Input & Output Devices

In computing, input/output, or I/O, refers to the communication between an information

processing system (such as a computer), and the outside world possibly a human, or
another information processing system. Inputs are the signals or data received by the
system, and outputs are the signals or data sent from it. The term can also be used as part
of an action; to "perform I/O" is to perform an input or output operation. I/O devices are
used by a person (or other system) to communicate with a computer. For instance, a
keyboard or a mouse may be an input device for a computer, while monitors and printers
are considered output devices for a computer. Devices for communication between
computers, such as modems and network cards, typically serve for both input and output.

INPUT DEVICES

Keyboard
In computing, a keyboard is an input device, partially modeled after the typewriter
keyboard, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys, to act as mechanical levers or
electronic switches. A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys
and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to
produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in
sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other
keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or computer commands.

There are a number of different

arrangements of alphabetic, numeric, and
punctuation symbols on keys. These
different keyboard layouts arise mainly
because different people need easy access
to different symbols, either because they are inputting text in different languages, or
because they need a specialized layout for mathematics, accounting, computer
programming, or other purposes. Most of the more common keyboard layouts
(QWERTY-based and similar) were designed in the era of the mechanical typewriters, so
their ergonomics had to be slightly compromised in order to tackle some of the
mechanical limitations of the typewriter.

Mouse
Ramesh yadav 1
In computing, a mouse (plural mice, mouses, or mouse devices.) is a pointing device that
functions by detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface.
Physically, a mouse consists of an object held under one of the user's hands, with one or
more buttons. It sometimes features other elements, such as "wheels", which allow the
user to perform various system-dependent operations, or extra buttons or features can add
more control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically translates into the
motion of a cursor on a display, which allows for fine control of a Graphical User
Interface.

Common Mouse Operations

Performing different operations on the mouse provide the activation of specific actions on
the interface, with different meanings. GUIs may define and trigger a separate event for
each gesture.

Low level gestures

• Click - pressing and releasing a button.

• (left) Single-click - clicking the main button.
• (left) Double-click - clicking the button two times in quick succession counts as a
different gesture than two separate single clicks.
• (left) Triple-click - clicking the button three times in quick succession.
• Right-click - clicking the secondary button.
• Drag - pressing and holding a button, then moving the mouse without releasing.
• Button chording (a.k.a. Rocker navigation).
• Combination of right-click then left-click.
• Combination of left-click then right-click or keyboard letter.
• Combination of left or right-click and the mouse wheel.
• Clicking with a modifier key.

Computer-users usually utilize a mouse to control the motion of a cursor in two

dimensions in a graphical user interface. Clicking or hovering can select files, programs
or actions from a list of names, or (in graphical interfaces) through pictures called "icons"
and other elements. For example, a text file might be represented by a picture of a paper
notebook, and clicking while the cursor hovers this icon might cause a text editing
program to open the file in a window.

Ramesh yadav 2
Trackball
A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball held by a socket containing sensors to
detect a rotation of the ball about two axes—like an upside-down mouse with an exposed
protruding ball. The user rolls the ball with the thumb, fingers, or the palm of the hand to
move a cursor. Large tracker balls are common on CAD workstations for easy precision.
Before the advent of the touchpad, small trackballs were common on portable computers,
where there may be no desk space on which to run a mouse. Some small thumb balls clip
onto the side of the keyboard and have integral buttons with the same function as mouse
buttons.

Special applications
Large tracker balls are sometimes seen on computerized special-purpose workstations,
such as the radar consoles in an air-traffic control room or sonar equipment on a ship or
submarine. Military mobile anti-aircraft radars and submarine sonars tend to continue
using trackballs, since they can be made more durable and more fit for fast emergency
use. Trackballs have appeared in computer and video games, particularly early arcade
games. Trackballs are also preferred by many professional gamers, who value their
consistency highly. A trackball requires no mousepad and enables the player to aim
swiftly. Trackballs remain in use in pub golf machines to simulate swinging the club.

Joystick

Ramesh yadav 3
A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its
angle or direction to the device it is controlling. Joysticks are often used to control video
games, and usually have one or more push-buttons whose state can also be read by the
computer. A popular variation of the joystick used on modern video game consoles is the
stick. The joystick has been the principal flight control in the cockpit of many aircraft,
particularly military fast jets, where center stick or side-stick location may be employed.
Joysticks are also used for controlling machines such as cranes, trucks, underwater
unmanned vehicles, wheelchairs, surveillance cameras and zero turning radius lawn
mowers. Miniature finger-operated joysticks have been adopted as input devices for
smaller electronic equipment such as mobile phones.

Most joysticks are two-dimensional, having two axes of movement (similar to a mouse),
but one and three-dimensional joysticks do exist. A joystick is generally configured so
that moving the stick left or right signals movement along the X axis, and moving it
forward (up) or back (down) signals movement along the Y axis. In joysticks that are
configured for three-dimensional movement, twisting the stick left (counter-clockwise) or
right (clockwise) signals movement along the Z axis. These three axes - X Y and Z - are,
in relation to an aircraft, roll, pitch, and yaw.

Scanner

Ramesh yadav 4
In computing, a scanner is a device that optically scans images, printed text, handwriting,
or an object, and converts it to a digital image. Modern scanners typically use a charge-
coupled device (CCD) or a Contact Image Sensor (CIS) as the image sensor, whereas
older drum scanners use a photomultiplier tube as the image sensor. A rotary scanner,
used for high-speed document scanning, is another type of drum scanner, using a CCD
array instead of a photomultiplier. Other types of scanners are planetary scanners, which
take photographs of books and documents, and 3D scanners, for producing three-
dimensional models of objects.

Factors Affecting Scanners

A number of factors affect the scanners. Using these factors we can choose the
approximate scanner. Some of these are:

• RESOLUTION OF SCANNER: The number of dote or pixels per ubit inch

gives the resolution of a scanner. It is measured in dots per inch. The number of
pixels that can be generated by a scanner depends upon how many CCDs are
arranged horizontally and vertically in the scan head. More is the resolution better
is the scanner.
• SPEED: It is speed with which a scanner scans an image. It depends upon the
scanning resolution. More is the scanning resolution lesser is the speed.
• BIT DEPTH: A scanner can remember a certain number of bits for each pixel in
an image. It is the scanner’s bit depth. Higher is the bit depth, better is the scanner
quality as it is easy to distinguish between shades of the same color.
• SOFTWARE: Good software tries to maintain the original color of the image.
These software are generally part of image editing software.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

Ramesh yadav 5
Optical Mark Recognition (also called Optical Mark Reading and OMR) is the process of
capturing human-marked data from document forms such as surveys and tests.

Fields

OMR has different fields to provide the format the questioner desires. These fields
include:

• Multiple, where there are several options but only one is chosen, ABCDE, 12345,
completely disagree, disagree, indifferent, agree, completely agree, etc.
• Grid, the bubbles or lines are set up in a grid format for the user to fill in a phone
number, name, and ID number and so on.
• Add, total the answers to a single value
• Boolean, answering yes or no to all that apply
• Binary, answering yes or no to only one

OMR Machine

OMR SHEET

OUTPUT DEVICES

Ramesh yadav 6
MONITOR
A monitor or display (sometimes called a visual display unit) is an electronic visual
display for computers. The monitor comprises the display device, circuitry, and an
enclosure. The display device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid
crystal display (TFT-LCD), while older monitors use a cathode ray tube (CRT).

Analog monitors

Most modern computer displays can show the various colors of the RGB color space by
changing red, green, and blue analog video signals in continuously variable intensities.
These have been almost exclusively progressive scan since the middle 1980s. While
many early plasma and liquid crystal displays have exclusively analog connections, all
signals in such monitors pass through a completely digital section prior to display.

Digital and analog combination

The first popular external digital monitor connectors, such as DVI-I and the various
breakout connectors based on it, included both analog signals compatible with VGA and
digital signals compatible with new flat-screen displays in the same connector.

Digital monitors

Newer connectors are being made which have digital only video signals. Many of these,
such as HDMI and DisplayPort, also feature integrated audio and data connections. One
less popular feature most of these connectors share are DRM encrypted signals, although
the HDCP technology responsible for implementing the protection was necessarily
rudimentary to meet cost constraints, and was primarily a barrier aimed towards
dissuading average consumers from creating exact duplicates without a noticeable loss in
image quality.

Printer
Ramesh yadav 7
In computing, a printer is a peripheral which produces a hard copy (permanent readable
text and/or graphics) of documents stored in electronic form, usually on physical print
media such as paper or transparencies. Many printers are primarily used as local
peripherals, and are attached by a printer cable or, in most newer printers, a USB cable to
a computer which serves as a document source. Some printers, commonly known as
network printers, have built-in network interfaces (typically wireless and/or Ethernet),
and can serve as a hardcopy device for any user on the network. Individual printers are
often designed to support both local and network connected users at the same time. In
addition, a few modern printers can directly interface to electronic media such as memory
sticks or memory cards, or to image capture devices such as digital cameras, scanners;
some printers are combined with a scanners and/or fax machines in a single unit, and can
function as photocopiers. Printers that include non-printing features are sometimes called
Multifunction printers (MFP), Multi-Function Devices (MFD), or All-In-One (AIO)
printers. Most MFPs include printing, scanning, and copying among their features

The speed of early printers was measured in units of

characters per second. More modern printers are
measured in pages per minute. These measures are
used primarily as a marketing tool, and are not well
standardised. Usually pages per minute refers to sparse
monochrome office documents, rather than dense pictures which usually print much more
slowly. PPM are most of the time referring to A4 paper in Europe and Letter (paper size)
paper in the US, resulting in a 5-10% difference.

Plotters
A plotter is a computer printing device for printing vector graphics. In the past, plotters
were widely used in applications such as computer-aided design, though they have
generally been replaced with wide-format conventional printers, and it is now
commonplace to refer to such wide-format printers as "plotters," even though they
technically aren't.

Ramesh yadav 8
Pen plotters print by moving a pen or other instrument across the surface of a piece of
paper. This means that plotters are restricted to line art, rather than raster graphics as with
other printers. Pen plotters can draw complex line art, including text, but do so very
slowly because of the mechanical movement of the pens. Pen Plotters are often incapable
of creating a solid region of color; but can hatch an area by drawing a number of close,
regular lines. When computer memory was very expensive, and processor power was
very limited, this was often the fastest way to efficiently produce very large drawings or
color high-resolution vector-based artwork.

Speakers
Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers, are speakers external to a computer, that
disable the lower fidelity built-in speaker. They often have a low-power internal
amplifier. The standard audio connection is a 3.5mm (1/8 inch) stereo jack plug often
colour-coded lime green (following the PC 99 standard) for computer sound cards. A
plug and socket for a two-wire (signal and ground) coaxial cable that is widely used to
connect analog audio and video components. Also called a "phono connector," rows of
RCA sockets are found on the backs of stereo amplifier and numerous A/V products. The
prong is 1/8" thick by 5/16" long. A few use an RCA connector for input. There are also
USB speakers which are powered from the 5 volts at 200 milliamps provided by the USB
port, allowing about half a watt of output power.

Ramesh yadav 9
Computer speakers range widely in quality and in price. The computer speakers typically
packaged with computer systems are small plastic boxes with mediocre sound quality.
Some of the slightly better computer speakers have equalization features such as bass and
treble controls, improving their sound quality somewhat.

The internal amplifiers require an external power source, known as a 'wall-wart'. More
sophisticated computer speakers may have a 'subwoofer' unit, to enhance bass output, and
these units usually include the power amplifiers both for the bass speaker, and the small
'satellite' speakers.

Some computer displays have rather basic speakers built-in. Laptops come with
integrated speakers. Unfortunately the tight restriction on space inevitable in laptops
means these speakers unavoidably produce low-quality sound.

For some users, a lead connecting computer sound output to an existing stereo system is
practical. This normally yields much better results than small low-cost computer
speakers. Computer speakers can also serve as an economy amplifier for MP3 player use
for those who wish to not use headphones although some models of computer speakers
have headphone jacks of their own.

Ramesh yadav 10
 MS WORD & Its Features
Microsoft Word is a word processor designed by Microsoft. It was first released in 1983
under the name Multi-Tool Word for Xenix systems. Subsequent versions were later
written for several other platforms including IBM PCs running DOS (1983), the Apple
Macintosh (1984), the AT&T Unix PC (1985), Atari ST (1986), SCO UNIX, OS/2, and
Microsoft Windows (1989). It is a component of the Microsoft Office system; however, it
is also sold as a standalone product and included in Microsoft Works Suite. Beginning
with the 2003 version, the branding was revised to emphasize Word's identity as a
component within the Office suite on PC versions; Microsoft began calling it Microsoft
Office Word instead of merely Microsoft Word. The 2010 version appears to be branded
as Microsoft Word, once again.

Ramesh yadav 11
Versions
Versions for Microsoft Windows include the following:

Year
Name Comments
Released
Word for
1989 code-named Opus
Windows 1.0
Word for
1990 code-named Bill the Cat
Windows 1.1
Word for
1990 Windows for Windows 3.1
1.1a
Word for
1991 code-named Spaceman Spiff
Windows 2.0
code-named T3 (renumbered 6 to bring Windows version
Word for numbering in line with that of DOS version, Macintosh version
1993
Windows 6.0 and also WordPerfect, the main competing word processor at the
time; also a 32-bit version for Windows NT only)
1995 Word 95 Word 95 (version 7.0) – included in Office 95
1997 Word 97 (version 8.0) included in Office 97
(version 8.5) only included in Office 97 Powered By Word 98—
1998 Word 98
only released in Japan and Korea
1999 Word 2000 (version 9.0) included in Office 2000
2001 Word 2002 (version 10) included in Office XP
officially "Microsoft Office Word 2003") – (ver. 11) included in
2003 Word 2003
Office 2003
(officially "Microsoft Office Word 2007") – (ver. 12) included in
2006 Word 2007 Office 2007; released to businesses on November 30, 2006,
released worldwide to consumers on January 30, 2007
2010 Word 2010 (version 14) Included in Office 2010

Features of MS WORD

Ramesh yadav 12
Word has a built-in spell checker, thesaurus, dictionary, Office Assistant and utilities for
transferring, copy, pasting and editing text, such as PureText.

Normal. dot
Normal. dot is the master template from which all Word documents are created. It is one
of the most important files in Microsoft Word. It determines the margin defaults as well
as the layout of the text and font defaults. Although normal.dot is already set with certain
defaults, the user can change normal.dot to new defaults. This will change other
documents that were created using the template and saved with the option to
automatically update the formatting styles.

WordArt
WordArt enables drawing text in a Microsoft Word document such as a title, watermark,
or other text, with graphical effects such as skewing, shadowing, rotating, and stretching
in a variety of shapes and colors and even including three-dimensional effects.

Macros
Like other Microsoft Office documents, Word files can include advanced macros and
even embedded programs. The language was originally WordBasic, but changed to
Visual Basic for Applications as of Word 97. This extensive functionality can also be
used to run and propagate viruses in documents. The tendency for people to exchange
Word documents via email, USB flash drives, and floppy disks made this an especially
attractive vector in 1999. A prominent example was the Melissa worm, but countless
others have existed in the wild. Nearly all anti-virus software can detect and clean
common macro viruses. Word's macro security setting, which regulates when macros
may execute, can be adjusted by the user, but in the most recent versions of Word, is set
to HIGH by default, generally reducing the risk from macro-based viruses, which have
become uncommon.

Bullets and numbering

Word has extensive list bullets and numbering feature used for tables, list, pages,
chapters, headers, footnotes, and tables of content. Bullets and numbering can be applied
directly or using a button or by applying a style or through use of a template. Some
problems with numbering have been found in Word 97-2003. An example is Word's
system for restarting numbering. However, the Bullets and Numbering system has been
significantly overhauled for Office 2007, which is intended to reduce the severity of these
problems. For example, Office 2007 cannot align tabs for multi-leveled numbered lists.
Often, items in a list will be inexplicably separated from their list number by one to three
tabs, rendering outlines unreadable. These problems cannot be resolved even by expert
users. Even basic dragging and dropping of words is usually impossible. Bullet and
numbering problems in Word include: bullet characters are often changed and altered,
indentation is changed within the same list, bullet point or number sequence can belong
to an entirely different nest within the same sequence.

Ramesh yadav 13
Creating tables
Users can also create tables in MS Word. Depending on the version, Word can perform
simple calculations. Formulas are supported as well.

Using formulas
As mentioned in Creating Tables, MS Word supports the use of formulas. Formulas are
written using cell references (for example =A1+A2). Word tables don't display column
and row ids, the address must be determined by counting the number of columns and
rows. For example, cell C4 appears three columns from the left and four rows down.
Once cell addresses are known the formula can be written. An optional Microsoft Word
add-in program called Formula Builder provides cell references in a number of different
ways so the user doesn't have to determine it by counting columns and rows. For
example, cell references may be added to a formula by double-clicking the cell.

AutoSummarize
AutoSummarize highlights passages or phrases that it considers valuable. The amount of
text to be retained can be specified by the user as a percentage of the current amount of
text.

Mail Merging
Using this feature you can send same letter to multiple addresses without a need to retype
the letter again and again. This feature should be a part of every word processor. It is one
of the important features of MS-Word.

Justification
By this term we mean that we should be able to align the text in such a format that all the
lines of a paragraph have the same starting and ending point.

Some Other Features

• Insert pictures, graphs, page numbers, date and time, symbols
• MS-Word provides us with a facility to insert pictures, graphs, page numbers,
date and time etc. in documents. It gives a better view of the document.
• Cut Copy Paste of text

Internet & Its Applications

Ramesh yadav 14
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard
Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of
networks that consists of millions of private and public, academic, business, and
government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of
electronic and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast array of
information resources and services, most notably the inter-linked hypertext documents of
the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support electronic mail.

Most traditional

communications media, such as telephone and television services, are reshaped or

redefined using the technologies of the Internet, giving rise to services such as Voice over
Internet Protocol (VoIP) and IPTV. Newspaper publishing has been reshaped into Web
sites, blogging, and web feeds. The Internet has enabled or accelerated the creation of
new forms of human interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social
networking sites.

The Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or

policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own standards. Only the
overreaching definitions of the two principal name spaces in the Internet, the Internet
Protocol address space and the Domain Name System, are directed by a maintainer
organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The
technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an
activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of
loosely-affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by
contributing technical expertise.

Terminology

Ramesh yadav 15
The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used in everyday speech without much
distinction. However, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not one and the same.
The Internet is a global data communications system. It is a hardware and software
infrastructure that provides connectivity between computers. In contrast, the Web is one
of the services communicated via the Internet. It is a collection of interconnected
documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs.

Social impact
The Internet has enabled entirely new forms of social interaction, activities, and
organizing, thanks to its basic features such as widespread usability and access. Social
networking websites such as Facebook and MySpace have created a new form of
socialization and interaction. Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety of
information to their personal pages, to persue common interests, and to connect with
others. It is also possible to find a large circle of existing acquaintances, especially if a
site allows users to represent themselves by their given names, and to allow
communication among existing groups of people. Sites like meetup.com exist to allow
wider announcement of groups which may exist mainly for face-to-face meetings, but
which may have a variety of minor interactions over their group's site.

In the first decade of the 21st century the first generation is raised with widespread
availability of Internet connectivity, bringing consequences and concerns in areas such as
personal privacy and identity, and distribution of copyrighted materials. These "digital
natives" face a variety of challenges that were not present for prior generations.

Many people use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to
plan and book vacations and to find out more about their interests. People use chat,
messaging and e-mail to make and stay in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in
the same way as some previously had pen pals. Social networking websites like
MySpace, Facebook and many others like them also put and keep people in contact for
their enjoyment. The Internet has seen a growing number of Web desktops, where users
can access their files and settings via the Internet. Cyberslacking can become a serious
drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spent 57 minutes a day surfing
the Web while at work, according to a 2003 study by Peninsula Business Services.

Applications of Internet

Ramesh yadav 16
Communication
The foremost target of internet has always been the communication. And internet has
excelled beyond the expectations .Still; innovations are going on to make it faster, more
reliable. By the advent of computer’s Internet, our earth has reduced and has attained the
form of a global village.

Now we can communicate in a fraction of second with a person who is sitting in the other
part of the world. Today for better communication, we can avail the facilities of e-mail;
we can chat for hours with our loved ones. There are plenty messenger services in
offering. With help of such services, it has become very easy to establish a kind of global
friendship where you can share your thoughts, can explore other cultures of different

ethnicity .

Internet telephony is another common communications service made possible by the

creation of the Internet. VoIP stands for Voice-over-Internet Protocol, referring to the
protocol that underlies all Internet communication.

Information
Information is probably the biggest advantage internet is offering. The Internet is a virtual
treasure trove of information. Any kind of information on any topic under the sun is
available on the Internet. The search engines like Goggle, yahoo is at your service on the
Internet. You can almost find any type of data on almost any kind of subject that you are
looking for. There is a huge amount of information available on the internet for just about
every subject known to man, ranging from government law and services, trade fairs and
conferences, market information, new ideas and technical support, the list is end less.

Ramesh yadav 17
Students and children are among the top users who surf the Internet for research. Today,
it is almost required that students should use the Internet for research for the purpose of
gathering resources. Teachers have started giving assignments that require research on
the Internet. Almost every coming day, researches on medical issues become much easier

to locate. Numerous web sites available

on the net are offering loads of information for people to research diseases and talk to
doctors online at sites such as, America’s Doctor. During 1998 over 20 million people
reported going online to retrieve health information. The Web has also enabled
individuals and organizations to publish ideas and information to a potentially large
audience online at greatly reduced expense and time delay. Publishing a web page, a
blog, or building a website involves little initial cost and many cost-free services are
available. Publishing and maintaining large, professional web sites with attractive,
diverse and up-to-date information is still a difficult and expensive proposition, however.
Many individuals and some companies and groups use web logs or blogs, which are
largely used as easily updatable online diaries.

Entertainment
Entertainment is another popular raison d'être why
many people prefer to surf the Internet. In fact,
media of internet has become quite successful
in trapping multifaceted entertainment factor.
Downloading games, visiting chat rooms or
just surfing the Web are some of the uses people
have discovered. There are numerous games that
may be downloaded from the Internet for free. The
industry of online gaming has tasted dramatic and
phenomenal attention by game lovers. Chat rooms
are popular because users can meet new and interesting people. In fact, the Internet has

Ramesh yadav 18
been successfully used by people to find life long partners. When people surf the Web,
there are numerous things that can be found. Music, hobbies, news and more can be
found and shared on the Internet.

Services
Many services are now provided on the internet such as online banking, job seeking,
purchasing tickets for your favorite movies, guidance services on array of topics
engulfing the every aspect of life, and hotel reservations. Often these services are not
available off-line and can cost you more.

E-Commerce
Ecommerce is the concept used for any type of commercial maneuvering, or business
deals that involves the transfer of information across the globe via Internet. It has become
a phenomenon associated with any kind of shopping, almost
anything. You name it and Ecommerce with its giant
tentacles engulfing every single product and service will
make you available at your door steps. It has got a real
amazing and wide range of products from household
needs, technology to entertainment.

Data Transfer
A computer file can be e-mailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It
can be uploaded to a website or FTP server for easy download by others. It can be put
into a "shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues. The load of
bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of "mirror" servers or peer-to-peer
networks. In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user
authentication, the transit of the file over the Internet may be obscured by encryption, and
money may change hands for access to the file.
The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example, a credit card
whose details are also passed—usually fully encrypted—across the Internet. The origin
and authenticity of the file received may be checked by digital signatures or by MD5 or
other message digests. These simple features of the Internet, over a worldwide basis, are
changing the production, sale, and distribution of anything that can be reduced to a
computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of print publications, software
products, news, music, film, video, photography, graphics and the other arts. This in turn
has caused seismic shifts in each of the existing industries that previously controlled the
production and distribution of these products.

Ramesh yadav 19
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 www.google .com

 www.wikipedia.com

 Fundamental of Information Technology by Dr. Hardeep

Singh, S.K. Kakkar and Anshuman Sharma.

Ramesh yadav 20
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Today it gives me immense pleasure to submit this project as this

project is a result of great deal of hard work and devotion put into
it. For this project I would like to thank my parents, friends and
specially my teacher without whose guidance this
project would not have been able to reach to its completion. Last
but not the least I would like to pay my sincere gratitude to all
those people who helped me during the course of this project.

Ramesh yadav

Ramesh yadav 21