he had
founded in 1837 at Bad Blankenburg for young children.
He designed the educational materials known as Froebel Gifts, or Frbelgaben, which
included geometric building blocks and pattern activity blocks.
Activities in the first kindergarten included singing, dancing, gardening and playing with
the Froebel Gifts.
The Venerable John Henry Cardinal Newman, C.O. (February 21, 1801 August 11,
1890) was an Anglican convert to Roman Catholicism, later made a cardinal, and in
1991 proclaimed 'Venerable'. In early life he was a major figure in the Oxford
Movement to bring the Church of England back to its Catholic roots.
Authored "The Idea of a University" (must offer universal knowledge)
Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 8 December 1903) was an English philosopher;
prominent classical liberal political theorist; and sociological theorist.
Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive
development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human
culture and societies.
The lifelong bachelor contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion,
politics, philosophy, biology, sociology, and psychology.
He is best known for coining the term survival of the fittest, which he did in Principles of
Biology (1864), after reading Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species.[
This term strongly suggests natural selection, yet as Spencer extended evolution into
realms of sociology and ethics he made use of Lamarckism rather than natural
selection.
Defined education as complete living
Pedro Poveda was born in Linares, Spain on December 3, 1874. After he was
ordained priest in Guadix in 1897, he exercised his first apostolic ministry among the
poor cave dwellers (Christian Humanism).
He organized a livelihood program for adults and established a school for children.
He gave himself to human and social advancement of the poor and marginalized
people.
Founded the Teresian Association in 1911 (committed to the transformation of the
world through the gospel)
Horace Mann (May 4, 1796 August 2, 1859) was an American education reformer
and abolitionist. He was also a member of the U.S. House of Representatives.
It was not until he was appointed head (1837) of the newly created board of education
of Massachusetts that he began the work which was soon to place him in the foremost
rank of American educationists.
He held this position, and worked with a remarkable intensity, holding teachers'
conventions, delivering numerous lectures and addresses, carrying on an extensive
correspondence, and introducing numerous reforms.
He planned and inaugurated the Massachusetts normal school system in Lexington
and Bridgewater, founded and edited The Common School Journal (1838), and began
preparing a series of Annual Reports, which had a wide circulation and are still
considered as being "among the best expositions, if, indeed, they are not the very best
ones, of the practical benefits of a common school education both to the individual and
to the state" (Hinsdale).
Edward Lee Thorndike (August 31, 1874 - August 9, 1949) was an American
psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia
University.
His work on animal behavior and the learning process led to the theory of
connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for modern educational
psychology.
He also worked on solving industrial problems, such as employee exams and testing.
Thorndike specified three conditions that maximizes learning:
o The law of effect stated that the likely recurrence of a response is generally
governed by its consequence or effect generally in the form of reward or
punishment.
o The law of recency stated that the most recent response is likely to govern the
recurrence.

The law of exercise stated that stimulus-response associations are

strengthened through repetition.
Father of the statistical movement in education
Camilo Osas (March 23, 1889 Balaoan, La Union - May 20, 1976 Manila) was a
Filipino politician, twice for a short time President of the Senate of the Philippines.
He graduated from the Western Illinois State Teachers College at Macomb, Illinois in
1908, and from the Teachers College of Columbia University in New York City in 1910.
He returned to the Philippine Islands and taught school.
Here he entered education politics, becoming successively the first Filipino
Superintendent of Schools (1915 to 1916), Assistant Director of Education (1917 to
1921), a member of the first Philippine mission to the United States (1919 to 1920), a
lecturer at the University of the Philippines (1919 to 1921), President of the National
University (1921-1936).
School has an important role in the development of dynamic nationalism and
internationalism in relation to democracy in the education of the youth.
The function of our school is neither to fit the individual for the past which is dead and
gone, nor to prepare him for a remote future which is problematical, rather it is to train
the individual so that he will be a member of the world as it is.
All Filipinos particularly the out of school and youth adults have the right to education
particularly those living in the far flung areas of the country where school resources
maybe
Education must fight intellectual indolence among students/eradicate moral turpitude,
subject them to the- educational crucible of discipline, disciplining their muscles, their
hearts, their minds, and their character, and crowning their education with the fire of
love for God and nation.
"...the diploma is by no means conclusive evidence of one's ability until he has
demonstrated by actual performance that he has fully done the tasks expected of him
for the good of the country..."
o

Camilo Osas

Dean
Benitez

Francisco

Pedro T. Orata

Salvador Araneta

Rafael Palma

PART II: ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

Competency 1: Identify the relevant philosophies of education
To educate Learners according to nature means to provide lessons/ learning activities in accord to the natural
laws of
a. Learning
b. Natural sciences
c. Human development
d. teaching and learning
Competency 2: Identify philosophies during the various educational periods.
The early Athenian education stressed the development of the complex dimensions of the human
personality physical, intellectual and moral. Which of the following teacher behaviors would adhere to early
Athenian concept of education?
a. S/He recognize that every student in his/her class is unique
b. S/He groups his/her students according to their abilities and interests
c. S/He prepares the same lesson and the same strategies to teach his/her students
d. S/He recognizes that all his/her students have talents which can further developed
Competency 3: Identify traditional and contemporary philosophies.
The Philippines Elementary School Curriculum gives greater emphasis on the development of basic skills like
reading, writing and arithmetic. What is the philosophical basis for this?
a. Pragmatism
b. Perennialism
c. Essentialism
d. Existentialism
Competency 4: Identify outstanding educational philosophers and their thoughts about education
This modern educator criticizes contemporary education as the education of the oppressed and he even
compares it to banking. In this practice, the teacher is the depositor of knowledge and the student is the
depository (bank) whose adverse consequence is the development of the culture of Silence. Which one us
described?
a. Pedro Poveda
b. John Henry Newman
c. John Dewey d. Paolo Freire

1. How is the educational Process by w which the primitive children got indoctrinated into heir tribal cultural beliefs
and traditions called?
a. Status quo
b. Enculturation
c. Practical Education
d. Domestic Education
2. The present military training requirements among students in the secondary and tertiary levels can be traced as
a strong influence of the:
a. Greeks
b. Romans
c. Spartan
d. Athenians
3. Which subject in the elementary and likewise in the secondary schools are similar to the goal of Rome to train the
students for citizenship?
a. MAPE/PEHMS
b. Social Studies
c. Communication Arts
d. THE
4. In order to make Roman education truly utilitarian, the day-to-day lessons were:

a. Taught in the students native dialect

b. Taught interestingly through the play way method
c. related and linked to the events happening in everyday life
d. practices at home under the guidance of their respective parents
5. Which program of the Philippine Government seems to be align to the Christian humanitarian principle for the
human personality?
a. The Study of the Philippine constitution
b. the promotion of the basic human rights of the Filipinos
c. the massive housing program to house the poor Filipino
d. the functional literacy program for the out-of-school youths and adults
6. To the early Hebrews, loyalty to God is parallel or equal to loyalty to ones nation. Hence, education through was
to prepare the students to become moral individuals capable and willing to serve their country. Which program
being stressed in the Philippine educational system seem not reflect education for nationalism/patriotism?
a. The mathematics program
c. The values education Program
b. The Moral recovery Program
d. Reserved Officers training Course (ROTC)
7. Which of the following values stressed the VALUES education Program which seems to be akin to the Christian
concept of education for humanitarianism?
a. social responsibility
c. love for truth and wisdom
b. integrity and honest
d. living in harmony with nature
8. The Philippine Government however humble its financial resource, gives top priority/budget to finance public
education at all school levels. It recognizes that through education, the future citizens can contribute to the
national development goals of the Philippines society. This utilization goal of education for social transformation
was stressed by the newly.
a. Greek education
c. Athenian Education
b. Roman education
d. Followers of Jesus Christ
9. The naturalist-oriented teachers believe that teaching needs to consider the past experiences/background of their
students are related to the lessons. To which learning theory does this belief synonymous to?
a. Recapitulation
c. Learning in groups
b. Active learning
d. individual differences/variability
10. Religious in the classroom and in the school program prove the deep natural religiosity of the Filipinos. Which
Eastern Philosophy has greatly contribute to this tradition?
a. Greek education
c. Athenian education
b. Roman education
d. Confucianism
11. This contemporary Filipino educator as a former Secretary of Education was instrumental to the development of
a conceptual framework that serves as basis for the offering of values education in the Philippine school a year
after the EDSA people power revolution. Who is she?
a. Dr. Liceria B. Soriano
c. Dr. Isidro Cario
b. Dr. Geronima Pecson
d. Dr. Lourdes Quisumbing
12. The type of education geared to the promotion of democratic ideal and way of life and the belief that all human
person are endowed with freedom by God and society adheres to the belief of:
a. Pragmatism
b. Perennialism
c. Progressivism d. Existentialism
13. Virtue as one component in the teaching of Rizal as a course focuses on the teaching of goal and beauty
consistent with the goal and beauty in God. What philosophy supports this?
a. Idealism
b. Existentialism
c. Progressivism d. Social reconstructionism
14. Progressivism explains that improvement and reform in the human conditions are both possible and desirable.
This orientation strengthens the goal of personal development to promote social development. Which school
subject is more oriented to the realization of this progressivist educational goal?
a. Mathematics
c. Health And P.E.
b. Sibika at Kultura
d. Edukasyong Panglalusugan
15. Since its earliest conception, Philippine education has continually stressed the teaching of basic competencies
such as language, arithmetic, social studies and the sciences. That there are important things that every person
must acquire from the school system and is the focus of:
a. Idealism
b. existentialism
c. Essentialism
d. Progressivism
16. The educational objective to indoctrinate Filipinos to accept the teaching of the catholic religion to foster faith in
God is bed rocked on a philosophy called
a. Realism
b. Idealism
c. Pragmatism
d. Existentialism
17. DECS Order No. 71,s. 1996 entitled Establishment in Pilot Regional School of the Future (SOF) introduces
improvement and reform in education to respond to both human and social needs. What philosophy is related to
it?
a. Idealism
b. Realism
c. Progressivism
d. Social Reconstructionism
18. The Revitalized Homeroom Guidelines Program assists learner to interpret and reconstruct experience. Thus,
school becomes a laboratory for teaching reforms and experimental. The related philosophy is ___________.
a. Realism
b. Progressivism
c. Existentialism
d. Social Reconstructionism
19. The concept of student performance as contained in DECS order # 70, s 1998 is explained by the principle of
personhood or structure of the self. Which is under the philosophy of __________?
a. Idealism
b. Essentialism
c. Progressivism
d. Existentialism
20. DECS Order No. 106, s 1998 entitled Revised rules on the Exemption of Scouts from Citizens Army training
(CAT) gives training in character-building, citizenship training, etc. Which leads to the creation of a new social
order and a new society eventually. What philosophy supports this?
a. Perennialism
b. progressivism
c. Existentialism d. Social Reconstructionism
PART III: ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

1. Which method of teaching during the primitive period made people learn what to think rather learn how to think?
a. Indoctrination
c. unconscious imitation
b. conscious imitation
d. Trial and error method
2. Primitive education discouraged the critical and creative thinking capabilities of the individual in order to maintain
complete submission to the established beliefs, traditions and customs of the tribe. How is this type of education
called?
a. Status quo
b. Organic education
c. Enculturation
d. Practical education
3. Which value would not greatly enhance education for humanitarianism?
a. Personal morality
c. Critical and creative thinking
b. social responsibility
d. Respect for human personality
4. Which thinking skills will make it difficult for students to adjust to the demands of the real world in which they live?
a. Systematic problem-solving
b. Processing information gathered to suit ones needs
c. Repetition and memorization of information learned
d. Objective decision-making when faced with several alternatives
5. The national Elementary Achievement Test (NEAT) and the National Secondary Achievement test (NSAT) would
fit the evaluation requirements of education for_______.
a. Harmony with nature
c. Psychological development
b. Training for the disciplines
d. Preservation of social stability
6. Which subject in Philippine schools is most likely, to achieve the objectives of nationalistic education?
a. Makabayan
c. Utilitarian education
b. Vocational education
d. Humanistic education
7. Teacher who teach their students the distinct Filipino values as respect for elders, women and people of authority
are giving emphasis to education as________?
a. Preparation for a rich, full life
c. Preservation of cultural heritage
b. Training for patriotic citizenship
d. adjustment to the needs and demands of daily living
8. Which subject in the current curriculum would greatly facilitate the goal of education as a scientifically determined
process?
a. Values Education
c. Hekasi
b. Technology and home economics
d. Mathematics and Science
9. Separate learning competencies have identified by the Department of education for the elementary and
secondary levels of education in the country. This is so since education is perceived to be:
a. Practical to prepare students to conserve nature and its resource
b. Idealistic for the development of intellectual and moral individuals
c. Nationalistic process to prepare students for democratic citizenship
d. Psychological process following growth and developmental patterns
10. Which of the following notable achievements of our former President Manuel Quezon truly reflected his strong
sense of nationalism?
a. He advanced the idea of offering vocational education in the public school system
b. He suggested that all subjects in the elementary level be taught in the national language
c. he worked for the development and propagation of national language to unify the Filipino people
d. He initiated actions towards the inclusion of the Philippines for membership to the United Nations
organization
11. Education according to this educator, should place greater emphasis on the development of agriculture and
other forms of vocational skills. Hr believed that this form of education help to discipline their minds, heart and
character through their muscles. Who is being referred to here?
a. Rafael Palma
b. Salvador Araneta
c. Pedro T. Orata d. Francisco Benitez
12. Dr. Pedro T. Orata, a foremost professor initiated the concept of the Barrio High School in the Philippines
education system. Which of the following characteristics best described the delivery of the high school
curriculum in this type of school?
a. Classes were held in the existing central school in the barrio
b. Special books were used to implement the high school curriculum
c. Every interested student qualified for training in this type of school
d. Classes were held in existing schools when the regular classes were not in session
13. Global competitiveness and internationalism as a goal of Philippine education is given much importance in the
various curricular in higher education in our country. At around the early 1950s, this great statesman had
already expressed the need to strengthen internationalization in relations to democracy in the education of the
Filipino youth. Who is this famous Filipino educator?
a. Camilo Osias
b. Manuel L. Quezon c. Franciscon Benitez d. Trinidad Pardo de Tavera
14. One of the following quotations does not conform to the Christian doctrine of education for humanitarianism.
Which one is it?
a. Love thy neighbor as thy self
b. Do unto others as you would like others do unto you
c. Whatever good things we do out poor, helpless brothers, we do it for God
d. Not on bread alone is man to live but on every utterance that comes from the mouth of God.
15. Also popularly called the Teacher of the Teachers, this Filipino educator, called on the teacher to develop and
prepare the Filipino youth to meet his/her own needs and wants as well as to contribute to the alleviation of the
present as well as future problems and challenges of his community and nation. Who is this Filipino educator?
a. Pedro T. Orat b. Manuel L. Quezon
c. Salvador Laurel
d. Francisco Benitez
16. Edukasyong Kagandahang Asal at Wastong Pag-uugali (EKAWP) is integrated in the New Elementary School
Curriculum. Which philosophy supports the teaching of (EKAWP) in the elementary school?
a. Taoism
b. Buddhism
c. Hinduism
d. Confucianism
17. Miss Soriano views her pupils as unique, free choosing and responsible individuals. She plans activities where

the pupil can develop his unique personality. What theory underlies this nature of the pupil?
a. Realism
b. Essentialism
c. existentialism d. progressivism
18. Joining organization or clubs in school is requisite to granting of academic distinction under DECS Order No. s
1998. This shows school community connection reflected in activities geared towards societys needs. What
Philosophy is related to this?
a. Realism
b. Pregressivism
c. Existentialism
d. Social Reconstructionism
19. Changes in the THE take care of the cognitive needs of students. It also emphasizes the use of project method
as implied in DECS order No. 91, s 1998. The related philosophy is __________________.
a. Realism
b. Existentialism
c. Progressivism d. Social Reconstructionism
20. DECS Order No. 13 s 1998 entitled Revised rules and regulations on the teaching of religion is emphasizing
the development of ones spiritually and moral. What philosophy is related to it?
a. Realism
b. idealism
c. Essentialism
d. Progressivism
21. DECS Order No. 57 s. 1998 entitled Clarification on the changes in the Social Studies programs offers
Economics on 3rd year instead of 4th year. The change hopefully will provide the needed social reform in
alleviating the condition of poverty. What philosophy addresses this concern?
a. Realism
b. Existentialism
c. Essentialism d. Social Reconstructionism
22. DECS Order No. 65, s 1998 entitled Revised guidelines on the selection of honor students. This is grounded
on the principle of personhood which is under the Philosophy of___________.
a. Progressivism
b. Existentialism
c. Essentialism d. Social reconstruction
23. Increase of time allotment in English, Math and Science in the Elementary level under the New Elementary
School curriculum (NESC) as provided in DECS Order No 1, s 1993 contributes in the enculturation of basic
literacy by providing the needed essential skills. The related Philosophy is ____________.
a. Realism
b. Essentialism
c. Idealism
d. Perennialism
24. DECS Order No. 54, s. 1995 entitled War on Waste helps students realize their role in the conservation of
nations resources. This also helps instill discipline among them. What philosophy is related to this?
a. Realism
b. Essentialism
c. Parennialism d. Social Reconstructionism
25. Which of the following school practices is not based on Social Reconstructionism?
a. WOW
c. Exemption of Scouts from CAT
b. Establishment of SOF
d. Promoting culture and arts in Schools
WHAT TO EXPECT
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
Area: FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION
Focus: Sociological-Anthropological Foundations of Education (Including Social Philosophy, management of
Change, Eastern / Filipino Philosophies)
LET Competencies:
1. To recall the basic concepts, principles, and key points about socio-anthro foundations of education and
social philosophy.
2. Identify eastern philosophies that influence Philippine education
3. apply basic principles in situations depicting moral dilemma
4. Manage conflicting situations to be able to bring out values that will enhance nationhood
5. Balance rights and authority; responsibility and accountability
6. Apply ethical principles involving teaching as a profession and teachers relationships with various groups
of people.
PART I: CONTENT UPDATE
SOCIO-ANTHROLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS (Relevant Terms & Concepts)
Anthropology
1.1 Derived from the Greek words anthorope which means man, and logy which means science.
1.2 Science that studies the origin and development of man. His works and his achievements.
1.3 Includes the study of physical, intellectual, moral, social, and cultural development of man, including his
customs, mores, folkways, and beliefs.
Culture
2.1 The shared products of human learning.
2.2 The sum total skills, beliefs, knowledges, and products that are commonly shared by a number of
people and transmitted to their. (Dressler)
2.3 A fabric of ideas, beliefs, skills, tools, and aesthetic objects, method of thinking, customs and institution
into each member of society is born (Smith, Stanley, and shores).
2.4 May be material (tangible) on non-material (Intangible) in form
2.5 A complex whole which includes knowledges, beliefs, arts, laws, morals, customs and other capabilities
and habits acquired by man as a member of society (Taylor)
2.6 Has the following characteristic.
It is learned and can be acquired through conditioning, imitation, formal and informal instruction, or the
media.
It is transmitted / transferable. What one learns can be transmitted to others through the use of language
It is social. It is shared by a learned from the members of a group.
It is adaptive. It selectively accommodates changes that come because of discovery, invention, and
borrowing by making appropriate adjustment.
It is dynamic. It represents a particular society or group of individual.
It is universal. Societies all over the world have each a culture of their own.
2.7 A standards for deciding what is, standards for deciding what can be, standards for deciding how one
feels about it, standards for deciding what to do about it, and standards for deciding how to go about
doing it (Goodenaugh).
Sociology

3.1 Science of man and society

3.2 Study of patterns of human behavior.
3.3 Study of groups and societies and how they affect the people.
Nature of Man
4.1 Basically a social being who cannot afford to live alone
4.2 Constantly interacts with others to satisfy most of his needs
4.3 Develops further as a person as he shares / interacts with others
Society
5.1 An organized group of population (Kessing) who interrelates and interacts with one another; with
common shared, attitudes, sentiments, aspirations and goals.
5.2 A social group that occupies territory, recruits its members by intergroup sexual reproduction, and has a
shared comprehensive culture (Bectrand).
5.3 A group of organized individuals who think of themselves as a distinct group, who have some things in
common, a set of loyalties and sentiments, and a esprit de corps which make the individual under
certain circumstances to sacrifice himself for the good of the group (Smith, Stanley, and Shoes).
5.4 A unit of interacting personalities with an interdependence of roles and status existing between or among
the members (Cole).
Status
6.1 refers to the position assigned by the person in a group or organization
Social Stratification
7.1 Refer to the classification of group members according to certain criteria which may differ according to
the nature of group.
7.2 Is influenced by the economic status of an individual
Social process
8.1 Refers to the patterned and recurrent from of social interaction (reciprocal action or effect)
8.2 May come in the form of competition, conflict, cooperation, accommodation, assimilation or
acculturation)
Socialization
9.1 A process of adapting or conforming to the common needs and interest of a social groups
9.2 A process where a member of a group leans and internalizes the norms and standards of the other
member among whom she/he lives.
9.3 Is carried out through the following agents of socialization
Family smallest social institution whose members are united by blood, marriage, or adaptation,
constituting a household and carrying a common culture whose functions include
Providing needed socialization of children in terms of their roles and status
Transmission of culture
Providing opportunities for growth and development of personality, self-concept relation to others
School (Education)

An agency originated by the society for the basic function of teaching and learning and for
the enculturation of its members

A place where attitudes, behaviors, customs and values are processed and refined

Is an agent of
- Socialization prepares students to become worthy members of society

Is an agent of
- Cultural transmission intakes the student aware of their cultural heritage as well as
the attitudes, values, and norms of the society through initiation and inculcation for the
continued survival of the society and the maintenance of social order

As agent of
- Cultural and social change / modernization serves as source of social and cultural
innovative activities that promote the development of initiative and open-mindedness
among the members of a society

Integrates into cultural mainstream the various subcultures and identities through a common
language, shared experiences, and aspirations

Has these other functions

- provides training of minds
- teaches the basics
- develops problem-solving and critical thinking
- accelerates adjustment to society

has for its main goal to effect changes in the behavior or an individual person and through
the person and through the person all the others with in the group, eventually preparing the
individual for a progressive rebuilding of the social order
Church, government, non-government agencies and institution wherein an individual is a part of
change
Change
10.1 Basically denotes a making or becoming distinctly different and implies either a radical transmutation
of character or replacement with something else (New World)
10.2 Management of change involves the skillful ways of managing, conducting and controlling things to
accomplish a purpose
10.3 For change to be successfully initiated and managed, 3 important components have to be present
(Fullan, 1991)

Relevance includes the interaction of need, the practitioners understanding of the change or
innovation, and what change offers as benefits
Readiness involves the capacity of the individual and the organization to deal with the change;
dependent on perceived need, reasons, time and benefits involved)
Resources all facilities, equipment, materials, and supplies necessary to initiate change should be
available
10.4 Reactions to change may be:
a. Passive resistance no verbal resistance but no cooperates shown either
b. Active resistance verbal concentrate actions present (rallies, position papers, etc.)
c. Passive readiness follow with question
d. Active question but cooperates.
10.5 Involves 3 stages: Unfreezing (readiness); change implementation (actual practice) and refreezing
(becoming a habit)
10.6 May come in the form of:
a. Cultural change refers to alterations affecting new trait of trait complexes in the cultures content
and structures.
b. Technological change revisions that occur in mans application of his technical knowledge and
skills as he adapts to his environment.
c. Social change variations and modifications in the patterns of social organization of groups in a
society, or of the entire society
Sociology of Education
Provides a study of the regular pattern of relationship between society and the educational process and the
explanation for such relationships which contributes to the analysis and eventual to problems confronting
the educational system.
Socio Anthropological Implications to Education
12.1 Schools need to provides the students with a curriculum that gives them insights into their social
traditions, customs, institution for the perpetuation of the long established social order
12.2 Schools together with the community, must teach the young the concepts of social order and social
control for the survival of the society
12.3 Schools need to have activities that reinforce role and status, expectation and values, which are
necessary in the promotion of harmonious relationship among members of a group / society
12.4 Schools are a necessity, hence government should see to it that they function as expected and that it
works towards improving the educational system and the lot of the people involved in this system
12.5 The community and the schools must work very closely to achieve the goals of the society in terms of
having a maximum fir between what the schools produce and the manpower needed by the
community
12.6 To ensure that quality outputs are produced by the schools, the government and TEIs should have
policies that are strictly enforced regarding the admission, selection, and retention of teacher
candidates
12.7 The government should regularly review the curriculum of basic education and higher learning
institutions to make certain that the educational and societal goals are a achieved.
SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY: Relevant terms and Concepts
Philosophy
1.1 The oldest form of systematic, scholarly inquiry
1.2 Comes form the Greek word philosophos or one who loves wisdom
1.3 Other related meanings
The study of the truths or principles underlying all knowledge, being, and reality, including values
meanings and purpose of human life
The study of the principles of a particular branch of knowledge
A system of principles for guidance in practical affairs
Social Philosophy
2.1 A normative science that
Involves the ideal of justice
Develops arguments that justify political and social institution, whether real or imagined
Inquiries into the meaning of a persons value experiences and moral questions raised by social order
2.2 A philosophic critique of social processes, or the interaction of individuals within the social groups and
of social groups upon one another, in terms of the principles that underline structures and functions
Ethics / Moral Philosophy
3.1 Ethics and Morality are terms both derived from Greek words that mean custom or particular
behavior
3.2 Defined as a philosophical science dealing with the morality of human acts
3.3 Is concerned with questions of human moral judgments that is judgment of right and wrong with
respect to human actions
3.4 Come into being when men began to take interest in the values they hold
3.5 Applies to question involving
Individual cases of conscience and obligation
Moral ends and purposes
Ethical motivation or intuition
The meaning of life; the purpose of his existence, and the consequences of his actions
Associative values towards which social process is directed
social control in terms of laws, rights, responsibility
sense of justice

3.6

Relation with other disciplines

Anthropology investigates the origin of the human and the behavior of the primitive man; ethics
deals with the principles of right conduct as applied to men of all times
Sociology describes the general structure and attitude of social groups; ethics studies the social
groups with reference to the moral social order
3.7 Divisions of Ethics
General ethics discusses the nature of human acts their relation to morality; includes the ultimate
end of man / human acts / morality of human acts / law and conscience / virtue in general
Special ethics deals with the application of the general principles of morality to the particular
actions of man as an individual and as a member of society includes rights and duties to God /
oneself / others (individual ethics); right to life, property and marriages (social ethics): state and
political authority (political ethics) and professional ethics
Human Acts
4.1 Actions that man performs knowingly, freely, voluntarily (as controlled by this pwn will, volition, and
powers)
4.2 May be moral (conforming to norms of morality; immoral (not conforming) and amoral (neither good or
bad)
Morality
5.1 The concept of morality revolves around the problem of good and evil. In the moral order, human
actions are good when they agree with the standards or norms of morality
5.2 In a popular sense, morality means a way of thinking and acting in conformity with virtue of goodness,
justice propriety, fairness, prudence, and other standards of behavior expected from individual members
of society; in a strict sense, it is the quality of human acts by which we call them right or wrong, good or
evil.
5.3 Morality is necessary for the preservation of human dignity and social life. It is the foundation of society
the whole happiness of man and even this sanity depends on this moral condition the problems of
society cannot be solved except in terms of the moral life of individuals (Merton)
5.4 Moral obligation means duty, oughtness; presupposes freedom to do an act or to omit it that is, mans
free and deliberate acts are regulated by moral laws. Sanction is any motive, consideration, or promise
which impels one to follow a moral obligation: a good act is worthy of merit and reward; a bad act
deserves punishment
5.5 Norms of Morality
Standards thats indicate the rightness or wrongness, the goodness or evilness, the value or disvalue of a
thing
Criteria of judgment about the kind of person one ought to b and the kind of actions she/he ought to
perform
Theories of Ethics
6.1 Consequentialism maintains that the morality of an action is determine solely by its consequences
Hedonism views that only pleasure is good as an end
Utilitarianism believes that the greatest happiness of the greatest number is the test of right or wrong
(Betham; Stuart Mill)
Self realization holds that the ultimate end is the full development or perfection of the self (Aristotle)
6.2 Non-consequentialism claims that the morality of an action depends on its instrinsic nature, or on its
motives, or on its motives, or on its motives, or on its being in accordance with some rules or principles
and either not all or only partly on consequences
6.3 Divine Command Theory the morality of an act depends on whether it is an accordance with the will
of God. (St. Augustine)
6.4 Categorical Imperative Theory holds that for ones action to be morally right, he must do for its own
sake and not because of rewards or punishment (kant)
6.5 Egoism an action is right only if it is in the interest of the agent (Hobbes)
6.6 Situation Ethics the morality of an action depends on the situations and not on the application of the
law
6.7 Intuitionism claims that ones knowledge of right and wrong is immediate and self evident
6.8 Emotive theory claims that moral judgment do not state anything that is capable of being true or false
but merely express emotions like oaths or exclamations.
6.9 Ethical relativism holds the view that there is no one correct moral code for all times and peoples,
that each group has its own morality relative to its wants and values, and that all moral ideas relative to a
particular culture
Values
7.1 Generally considered as something a principle, quality, act, or, entity that is intrinsically desirable
(Hall, et. Al.)
7.2 Possess a degree of excellence, some lasting genuine merit that rests on deeper intrinsic worth and
more enduring qualities than mere preference by individual or in consonance with given cultures (Hall,
et. Al.)
7.3 Are interrelated, not isolated; they reflect one another
7.4 are dynamic; become personal or social goals and thereafter beget the other values which in turn
generate further goals
7.5 Are positive and negative; function as dos and as donts
7.6 May follow certain hierarchy or order; some are of higher order, some lower e.g., heroism has definitely
value that pragmatism
7.7 Are first subjectively experiences before they are objectively analyzed and interpreted
7.8 are in a sense contagious, the fact the value system of a people creates a certain national character

Value System
8.1 a system of established values, norms, or goals existing and shared in a society or group
8.2 may include, according to Huxley, such primary values are
Individual freedom based in facts of human diversity and genetic uniqueness
Charity and compassion based on the psychiatrically ascertained fact that love is as necessary as
food for human growth, the love element including the valuing of self to develop self concept and
potentials for growth, and the valuing of others which includes trust as a requirement for good
citizenship
Intelligence, without which love becomes impotent and individual freedom, unattainable
Values Clarification (values building) involves having a clear set of values and realizing the values a person
holds depend on such factors as environment, education, and personality
Value ranking a conscious, deliberate process by which a mature person arrives at a fairly well-articulated,
thoughtful ranking of his chosen values; here interrelationship of values is explored within any given
individual
Value Conflict
11.1 Conflict and polarization occur when somebody imposes a value ranking on someone else. The
highest possibility then of polarity in a group is when two groups of people have opposite value
rankings.
11.2 May be seen in these situations:
Personal interest vs. public interest
Bayanihan spirit vs. kanya-kanya mentality
Close family ties vs. self-reliance
Personalism vs. group solidarity
Justice
12.1 Defined as the habit or readiness to give others what is due them; the constant and perpetual
disposition of society to render every man is due
12.2 The administration of justice is the determination and enforcement of the rights of person according
the low or equity
Law stresses the strict rendition of what is due
Equity emphasizes fairness
12.3 Justice includes rendering to every man the exact measures of his due without regard to his personal
worth or merits
12.4 Justice governs the distribution of rewards and punishment as deserved by an individual
12.5 Justice does not consider all men as equally deserving or equally blameworthy, but discriminates
between them to obtain a just proportion and comparison
12.6 Just and responsible government
Provides man with structures that guarantee his right to live a decent life and protect him from
exploitation by his fellowmen and / or certain systems
Provides every citizen sufficient opportunity for advancement, growth, and development
Encourages every citizen to help build a just and responsible government, one which promotes growth
and progress of its people
Encourages it people to be vigilant and involved to ensure that they control the government and that it
function effectively for the common good.
Has authority, the legitimate power to command or bind the citizens of the state to the common good
of he society; the power that directs social order for the common welfare of the whole community.
This authority is the result of the social contact between the people and those to whom the people
delegate this power.
Some Views about the Relation of the Individual to Society
13.1 Individualistic view holds that the society is made up of individuals who are independent of one
another, believes that the individual as an indestructible entity an society is merely as effect.
13.2 Socialistic view the individual is subordinate to the society
13.3 Dualistic view recognizes the individual as independent but as he interacts with the others in a
society, sees the need to become a part of a group and conform to its rules
13.4 Organic view - assumes that the society and the individual see common interest and that the
development of the individual requires social consciousness and involvement, each one needs the
other realizing their own ends but it must be recognized that a moral bond must exist between them so
that their ends may be fulfilled
Freedom, rights and responsibility
14.1 Freedom in a political context is defined in terms of independence
14.2 Freedom in a social context is defined in terms of rights.
14.3 Freedom is not absolute; it is not doing something without restriction or reservations or interference
and influence of others some sort. There are certain restriction or constraints to being free such as
laws, norms, customs or traditions, or even ignorance, lack of awareness, disabilities, fears, anxieties,
and past experiences

14.4 The whole moral life revolves around the use of freedom: good use guarantees man the affirmation of
his better self and the achievements of the purpose of the purpose of life: abuse of freedom is the
origin of mans guilty conduct
14.5 Right: means in ethics what is just, reasonable, equitable, what ought to be, what is justifiable,
something that is owed or due to others (that is , the object of justice): In a broader sense, right means
straight, something which is unbent, in contrast to wrong, which means crooked or distorted; hence, in
ethics, right actions square with the standards of morality; also means an immunity or privilege
protected or enforced by law.
Natural rights: inherent in the nature of man and are thus above the thus above the law such as life,
liberty, or pursuit of happiness
Political rights: privileges of participating in the affairs of government such as the right to vote
Civil rights: enjoyed by citizens in their private capacity such as the privilege of acquiring property
14.6 Rights responsibility are correlative; they in pairs. If one wants more rights and freedom, she. He shall
also have to accept more responsibility; thus the precept To whom much is given, much is required.
Conversely, one cannot exercise responsibility effectively if she/he is not given freedom to do the job.
Rights are intended to be used, not abused. A right is abused when it interferes with the rights of
others
All individual rights and freedom should be conceived in the light of social order and justice.

The reciprocation of rights and duties is the true foundation of social order
Duties refer to those that are due under justice to another individual or collective persons and to
God. I moral obligation embraces ones responsibilities toward himself, duties are properly directed
to others
Authority refers to the right to give commands, enforce laws, take-action, make decisions and
exact obedience, determine or judge
Accountability means to be answerable for; emphasizes liability for something or value either
contractually or because of ones position of authority
Responsibility refers to trust worthy performance of fixed duties and consequent awareness of
the penalty for failure to do so; is based on good judgment, and relates to obligation and
commitment
14.7 Sense of nationhood
May be equated with love of country , in the case of the Philippines, it may be synonymous with
Pagka-Pilipino or Filipinism, which is a concept of a community Filipinos
The sum of worthwhile (Filipino) values essential to the development of a sense of oneness and
identify of interest with the community and a desire to contribute to common life and national wellbeing (O.D Corpuz)
An ideology and commitment: an ideology, for one must know what a nation is what is can be, and
what it ought to be; a commitment, for one must recognize and accept his duty to help develop and
defend his nation as he has no conceived it (De La Costa)
Peoples consciousness of unity based on common ancestry, homeland, custom, culture and
destiny, which drive them to promote their collective interest over those of people of other countries
Immoderate, exaggerated, or without sense of nationhood contradicts order of reason and the
demands of justice and charity
14.8 Nationalism
Central to nationalism is the conception of sovereignty, entirely independent of any legal or moral
authority beyond its own borders.
Fosters a strong feeling of loyalty to the state and pride in their nationality; hence, education should
be used as a prime means to develop nationalism
Aims to achieve freedom from foreign oppressors to achieve political self determination

Is a moral virtue; an aspect of justice and embraces the duties of man towards his countrymen
because he shares with the same homeland, the same government, and common interests

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS FOR TEACHERS

Appropriate ethical standards, values and principles of conduct, as well as the rights and benefits due al teachers
have been set forth and are embodied in such documents as the Magna Carta for Public School Teachers
and the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers
Teachers Rights and benefits
2.1 Security of tenure: Stability in employment and security of tensure shall be assured the teachers as
provided for under existing laws and No officer or employee in the Civil service shall be suspended or
dismissed except for cause as provided by law
2.2 Injury benefits: teachers shall be protected against the consequences of employment injuries in
accordance with existing laws
2.3 Leave benefits
Maternity leave for married women employees
15 day sick leave and 15 day vacation leave for those teachers designated for continuous duty
throughout the year
70 day vacation pay and vacation service credit for teachers not required to render service throughout
the year

Study leave after seven years of service

Medicare benefits to all teachers regardless of age, sex, means or status
Disability benefits
right to permanent status after having rendered at least 10 years continuous, efficient, and faithful
service
right to freely and without previous authorization establish and join organization of ones own choosing,
subject to limitation .
right to academic freedom freedom to investigate and discuss the problem of his science and to
express his conclusion without inference from political of ecclesiastical authority, or from the
administrative officials .. unless his methods are found to be clearly incompetent or contrary to
professional ethics.; includes choice of methods, materials, course requirements
Right to be paid in legal tender without any unlawful deductions
Right to equitable safeguards in disciplinary cases:
Right to be informed of the charges
Right to full access of evidence
Right to defend himself or be defended by a representative of his choice
Right to appeal to designated authorities
Rights emanating from being persons in authority
Ethical principles culled from the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers and the Magna Carta for Public
School Teachers
The teacher shall:
o Maintain the nobility and dignity of the teaching profession
o Maintain continuing professional growth t improve efficiency, competency and productivity, nationally and
internationally
o Maintain harmonious and pleasant personal and official relations with other professionals, government
o Transmit to learners cultural and educational heritage of the country; elevate national morality; promote
national morality; promote national pride; cultivate love of country; instill allegiance to the constitution and
respect for all duly constituted authorities, and promote obedience to the laws of the state
o Be imbued with the spirit of professional loyalty, mutual confidence and faith in one another, self-sacrifice for
the common good, and full cooperative with colleagues
o Make an honest effort understand and support the policies of the school administration
o Refrain from transacting any business in illegal manner
o Show professional courtesy, helpfulness, and sympathy to one another, and exhibit cooperative
responsibility to formulate change for the system at all levels
o Be first and foremost concerned with the interest and welfare of the students and deal with students justly
o Establish and maintain cordial relations with parents; inform them of their childrens progress; seek their
cooperation for their childrens guidance and hear their complaints with sympathy understanding
o Maintain good reputation with respect to financial matters
o Maintain a dignified personality whether in school, in the home, or elsewhere so as to serve as a model
worthy of emulation by learners, peers, and all others.
Socio-Philo Implication s to Education
8.1 Schools should teach students how to respond to the moral problems of the society emphasizing an
authentic concern for the human person.
8.2 Education should provide opportunities for maximum development and inculcation of ethical, cultural
and moral values.
8.3 Schools need to provide learning activities to develop in the students a strong sense of right and
wrong
8.4 Schools need community need to work together to develop in the students practical consciousness
about happening in the society and to help them form constructive responses through collaborative
efforts.
8.5 Education in a democratic society must endeavor to heighten interest and participate in civic-oriented
activities to help create a more equitable and just society.
8.6

Education should have enough provision other than curricular offerings for strengthening ones sense
Filipinism and nationhood.

PART II: ANALYZING TEST ITEMS

Competency 1

Which is the most accepted definition of sociology?

Science of man and his achievement?
Science of human behavior
Science of man and society
Science of man, development and works
The correct answer is Option C because it gives a comprehensive definition of sociology. The definition
two broad concepts i.e., man and society the former subsuming Option B. Options A & D are
anthropological definitions.
Competency 4

You have some foreign visitors who will stay for a time in your community. What two actions will you take to
manage conflicting situations and at the same time bring about values that enhance your sense of
nationhood?
Try hard to speak the way they do for better understanding.
Bring them to places the country is well-known for.
Serve them the same food that they eat in their country
Show them desirable Filipino traits
Conflict may arise when two different cultures meet and interact. In Option A, trying to speak the language
of another culture does not promote ones own language nor brings out a sense of nationhood to an
individual . Likewise in Option C. Serving the person the food he eats in his own country does not do the
country any good.
So, the right answers are Option B & D. Both are positive indicators of love of country. Also, such actions
signify the desire to contribute to national well-being by promoting the Philippines through visits to some
scenic spots and show of desirable Filipino traits to them.
Competency 5
Mrs. Arao gave her students a unit test and found out that three of them got failing marks in subtracting mixed
fractions. What should she do to help them?
a. Ask the bright students to coach them.
b. Personally give them remedial lessons.
c. Tell the parents to get them a personal tutor.
d. Let the class know what happened to the three.
Option A is not the right answer because bright students should not be obligated to teach their classmates.
In Option C, teachers may suggest / advise but not order parents to hire a personal tutor for their Children.
Option D may cause further embarrassment / humiliation to the concerned once done
The correct answer is Option B because teachers are committed to do everything they can just to make
the students learn. It implies teachers accountability if failure to do so.
Competency 6
Which of the following shows an immoral act among public officials?
a. Positive legislation
b. Foster
c. Protect underworld characters
d. Promote social tranquility
Options A, B & D are classified as moral acts. They all conform to norms of morality. Positive legislation is
expected of a legislator; teachers for fostering learning and peacekeepers like the servicemen, policemen
and the like for social tranquility. All are public officials.
However, Option C which is protecting the underworld characters is least expected from a public official.
Such action does not conform to the norms of morality. Therefore, Option C is the right answer.
1.

The adoption of scientific techniques to control and manipulate environment such as modern methods for farming
and fishing is called
a. Social change
b. Technological change
c. Cultural change d. Discovery change
2.
Heavily sanctioned folkway which no one dares to question because they embody moral laws are called
a.beliefs
b. customs
c. progress
d. evolution
3. What is that inevitable force in history, which takes place from time to time?
a.Change
b. development
c. progress
d. evolution
4. Nora Aunor became a legend in the show business because of her talent, determination and hard work. What role
does this illustrate?
a.achieved role
b. ascribed role
c. hereditary role
d. temporary role
5. Pinning veil around the bride and the groom / exchange of rings, releasing of doves, etc. during wedding show
that culture is
a.symbolic
b. continuous
c. historical
d. changeless
6. Aling Maria has taught her daughter how to prepare good and delicious desserts from local fruits and vegetables.
What cultural transmission process is this?
a.observation
b. acculturation
c. enculturation
d. indoctrination
7. Mr. Francisco was teaching something on mores, folkways, customs and beliefs in his Social Studies class. What
was his lesson about?
a.material culture b. non-material culture
c. tangible culture
d. hereditary culture
8. It was the first day of school. Miss Dela Rosa prepared activities, which will make her Grade III sing, play, talk,
learn and introduce themselves to the class. What process did the teacher emphasize?
a.enculturation
b. socialization
c. indoctrination
d. acculturation
9. Mildred, an accountant, who now lives with a married man was disowned by her family and friends. This
punishment is a form of
a.Isolation
b. Deportation
c. Ostracism
d. Character assassination
10. When a certain culture is acceptable to one group and questionable to others, it shows that:
a.culture is borrowed duct
c. culture is varied
b.culture is a shared product
d. culture is relative
11. The teaching and learning of religion and values mostly make use of
a.enculturation
b. indoctrination
c. culturation
d. acculturation
12. Which of the following situations presents a value conflict?
a.The teacher pressures the student to get higher grades.
b.The teacher and his students have better class standing as their priorities.
c. The teacher and the administrator follow a set of criteria in giving grades.

d.The teacher has students whose parents want their children to obtain higher grades than what they are
capable of getting.
13. Miss Santiago is a stickler for cleanliness and orderliness in the classroom. For this, she asks her students to
a.Do the same even when theyre at home
b.Remove their shoes in entering the classroom
c. Formulate norms and remind them often to follow these norms.
d.Bring cleaning materials and clean the room before, during, and after classes.
14. Which situation shows that a sense of nationhood is exemplified?
a.When Miss Aguas asked her Grade II students in what country they wish to live, most of them chose Australia.
b.The class was asked which brand of chocolate they would rather have, no one chose chocnut
c. There is a class program. The girls volunteered to do a balagtasan, while.
d.The boys opted to make a choral rendition of the theme song of the movie Titanic
15. Which statement best indicates a balance between responsibility and authority? Miss Soriano has just provided a
group activity to her class. While the class is at it, she says
a.You can talk as much as you want
b.You are forbidden to talk with each other
c. Ill send you out of the room if you so much create noise.
d.You can talk provided you finish the work on time and do not disturb the other group
16. Which of the following behaviors bespeaks of a professional teacher?
a.Speaks ill of the Filipino ways
c. Imparts his personal beliefs and ideology
b.Advocates the theme of nationhood
d. Seeks the cooperation of the parents for her own interest
17. Which situation shows a desirable relationship between teachers and other groups of people?
a.Mrs. Magsino, a newly-assigned principal to barangay San Andres, calls on the barangay chairman
b.The new teacher was requested to help the barangay council in a involving one of his students. He declined.
c. Mr. Tiglao feels that the barangay council is against his plans; so, he does not consult the council even if there
is a need for it.
d.The principal does her own way of campaigning for cleanliness in and outside the school; she never gets
involved with the same campaign of the barangay officials
18. If you were Mrs. Norman, which action would you take to show a balance between balance and accountability?
a.Give them more free time during the camping period.
b.See to it that the older boy scouts take charge of the safety of the group
c. Let the boy scouts do the scheduled activities during the camping while he had a drinking spree with the other
scout masters
d.Prepare structure activities that allow independent work among the boy scout
e.Groups and rate them according to the agreed criteria.
19-20. Which two characteristics of eastern philosophies might have influenced Philippine education?
a.Focus on the individual
b.The group is above self
c. Knowledge comes about through meditation
d.Mans way of life must be characterized by harmony
21.
Which situation shows that action is legal but not moral? Public official, entitled to specific privileges from the
government
a. Takes the most economical fare in going about his duties
b. Does his job without getting favors from the client he serves
c. Reverts back to the public coffers the 10% commission due him.
d. Buys the latest and the most expensive car model for his department.

PART III: ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.
8.

An organized and systematized manner of learning where expectancies are controlled by the teacher is termed
as:
a.teaching
b. education
c. schooling
d. motivation
A social agency that makes a child learn to value himself and eventually others is
a.home
b. school
c. . group
d. society
What will surely take place whenever society adapts modernization abruptly?
a.There is peace b. There is harmony
c. There is progress
d. There is confusion
When a person fails to adjust to the fast changing world, he is likely to suffer from
a.culture shock b. severe headache
c. culture change d. extreme loneliness
What is enculturation?
a.handing down of culture by a teacher
b.handing down of culture without any question
c. handling of culture from one generation to the next
d.handling down of culture from one who knows to somebody who doesnt know
Which of the following functions cannot by the school?
a.perpetuation of specie
c. socialization among children
b.changing cultural practices
d. development of attitudes and skills
Filipinism could be taken as having the same connotation as sense of
a.Responsibility
b. Professionalism
c. nationhood
d. philosophy
The process of individual and group change caused by contact with various cultural system is

a.acculturation
b. enculturation
c. culturation
d. indoctrination
All people have culture and therefore share a common humanity. This shows that
a.culture is universal
c. culture is a product of change
b.culture is organized
d. culture is the sum total of human experiences
10. Which of the sciences below is more connected with the study of social traditions?
a.Theology
b. Psychology
c. sociology
d. anthropology
11. Which of the following situations presents a value conflict?
a.The parent expects her child to do what he tells him; the child obeys so.
b.The parent wants to his child to be in Deans list; the child studies hard
c. The child has many friends; the parent allows him to spend time with them during week-ends
d.The parents priority is for her child to be an A student, the childs
12. Why cant the school implement programs for social reconstruction?
a.Most of the students are poor and passive c. Some teachers have no dedication to the profession
b.Some teachers do not like teaching career d. Most teachers belong to Low Socio Economic Status (SES)
13. Which of the following best illustrates a sense of responsibility that a professional teacher is expected to have?
a.Is humble
c. Has pleasant disposition
b.Makes good use of time
d. Tutors own student for a free
14. When an individual or a group adapts the culture of others, practice them and becomes habitual, this is:
a.culture lag
b. culture change
c. culture shock d. culture difference
15. The proper sequencing of grade labels according to chronological ages of learners is called
a.Status
b. Organization
c. Agency
d. institution
16. Divorce is legal in the United States is not acceptable in the Philippines. What does it show?
a.Culture is illegal
c. Culture is relative
b.Culture is uniform
d. culture is phenomenon
17. Which situation shows that there is a balance between responsibility and accountability?
a.she gets over time pay for doing so
b.additional credit in the performance assessment
c. she wants to socialize with the parents and other teachers
d.these are propitious time to meet with parents and discuss with them the progress of their children
18. A school which operates not only to cater to her students but for all the people where it is located can be called
a.Public school
b. Private school
c. Societal school d. community school
19. Which situation shows a desirable relationship between teachers and other groups of people?
a.Miss Sison issues report cards only if she remembers.
b.Mr. Fajardo never entertains parents complains; he feels they are only a pest
c. As a class adviser, Mr. Magalang has not had a single conference with the parents of his students
d.Mrs. Vergara is glad that the parents of her Grade III class volunteer to her in certain class activities
20.21 Which two situations conform with ethical principles involving teaching as a profession?
a. At age 53, Mr. Santos still keeps on finding ways to improve his craft as a teacher
b. Mr. Delfino hopes to becomes an administrator in the near future. Right now he engages in power struggle
with his colleagues
c. Ms. Calma presently busy arranging a conference with the parents of her students to clear up
misunderstanding about instructional program
d. Miss Tala, a Grade 3 teacher, always comes to school early and prepares her boardwork and teaching
materials before her students come to class.
22. Which statement can be considered features of our present educational system?
a.Knowledge is power,
c. Knowledge begins in the senses
b.Knowledge does not change
d. Knowledge can be known only by reason
23-24 Which two situations suggest that nationhood is enhanced?
a.You had an opportunity to go to Canada while there, you thought it best to go TNT,
b.You were asked to give a talk about the heroism of Ninoy Aquino to a group of youngsters. You decided to use
Filipino
c. While with a friend from California, you tried to impress him by talking to your old folks like they were your
peers.
d.After living in the City for years, you found yourself back in the barrio where you spent your childhood days.
When asked if you could join in building a carabao shed for a neighbor, you gladly said yes.
25. Which is not anthropological view of education?
a.Education is a social institution.
c. Education is an agent of change and modernization
b.Education is the process of teaching and learning d. Education is boundary breaking between social classes.
9.

GENERAL EDUCATION: SOCIAL SCIENCE

FOCUS: HUMAN RIGHTS, PEACE AND GLOBAL EDUCATION
LET Competencies:
1. Comprehend basic concepts about right to life, human dignity, physical integrity, extent and limits of state
authority, good name and honor of human person, etc.
2. Manifest knowledge of varied perspectives as a member society whose rights and duties affect him/her in the,
family, in civil, professional and religious society and international relations.
3. Identify global trends and realities and analyze if they facilitate peaceful, just and sustainable world order
4. become familiar with key concepts, skills and values in peace and global education
To address present critical issues, there is a need to revise our teacher education curriculum to make it truly
integrated and holistic in content and approach. To do so, we need to identify 3 important areas of concerns:

 Peace Education- This area affirms personal and global responsibilities for the promotion of peace, cooperation,
disarmament, justice and non-violent resolution of conflict.
Human Rights Education- Promotes understanding of Human Rights concepts and values to enable learners to
comprehend and transform conditions which give rise to human rights violation.
Global Education- involves learning about those problems and issues which cut across national boundaries and
about the interconnectedness of system- cultural, ecological, economic, political, and technological. It also includes
citizenship education.
A. PEACE EDUCATION
Objectives of Peace Education
1. Knowledge
a. Peace students should investigate different concepts and examples of peace on a variety of levels from
personal to global.
b. Conflict and Violence Students should study the problems of violence
c. Some Peaceful Alternatives
disarmament
non-violent conflict resolution
development based on justice
human rights respect
human solidarity
environmental care
d. Ethical and Practical Rationale Students should study the ethical and practical basis for the above-cited
peaceful alternatives in order to provide added motivation for learning.
2. Attitudes/Values
a. Self-respect
f. Cooperation
b. Respect for others
g. Openness/Tolerance
c. Respect for human life/nonviolence
h. Social Responsibility
d. Global concern
i. Positive Vision
e. Ecological concern
3. Skills
a. Reflection
e. Communication
b. Critical thinking
f. Conflict Resolution
c. Decision-making
g. Group Building
d. Imagination
Six Paths to Peace According to the Office of the President Adviser on Peace Process
Path 1: Reforms to address the root course of the armed conflicts and social unrest.
The first path calls for the vigorous implementation for various socio-economic and political reforms aimed at
addressing the root causes of internal armed conflicts and social unrest.
Path 2: Consensus-building and empowerment for peace.
The second path includes continuing consultations on national and local levels to build consensus for the peace and
development agenda, and the mobilization and facilitation of peoples participation in the peace progress.
Path 3: Peace negotiations with rebel groups.
The third path refers to the conduct of face- to- face negotiations to reach peaceful settlement with the various rebel
groups.
Path 4: Reconciliation, reintegration and rehabilitation.
The fourth path includes programs to address the legal status and security of former rebels, as well as communitybased assistance programs to address to economic, social and psychological rehabilitation needs of formed rebels,
demobilized combatants, and civilian victims or armed conflicts.
Path 5: Conflict management and protection of civilians caught in armed conflict.
The fifth path to peace involves the strict implementation of laws and policy guidelines, and the institution of programs
to ensure the protection of non-combatants and reduce the impact of the armed conflict on the affected communities.
Path 6: Creating a positive climate for peace.
The sixth path includes peace education and advocacy programs and the implementation of various confidencebuilding measures.
B. HUMAN RIGHTS EDUCATION
Human right is defined as the supreme, inherent and alienable right to life, dignity, and self-development. It is
concerned with issues on both areas of civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights founded on
internationally accepted human rights obligations to which the Philippines government is a state party. (Educators
Human Rights Handbook, commission on Human Rights).
Did the concept of Human right begin only in 1948?
The concept of human rights did not start with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. Most
societies have had traditions similar to the golden role of Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. The
Hindu Vedas, the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, the Bible, the Koran, and the Analects of Confucius are five of the
oldest written source which addresses questions of peoples duties, rights, and responsibilities. The Inca and Aztec
codes of conduct and justice and Iroquois constitution were Native American source that existed well before the 18 th
century. All societies, whether in oral or written tradition, have had system of propriety and justice as well as ways of
tending to the health and welfare of their members.
What are international human rights standards? What is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights?
One of the milestones in the history of the United Nation is the setting of universally recognized human rights
standards to which all states can subscribe are and to which every human being can aspire. International human rights
standards are a compilation of International laws and treaties defining a broad range of internationally accepted human

rights such as civil, economic, political, and socio-cultural. Rights of women, children, and persons with disabilities,
migrant workers, indigenous people, minorities, refugees, and other vulnerable groups have also been acknowledged.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the international covenant on civil-political rights, the
international covenant on socio-economic and cultural rights and their optional protocols are the major human rights
instruments comprising the international bill of rights.
The UDHR is the minimum and common standard of achievement for all peoples. The United nations
General Assembly adopted it on December 10, 1948, the day which continues to be observed internationally as
Human Rights Day. It has 30 articles spelling out basic civil political, economic, and socio-cultural rights. Articles 3 to
21 present the civil and political rights to which all human beings are entitled. Articles 22 to 27 set forth the economic,
social, and cultural rights to which every person is equally entitled. Articles 28 to 30. recognize that everyone is
entitled to a social and international order in which the human rights set forth in the declaration may be fully realized;
that these rights may only be limited for the sole purpose of securing recognition and respect of the rights and
freedoms of other and of meeting the requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic
society; and that each person has duties to the community in which he or she lives. The UDHR being merely a
declaration of principles does not legally bind states parties; however, it has evolved as a standard of moral
commitment for States, thus, is often used to assess their actions.
How did the human eights standards evolve?
International Human rights standards emerged at the end of the Second World War in response to the
atrocities and massive violations of human rights witnessed during the conflict.
What are the fundamental principles underlying the human rights standards?
Universality- That every one should enjoy human rights without discrimination as to sex, age, language,
religion, or race. Wherever a person is, whether in a rich or poor country, in a tribe, and whoever the person is
a king/queen or pauper, man or woman, old and young she can claim such rights.
Inviolability- that human rights as an irreducible element of ones humanity can not be abrogated or violated
unless determined by law and Solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights of
other and of meeting the just requirements of the general welfare, morality and public order in a democratic
society
Interdependence- a persons well being can not be enjoyed in place meal. Human dignity can not be taken in
increment. This means that certain rights can not be sacrificed in favor of other rights because taken
What are the specific rights in the UDHR?
LETTER
HUMAN RIGHTS
ARTICLE
A
Asylum
Art. 14
B
Beliefs, Thoughts and Conscience
Art. 18
C
Culture
Art. 27
D
Due Process
Art. 9, Art. 11
E
Equality in Dignity, Rights and Law
Art. 1, Art. 2, Art. 7
F
Freedom from Slavery, Torture and Degrading Treatment and Punishment
Art. 4, Art. 5
G
Groups, Association and Assembly
Art. 20
H
Holdings
Art. 17
I
Intellectual Property
Art. 27
J
Justice and Judicial Remedy
Art. 8, Art. 10
K
Knowledge
Art. 26
L
Life and Liberty
Art. 3
M
Marriage and Family
Art. 16
N
Name and Nationality
Art. 15
O
Opinion and Expression
Art. 19
P
Privacy and Protection
Art. 12
Q
Question
Art. 19, Art. 21
R
Religion
Art. 18
S
Social Security
Art. 22
T
Travel and Movement
Art. 13
U
Union
Art. 23
V
Vote and Participation
Art. 21
W
Work and Well Being
Art. 23, Art. 25
X
Extra and Special Human Rights Protection
Art. 28, Art. 29, Art. 30
Y
Yearn and More
Art. 28, Art. 29, Art. 30
Z
ZZZZZ. Rest and Leisure
Art. 24

What are the different groups of rights?

Civil and
Political
Rights

Economic
social and
Cultural Rights

Classification of Rights: Rights can be classified according to the following:

1. According to Source:
a. Natural Rights are God-given rights which are acknowledgment by everybody to be morally good. Examples
are right to life, right to dignity, and right to self-development.
b. Constitutional rights- are those rights which are conferred and protected by the constitution and when can be
encounter or taken away by the law making body.
c. Statutory rights- are those rights which are provided by law, promulgated by the law making body and,
consequently, may be abolished by the same body.
2. According to recipient
a. Individual rights- are those being accorded to individuals
b. Collective rights- are those of the society, those that can be enjoyed only in company with others.
3. According to aspect of life
a. Civil rights- are those rights when the law will enforce at the private individuals for the purpose of securing to
them the enjoyment of their means of happiness. Examples are: Constitutional rights of the accused, rights
against involuntary servitude or liberty of abode.
b. Political Rights are those rights which enable us to participate in running the affairs of the government either
directly or indirectly. Examples are the right to vote, right to information on matters of public concern and the
right of initiative.
c. Economic and social rights Are those which the law confers by law upon the people to enable then to
achieve social and economic development, thereby ensuring them their well being happiness and financial
security. Example: are the right to property, education, and promotion of social justice.
d. Cultural Rights- are those rights that ensure the well being of the individual and foster the preservation,
enrichment and dynamic evolution of national culture based on the principle of unity in diversity in a climate of
free artistic and intellectual expression.
What is the Convention on the Rights of the child?
The concept of childrens rights in CRC is premised on the understanding that society has an Obligation to
satisfy the fundamental rights of children and to provide assistance for the development of the childs personality,
potentialities and abilities. The convention on the rights of the child provides an internationally agreed framework of
minimum standards necessary for the well being of the child and to which every child is entitled. The CRC defines the
child as a person below 18 years old.
ABCs of Childrens Rights
A
Adoptation
N
Name and Nationality
B
Best interests
O
Organization
C
Culture
P
Privacy and Protection
D
Development
Q
Questions
E
Equal Treatment
R
Rehabilitation
F
Family and Family Environment
S
Social Security
G
Games
T
Travel for Family Reunification
H
Health
U
Urgent Action during Crisis
I
Identify
V
Views and Voice
J
Juvenile Justice
W
Well - Being
K
Knowledge
X
Extra Care
L
Life and Liberty
Y
Yearn for More
M
Media for Children
Z
ZZZZZZZ . . . Rest and Leisure
GLOBAL EDUCATION
Global Education Involves the:
Study of systems ( economic, political, ecological, technological)
Study of Human values ( universal and diverse)
Study persistent problems ( war and peace, human rights, environmental issues)
Study of global history( development of global systems and human values)
We see a Global Citizen as someone who:
Is aware of the wider world and has a sense of their own role as a world citizen;
Respect and values diversity
Has an understanding of how the world works economically, politically, socially culturally, technologically and
environmentally;
Participates in and contributes to the community at range of levels from local to global;
Is willing to act to make the world a more sustainable place
Takes responsibility for their actions
WHAT GLOBAL ISSUES IS RELEVANT TO GLOBAL EDUCATION?
Childrens Rights
The Convention on the rights of the child is a universally agreed set of non negotiable
standards and obligation which spells out the basic human rights those children everywhere
without discrimination.
Disasters
Reducing human suffering and economic losses caused by natural and technological disaster
comes from preparedness and mitigation through policies, education and strategic and rapid
responses.
Education
Investing in education systems helps build human capital and ensures that people can
participate more fully in society
Environment
As the worlds population grows there is more and more pressure on the environment produce
enough food and energy without consuming the resource faster that they can be replace.

Food Security

Providing for physical, social and economic access by all people at all times to sufficient, safe
and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food which meets their dietary needs
and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
Governance
Effective governance means competent management of a countrys resource in a way that is
fair, open, accountable and responsive to peoples needs.
HIV/AIDS
The HIV/AIDS pandemic represent one of the greatest challenges facing developing countries.
Health
Improving the basic health and the quality services delivery and addressing the health effects
if natural disaster and emergencies are the means of improving the health of people.
Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights sets forth the human rights and fundamental
freedoms of all men and women in all nations, everywhere in the world. Infrastructure the
development and maintenance of essential public services and systems is an important
ingredient for sustained economic growth and poverty reduction.
Micro credit
Small scale business development is an important means of helping individuals out of poverty.
Peace building
The support structure and processes which strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a
relapse
Poverty
The complex web that keeps people poor is being addressed through economic growth and
Alleviation
improving governance, education and health.
Refugees
Forced to flee their homes because of persecution refugees are a significant group who need
international protection as they a durable solution to their plight.
Rice
Highlighting the importance of rice as a primary food and income source in many developing
countries.
Rural
The majority of the worlds poor lives in rural areas; and is disproportionately dependent on
Development
natural resource for their livelihoods, especially resource such as forests and fisheries.
Volunteering
Many people give their time and skills without pay to make a contribution to assist others.
Water
Water is the source of life- vital for health, food and economic development.
Women
Improving the status of women is not just a womens issue, but a goal that requires the active
participation of both men and women.
WHY IS GLOBAL EDUCATION AN IMPERATIVE?
1. The world we live in a unfair and unequal, and Global Citizenship promotes the challenging and
changing of this.
The 1998 Human Development Repost from the UN stated that the amount people in Europe and
North America spend a year on pet food, cosmetic and perfumed ($ 37 billion) would provide basic
education, water and sanitation, basic health and nutrition to all those without those things, with $ 9bn
left over
2. We live in a diverse society, and Global citizenship gives children the tools to counter ignorance and
intolerance within it.
Ignorance and intolerance take many forms. Attitudes of empathy and respect for diversity, as well as
skills of co-operation and negotiation, are essential to combat the prejudice and discrimination
currently alive and kicking in our society.
3. We live in an interdependent world and Global citizenship is about flexibility and adaptability as well
as about a positive image of the future.
There are many similarities and links between people across the globe, not only in terms of personal
needs and aspirations, but also regarding communications and trade.
4. Global citizenship acknowledges that we have power as individuals: each of us can change things,
and each of us has choices about how we behave.
We can:
Speak up against injustice and discrimination;
Bank with an ethical investor;
Reduce waste- refuse unnecessary packaging, reuse and recycle as much as possible;
Buy fair trade products
Become activists- take encouragement from the genetically modified (GM) foods debate: the Iceland
supermarket chain banned GM foods after investigations prompted by six letters from a church in Black bum.
SOME WORLD FACTS
Global income is more than $ 31 trillion a year, but 1.2 billion people of the worlds population earn less than
$1 a day.
80% of the global population earns only 20% of global income, and within many countries there is a large gap
between rich and poor
Half the worlds population, nearby three billion people, lives on less than $US2 a day.
Nearby 800 million people do not get enough food and more than 840 million adults are illiterate including 538
million women
In developed countries more than 100 million people live below the poverty line, more than 5 million people are
homeless and 37 million are jobless
The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the poorest 48 nations (i.e. a quarter of the worlds countries) is less
than the wealth of the worlds three richest people combined.
Million children die each year from largely preventable diseases, caused by lack of clean water and inadequate
health care. Through improved access to clean water, food and rates of immunization, the lives of many
children are being saved.
An estimated 250 million children aged 5 to 14 are working around the world.
Close to 2 million children have been killed in armed conflicts during the past decade
More than half the worlds population lives in low-income, food-deficit countries that are unable to produce or
import enough food to feed their people.

 More than one third of all children are malnourish and 6 million children a year die of causes related to
malnutrition
Most of the worlds hungry people are found in the developing world, but 34 million are also found in the
developed world.
There is enough food in the world for all people to have sufficient, however it is unevenly distributed.
There are over 860 million people in the world, of whom:
61% come from Bangladesh, China, India, and Pakistan
66% are women
There is a world wide shortage of school teachers and, according to the EFA Report 2002,an extra 15-35
million more teachers will be required to achieve universal primary education by 2015.5, 500 children die each
day from diseases linked to pullulated food, air, and water.
The global rate of ice melt has more than doubled since 1988 and could raise ser levels 27 centimeters by
2100.
Around the world 42 million people are living with HIV/AIDS, 39 million of them in developing countries, three
quarters of them are in sub-Saharan Africa, where the rate has almost reached one in ten adults, or more for
some countries.
Tuberculosis remains (along with AIDS) the leading infectious killer of adults, causing up to 2 million deaths a
year.
An estimated 42 million people are living with HIV/AIDS with 95% of global infection in developing countries
2005 is the United National International Year of Micro credit, and microfinance more broadly, is seen as an
important tool for eradicating poverty and hunger- one of the United Nations Millennium Development Goalsand empowering poor people.
The World Bank estimated in 2004 that there over 7000 microfinance institutions worldwide, serving over 16
million poor people.
The combined turnover of these institutions was estimated at US $2.5 billion
The experience of microfinance institutions shows that women are a good credit risk, and that they
Invest their income for the wellbeing of their families, at the same time, they benefit from the higher social
status they achieve through being able to provide income
Disaster affect the worlds poorest the hardest of the 24,500 people killed in 2002, just 6% lived in countries of
high human development.
Between 1993-2002 famine was by far the deadliest disaster, killing at least 27,000 people (nearly half of all
reported fatalities), although this is probably a gross underestimate. Floods affected more people across the
globe (140 million per year on average) than all other natural or technological disasters put together
Some 75% of the worlds population live in areas affected at least once by earthquake, tropical cyclone, flood
or drought between 1980 and 2000.
Since 1980 almost one half of the worlds least developed countries have suffered from a k\major conflict.
Over 90% of wars now take place within states rather than between them.
During the 1990s alone, wars claimed over 5 million lives worldwide
During the period 1990-2002 there were 56 major, armed conflicts in 44 different locations in the world,
exacerbating poverty and disrupting development efforts
World military expenditures peaked at over $ 1 trillion in 1989, after a period of decline; it has begun to rise,
reaching $ 780 billion in 1999.
More than 90% of the worlds rice is grown and consumed in Asia, where people typically eat rice two or three
times a day
In 2003 the four major rice exporters were Thailand, 8 million tones, Vietnam, 4 million tones, India 3 million
tons and USA, 2.9 million tones.
Australia produces roughly 1.3 million tones of rice a year and exports rice to over 70 countries
In 2000, 53% of the worlds 6.1 billion people lived in rural areas, a figure that is expected to drop to 40% by
2030.
To meet future demands, the worlds farmers will have to produce 40 percent more grain in 2020 then in 1999.
Most of this increase will have to come from yield increases on existing land.
Over 30 million of the worlds 240 million irrigated hectares have been severely damaged by the building up of
salt, and further 80 million tons- bringing stocks to their lowest level in 30 years and allowing for only 59 days
of consumption.
Over 300 million volunteers across 100 countries, many using the internet, participated in the campaign to ban
antipersonnel landmines which led to the Mine ban Treaty signed by 122 states in Ottawa in December 1997.
Ten million people volunteered to support the immunization of 550 million children as part of the Global Polio
Eradication initiative in 2000. The total value of this support was estimated at $ 10 billion, well beyond the
reach of either government or international organizations.
470 UN volunteers from 70 countries alongside local people as polling officers in the 1999 East Timor election.
GENERAL EDUCATION: SOCIAL SCIENCE
Focus: ECONOMICS AND OTHER RELATED LAWS
LET Competencies:
1. Comprehend the basic concept about economics, taxation, land reform, and cooperatives
2. Appreciate the fundamental precepts of taxation, the laws on land reform and its application.
3. Apply these fundamental precepts to the cooperative movement as viewed within the Philippines context.
PART I: CONTENT UPDATE

I.

ECONOMICS
General Principles:
Is the study that deals with how scarce resources are allocated to maximize the unlimited wants that
individuals and societies want to fulfill. (Hashim Ali)
Is the study of how societies choose to use the scarce productive resources that have alternative uses, to
produce commodities of various kinds, and to distribute them among different groups. (Samuelson)
Economics is important to the:
(a) Individual (as a consumer who wants to maximize satisfaction and minimize expenditure);
(b) Businessman (as a producer who wants to maximize profits and minimize costs); and
(c) Government (in providing a high standard of living for the people).
WHAT IS ECONOMICS ALL ABOUT?
1. Wants are for both present and future consumption. Human wants are unlimited. We want bungalows, cars,
etc. Some wants are more important than others. Food is more important than toys. Some wants are more
easily satisfied than others, e.g. the demand for erasers and pencils compared to video cameras, personal
computers, etc.
2. Our wants are unlimited but we have the problem to scarcity in:
a. Natural resources
c. Monetary Problems or Financial Constraint
b. Time and Energy
d. Factors of production (i.e. land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship)
3. As our wants are unlimited and innumerable while our resources for satisfying them are limited and scarce, not
all out wants can be satisfied. Hence, a choice has to be made. We will choose the wants that will satisfy us
the most. In other words, we each have our own scale of preferences.
4. Related to choice is the concept of Opportunity Cost. Opportunity Cost can be defined as the next best
alternative forgone, i.e. something which must be sacrificed in order to obtain something else. For example,
between a basketball championship game and a lecture, the opportunity cost of going for a lecture is a
basketball game and vice versa. Opportunity cost can also be defined as the real cost of the good.
5. Example of opportunity costs for the individual:
a. Work or Leisure
b. Present consumption or Savings
c. Revising for a test or Playing games
6. Examples of opportunity costs for the producer
a. Labor or capital
b. Site A or Site B
7. Examples of opportunity costs for the government
a. Military goods or civilian goods
b. Guns or butter
ECONOMICS SYSTEMS
There are Four types of systems:
Traditional economy. Economy dominated by methods and techniques that have strong social support even though
they may be old-fashioned or out of date.
Capitalist system. This is also known as laissez-faire, market economy, free enterprise^ price mechanism, or free
market economy;
Command economy. This is also known as planned economy, communist system, centrally planned economy,
controlled economy, or totalitarian economy;
Mixed economy or regulated market economy.

TYPES OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

Definition

Associated Terms

Examples in Practice

1) Market economy

An economic system in which

individuals own and operate the
factors of production.

Free enterprise
Capitalism

United States
Great Britain
Japan

2) Command economy

An economic system in which

the government owns and
operates the factors of
production.

Socialism
Communism

3) Traditional economy

An economic system based

upon customs and traditions.
Economy is based upon
agriculture and hunting.

Non-Industrialized
Agrarian societies

4) Mixed economy

An economic system that has

features of both market and
command economies.

See note below concerning mixed economies.

Chad
Haiti
Rwanda

In reality there are no pure market economies, nor are there any pure command economies. For example,
even in the United States, where free enterprise reigns, the government plays a major role in the economy. Minimum
wages, social security, and regulatory policies are examples of government involvement.

In China, for example, some private ownership of businesses is allowed, however the government still
maintains tight control over the factors of production and prices. While we could say that both the United States and
China are mixed economies because they contain both market and command economic features, to do so would be
misleading because the role that the respective governments play in the economy are quite different.
Three Basic Economic Questions
How each economic system differs from the others!
The problem of scarcity forces each economy to address three basic economic questions:
1. What will be produced?
2. By whom will it be produced?
3. For whom will it be produced?
The chart below shows how each theoretical economic system answers these questions.
How Each Economic System Will Answer the Basic Economic Questions
Centrally Planned

Mixed

Market

What will be
produced?

Essentials

Essentials/Wants

What the people want

By whom will it be
produced?

Government

Government/
Entrepreneurs

Entrepreneurs

For whom will it be

produced?

Citizens

Citizens/People who
can afford it

People who can afford

it

FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
1. Land (natural resources)
2. Labor (human factor)
3. Capital (man-made)
4. Entrepreneur (management)
The Concept of Production
Production can be defined as the act of making goods and services to satisfy human wants and to maximize
profits. In economics, production refers to:
1. manufacturing of goods
2. distributing the goods produced
3. providing services
Land
Land includes all resources found in the sea and on land. The range of natural resources will determine the
capability of the economy to produce. In Economics, lands include:
1. raw materials such as copper, timber and rubber
2. landscape such as mountains, valleys and hill
3. pot such as natural harbor
4. climatic conditions such as rain and snow
5. geographical location such as continents and islands
Characteristics
1. Land is said to be immobile
2. Land is limited in supply; however, it can be reclaimed from the sea
3. it is a gift of nature
4. land is subjected to the law of diminishing returns
Labor
In Lymans term, labor refers to the unskilled. In Economics, labor can be defined as any king of work, either
mental or manual in nature, which has the sole purpose of receiving rewards. Thus any king of labor which is for
pleasure is not considered as labor in terms of Economics. According to Alfred Marshall, labor can be defined as any
exertion that the mind of body has undergone, either partly or totally, with the view of earning some other good other
than pleasure derived from the work itself.
Capital
Capital can be defined as wealth used for production. It is created not for itself but for what it will eventually
produce. Capital therefore refers to the stock of goods made by the people to help them in the production of goods and
services. It is a means towards an end by itself. Note that all capital is wealth but not all wealth is capital.
The Entrepreneur
The entrepreneur is usually the organizer in a company. He is responsible for arranging how production should
take place. He is also responsible for his subordinates and their welfare. The entrepreneur will solve the three basic
economics problems, i.e. what, how and for whom to produce. He is unique as he coordinates all the factors of
production to produced goods and services. Some economists regard management as the entrepreneur.
DEMAND, SUPPLY AND PRICE DETERMINATION
DEFINITION OF DEMAND
Demand can be defined as the desire to by foods and services with the ability to pay, and the consumer must have the
purchasing power. Simply, demand implies the willingness and the ability to pay for goods and services. Demand in
this context would refer to effective demand.

THE INDIVIDUAL DEMAND SHEDULE

The individual demand schedule refers to a list of quantity demanded at varying prices. It is and indication of individual
preferences. From this schedule, we can plot the individual demand curve.
Table showing individual demand schedule
Prices (P)
Quantity demanded (units)
1.00
2
0.80
4
0.60
5
0.40
8
0.20
10

THE LAW OF DEMAND

The law of demand states that when price increases, the amount demanded will fall and when price decreases, the
amount demanded will rise. From this, we can say that there is an inverse relationship between the amount demanded
between the amount demanded and the price of the commodity concerned.
THE MARKET DEMAND SCHEDULE
Price (P)
Costumer
Costumer
Costumer
Total quantity
A
B
C
demanded
1.00
2
1
1
4
0.80
4
2
2
14
0.60
6
3
3
18
0.40
10
4
4
22
0.20
11
5
5
26
Note: The market demand curve can be obtained by adding all the quantities demanded by adding all consumers in
the market for product though a process called horizontal summation
FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND
1. Fashion, taste and climate. The effect of fashion on demand can be clearly seen in the changing demand for
ladies fashion apparel. For instance, hot pants were very popular at one time until they were replaced by
another fad. Taste refers to the general preference of a population or a particular individual. One example of a
change in taste is the change towards fast food. Climate also influences demand, for example, in hot weather,
the demand for ice cream will increase.
2. Changes in income. This affects both the individual as well as national levels. Generally, the higher the
individual income, the higher would be the demand for goods and services. A rich persons will have more cars
than one who is not rich. At the national level, the higher the national income of the county (e.g. the United
States as opposed to India of the Philippines as opposed to Sri Lanka), the higher will be the market demand.
Changes in the distribution of income will also affect demand. If there is greater income inequality, the poor will
increase their demand and total demand will rise.
3. Changes in Population. In terms of size, and increase in total population would generally lead to in increase
in demand especially in developed economies such as the United States, Switzerland and Japan, In the case
to the Philippines, with the population increasing, there id a greater demand for housing, sports facilities,
schools, etc. in terms of population structure, the different age groups influence demand differently. The young
will demand more educational toys, book, etc., while the older population will demand a different list of goods
and services.
4. Changes in the price of related goods: there are two groups
Complementary Goods, e.g. video cassette recorder (VCR) and video tapes, pen and ink, bread and
butter, calculator and batteries, etc Here, an increase in the price of one (e.g. the video cassette
recorder (VCR) will bring about a fall in the demand for the other (e.g. video tapes).
Substitute Goods. E.g. spectacles vs. contact lenses, peanut butter vs. matamis na bao, ordinary pencil
vs. mechanical pencil, tea vs. coffee, etc. Here, an increase in the price of coffee will lead to an increase in
the demand for tea since coffee is more expensive than tea.
5. Advertisements. Advertisements goods generally have a higher demand. Designer jeans have high demand
partly because of the constant drill of status consciousness in the minds of the consumer by the advertisers.
6. Introduction of new products with extensive and intensive research and development done in the business
word, new products and innovative products keep entering the market. Products like compact discs, cordless
irons, cellular phones with camera, wide screen flat television, and many other modem gadgets have
increased the demand for such products.
7. Social and economic conditions. In times of war, the demand for food and weaponry will increase. Such
social conditions will influence demand. When there is recession in the economy (e.g. Philippines in 1997), the
market demand for goods and services will fall.
8. Festive seasons. Different products will be demanded at the different festive seasons. A Christmas, products
such as Christmas trees, novelty gifts and other goods and services that have something to do with Christmas,
will be highly demanded: in the Philippines the traditional puto-bumbong and binbingka will be in great
demand. Similarly, the Chinese will demand mandarin oranges, pussy willows, melon seeds and other
products to heighten the Chinese New Year Spirit.
9. Speculation. Speculation will also influence demand. If one speculates that the price of rice will increase in
the very near future, then he will buy more rice now to avoid paying more for the good later. This factor plays a
vital role in the stick-market.
10. Price of the product itself. According to the low of demand, the higher the prices, the lower will be the
quantity demanded and the lower the price, the higher will be the quantity demanded.

THE EXCEPTIONAL DEMAND CURVE

1. The normal demand curve shows that when price increases, the amount or quantity demanded would fall and
when price decreases, the quantity demanded will rise.
2. However, there is and exception to this law. This occurs when a price increase leads to an increase in the
quantity demanded and similarly when the price decreases, the quantity demanded will also fall.
D

P2
EXCEPTIONAL DEMAND
CURVE

P1

Q1

Q2

Condition under which the exceptions demand would work

1. Giffen goods are normally poor quality and they constitute a large part of the poor mans expenditure.
Examples of Giffen goods are potatoes, salted fish, and broken rice.
2. During festive seasons, the prices of goods will increase as the demand for them also increases because it is
part of the traditional celebrations.
3. Goods with snob appeal or ostentatious goods like expensive jewelry items and Rolls Royce cars are goods of
conspicuous consumption where price is accepted as and index of quality and social status. The more
expensive they are, the higher is the demand for them. When their prices fall, they will also fall and vice versa.
Other examples would include vintage cars, antiques and paintings.
4. When we relate price to quality, we generally have a common notion that expensive goods are of better quality.
These goods include designer jeans, shirts and textiles. When prices are higher, the quantity demanded will
rice because consumers feel that they are paying for better quality and that it is worth the price paid. Such
actions will bring about the exceptional demand. This effect is known as the Veblen effect. Its phenomena
where as the price of a good falls, some consumers construe this as a reduction in the quality of the good.
5. In an emergency situation, prices of goods, especially basic necessities, will rise but the demand for them will
also increase. This is because survival is at stake. No matter how expensive these goods are, there will be
demand for them. These goods include canned food, salt, rice and sugar.
6. In speculation, one ma buy more of a good when the price begins to rice because of the belief that it will rise
further in the near future. A consumer may turn price speculator. For instance, recently in Malaysia, when the
prices of rice and sugar rose slightly, housewives increased their demand and purchases to store them for the
day when their price could be expected to be much higher. This situation thus brings about the exceptional
demand. Speculators in the stock exchange market also follow the rules of exceptional demand.
7. Inflation can be simply defined as a situation where there is a large quantity of money chasing after too few
goods, i.e. it is a situation of inordinate, sustained increase in the general price level. Owing to the shortage of
goods, their prices will rise but the demand for them will also rise because people have the money to pay for
them. The situation is reversed in times of deflation.
SUPPLY
Supply can be defined as the quantity of any good and service offered for sale at a given price over a period of time in
a given market
LAW OF SUPPLY
The law of supply states that as price increases, the quantity supplied will also increase and conversely, when price
falls, the quantity supplied will fall.
S
The individual supply schedule
Price (P)
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00

Quantity Supplied (units)

20
40
60
80
100

The supply schedule shows the amount supplied at different prices. The supply curve is upward sloping and
the relationship between the quantity supplied and the price of the commodity is positive, i.e. when price increases, the
quantity supplied also rises. The market supply curve can be derived by adding up the individual supply curve in a
given market through a process called horizontal summation.
FACTORS AFFECTING SUPPLY
1. Climatic conditions, especially in the agricultural and mining industry, and fishing industry. When there is a
storm, rain, flood, etc., the supply of goods will be directly affected.
2. Cost of production. For example, when wages of workers increase, the cost of production will increase and
thus supply will decrease.
3. Technological advancement. When machinery is employed like computers, laser beams, i.e., higher
technology, supply will increase

4. Government polices
a. Taxes. When goods are taxed, the supply will fall. Taxes act as disincentives to producers because
part of their profits is eroded.
b. Subsidies. When the government subsidizes production, supply of that good will increase. With
subsidies, cost of production will be cheaper and this in turn will generate more profits. Being
motivated by profits, the producers will supply more goods and services.
5. Time period. For example, the rubber trees take about seven years to a mature and cotton takes about five
years. The time period therefore affects supply.
6. Price of related goods:
a. Competitive supply. When price of gas increases, the supply of electricity will fall (because the
supply of gas increases).
b. Joint supply. When the supply of meat increase, the supply of hide will also increase.
7. Price of good itself. When the price of good increases, the amount supplied will increase similarly, when the
price of the good falls the quantity supplied will also fall.
8. Related Supply
a) Joint supply. The supply of one good will automatically increase the supply of another good, e.g. hide and
mutton.
b) Competitive supply. An increase in the supply of one product will bring about a reduction in the supply of
another good. For example, if heat is supplied by gas, then the supply of coal will fall.
SUPPLY AND DEMAND TOGETHER
Equilibrium refers to a situation in which the price has reached the level where quantity supplied equals
quantity demanded
Equilibrium Price vs. Equilibrium Quantity
Equilibrium Price
- The price that balance quantity supplied and quantity demanded
- On the graph, it is the prices at which the supply and demand curve intersects.
Equilibrium Quantity
- The quantity supplied and the quantity demanded at the equilibrium price
- On the graph, it is the quantity at which the supply and demand curves intersect.
Surplus
When price > equilibrium price, then quantity supplied > quantity demand.
There is excess supply or a surplus
Suppliers will lower the price to increase sales, thereby moving toward equilibrium
Shortage
When the price < equilibrium price, then quantity demanded > the quantity supplied.
There is excess demand or a shortage.
Suppliers will raise the price due to too many buyers chasing too few goods, thereby moving toward
equilibrium.
MARKET STRUCTURES
Broadly, the types of market structures can be classified according to the number of firms in the industry and the types
of product produced. Markets with homogenous products are called perfect markets and those with differentiated
products are called imperfect markets.
PERFECT COMPETITION
Characteristics
1. There are many buyers in the market but they cannot control prices. Price is fixed in the market through the
forces of demand and supply, i.e. buyers and sellers acting in concert. No matter how much has been
purchased, price is always constant buyers are said to be price takers.
2. There are many sellers in the market. Like the buyers, they too cannot control price. They are also price
takers. The sellers are usually small firms. Price is determined at say, Php10, where goods will be bought. If
the seller offers a lower price, then he will incur a loss, if he sells at a higher price, there will be no demand. In
other words, he is powerless in determining price but he can set the quantity he wants to sell.
3. The goods are homogenous and not differentiated. They are identical. The consumer cannot differentiate
whether the good comes from producer A or B or C. Advertising is totally absent in this market.
4. There must be free entry to and exit from the market. If the industry is making profits, then new firms will enter
the market. If the industry is making profits, then new firms will enter the market. No restriction is imposed. All
the four characteristics represent pure competition but for perfect competition to exist, five other characteristics
must be present.
5. Both the consumers and the producers have perfect knowledge about the market situation, i.e. they know the
prevailing prices in all markets.
6. There must be mobility of factors of production. This means that factors or production are mobile. There are no
barriers to mobility. As for land, it must have alternative uses.
7. There must be no transport costs. It is assumed that all firms are situated close to one another and are very
close to the market.
8. There must be independence in decision making. There will be no external forces that will influence the
decision of buyers and seller, i.e. they make own decisions.
9. There is no preferential treatment. All buyers and sellers are treated equally.
Monopoly

Oligopoly

Monopolistic

Perfect

Competition
Competition
(one seller)
(few sellers)
( many sellers)
(numerous sellers)
Monopoly
Characteristics
1. There is only one single seller but two types of monopoly.
a. Natural monopoly, e.g. Philippine National Railways (PNR), National Power Corporation (NAPOCOR)
b. Private monopoly, e.g. MERALCO
2. Many buyers are available.
3. There are barriers to entry.
4. The product does not have close substitutes. For example, there is presently no close substitute for China
Post, the only Chinese Newspapers in Philippines.
5. An important assumption is that the monopolist can only control price or quantity but not both, i.e. price may
increase of decrease but quantity is constant. This is an important theoretical assumption.
BARRIERS TO ENTRY
These refer to the restrictions imposed by the existing firms in the industry in blocking the entry of new rival firms.
These restrictions place the entrants at a cost disadvantage relative to established firms.
1. Cut throat competition. The monopolist will undercut price so that the rival firm will not be able to compete
at all. The new firm will not be able to lower its price as otherwise it will be running at a loss.
2. Existence of patent and copyright. Through legislation whereby the rights of the products have to be
protected, e.g. book publishers and record producers. They would have the right to produce these goods.
Infringement of the law is an offense. Examples would include IBM computers, Microsoft Products, etc.
3. Control of Marketing channels. If the monopolist controls the distribution agents, then rival firms would have
difficulty in trying to reach the consumers, e.g. newspaper vendors, retailers, etc.
4. Granting of special license and franchise. Special privileges are granted to certain firms to carry out certain
activities, e.g. timber license to certain companies whose business primary raw material is wood, franchising of
certain food chains kike Jollibee, McDonalds, Wendys etc.
5. Economies of Scale. For some industries, there is room for the production of one single firm only. This
usually relates to the firm where the fixed cost is very high, e.g. Manila Electric Company (MERALCO),
Philippine Long Distance Company (PLDT) during the Marcos era, North and South Luzon Expressways
(NLEX and SLEX), Metro Rail Transit (MRT) if a number of rival firms provide these services, their will be
unnecessary wastage and duplication.
6. High initial cost. To set up a large firm, a substantial amount of money is needed, and not many people would
have the money. It is also difficult to borrow such large sum from banks of financial agents because of the high
risks involved, e.g. setting up a newspaper with a worldwide distribution, setting up a mass transportation
system.
7. Legal prohibition. In some countries, competition I not allowed and this is set by the government through a
certain set of regulations.
8. Ownership of certain raw material. The monopolist my own all the deposits of some mineral resources or
control all or part of the countrys or regions mineral deposits. Examples of companies with such monopolistic
nature are the International Nickel Company and diamond producer, De Beers of South Africa, which owns a
large portion of diamond deposits there.
9. Climatic conditions. Certain climatic conditions favor certain types of agricultural products and not other. This
leads to monopolistic power, e.g., Malaysia for rubber and palm oil; Ghana cocoa; Brazil for coffee, etc.
10. Government Intervention. Marketing boards with the help of the government could be the sole seller of a
particular product like LTFRB (Land Transportation and Franchising Regulatory Board), PRC (Philippine
Regulations Commission, etc.
MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION,
Characteristics
1. There are many buyer.
2. There are may seller but not as many in perfect competition.
3. Products are differential either physically of psychological or both. There are brand names such as Tide, Surf
and Breeze.
4. There is ease of entry and exit, but not as easy as in perfect competition.
5. None-price competition like advertisements sales promotions, free gifts, services rendered, packaging, price
leadership and collusion(agreement) exits.
6. No perfect knowledge is assumed.
7. One producer can lower his price without affecting other firms.
OLIGOPOLY
Characteristics
1. There are many buyers in the market
2. Oligos is a Greek word meaning few. Therefore oligopoly means few sellers. Take for example, petroleum
companies, namely, Petron, Shell, Caltex, etc. in the case where there are only two sellers, it is termed
duopoly.
3. The products sold can be homogenous in the case of pure oligopoly or differentiated as in the case of
imperfect oligopoly.
4. Barriers to entry exist but these are not as restrictive as in monopoly.
5. One very distinct characteristic of oligopoly is interdependency. The pricing and output policy of one firm is
dependent on the pricing and output policies of other firms.
6. There are several ways in which price can be determined:
a. Price leadership, e.g. among the petroleum companies, Shell is the leader and the other firms will
follow suit;
b. Dominant firm, e.g. Robinson is the most dominant firm among all the major retail store here;

c.

Collusion this refers to an agreement (formal and informal) among the producers to decide the price
and output level, both of which are fixed. This is sometimes called as tacit agreement;
d. Cartel, e.g. OPEC, whereby the organization fixes the minimum and maximum price so as to avoid
unnecessary competition.
7. The oligopolistic firm is faced with kinked demand curve. The average revenue or demand curve of the
oligopolies is said to be kinked. This is because the oligopolist will sell at output Q. Rival firms will not match
the increase in price because the fall in quantity demanded will be greater then the increase in price.
Any reduction in the price of the oligopolist will be matched by reductions by other firms. For example,
the price reduction Shell has taken will lead to Caltex, Petron, Unioil, etc. reducing their prices correspondingly.
Hence, the demand is inelastic. The fall in price will be accompanied by only a slight increase in the quantity
demanded.
The kinked demand curve will lead to price rigidity. This explains why price usually remains unchanged
for a long period time. Because of the unusual average revenue curve, the marginal revenue curve will be
discontinuous line and even though marginal cost may increase or decrease. A marginal cost is still equal to
marginal revenue at the same level of output.
II. TAXATION
Importance of taxation
Of the three inherent power underlying existence, namely: police power (power inherent in a government to
enact laws, within constitutional limits, to promote the order, safety, health, moral, and general welfare of society),
eminent domain (the right of the stat, as a sovereign to take or expropriate private property for public use upon the
payment of just compensation), and taxation, taxation is of primary importance to the state for the reason that before
police power and eminent domain can be effectively and permanently exercised, it is necessary to have a government
to which the people render habitual obedience. Without taxation, the state cannot raise revenue to pa for governmental
expenses. Hence, there would be no government.
Meaning
It is an inherent power of the state to impose and collect revenues to defray the necessary expenses of the
government.
It is a compulsory contribution imposed by a public authority irrespective of the amount of services rendered to
the payer in return. (Dalton)
It is a compulsory levy on private individuals and organizations by the government to raise revenue to finance
expenditure on public goods and services. (Pearce)
Limitations on the power of taxation
1. The inherent limitations; those which by their nature are intrinsic thereto or inseparable therewith and
2. The constitutional limitations; are those expressly stated in the 1987 constitution.
Inherent Limitations on Taxation
1. The tax must be for a public purpose
2. Either the person, property, or interest taxed must be within the jurisdiction of the taxing authority
3. The rule or taxation must be uniform;
4. In the assessment and collection of certain kind of taxes, certain guaranties against injustice to individuals,
especially by the way of notice and opportunity for hearing, must be provided.
Constitutional Limitations on Taxation
1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of the law, nor shall any person be
denied the equal protection of the law.
2. No person shall be imprisoned for debt or non-payment of a poll tax.
3. The rule of taxation shall be uniform and equitable. The Congress evolves a progressive system of taxation.
4. The Congress may by law authorize the President to fix within specified limit, and subject to such limitations
and restrictions as it may impose, tariff rates, import and export quotas, tonnage and wharf age dues, and
other duties or imposts; within the forward of the National Development progress of the government.
5. Charitable institutions, churches, parsonages, or convents appurtenant thereto, mosques, and not-profit
cemeteries, and all lands, buildings; and improvements actually, directly, and exclusively used for religious or
charitable purposes shall be exempted from taxation.
6. No law granting any tax exemption shall be passed without the concurrence of a majority of all the Members of
Congress.
7. Each local government unit shall have the powers to create its own sources of revenue and to levy taxes,
subject to such limitations Congress may provide consistent with the basic policy of local autonomy.
8. All money collected on a tax for a special purpose shall be treated as a special fund and paid for such purpose
only.
Purpose of Taxation
1. To collect revenue for the government.
2. To redistribute income
3. To combat Inflation
4. To correct an adverse balance of payments
5. To check consumption of goods which are considered undesirable
6. To protect local/infant industries
7. To influence population trends
8. To improve unfavorable terms of trade
9. To reallocate resources
10. To create a sense of identity
Sources and Origin of Taxation
1. The constitution
2. Statutes or Presidential decrees
3. Bureau of Internal Revenue regulations

4. Judicial Decisions
5. Provincial, City, Municipal and Barrio Ordinances
6. Observance of International Agreements
7. Administrative Rulings and Opinions
Objects of Taxation
1. Persons whether natural or judicial
2. Property of any kind
3. Transactions, interest and privileges
Classification of Tax System
1. Progressive Income Tax the higher the income, the higher the tax rate.
2. Proportional Tax the tax rate is constant and unaffected by the level of income
3. Regressive Tax the higher the income, the lower the tax rate.
Classification of Taxes
1. As to subject matter
a. Personal, capitation or poll tax a tax of fixed amount upon all persons residing within a specified
territory without regard to their property or the occupations in which they may be engage.
b. Property tax is one assessed on all property located within a certain territory on a specified date in
proportion to its value. The obligation to pay which is absolute and unavoidable and is not based upon
any voluntary action of the person assessed.
c. Excise tax is any which does not fall within the classification of a poll tax or a property tax and
embraces every form of burden not laid directly upon person or property.
2. As to who bears the burden
a. Direct is one which is demanded from a person who is intended or desired shall pay it.
b. Indirect is a tax paid primarily by a person who can shift the burden upon someone else, or who are
under no legal obligation to pay them
3. As to determination of amount
a. Specific is a fixed or determinate sum imposed by the head or number or by some standard of
weight or measurement and which requires no assessment beyond a listing and classification of the
object to be taxed.
b. Ad Valorem is a tax of a fixed proportion of the value of the property with respect to which the tax is
assessed, and requires the intervention of assessors or appraisers to estimate the value of such
property before the amount due from each taxpayer can be determined.
4. As to purpose
a. General is one levied for a general public purpose
b. Special is one levied for particular or specific purpose
5. As to scope
a. National a tax that is imposed by the state itself and is effective within the entire jurisdiction thereof
b. Local is that imposed by a political subdivision of the state and is effective only within the territorial
boundaries thereof.
INCOME TAXATION FOR INDIVIDUALS
Income means all wealth which flows into the taxpayer other than as a mere return of capital. It includes the
forms of income specifically described as gains, profits, including gains derived from the sale or other dispositions of
capital assets.
HOW TO DETERMINE INCOME TAX PAYABLE BY INDIVIDUALS
Formula:
1. GI D = NI
2. NI E = NTI
3. NTI x R = ATP
4. ATP TW or TC = AITSP or AITR
Where:
GI = Gross Income
D = Deductions
NI = Net Income
E = Exemptions
NTI = Net Taxable Income
R = Rates under Sec. 21 of the NIRC
ATP = Amount of Tax Payable
TW = Tax Withheld
TC = Tax Credit
ATSP = Amount of Income Tax Still Payable
ATR = Amount of Income Tax Refundable
Deductions such as: SSS, GSIS, Pag-Ibig & PHIC Contributions, & Union Dues
In addition, individuals who are either earning compensation income, engaged in business or deriving income
from the practice of profession are entitled to personal and additional exemptions as follows:
Personal Exemptions (under the new Tax Law):
For single individual or married individual judicially decreed as
P 50,000.00
legally separated with no qualified dependents
For head of family
P 50,000.00
For each married individual*
P 50,000.00
Additional exemption for each qualified dependent/child
P 25, 000.00
In the case of married individuals where only one of the spouses is deriving gross income, only such spouse
shall be allowed the personal exemption.
An additional exemption of P25, 000.00 shall be allowed for each qualified dependent child, not exceeding four
(4). The additional exemption for dependents shall be claimed by the husband, who is deemed the head of
the family unless he explicitly waives his right in favor of his wife.
In the case of legally separated spouses, additional exemption may be claimed only by the spouse who has
custody of the child or children; provided that the total amount of additional exemptions that may be claimed by
both shall not exceed the maximum additional exemptions allowed by the Tax Code.

 Under the New Tax Law, Minimum Wage Earners are exempted from paying the Annual Income Tax.
Characteristic of Sound Tax System
1. Efficiency must generate revenues greater than the amount of money the government must spend to collect
taxes.
2. Equity individuals and groups belonging to the same income bracket must be taxed equally while those
belonging to different income groups must be taxed differently.
3. Convenience to set up measures and procedures that will make it more convenient for taxpayers to pay.
4. Stability tax system must not be too often or it will encourage taxpayers to withhold tax payments until a
more preferred system is put in place.
III. Land Reform
Evolution of Land Problem in the Philippines
Began when early Filipinos, long before the coming of the Spaniards in 1521, saw the need of fencing off plots
of land for cultivation. It became worse when the string forced the weak to acknowledge his right over land and
employ the latter as tenant. Thus the oppression was known as caciquism or landlordism.
Later, the ruling class (chief or rajah, sultan or datu) accumulated more and more land for itself. The land
accumulated were administered and cultivated by a number of intermediaries, the nobles or maharlikas, serfs
or timawas and the slaves.
Land problem trebled when the Spaniards arrived. From 1565 up to the opening of the 17 th century, when
Miguel Lopez de Legazpi established the first Spanish settlement in Cebu. Land in the Philippines can be
acquired only by means of encomienda. Based on the universal feudal theory that no title to land can be
acquired by any person except by grant of the King.
The term encomienda means the right conceded by royal bounty to well-deserving persons in the Indies to
receive and enjoy for themselves the tributes of the natives who should be assigned to them.
The encomienderos were allowed to collect taxes. Whatever is collected over and above their quota belongs to
them. It was subsequently abolished because of the abuse to the system
The encomienda system was then replaced by the Royal Cedula as a form of land acquisition in the
Philippines from October 1854. Under this law, the viceroys and presidents of the courts were empowered to
appoint sub delegate ministers to take charge of the sale or adjustment, confirmation of imperfect title and
prescription of public lands.
The Royal Decree of 1880 prescribed the rules governing the grant of lands by adjustment proceedings. A
landmark in modern Spanish legislation. This was supplemented by the Royal Decree of December 26, 1884
which classifies land which could be the subject of sale and adjustment proceedings and later replaced by the
Spanish Mortgage Law.
The most important law governing the disposal of public lands is the Royal Decree of February 13, 1894 which
abolishes the juntas provinciales compociciones
When the Americans came in 1898, the landlords were able to safeguard their fortunes, particularly their large
landholdings. The laws were directly enacted by them thus, their properties increased and multiplied. The Land
Registration Law which introduces the Torrens Systems made this possible.
Under the Torrens System, by simply filing an application for land registration of choice lands on the bare
pretext that they were there since time immemorial, they were able to gobble more lands
Valid titles of 300 years were destroyed and burdens were imposed upon helpless people thus, paralyzing the
value of such lands
Governor-General William Howard Taft negotiated with Pope Leo XIII for the purchase of friar estates
consisting of 161,600 hectares. The land were supposed to be conveyed at cost to bonifide occupants, the
safe or transfer at cost did not took place because of manipulation of the rich who wanted to acquire such
lands for themselves.
In 1902, the Americans enacted the Public Land Act. Under this law, private individuals could acquire any tract
of public agricultural land not exceeding 124 hectares. Private corporations could not acquire more than 1,204
hectares. Dummies were used by rich people to be able to avail of the provision of that law.
The Tangulan incident happened in 1933 when armed peasants stormed their municipal hall and destroyed all
land records on file. This prompted GG Theodore Roosevelt to initiate passage of the Rice Tenancy Act.
President Quezon ordered the enactment of Commonwealth Act No. 178 which provided for the amelioration
of the conditions of tenants. The landlords however, countered with large scale dismissal every time the
tenants claimed their rights under the law
After Philippine independence on July 4, 1946, many laws were passed to solve the land problems here. The
Rice and Corn Production Administration(RCPA) was organized on March 24, 1949
In 1950, Pres. Quirino issued E.O. No. 355 creating the Land Settlement and Development Corporation
(LASEDECO) in which the purpose is to give land to the landless in order to arrest the increasing intensity of
the HUK rebellion.
Pres. Ramon Magsaysay abolished LASEDECO thru Republic Act No. 1160 which created the National
Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration (NARRA). This law enabled the government to pursue more
vigorously the land resettlement program of the state.
On August 8, 1963, Pres. Diosdado Macapagal signed the Agricultural Land Reform Code which abolishes
NARRA
On September 21, 1971, Pres. Ferdinand Marcos singed Republic Act No. 6389 which abolishes the Land
Authority and created the Department of Agrarian Reform to take over its functions.
After the declaration of Martial Law on September 21, 1972, the most notable decree is the Presidential
Decree No. 27. provided for the farmer tenants to be amortizing owners. This decree was to private agricultural

lands primarily devoted to rice and corn under the system of share crop or lease tenancy. It conveyed
ownership to the tenant farmer with a family size farm of 5 hectares of un-irrigated land 3 hectares if irrigated.
In any case, the land owner may retain an area of not more than 7 hectares if such land owner is cultivating
such area will start cultivation it. For purposes of valuation, multiply the average harvest of 3 normal crop years
immediately preceding the promulgation of the decree, and the total cost of the land was with 6% annual
interest rate, to be paid 15 years or 15-equal amortization.
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) of 1988 or Republic Act No. 6657 and the Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) which was signed into law by Pres. Corazon Aquino for a dozen of years
now has been the basic laws being implemented by the government to solve the inequitable distribution of land
problem and alleviate the economic conditions of landless in our country.
Principles of Agrarian Reform
The policy of the state to pursue a Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) to:
1. To promote social justice
2. To move the nation toward sound rural development and industrialization
3. To establish owner cultivator ship of economic sized farms as basis of Philippine Agriculture.
Coverage of CARP
1. All alienable and disposable lands of the public domain devoted to or suitable for agriculture.
2. All lands of the public domain in excess of the specific limits as determined by the congress.
3. All other lands owned by the government devoted to or suitable for agriculture
4. All private lands devoted to or suitable for agriculture regardless of the agricultural products raised or that can
be raised.
Retention Limits
1. Five hectares for land owner
2. Three hectares to be awarded to each child of the land owner subject to the following qualifications:
a. At least 15 years old
b. Actually tilling the soil or directly managing the farm
Beneficiaries
1. agricultural lessees and share tenants
2. regular farm workers
3. seasonal farm workers
4. other farm workers
5. actual tillers or occupants of public lands
6. collectives or cooperatives
7. other directly working on the land
Salient Features of CARP
1. CARP covers all agriculture lands and not only those devoted to rice and corn.
2. CARP covers not only those privately owned tenanted lands but also that of agricultural lands owned by
Multinational Corporations and commercial farms.
3. Lower retention limits of three hectares.
4. Rights of indigenous communities, to their ancestral lands are protected to ensure their economic, social and
cultural well being.
5. In determining just compensation, the cost of acquisition of the land, the current value of like properties, its
nature, actual use and income, the sworn valuation of the owner, the tax declarations and the assessment
made by the government assessors shall be considered.
6. Lands awarded to beneficiaries shall be paid to the Land Bank of the Philippines in 30 - annual amortization at
6% interest per annum.
IV. COOPERATIVES
History of Cooperative Laws in the Philippines
Act No. 2508, The Rural Agricultural Cooperative Law was the first cooperative law in the Philippine which took
effect on December 9, 1927
Act No. 3895 created the Rural Credit Association superseded Act No. 2508
Act No 3425 created the Farmers Cooperative Marketing Association (FACOMAS) which was registered under
the Corporation Law. It took effect on December 9, 1927 until it was superseded by Republic Act No. 2023 in
1957
Republic Act No. 821, which called for the establishment of an Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing
System
Republic Act No. 2023, The General Basic Cooperative Law was enacted to govern the organization and
conduct of cooperatives until it was repealed by Presidential Decree No. 175 on April 14, 1973. Four Principles
were enumerated to govern the conduct of cooperatives, namely (1) Open Membership; (2) Democratic
Control; (3) Limited Interest to Capital; and (4) Patronage Refund.
Other cooperative decrees were promulgated during the martial law namely: (1) P.D. No. 269, The Electric
Cooperative Law; (2) P.D. No. 775, The Sugar Cooperative Law; (3) P.D. No. 898, The Transport Cooperative
Law
All the aforementioned laws were repealed; superseded or modified upon effectivity of the Cooperative Code
of the Philippines, Republic Act No. 6938 and the Cooperative Development Authority Law, Republic Act No.
6939 on March 30, 1990
Definition
Under the Law, a cooperative is defined as:
A free association of persons voluntarily joined together
With common bond of interest
Legally constituted

 Purpose of conducting an economic enterprise

Owned, controlled and administered democratically
Making equitable contributions to the capital required
Accepting a fair share of the risks and benefits
Organized in accordance with generally accepted principles
Universal Principles of Cooperativism
1. Open and Voluntary Membership
No artificial discrimination against individuals because of their race, creed or political affiliations,
freedom of entry and exit of any member of the cooperative
2. Democratic Control
In order for members to gain entry to the cooperative, they must purchase shares of the cooperative,
obtain the right to govern the organization, voting rights of the owners are on the basis of one person,
one vote.
3. Limited Interest on capital
Capital in a cooperative is like a loan because the owners of capital can expect to receive a rate of
return not exceeding that of the prevailing market interest rates on investing
4.

Division of Net Surplus

net saving should be distributed as follows:
ITEM
% ALLOCATION
General Reserve Fund
At least 10%
Education/Training Fund
At least 10%
Optional Fund
At least 10%
Dividend/Patronage Refund
Remaining balance of saving
General reserve fund cover loses in operations
Education/Training Fund for members and management trainings
Optional Fund discretion of cooperatives for purposes of acquiring land construction of building or
community development
Dividend/Patronage Refund the volume of transaction that members have with the cooperative
5. Continuing Membership Education
pre-membership education seminar as required for entry to the cooperative
special trainings for the cooperative leadership and members
6. Cooperation Among Cooperatives
Inter-lending and pooling of funds
Typologies of Cooperatives
1. According to level of Cooperatives
a. Primary members of which are natural persons;
b. Secondary members of which are primaries;
c. Tertiary members of which are secondary upward to one or more apex organizations.
2. According to Services Rendered
a. Credit is one which promotes thrift among its members and creates funds in order to grant loans for
productive and provident purposes;
b. Consumer is one wherein the primary purpose is to procure and distribute commodities to members
and non-members.
c. Producer is one which undertakes joint production whether agricultural or industrial
d. Marketing Cooperative - is one which engages in the supply of production inputs to members and in
turn market their products;
e. Service is one which engages in medical and dental care, hospitalization, transportation, insurance,
housing, housing labor, electricity, communications and other services
f. Multi-purpose is one which combines two or more activities of these different types of cooperatives.
3. According to Scope of Membership
a. Institutional members are employees of a specific institution or corporation
b. Association Members are those who have their own enterprises and belong to specific sector or
organization
c. Community level members are based on a defined geographical area
New Cooperative Law
a. Cooperative Code of the Philippines (RA 6938)
b. Cooperative Development Authority (RA 6939)
c. Executive order 95 and 96 were issued by Pres. Fidel Ramos in June 1993, providing for implementation
guidelines for some of the provisions of the two laws cited.
Cooperative values
1. self-help
6. equity
2. self-responsibility
7. honesty
3. democracy
8. openness
4. equality
9. social responsibility
5.solidarity
10. caring for others
PART II ANALYZING TEST ITEMS
Items on Knowledge and Understanding Economics
1. The study of economics focuses on which of the following?

A.
B.
C.
D.

The reasons that people want more than less

How to get most out of scarce resources
How to eliminate scarcity
How to produce more resources

The correct answer is B.

Analyze the statement. What is the focus of this concept? The primary concern of the statement is the
essential attribute of the study of economics. Economics is defined as the study of how individuals and
societies choose to use scarce resources. Option B is the best answer because it fundamentally follows the
operational definition of economics.
Option A is not a correct description of economics. It presents a general truth about economics and how the
unlimited wants of the people do not coincide with the limited resources.
Option C is unacceptable statement because it explains one of the goals of economics
Option D is concern with the production process and not the basic definition of economics.
2. It is the process or means by which the sovereign, through the law-making body, raise income to defray the
necessary expenses of government.
A. Tax
C. Taxation
B. Fee
D. Police power
The correct answer is C.
Option A is not the best answer simply because it deals with the means employed by the state in
exacting proportional contribution from persons, property or services where income is derived; Option B is
state imposed regulation for the use of public infrastructures. Option D refers to one of the inherent powers
of the State in promoting public interest or general welfare of the people. Option C is the most accurate
concept in assimilating the state power of taxation.
3. The policy of the State to pursue a Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program is clearly stated in its policy to:
A. Promote human rights
B. Establish owner-cultivator ship of economic size farms
C. Move the nation toward sound urban development and industrialization
D. Free the tenant farmer from bondage of the soil
The correct answer is B.
Option A forms part of the Universal declaration embodied in the U.N. charter which embraces all
existing inalienable rights of people not in any way specifying rights of tenants. Option C is a process
related to the industrialization of urban centers as a vehicle towards development and progress and
completely a departure from agrarian reform which usually deals with rural development. Option D is an
incomplete answer considering the fact that it describes land reform rather than agrarian reform. Option B
is the most logical choice since it embraces the state policy on Agrarian Reform.
4. Which of the following describes marketing cooperatives?
A. They distribute products of members to both members and non-members
B. They coordinate with other cooperatives in marketing the products of members
C. They undertake joint production of goods whether agricultural or industrial
D. They engage in the supply of production inputs to members and market their products
The correct answer is D.
Option A and B are not the best choices because they relate to processes of marketing, in general
whether in cooperative or non-cooperative undertakings. Option C provides details for production of goods
which deviates from the accurate description of marketing cooperatives. Option D is the most plausible
answer since it defines the function of marketing cooperatives.
5. Which of the following is the primary objective of economics?
A. To provide the basic necessities to man
B. To satisfy human wants and needs
C. To provide exports to developing countries
D. To provide good and services for the markets
The correct answer is B.
Option A offers inconclusive ideas about economics devoid of clear indicators. Option C and D are
obviously functions of economics in general but the question calls for its primordial objectives. Option B is
the best choice because it is a direct and conclusive statement about the primary objective of economics.
6. What does the law of demand state?
A. As income increase, people consume more of all goods
B. The demand for gods increase with the number of consumers in the market
C. As the price of goods declines, consumers purchase more of that good
D. The supply of good increase in proportion to the demand for it

7. A demand curve shows the graphic relationship between which two variables?
A. The price of good and consumers income
B. The price of good and quantity of it purchased
C. Consumers income and the quantity of a good purchased
D. The opportunity cost of a good and the quantity of it purchased
8. What is the income effect on demand?
A. When price of good increases, people can afford to buy less
B. When price of good increases, people switch to less expensive substitute
C. When price of good increases, people switch to less expensive complements
D. When price of good increases, peoples incomes tend to increase proportionately
9. What does the law of SUPPLY state?
A. Producers supply goods in proportion to the demand for them
B. The supply of good is a function of the resources available to produce it
C. As the price of good increase, producers offer more of it for sale
D. The supply of good depends upon the number of people who wish to purchase it.
10. Because of the substitution effect on demand, when the price of coffee increases:
A. People will use less cream and sugar
B. People will be able to afford less coffee because their buying power has decreased
C. People will drink tea instead
D. Producers will use less costly coffee beans and other ingredients
11. The supply schedule is a model of whose behavior?
A. Buyers and sellers
c. Buyers only
B. Households and firms
d. Sellers only
12. The supply schedule shows the relationship between which two variables?
A. The price of a good and the quantity of that good offered for sale
B. The price of a good and the cost of that goods production
C. The quantity of a good offered for sale and the quantity that consumers wish to purchased
D. The price of a good and its opportunity cost
13. According to the law of demand, price and quantity demanded:
A. Are inversely related
c. Are proportional to each other
B. Are directly related
d. Depend on one another at the equilibrium price
14. The sum of individual demand schedule in a specific market is called the:
A. Aggregate demand schedule
c. Institutional demand schedule
B. Average demand schedule
d. Community demand schedule
15. According to the law of supply, price and quantity supplied are:
A. Proportional to one another
B. Proportional to the quantity demanded
C. Influenced by income and the availability of substitutes
D. Directly related to one another
16. It is the process or means by which the sovereign, through the law making body, raise income to defray the necessary
expenses of the government.
A. Tax
b. Fee
C. Taxation
D. Police power
17. The enforced proportional contributions from persons and property.
A. Tax
b. Fee
C. Taxation
D. All of the above
18. A sum of money which is paid for the use of a road, bridge, and the like, of a public nature
A. Tax
b. Penalty
C. Toll
D. Assessment
19. It is any sanction imposed as a punishment for violations of law or acts deemed injurious
A. Tax
b. Penalty
C. Assessment
D. Fee
20. An enforced proportional contribution from owner of lands peculiarly benefited by public improvements.
A. Tax
b. Penalty
C. Fee
D. Assessment
21. A charge imposed for purpose of regulation
A. Tax
b. Penalty
C. Assessment
D. License
22. A liability arising from a contact and maybe paid in kind.
A. License
b. Penalty
C. Debt
D. Assessment
23. It refers to all funds or income derived by the government.
A. Subsidy
b. Revenue
C. Tariff
D. License
24. The term is used to describe duties payable on goods, whether imported or exported.
A. Subsidy
b. Revenue
C. Tariff
D. Assessment
25. It is pecuniary aid grants by the government deemed beneficial to the public.
A. Subsidy
b. Revenue
C. Tariff
D. Assessment
PART III ENHANCING TEST TAKING SKILLS
1. Which of the following is a true statement?
a. A freely competitive market will result in either surpluses of shortages unless government price
controls are used
b. In a freely competitive market, prices will adjust to remove surpluses
c. When the price of a product is too high, shortage will result
d. The only way to eliminate surpluses is to allow prices to increase to the equilibrium price.
2. The government in many cities imposes rent controls on apartment owner, keeping the price of and apartment
below the equilibrium price. Which of the following will result from the policy of rent control?
a. A surplus of apartments
b. A shortage of apartments

c. A decrease in the demand for apartments

d. In increase in the supply of apartments
3. An important characteristics of an equilibrium price is that it:
a. Maximize profits
b. Increase surpluses
c. Clears the market
d. Shifts the demand and supply curves
4. Why do prices move toward and equilibrium price in competitive markets?
a. To increase incentives
b. To increase profits
c. To satisfy the determinants of demand and supply
d. To eliminate shortage and surpluses
8

3
D

5. If the price in Figure 1 is Php. 8, there will be a(n) ______ in the market.
a. Equilibrium
b. Surplus
c. Shortage
d. Efficiency
6. If the price in Figure 1 Php. 3, then which of the following is TRUE?
a. A shortage exists, and eventually the price will fall
b. A shortage exists, and eventually the price will rise
c. A surplus exists, and eventually the price will fall
d. A surplus exists, and eventually the price will rise
7. Which concept describes the relationship between peanut butter and jelly?
a. They are substitutes
c. They are interchangeable
b. They are interdependent
d. They are complements
8. In order for demand to exist, the desire for a product must be backed up by the ability to pay for it. What is this
called?
a. Community demand
c. Effective demand
b. Income demand
d. Money demand
9. The demand for bicycling equipment has increased tremendously during the early 1990s. This an example of
which determinant of demand?
a. Taste and preferences
c. The price of complements
b. The price of substitute
d. Income
10. Which of the following is NOT a determinant of demand for tennis balls?
a. Consumers incomes
c. The price of tennis rackets
b. The price of tennis balls
d. The number of people who play tennis
11. Which of the following will cause the supply of microcomputers to increase?
a. An increase in the price of inputs such as computer chips
b. An increase in the demand for computers
c. A decrease in the demand for mainframe computers
d. A decrease in taxes on the computer industry.
12. Which of the following result in fewer U.S. cars being bought and sold in the Philippines at a higher price?
a. A decrease in the number of imported automobiles
b. An increase in taxes on U.S. cars
c. Consumers preferring to buy other imported cars having less price
d. Consumers preferring to buy Philippines
13. Which of the following will lead to more output at lower prices?
a. A decrease in supply
c. An increase in supply
b. A decrease in demand
d. An increase in demand
14. A decrease in the supply of lemons will result in which of the following?
a. More lemons sold at higher price
c. Fewer lemons sold at a higher price
b. More lemons sold at a lower price
d. Fewer lemons sold at a lower price
15. A change in the quantity demanded implies what?
a. A shift of the demand curve
c. A movement along the existing demand curve
b. A change in the slope of the demand curve
d. An upward sloping demand curve
16. A change in demand will result in which of the following?
a. A shift of the demand curve
c. A movement along the existing demand curve
b. A change in the slope of the demand curve
d. An upward sloping demand curve.
17. The author of THE WEALTH OF NATIONS was:
a. Ricardo
b. Galbraith
c. Marshall
d. Smith
18. Which of the following occurs when economic profits are negative in a purely competitive industry?
a. Long-run equilibrium
c. Firms enter the industry
b. Firms exit the industry
d. Firms raise prices to increase profit levels.
19. In which of the following market structures does the firm have the LEAST influence on the prices it charges?

20.
21.

22.

23.
24.
25.

26.
27.
28.

a. Pure competition
c. Shared monopoly
b. Differentiated competition
d. Pure monopoly
What type of market structure exists in the computer software industry?
a. Differentiated competition
c. Shared monopoly
b. Pure competition
d. Pure monopoly
One of the major functions of taxes is to finance real government expenditures this can be simply sated as:
a. To raise revenues
b. To secure economic price stability
c. To promote economic development
The policy to the State to pursue a Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program is clearly stated in its policy to:
a. Promote human rights
b. Establish owner-cultivator ship of economic size farms
c. Move the nation toward sound urban development and industrialization
This is form of taxation that is collected from taxpayer based only on his/her income or wealth.
a. Indirect tax
b. Sacrifice tax
c. Direct tax
The retention limit to be awarded to each child of the landowner is:
a. Three hectares b. 4 hectares
c. 5 hectares
Which of the following are not beneficiaries of the CARP?
a. Agricultural lessees and share tenants
b. Seasonal farm workers
c. Non-regular farm workers
It includes all revenues of the government except the incomes of government owned and controlled
corporations coming from a private sector
a. Subsidy
b. taxation
c. expenditure
Demand is the desire or need of human beings to consume a good or avail of a service while ______ is the
alternative quantities offered for sale of different prizes.
a. Elasticity
b. supply
c. equilibrium
The type of cooperative which promotes thrift among members and create funds in order to grant loans for
productive and provident purposes is called
a. Credit cooperative
c. Service cooperative
b. Producers cooperative
d. Consumers cooperative