Proceedings of the Second International Congress of Somali Studies University of Hamburg August 1-6, 1983 edited by Thomas Labahn VOLUME I LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE HELMUT BUSKE VERLAG HAMBURG379 B, W. Andrzejewski SOMALI PROSE FICTION WRITING 1967 - 81 The rise of Somali prose fiction writing Although Somalis have a highly developed oral literature from as far back in history as their oral traditions can reach, their written literature is a recent innovation, and co far as is known there are no extant written works which antedate the beginning of the present century’,/'From that time until 1972, when a national orthography was dntroduced, most of the writing in Somali consisted of the texts of oral poems which had been taperecorded or written down under dictation from poetry-reciters, or on the other hand of oral narratives either transcribed verbatim or slightly modified to meet the needs of the printed page. From 1972, however, there were new opportunities for literary creativity, and the rapid spread of literacy through the school system and the very effective adult education campaigns assured new writers of a steadily exq panding circle of readers. It was fortunate for the smooth —_— continuation of the national culture that the strucutre H of Somali oral poetry was well suited to the needs of thé — printed page. Its metric patterns provided natural bound= aries for division into lines, and the appeal of its high the ) % ly condensed and elaborate diction was enhanced by . ‘opportunity for slow and deliberate appreciation which 3 print gave the reader. The new written poetry differs a very little from its oral equivalent, and in fact it is ; sometimes difficult to tell the difference between @ verbatim j oral poem and a poem which has been ent: % eveated in the new written mediun. In Botti cascs) stor cg 7 stance, the name of the poet will be given, for only light traditional poetry was ever exempt from the custom of pub- : licly acknowledged authorship, and the new readers were no transcript of an irely elle a Tie380, more surprised to see the poets’ names in books and perio- dicals than they had been to hear them announced at recitals. the situation was very different in the case of written prose. Its oral counterpart, the prose narrative, though rich and often fascinating in its themes, had formal features which would look odd and inept if transferred unaltered on to the printed page. It had the stylistic simplicity of ordinary non-literary verbal communication and was marked by a constant repetition of words and | phrases which was ill-suited to the written medium. Par- | ticularly frequently repeated were words which marked the progress of time, roughly corresponding to the English "then" or "afterwards", and words and phrases by which quoted speech was introduced. In a dialoque, no matter | how long, each change of speaker was explicitly stated, | and repeated with very little variation. Unlike poetry, the oral narratives had no fixed verbatim memorized texts, and each narrator used his own words to tell the same story. Hence there was no recognized indi~ vidual authorship, and oral narrators, unlike oral poets, reaped few rewards of fame or prestige. Their popularity depended to a large extent on their skill in projecting their personality and in using gesticulation, facial ex- pressions, voice modulation, variations in the speed of utterance, and the imitation of non-verbal sounds - rather like the sound effects in radio plays. These could not be repeated in the written form. As regards the substance of Somali oral narratives, there was no tradition of narrating entirely fictional events, except for the animal fables and aetiological tales which ware narrated to children. In narratives for adults a concern for truth and accuracy was natural when dealing with local and national history, as the focus was on per~ Sonalities, places and the proper setting of events in es 381 their time. But even in narratives when the attention centred on events of general interest or humorous anec- dotes, when audiences were very tolerant of embellish- ments and exaggerations, the self-confessed invention by a narrator from his own imagination of a complete story was not regarded as acceptable. It always had to be pre- sented as something that had been witnessed by him or by another person from whom he had heard it reported, who might of course have heard it of someone else and so on. Thus oral narratives for adults were viewd as illustrations of accumulated experience rather than as expressions of the artistic imagination. Tt was difficult for the new prose fiction writers to follow the tradition of this kind of oral prose, and in- stead they turned to the foreign models available to them, namely the novel and the short story in European languages. From them they took over all the major conventions applic~ able to mainstream literatures in these two genres that have been in use since the mid 9th century, and their works are all the familiar devices of the fiction-writer's craft. However, the influence of foreign models does not go further than these formal characteristics. Somali prose fiction is very Somali in other aspects. The principal characters are always Somali, and foreigners appear only in interaction with them, and even then in minor roles. The places of action usually fall within the bounds of the Somali-speaking territories, and only if a Somali character travels abroad does the place of action move with him.! Most of the authors write about modern times, but there ave also several historical stories and novels. In both cases evants are described with detailed care: ecenSrya buildings, interiors, furniture, clothes, dietary habits and even hair-styles are described with accuracy, and382 social and econonic situations, personality types and conversational patters are realistically portrayed. In historical narratives a great effort is usually made to give them ac much period fidelity as can be ascertained from oral traditions and documentary sources. The authors! moral and ideological attitudes for the most part are clear: they are concerned with the good of Somali society, and why they do not always portray goodness eventually triumphing over evil, they show clearly the suffering that evil brings to others. Most of the prose fiction has been serialized in the national daily newspaper xiddigta Oktoobar ("The October Star) .2 In this form of presentation it is very difficult to distinguish between a novel and a long short story, and no solution to this problem is offered here. For all serial- ized works the term “story” is used, and the term "novel" is applied only to works which have appeared as books. The remaining part of this paper is devoted to a des- eription, under separate headings, of the various themes which have been used by Somali writers of prose fiction. Themes of Somali prose fiction Getting married In Somali traditional society fathers had absolute power over the choice of spouse for their children, a power which they often exercised with understanding and com- passion, taking into account their children's wishes. But sometimes they took arbitrary decisions, especially in the case of a girl for whom the suitor was prepared to give alarge amount of bridewealth. Greed, poverty or the desire for a useful family link were among the considerations which might influence a father rather than the thought of his daughter's happiness. at times physical coercion was —————— 383 applied, but more often the fear of the parental curse and of being expelled from the family was enough to exact compliance. mhere was a custom, however, which offered a way out for determined lovers who wanted to marry without their parents’ permission. If they eloped and evaded pursuit their marriage was usually accepted by both families. As it combines the elements of love and adventure, the theme of elopement has attracted several writers, including, Axmed Cartan Xaange, whose "Qawdhan iyo Goran" (Qawdgan and Qoran) has the @istinction of being the first work of written prose fiction in Somali. The hero and heroine elope but are recaptured, and Qawdhan, defeated and despairing, confides his woes to Gurxan, a widower and a veteran of the Dervish War. Gurxan comforts him with the story of his own elopement, which succeeded in spite of awesome dangers and led to many years of happiness, and Qawdhan is encouraged to make a second attempt, this time with succes. An extraordinarily bold i elopement is described in “Colaad iyo caashaq” (War and love) by Cusmaan Caliguul, since the lovers, Buraale and Beyddan, belong to clans locked in a fierce war. On 8 dazk evenaad aa Buraale comes secretly to the encampment where Beyddan lives and sits silently near her, amidst a group of people relax- ing in the cool air. She recognizes him by touch but they cannot talk, and’ ingeniously she directs her conversation ~ with another girl to the matter of how one would elope if one fell in love. Buraale understands that she 18 giving Mininetructions and they steal a horselancics soba but i. captured by Beyddan's brother and uncle, n old custom by fn next day they are both heavily armed. Taking recourse to al which a woman could save the life of an enemy warrior, coe throws all her clothes on Buraale and refuses to cover her= self until her brother and uncle swear that they will not kill him, The elopement ends with a wedding thanks to he mediating ability of Beyddan's father, and the marriage384 paves the way to reconciliation between the two warring clans. In another elopement story, “Wacadkii dhabta ahaa" (The true promise), by Xaliimo Axmed Xandulle, a woman writer, the hero, Xasan, has to risk his life twice before he succeeds in marrying Dhool. First he has to fight a lion which attacks them and then, when they are both captured by men of another clan, he chooses to die rather than agree that one of them should marry her in return of his own safety. He is rescued in time by an elder of the clan who had once met Dhool during a grazing reconnaissance. Not all elopemnts have happy endings. In "Ha _iman iahaydaa!" (I wish I had not come!) by Faarax Axmed Cali, the two lovers, Cabdi-Maxad and Cosob, are caught and their plans come to nothing. One day Cabdi-Mahad is wandering in the bushland and he hears the sound of dancing; to his sorrow he finds that the dancers are celebrating the weddinc- feast of Cosob who is being given to Sugul, a rich man who could be her grandfather and already has three wives, Nor did every girl who was being forced to marry against her will have someone to elope with, and even if she were to succeed in running away by herself where could she escape to? Homelessness and destitution would await her, and the chances of leading a respectable life were remote unless she was exceptionally lucky, There are several portayals of the intense unhappiness of women for whom there was no Way out. In “Agoondarro waa _u_nacab jacayl" (Ingnorance is the enemy of love) by Paarax M. J. ‘Cawl',? Cawrala is literally forced to marry Geelle, a brutal and repulsive man, even though she is in love with Calimaax, a Dervish soldier who had rescued her from a shipwreck but who is now missing after a battle. She is stricken with a fever on her wedding-day and remains 111 for so long that hor husband releases her from the marriage. Calimaax has after eli survived, though badly wounded, and Cawrala's family 385 now agree that they may marry, but it is too late: Cawrala aies before Calimaax can reach her. In the same novel Saluugla, friend and confidante of Cawrala, describes her own miserable life after she was forced to marry a rich but old, infirm and vindictive husband. Another young woman, Caasha, the first person narrator in 5 (An evil reconnaissance) by Axmed F. Cali ‘Tdaajaa', has to suffer on account of being forced to "sahan_baa marry. Maxamed, her father, and his friend Aadan, while on a grazing reconnaissance, decide to marry each other's daughters in order to save bridewealth which they could otherwise ill afford to pay. Caasha refuses to sleep with Aadan, though she is beaten many times; she runs away, 4s captured and runs away again. When her father is killed during an Ethiopian air-raid she manages to escape to Mogadishu and stays with relatives, but she cannot regain her freedom in spite of the new family law which makes forced marriage illegal. We leave her at the end of the story waiting for a decision from a procrastinating and obstructive judge. Aamino, the heroine of "Qday yaa jeclaan kara?" (Who can love an old man?) by Cabdullaahi Faarax Cali 'Taano', finds a quick but tragic way out of her predicament when she is forced to marry a retired ship's cook with plenty Of money soon after she leaves secondary school. After the young man whom she loves, and who could have rescued her, dies in an accident, she poisons herself with insecti~ cide. Canab, another girl who is made to marry straight after k leaving school, is the heroine of “Guur iyo gabadhnimo seeg (Missing both girlhood and marriage) by Muuse Cabdullaahi Cabdi. She is an independent-minded girl who nevertheless yields to pressure and is married to Cumar, an unsympathetic character with old-fashioned views about women's position dn marriage. No less sad is the story of Shamis in "Galti~ aie386 cruuf” (A rustic affecting urban refinement) by Maxamea Daahir Afrax. She is a young, educated girl who has to marry Xaaji Meecaad, a rich merchant of jalous disposition over three times her age. She manages to evade his sur- veillance and gets involved in a reckless affair with a middle-aged man, only to be quickly replaced in his affections by a woman friend she herself has introduced to him. Though less often, some marriages are shown as being contracted in accordance with the wishes of the couple. In “Wadhaf iyo shimbiro war isu ma hayaan" (The bird- scarer's sling and the birds know nothing of each other), a story by Muusa Xaaji adapted from the play of the same name by Cismaan Aadan Xuseen, the heroine Muxibbo does not have to marry the wealthy cousin who asks for her hand. Her enlightened and saintly father, aAw-Margaan, allows her to follow her wishes and gives her his blessing when she later marries a young man of her choice. Similarly, in "Waad casuman tahay" (You are invited) by Maxamed Shariif Cali 'Ujuuku', we witness the preparations for the marriage between Daahir and Aamina which is taking place with parental encouragement, and in "Guutaale oo guurkii garwaagsaday" (Guutaale becoming mindful of marriage) by Axmed Cabdillaahi Aw Xasan we are shown an idyllic view of the traditional way of marriage in the pastoralist interior. The initiative has come from Guutaale but the girl's con- sent has been assured before he asks her father for her, and there follows the splendour of the traditional wedding feast. To counterbalance the stories telling of the evil of forced marriage there is also a cautionary tale depicting the other extreme, namely a young girl marrying without Gonsulting or even informing her parents. In "Kala maadasho ma jirte " (There 1s no hiding from one another) by Axmed Nuur Sheekh Cali, Ladan, who lives in town by herself, 387 decides to marry Faarax, who seems to favour haste in the matter. During the wedding reception she has a nasty surprise, for another wife of his arrives with her chila as an uninvented quest and for the first time Ladan learns of their existence. What was to be a happy occasion turns into a very ugly scene. Harmonious happiness in married life is as rarely depicted as the main theme in Somali fiction as it is in america or Europe. We have a glimpse of it in "Milgaha jacaylka" (Revenrence for love) by Yuusuf Axmed Xasan ‘Hero’, but Somali writers are naturally more attracted by the dramatic tension which is provided by conflict and trouble. The suffering inflicted by spouses on each other provides themes for several works, for showing wives on the receiv- ing end of injustice. In "Maana Faay" (Maana Faay), by Maxamed Daahir Afrax, a company director, Jaamac Dhegey, pretends to his wife, Cambaro, that he has™to be away from home a great deal on business, while in fact he goes to parties where he chews khat in the company of young women. He brings disgrace on his family when Beyddan Shabeel, @ procuress, denounces him to his wife, in front of the neighbours, in revenge for his refusal to pay her for her Services in a failed plot to seduce an innocent girl, the Maana Faay of the title. In "Asli" (Asli) by ‘Boobe', we find a vivid description of the anguish of a wife, Racwi, who discovers after many years of happy marriage that she has a rival in the person of a younger woman, Asli, her husband's newly acquired mistress. A misfortune of a different kind comes upon Luul, the heroine. of "Hadday Sugi lahayd" (If she had only waited) by Faarax Cali "Gamuute', She breaks off her engagement to a young doctor in order to make a hasty marriage to Cali Dhegaweyne who has a good job somewhere in the Persian Gulf. She is dis~ ali dt Mt388 appointed, lonely and bored when her husband leaves her dn Somalia; even when he comes home on leave he pays her little attention, and when she becomes pregnant he falsely suspects her of adultery, and finally divorces her after she sends him a cassette in which she voices her complaints against him. We also witness mental cruelty in "Culeyska bulshada" (The burden of society) by ¥. M. Xayd, when Cabdi returns from abroad and wants only to imitate Western style of life with likeminded companions. He dispises his wife, Saafi, for her unwillingness to adjust to foreign way: and scolds and reproaches her. But not only wives are the victims of bad treatment. When Tiibaan, in Axmed Nuur Sh. Cali's story "Waayo kala wacan” (Times good and bad), comes home at night from Jeddah, where he works, earlier than his wife Dhoofa had expected, he finds their apartment full of khat-chewing revellers, and what is more, she has squandered 24,000 shillings which he gent her to buy a house. Another spendthrift wife is por- trayed in “Dulgaad iyo Deynley" (Dulgaad and Deynley) by Cusman Caliguul. Deynley gets her husband Dulqaad into se- rious difficulties by incurring debts and by forgoing his name on a letter resting credit at a shop. Even worse is the fate of Magan in "Danti-mooge maro duuga horteed buy dhammadaa_" (Someone who does not know where his interests lie is finished sconer than much-worn clothes) by Axmed F. Cali ‘Idaajaa'. Magan's wife Maymuun uses emotional black- mail, by nagging and then temporarily leaving him, because she wants him to buy her a dress like one of her rich neigh~ bours is wearing. Since he is a loud-paid official he can- not afford it, and has to embezzle public money to satisfy her wish, but the matter ends in court and he goes to prison, leaving his wife without means of support. Dissatisfaction with her husband's low income also induces Caasha-Baar, a character in "Calaf xumaaday iyo canaan waalic” (Spoiled sustenance and parents' reproof) by Maxamed Cab~ 389 @iraxmaan ‘Barre', to abandon him, even though she has married for love without her parents' consent. She is be- friended by Jaamac, who poses as a wealthy transport entre- prenour when in fact he merely has the use of a car and a villa during the absence of his uncle who employs him. Caasha-Baar gets a divorce, much to her husband's distress, put is in turn abandoned by Jaamac. In one story husband and wife accuse each other of bad behaviour towards the other, neither of them admitting their share of the blame. The story, written by Maxamed Daahir Afrax and entitled "Guur-ku-sheeg" (A so-called marriage), explores in depth the emotional background of the couple, Colaad and Cawadaran, which is revealed in the form of hearing at a family arbitration court after the family up- roar has reached a violent stage. Among these stories of marital troubles one does end rea~ sonably happily. It is written by a woman writer, Faadumo A. Cabdiraxmaan and is entitled "Indho caashag wax ma _arkaan” (The eyes of love see nothing). Biibi, a schoolgirl, falls insanely in love with her teacher Cabdi, who is married to ; Safiya. The conflict between Biibi and Safiya is at first bitter, but with time, and after the mediation of relatives, Safiya accepts Biibi as her junior. co-wife and they settle down peacefully to this new arrangement, sanctioned by Islamic law and custom. Illicit liaisons Several writers have drawn their themes from the tragic experiences of women who have entered into sexual liaisons, whether casual or long-term. It must be observed that in Somalia the consequences of such lapses from the moral code are usually disastrous for a woman: an unmarried girl is likely to be disowned by her family, and a married woman to be divorced in disgrace. A woman on her own, especially 4f she is an unmarried mother, finds it very difficult to390 get accommodation or employment and she may be driven to become a kept woman, a khat-parlour hostess or a prostitute. In the novel "Ayaandaran" (The unlucky one) by Cabdullaahi Sheek Xuseen ‘Hantiwadaag', Canab, a close friend of Asli, the heroine, moves on this downward slope, starting with casual affairs and ending disowned by her family and aban- doned by her former friends. She is obliged to maintain herself and her three illegitimate children by offering her favours to the men she meets as a khat-parlour hostess. In the novel "Maana Faay" we meet Beyddan Shabeel who, driven into prostitution by poverty as a young girl, becomes a procuress and brothel-keeper and lives in constant danger Of exposure and imprisonment. No less tragic is the fate of Faadumo, in the story by Axmed F. Cali '‘Idaajaa' called "Haddana way ku nogotay” (She went back to it again). She is a girl of 18 who has been evacuated from a drought- stricken pastoralist area to a relief camp, and at first all is well as she learns to read and write and finds work in the camp kitchen, but soon she is seduced, runs away and becomes a prostitute. The author gives a vivid picture of the situation in which such a girl can be traped: Faadumo has to go on offering herself to men even when heavily preg- nant, and one day she is assaulted by a drunken client gives birth to a still-born child. At the end of the story we see her going back once more to the night-club where she is employed. Another young victim of the harshness of society and of callous sexual exploitation is Weris, a Mogadishu school- girl, in "Goor xun socod" (Walking at an evil time) by Xallimo Sacdiyo X. Xasan. Her strict father is away on a business trip and her mother is not very vigilant, so she is free to go out and come home late. she meets a man who calls himself Tuke, which means the Crow, and they drive to out-of- town restaurants where the customers can dine in Seclusion in dimly-1it arbours, but he always refuses to 391 "pick her up or set her down anywhere near her home. Even- tually he and his car disappear into the anonymity of city life when Weris finds she is pregnant. She is disowned by her family, and the authoress leaves the future of the poor girl to our imagination. jwo stories have heroines who are fortunate enough to be rehabilitated into normal life in the end. Quman, in "Kuftay oo kacday" (You fell but you got up again) by Axmed Sh. Cali Xasan, is a xoung woman who has been left destitute after her husband emigrated to an Arab country and divorced her. She has a hard time but finally meets Xaaji Saalax, a sailor of sixty or more who has spent most of his life abroad. He offers her marriage, financial security and education for her three children, two of whom are illegitimate. The title of the story, "You fell but you got up again", is what Quman says to herself when thinking of her past difficulties and her return to a respectable life. The other lucky escape from the trap of social and physical degradation is described in the novel “Ayaandaran" (The unlucky one). Asli, who is in the last year of school, is seduced by Cadaawe, a married man with a family. She becomes pregnant and is turned out of her father's house, but Cadaawe denies responsibility, and she is only saved from disaster by her elder brother Cali-Ammuur and her aunt Faadumo, a kind= hearted midwife, who offer her help. When the child is born Cali-ammuur porsuades Asli to resume her studies, and her good examination results get her a job at the National Printing Agency. She keeps to the path of virtue and fiercely rejects any advances from men who imagine her to be easy prey as woman with a past. Maxamed-yare, her little son, is brough up with love and care, so much so that Cadaawe repents and Gives him legal recognition as his son, and finally success 3 “and happiness come to her in the form of a scholarship award to the National University and a proposal of marriage from anks to the mediati n @ worthy suitor of her own age, Xarbi. Th390 get accommodation or employment and she may be driven to become a kept woman, a khat-parlour hostess or a prostitute. In the novel "Ayaandaran" (The unlucky one) by Cabdullaahi Sheek Xuseen 'Hantiwadaag', Canab, a close friend of Asli, the heroine, moves on this downward slope, starting with casual affairs and ending disowned by her family and aban- doned by her former friends. She is obliged to maintain herself and her three illegitimate children by offering her favours to the men she meets as a khat-parlour hostess. In the novel "Maana Faay" we meet Beyddan Shabeel who, driven into prostitution by poverty as a young girl, becomes a procuress and brothel-keeper and lives in constant danger of exposure and imprisonment. No less tragic is the fate of Faadumo, in the story by Axmed F. Cali 'Idaajaa' called "Haddana way ku nogotay" (She went back to it again). She is a girl of 18 who has been evacuated from a drought- stricken pastoralist area to a relief camp, and at first all is well as she learns to read and write and finds work in the camp kitchen, but soon she is seduced, runs away and becomes a prostitute. The author gives a vivid picture of the situation in which such a girl can be traped: Faadumo has to go on offering herself to men even when heavily preg- nant, and one day she is assaulted by a drunken client gives birth to a still-born child. At the end of the story we see her going back once more to the night-club where she is employed. Another young victim of the harshness of society and of callous sexual exploitation is Weris, a Mogadishu school- girl, in "Goor xun socod" (Walking at an evil time) by Xaliimo Sacdiyo X. Xasan. Her strict father is away on a business trip and her mother is not very vigilant, so she is free to go out and come home late. She meets a man who calls himself Tuke, which means the Crow, and they drive £0 out-of-town restaurants where the customers can dine in seclusion in dimly-1it arbours, but he always refuses to 391 pick her up or set her down anywhere near her home. Even- tually he and his car disappear into the anonymity of city life when Weris finds she is pregnant, She is disowned by her family, and the authoress leaves the future of the poor girl to our imagination. qwo stories have heroines who are fortunate enough to be rehabilitated into normal life in the end. Quman, in “kuftay oo kacday" (You fell but you got up again) by Axmed Sh. Cali Xasan, is a xoung woman who has been left destitute after her husband emigrated to an Arab country and divorced her. She has a hard time but finally meets Xaaji Saalax, a sailor of sixty or more who has spent most of his life abroad. He offers her marriage, financial security and education for her three children, two of whom are illegitimate. The title of the story, "You fell but you got up again”, is what Quman says to herself when thinking of her past difficulties and her return to a respectable life. The other lucky escape from the trap of social and physical degradation is described in the novel "Ayaandaran” (The unlucky one). Asli, who is in the last year of school, is seduced by Cadaawe, a married man with a family. She becomes pregnant and is turned out of her father's house, but Cadaawe denies responsibility, and she is only saved from disaster by her elder brother Cali-Ammuur and her aunt Faadumo, a kind= hearted midwife, who offer her help. When the child is born Cali-Ammuur persuades Asli to resume her studies, and her good examination results get her a job at the National Printing Agency. She keeps to the path of virtue and fiercely rejects any advances from men who imagine her to be easy prey | is brought @5 woman with a past. Maxamed-yare, her little son, 5 Up with love and care, so much so that Cadaawe repents and gives him legal recognition as his son, and finally success and happiness come to her in the form of a scholarship award _ to the National university and a proposal of marriage from ] AVorthy suitor of her own age, Xarbi. Thanks to the mediat394 with consideration and respect and finally marrying her, He is prepared to suffer the criticism and disapproval of his relatives and friends, and is a loving and generous husband, but she cannot stand the strain of the new respect- able life, runs away from him and reverts to her former occupation. Another attempt to rescue a woman in distress is depicted in "Ma _kuf oo ha kicin baa" (Is it a kind of fall from which one cannot rise?) by Cali Maxamed Weheliye. The hero of the story, a senior civil servant called Geelle, travels on a coach bound for Mogadishu. There is an attack by gunmen and a boy is killed and two women are wounded in the firing that en- sues. Geelle observes with astonishment that one of the passengers, a young woman, seems totally impervious to danger. As they safely continue their journey after the attack he questions her about her extraordinary behaviour and she tells him that she would welcome death. The woman, whose name is Ubax, has run away from a forced marriage to an elderly husband and was declared naakirad ( a recalcitrant wite) by a court und thus forbidden to remarry. She has nowhere to go and no employment and she has already started on her way to ruin and degradation by sleeping with men. Geelle offers her help and enables her to train as a typist. Eventually they fall in love with each other and want to marry @s this becomes possible legally. Geelle's family, however, fiercely oppose the match and he receives from his father a severe blow with a stick on the head during a Warrel about her. He is disowned by his family and the story ends inconclusively as Ubax, while she is nursing Geelle, begins to feel that it would be unfair to allow him to sacrifice his family ties for her. Sufferings of idhood_and_youth es gees without saying that Somali authors treat the thene % young victims of cruelty with Compassion. In "Halgankit 395 nolosha" (Idfe's struggle) by Shire Jaamac Axmed we see a highly sensitive, nervous boy, Bulxan, harshly treated by his father's new wife when his mother is divorced and sent away. He also suffers greatly in a Koranic school where he cannot endure the severe beatings administered to the pupils. He runs away from home, and after a long and arduous journey reaches his mother; she has remarried, but her husband's family welcome and accept the boy. No such happy ending is found in "Is-ma-oge" (He-who-does-not-understand-himself) by Cabdullaahi Cabdi Ciise. ‘The heroine, Hibo, is beaten and cruelly treated by her stepmother and she, too, runs away when she is old enough, but she drifts into the social twilight of a khat-parlour and eventually turns into a harsh-minded person herself. Two other victims of bad treatment are Faadumo in "Maana Faay" and Aamina in "Tolow maxay nogon?" (what will become of her?) by F. A. 'Gaamuute'. Faadumo, in order to help her family, has become a servant in a khat-parlour, but she is scolded and mercilessly exploited by her employer, who gives her tasks, such as water-carrying, which are far beyond her strength. The father of Aamina is a night-watchman who earns hardly enough to keep his family, and she too works as a Servant for long hours and little pay, though at least it is a respectable household. The action takes place on the day of one of the great Muslim feasts when it is customary to give gifts to children, Aamina is sent on an errand by her mistress to buy soap, but when she meets her little brothers and siters in town, who have had no gifts from anyone, she buys them some food, forgetting that the money is not her own, The story ends with her realization of the awful consequences of what she has done - hence the title. Warfare When warfare provides the major theme it is always related to and presented as a defence against foreign oppression.396 The most extensive treatment is found in the novel "Garba- duubkii gumeysiga" (The shackles of colonialism) by Faarax M. J. 'Cawl’. A Western-educated man who is totally ignorant of his country's heritage is given a panoramic view of the whole history of the Somali nation by his old father. The narration takes place in modern times in a small pastoralist village and is interrupted by a-sudden raid by the Ethiopian army in which the old man is wounded, but he has time to finish his story before he dies. An interesting aspect of the War of the Dervishes, their military intelligence system, is revealed in the novel "Agoondarro waa _u nacab jacayl" (Ignorance is the enemy of love), where the hero, Calimaax, goes on a spying mission to the British military base in Aden in preparation for a landing planned by Sayid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan, the leader of the Dervishes. The novel includes a scene in which Cali- maax is debriefed by the Sayid and describes to him the British planes which are being made ready for operations on the Somali mainland. Five short stories depict vividly and in detail scenes from guerilla actions against the Ethiopian armed forces: “Sihaad" (A holy war) by Axmed Xasan Cabdi 'Carwo'; "Gaal galool nugulaal" (O how faint-hearted is the infidel!) by *. M. Xayd; "“Aargudasho" (Revenge) by Faarax Axmed Cali ‘Gamuute'; "Niyad bira" (Tron-like resolve) by F. A. Cali ‘camunte'.* and “Guusha kama dambaysta ah kaddib" (After the final’ victory) by c. J. Maxamed, The action of the first of these takes place soon after the Second World War, while the others describe scenes from the guerrilla war conducted by the Western Somalia Liberation Front in recent times; all portray the grim realities of the war itself and of its causes. In the last of the five, Beyddan, the 4s a khat grower and vendor, but this is a cover for the collection of military intelligence which is then Passed on to headquarters with the aia of sophisticated heroine, 397 equipment one reads about in European and American spy novels. Beyddan is eventually shot dead in the street, and the words in the title, "After the final victory", spoken by an old teacher, who had given her shelter, in response to his grandson's question about when he would write a book about Beyddan's heroism. are Two short stories have also been written about the Somali liberation struggle in Djibouti when the country was still under French colonial rule: "Gobannimo" (Independence) by Axmed Xasan Cabdi 'Carwo' and "Naftu waa m Ow _amase waa mahad_ ku _noolow" (One either dies, or lives with dignity) by Cabdullaahi Maxamed Mursal 'Mursal-yare'. Although crime detection themes are conspicuously absent from Somali prose fiction, crime itself is not. The strict regulations concerning foreign currency exchange mean that illegal currency deals can be very lucrative indeed, and in "Waa _inoo berri (We shall see each other tomorrow) by Axmed F. Cali 'Idaajaa', we meet a senior civil servant, Guhaad, who is involved in just such deals. During studies abroad he has developed a taste for high life-style quite out of keeping with his salary and his responsibilities, an@ his nightly revels leave him too tired to carry out his daily duties, so that, as the title of the story indicates, People who want to see him are always told to) come back tHe) Next day. What is left of his energy is devoted to his activities with a gang of crooks, and we watchi/his gradual Progress towards ruin in a milieu where there is no legal Yedress against the dishonesty of one's companions crime~ But Guhaad's transgressions pale into insignificance in Comparison with the plot to defraud the public which is @escribed in "Galti-macruuf" (A rustic affecting urban re- finement). ciimi is a director of a government-owned com= Pany, and in conspiracy with a representative of a multi-398 national company he negotiates a contract to import chemi- cals the real value of which is $2 million, while the agreed price is $5 million. As if this embezzlement of public funds were not enough, the chemicals are being im- ported with the purpose of colouring Somali water-melons yellow, a singularly pointless exercise from the commercial point of view. Cilmi needs money, and plenty of it, to pay for women, drinking parties and private pornographic film shows, and if the plot is to succeed his subordinates have to be kept silent. When one accountant becomes too watchful Cilmi at first transfers him to a non-accounting branch, then suspends him on charges of inefficiency and disruptive behaviour, to which Cilmi's bought underlings are ready to testify. A different form of crime is shown in "Rooxaan" (The spirits) by Shire Jaamac, Axmed. Sheekh Muxsin, a man of religion, purports to be clairvoyant through direct contact with the spirits, and the hero, Guhaad, comes to him for help to find the real thief when money is stolen from the till in the restaurant where he is cashier and he is blamed and dismissed. But the spirits do not provide any clue and Guhaad loses not only his job but the 170 shillings he had to pay for the seance. it Young man who have had the benefit of a good education but Who fail to use it for the good of society and that of their families are the target of censure in more than one work. In "Qaab-laawe" (A man without shape) by Maxamed Shariif Cali ‘Ujuuku', three young pupils in a secondary school, vaasin, his sister Mimco and his best friend xacan ali get good re~ sults in their final examinations and face a bright future, but Yaasin falls into bad company and becomes a drunkard. dusteadiof esteem and recognition he wine for himself the contemptuous nickname "A man without shape". 399, Even higher education abroad can be wasted, and in "Sheekadii dotoor Warsame" (The story of Dr. Warsame) by Cabdiraxmaan Naxamed Cali, the main character returns to Somalia after studying in Italy, Great Britain and the United States. He feels himself vastly superior to everyone except his own like-minded set of friends, and imagines that his services are indispensable to the country, but his negative attitudes and unwillingness to submit to the stern discipline of the civil service lead to his dismissal. The downfall of Kulmiye, one of the characters in the novel "Maana Faay", comes not through pride but through love of pleasure and strong drink. Sent to Rome University to study economics, his main pursuits there are amatory conquests and party-going, and on his return to continues his rake’s pro- gress, becomes an alcoholic and falls hopelessly into dept. “ (You went far away and what In "Dhooftaye maxaad keentay have you brought back?) by Axmed F Cali "Idaajaa’, Cali- yare's career is at first quite promising, for his ability and hard work earn him a scholarship to Germany to study motor mechanics. On his return he gets a good government job, so that with some extra income from spare-time work he can comfortably support his mother and younger brothers and sisters, But friends draw him into night-long khat-chewing parties he starts arriving late at work, and neglects his duties so much that he gets an official letter of warning: He is now constantly short of money, which affects his family, and as the story comes to its close we leave Cali- yare with an uneasy foreboding about another wasted 1ife. Whatever faults and weaknesses the charactere of Somali fiction might have, they are for the most part normal people, and only in three works do we encounter disturbed personali- ties. In "Adduun i khatal" (Prosperity deceived me) by and Cabdiraxmaan X. Ibraahim 'shiine', Shire 1s a wealthy400. powerful elder in the pastoralist interior of the old days, He is proud, miserly and arrogant in the extreme, and reacts to any criticism or imagined slight with threats of violence, Because his grasp of reality is weak he does not realise that his words and action must inevitably lead to his down- fall. Cali, the hero of "Is-ma-oge" (He-who-does-not-understand- himself), is the opposite of Shire. He is a highly sensitive, introspective and weak character, and meets with disaster through the influence of Hibo, whom he first meets when she is about ten years old, and orphan cruelly treated by her stepmother. She often seeks shelter with Cali's family, where Cali, already a grown man, comforts her: his compassion has an element of romantic love, but when she runs away from home he loses touch with her. They meet again when she has become a woman hardened by life; his love for her kindled, and although she does not respond to it emotionally she uses it to dominate him. Driven by her demands he gets into dept, neglects his duties at work and finally embezzles is re~ public funds, but he is caught and at the end of the story is sentenced to a long term of prison. No less a tragic character is Caasha, in "Ma gamaaro caashaqu" aqu (Love is not dimmed) by Cusmaan Xaaji Maxamed. She falls in love with axmed, a married man with two children, and when he does not respond to her overtures she can neither eat nor sleep. Her family take her first to a doctor, then to a spirit-healer, without success, and at last, fearing she might die, Axmed's friends persuade him to talk to her. She showers him with love, makes emotional scenes and succeed in winning his love, but he has no sooner divorced his wife and Sent his children to his grandmother than Caasha coldly re- Bkageies'icfEexiofomarsiaga, four months iater she hac changed her mind, and visits ni for her "childish behaviour". he rejects her, min his office to apologize She wants to embrace him, but and in the end she commits suicide by 401 throwing herself in the sea, leaving not behind blaming "unrequited love" for her death. Town_and_country-life The contrast between life in towns and in the country is a source of constant interest to Somalis, and a witty de~ pate on the subject takes place among the captain and passengers of the sailing-ship Subxaan in the novel "Agoon- darro waa_u nacab jacayl" (Icnorance ig the enemy of love). It also gets humorous treatment in “Filro miyi iyo tu magaalo" (Country ways and town ways), "Nolosha magaalada” (Town life) and "Shalay iyo maanta" (Yesterday and today), three stories by Saciid Cismaan Keenadiid. We see town life through the eyes of Cartan, a nomadic pastoralist who comes to Mogadishu to visit his kinsmen and is a source of trouble and embarassment to them through his rustic behaviour. The humorous scenes are interspersed with satire on the callous~ ness and dishonesty which are not unusual among town-dwellers. The incongruity between urban and rural modes of thought 4s also a source of humour in "Wadhaf iyo shimbiro war {su ma hayaan" (The bird-scarer's sling and the birds know nothing of each other). Mooge, wealthy and respected in his pastoralist community, becomes a figure of fun in Mogadishu, which he leaves with a sigh of relief. But the real hardships of urban and rural life are dealt with. tn "Galti-macruuf” (A rustic affecting urban refinement), we get glimpses of housing problems in Moga~ dishu for a family on a low income; even the difficulty yh hour can be serious if one is as is vividly described in seriously of getting a taxi in the rus already late for an appointment, "Kuftay 00 kacday" (You fell but you got up again). In the country, life can be both hard and dangerous. is a constant risk of lifestock straying or being attacked by beasts of prey, and such a misfortune happens to Gurey, 4 ” 1 leh" @ poor man with many children, in Geesinimo ayaa guut “So There402 (Valour brings victory) by Naxamed Saalax Xuseen. He eagerly waits for his favourite camel, Toosan, to give birth and provide milk in plenty, but she wanders off and is killed by a lion. Driven by a fury of revenge Gurey follows the lion's footprints and kills it singlehanded with his spear. In "Hammi iyo caloolyow: Shankaroon nin sugtayba saagan" (Anguish and sorrow: A man who secures Shankaroon for him- self is overwhelmed) by Maxamed Cabdiraxmaan 'Barre', another she-camel, called Heetis, creates a painful di- lemma for her owner, Cali, a poor camel-herder. He intends to marry a girl whose name, Shankaroon, means “worth more than five of her kind", and when her family migrates to another district he promises to come and fetch her at an appointed time. Just as he is about to set out he finds that Heetis is missing: if he does not go to Shankaroon he may not have. another chance to marry her, but with a heavy heart he decides to look for Hectis first. The story has an unexpectedly happy ending, even though the camel gets xilled by a lion. Cali in turn kills the lion and is wounded, but as lies exhausted he is found by Shankaroon. People are impressed by Cali's prowess and offer him gifts of livestock, the couple marry and Cali propers. Three other stories have themes connected with the hazards of 1ife in rural Somalia. In "Ummul_raac" (Death in child- birth), by Cabdullaahi Maxamed Nuur 'Ekis', to the family of Siidow in a drought- Caddey, his wife, dies in childbirth, tragedy comes stricken village. while outside the hut @ man of religion and his acolytes recite prayers for rain. The second story, "Daadkii Togdheer" (The flootwaters of Togdheer) by 'Boobe', depicts the dangers of fording a usually dry watercourse when the rains have come and filled it with swift-running water; Of @ young woman and a man wh to rescue her, The third story, here it claims two lives, those iO makes an unsuccessful attempt written by Muuse Maxamed sh. Cabdiwaaxid, ae: 403 has a happy ending, as the title, “"Saadaal sama leh" (A favourable omen), suggests. In a pastoralist village a boy is born to Carraale and Cawrala, and the women attendants are overawed by the exceptionally sad expression on the child's face. A learned sheikh is called, and after consulting a book af divination predicts that the child will live) thxough/a| time of great suffering, but that he will cause, his fiamd their advantage. Soon afterwards the great drought called ly to have a new idea which will be to Pagadama comes, and amidst the general suffering it is the mournful crying of the boy which spurs Carraale to a new initiative. With his animals all dead, there will be no meat to eat even if the rains come, so taking the last few grains of millet which he had brought from the town, he sows them in the dry ground. The rains do come, he harvests a large crop and soon is able to get a cock and some hens to supplement the family diet. The contrast between the culture of the country people and that of town dwellers is the main theme of "Socdaalkii 30ka maalmood" (A thirty day excursion) by Xusen Shikh Axmed ‘kaddare'. It consists of a series of anecdotes unified by the figure of two friends, Waasuge, a farmer, and Waransidey a camel herder, who meet on a coach on their way from Jowhar to Mogadishu to visit their kinsmen there. The story vividly illustrates the use of poetry among rural So! in their everyday life. The two friends engage in poetic exchanges while they are on the coach much to the delight of other passengers, aiid then entertain and admonish their 5 to thom. The story contains malis hosts in town by reciting poem one scene which bears witness to the exuberant ethnocentri= city of traditional Somali society. Waasuge's son Doonfuul, who travelled abroad, has a foreign wife and during a con~ versation the young couple try to explain to him that the People of his daughter-in-law have good poetry just like Somalis. Finally Waasuge admits the possibility that every404 nation has its own great men and that perhaps the unknown foreigner called Sheksber (Shakespeare) whom they mention to him may be as good as Shiikh Gabyow, Sayid Mexamed Cab- @uile Xasan, Faarax Shuuriye and other famous Somali poets. The relevance of the study of Somali prose fiction Before everything else Somali prose fiction is meant to be a source of entertainment to its readers, but that is not the limit of its use. Its importance for students of the Somali language and literature is self-evident, and it can also be argued that its study can contribute to other bran- ches of knowledge to anthropologists and sosiologists it can be an adjunct to direct observation and enquiry, for the wealth of detail and incidental information concerning everyday life in town and country will deepen their insights and provide clues to areas of potential research which they may have missed, and political scientists will find that it often presents a grass-root view of national and inter~ national events and problems, and explains the emotional motivation of some actions. While works of fiction cannot, of course, be taken as primary historical sources, those stories that are set in times gone hy can) point the way to new avenues of research, since they incorporate oral tradi- tions and give some idea of the way many Somalis see their own past. The two main obstacles to research into the subject are, however, somewhat formidable. The first obstacle is that there are only a few places in the world outside Somalia where the texts are accessible, and even in Somalia it is not easy to get them. The second is that it takes huge in- vestment of time and energy for a foreigner to learn Somali. Neither obstacle is insurmountable if the necessary financial Provisions can be made, and these need not be very large. Photocopying or microfilming is not inordinately expensive, 405, and a research centre or university department could, with even a modest budget, acquire a collection of texts. As for the language problem, in most of the major cities of the world one can now find Somalis who have a good knowledge of one or more languages of wider communication, and who would, I have no doubt, be very willing to be recruited as translators or research partners in this field: not only would they have a natural interest in the subject, but they would feel a justified pride in helping to make the riches of their culture accessible to the outside world. FOOTNOTES 1 In this respect Somali prose fiction closely resembles Somali theatre. Information on the themes favoured by the playwrights can be found in the introduction to "Leopard among the women: Shabeelnaagood - A Somali play" by Hassan Sheikh Muumin, translated by B. W. Andzejewski (London 1974: Oxford University Press). This newspaper, published in Mogadishu by the Ministry of Information and National Guidance, has large_pages containing several columns of print. In addieien to the — usual journalistic content, it frequently publishes Works of fiction, both original and translated from European languages and Arabic, and new Somali poetry as well as transcripts of oral poems. It carries bio- graphies of poets, playwrights, actors and musicians, serialized stories and plays, reviews of books and { articles on theoretical issues in literature, providing " a forum for lively literary polemics. Outside Somalia . ‘ copies of Xiddigta Oktoobar are available at the bibrary of Congress in Washington and in the private collection406, of the author of this paper; in both collections there are some gaps which it is hoped will be filled in due course. 2 an English translation of this novel appeared in 1982 under the title "Ignorance is the enemy of love" in the UNESCO Collection of Representative Works, Africa Series, (tondon 1982: Zed Press), It was translated by B. Ww. Andrzejewski. See Note 5 This bibliographical entry and those for F. A. 'GAAMUUTE', and FAARAX AXMED CALI and FAARAX AXMED CALI 'GAMUUTE' almost certainly refer to the same author. Between 21st October 1972 and 2nd July 1973 long vowels were not represented by double vowel letters in proper names in the Somali orthography. The current form of this name is Xuseen Shiikh Axmed 'Kaddare'. REFERENCES In the list below, names of the.authors are given in the order normally used in Somalia and are not inverted; quotes indicate nicknames. The abbreviation KO stands for xiddigta Oktoobar, and the figures which are placed between XO and an oblique stroke represent the consecutive year of publi- cation as marked on the pages of this newspaper. The next Group of numbers, before the colon, represent the issue number, and after the colon appear the page number or numbers. The letter T stands for "throughout" and indicates that the Page reference is the same in all the issues. Thus the entry XO 7/284-303:3T should be interpreted as"Xiddigta Oktoobar, ‘ith year of publication, issues from 284 to 303 inclusive, _ dn all of which the relevant text is on page 3". The sign + 407 indicates issues within the same year of publication. when there is an obvious mistake in the numbering of the original the assumed correct figure is given in parentheses. Axmed Cabdillaahi aw Guutaale oo guurkii garwaaqsaday Xasan, 1979 int XO 7/124-127:37, Axmed Cartan Xaange Qawdhan iyo Qoran, in: Horseed 5: 1967 2-12 & 622-16, Axmed F. Cali ‘Idaajaa' Danti-mooge maro duug ah horteed buu 1976a dhammaadaa, i KO 4/57:5+58:3+59-61: 27+64:2+73:2. Axmed F. Cali ‘Idaajaa' Dhooftaye maxaad keentay?, in: 1976b XO 4/98:24+99:24+101-103:27+104: 34107; 54108: 2+109:44110:24113:34114:44115: 24127+44127(128) 22. Axmed F. Cali 'Idaajaa' Waa inoo berri, in: x0 5(4)/319:5+ 1977 320:2, 4(5)/11:2, 5/12:5413:6+1 5+15:6. Axmed F. Cali ‘Idaajaa' Haddana way ku nogotay, in: XO 6/162= 1978 165:3T. Axmed F. Cali 'Idaajaa' Maanaa guursada?, in: XO 8/146-169: j 1980 374+171-174:3T. Axmed F, Cali 'Idaajaa' Sahan baas, in: XO 9/9-11:3T#17:3+ q 1981 Tessa Axmed Nuur Sheekh Cali Kala maadasho ma jirto, in: xO 7(6)/ 1979a 309:3, 7/2-4:37, Axmed Nuur Sheekh Cali = Waayo kala wacan, in: XO 7/214-218:39, 1979b Axmed Sh. Cali Xasan Kuftay oo kacday, in: XO 8/72-74:32, 1980 Axmed Xasan Cabdi ‘Carwo' Gobannimo, in: XO 5/50:2+59:5+61:4+ 19772 64:3+74:74+80:6. Axmed Xasan Cabdi ‘Carwo' Jihaad, in: XO 5/268:5+270: 7427224, 1977b 6/24:3+31:2438:3 & 4. "Boobe', 1978a Daadkii Togdheer, in: XO 6/179:3+180: 'Boobe', 1978b Asli, in: XO 6/194:3+195:3. C. J. Maxamed, 1978 Guusha kama dambeysta ah kaddib, in: XO 6/68:5+69:6475:5/ Cabdiraxmaan Maxamed Sheekadii dotoor Warsame, in: xo 4/ Cali, 1976 28:2+29:2 4 3. . Cabdiraxmaan xX. Tbraahim Adduun i khatal, in: xo 8/304-307 "Shiine’, 1981 (308) :3T.Cabdullaahi Cabdi Ciise ‘Cabdullaahi Hargeysa’ 1979/80 Cabdullaahi Faarax Cali ‘Taano! Cabdullaahi M. 1976 1981 Cabdullaahi ™. ‘Mursal-Yare! Mursal 1976 Xirsi jaxamed Cabdullaahi Maxamed Nuur YBkis', 1976 Cabdullaahi Sheek Xuseen *Hantiwadaag', n.d. (1981) Cali Maxamed Weheliye 1981 Cusmaan Caliguul *Cali-Guul', Cusmaan Caliguul *Cali-Guul', 1979 1981 Cusmaan Xaaji Maxamed 1977 FE. 1978 Rema A. Cali 'G: amuute! ‘Gaamute', 1977 Faadumo A. Cabdiraxmaan 1977 Paarax Axmed Cali, 1977 Faarax Axmed Cali ‘Gamuute'* , 19 Paarax Cali ' 1977 Paarax M. J. 1974 Paarax M. J. 1978 78 Gamuute' ‘Cawl! ‘Cawl! 4. M. Yaxya, 1979 Maxamed Cabdiraxmaan ‘Barre’ 1977 408 Is-ma-oge, in: XO 7/282-3+284-303:37, Oday yaa jeclaan kar XO 9/19: 3+22:3423234+25:3428: 3429 434 37:3T+42-44:3T+46-50:3T+52 T+58- 60:37+61-63:37466-69:31471-73:37477- 80:3T+82:3+84:3. Anigaa ku doortay, in: 4/74:4. Naftu waa magnow amase waa mahad ku noolowe, in: XO 4/139:3. Ummul raac, in: xO 3/417:4, Ayaandaran (Mogadishu). (Published in book form after having been serialized in XO 1977 and 1979.) Ma kuf oo ha kicin baa, in: XO 9/125- 128:37+131:3+132:3 and 4. Dulqaad iyo Deynley, in: KO 7/100:3+ 102:34106:34+107:3. Colaad iyo caashag, in: XO 8/81-85; 3T+87:3488:3. (This author also spelis his first name as 'Cismaan'.) Ma gamaaro caashaqu, in: XO 5/109:4. Niyad bira, in: x0 6/83:4.° Tolow maxay nogon?, in: x0 5/34: Indho caashaq wax ma arkaan, xo 5/51:6+52:4 & S. in: in: XO 5/26:6+28:7. XO 6/90:5+92:6. Ha iman lahaydaa, Aargudasho, in: Hadday sugi lahayd, in: 107:54+108:3. XO 5/105:2+ Agoondarro waa u nacab jacayl (Mogadishu) . Garbaduubkii gumeysiga (Mogadishu). Sharaf dumar, in: XO 7/198:34199:3- Hammi iyo caloolyow: Shankaroon nin Sugtayba saaqan, in: XO 5/132:3+133+ Maxamed Cabdiraxmaan ‘Barre', 1979 Maxamed Daahir 1975, Afrax Maxamed Daahir Afrax 1980 Maxamed Daahir Afrax n.d. (1981) Maxamed Saalax 1976 Maxamed Shariif Gali Xuseen ‘ujuuku', 1979 Maxamed Shariif Cali ‘Ujuuku', 1980 Maxamuud Abshir Maxamed 1981 Maxamuud Cartan Cali 1979 Muusa Xaaji, 1979 Muuse Babdullaahi Cabdi 1979 Muuse Maxamed Sh, Cabdi- waaxid, 1979 Saciid Cismaan Keenadiid 1978a Saciid Cismaan Keenadiid 1978b. Saciid Cismaan Keenadiid 1979 Shire Jaamac Axmed 1973a Shire Jaamac Axmed, 1973b 409 es 34140274+145244150:34152:7. ‘ Calat xumaaday iyo canaan waalid, in: XO 7/64-68:3T. Guur-ku-sheeg, in: XO 3/634(324): 3+626(326) :24632(332):2+338:2+343: 34376:5+380:3. Galti-macruuf, in: 3 & 7+16-20:3T+22-2 29-32:374+34-37:37+40-49:3T4+51-53:37. Maana Faay (Mogadishu). (Published in book form after having been serial- ized in XO in 1979.) XO 8/9-12:3T+13; T+28:3 & 4+ Geesinnimo ayaa guul leh, in: xo 4/270:7. Waad casuman tahay, 3T+208:3 & 7. in: XO 7/202-207: Qaab-laawe, in: XO 8/129:3+130:3+ 133-135:3T+136:3 @ 7. Qosol iyo qaniinyo, in: xO 9/103:3+ 104:3+107-110;374112:3+114-116:37., Xornimo horteed miyaan xabaal geli?, in: XO 7/130:3+131:3+167:3. Wadhaf iyo shimbiro war isu ma hayaan, — in: XO 7/134-147:3T. (This story is based on a play by Cismaan Aadan Xu- seen which had many performances in 1978-79. Muusa Xaaji, whose full name is Muuse Xaaji Saciid Muumin, wrote down the play verbatim. edited it and published it in 1980 (Nogadi-~ shu). Guur iyo gabadhnimo seeg, in: XO 7/ 1593+160:3+162:34+166:3+1 72: 34171 34184:34190:3 & 7. ‘i Saadaal sama leh, in: XO 7/86-88: 374+90-92:37+94:3. Fiiro miyi iyo tu magaalo, in: XO 6/135-142:3T. j XO 6/207-216: Nolosha magaalada, in: Shalay iyo maanta, in: XO 6/294-299%3) Halgankii nolosha (Mogadishu). Rooxaan (Mogadishu).Xaliimo Axmed Xandulle 1977 Xaliimo Sacdiyo X. Xasan 1978 Xusen Shikh Axmed 'Kaddare'® Y. M. Xayd, 1978 Y. M. Xayd, 1979 Yuusuf Axmed Xasan 1976 Yuusuf Axmed Xasan ‘Hero! ‘Hero 410 Wacadkii dhabta ahaa, in: XO 5/116:5+ 122:24128:5. Goor xun socod, in: XO 6/280:8+281:3. Soodaalkii 30ka maalmood, in: xo 1/ 24:3432:34+44:34+68:2+130:2+153:3, Gaal calool nugulaa!, in: xO 6/59:64 61:4462:5. Culeyska bulshada, in: XO 7/82-84:3T, Milgaha jacaylka, in: XO 4/63:3+69: 4475:2481:24+93:4+99 & 3+111:2+123:2 & 34+128:44+139:24+157 Wacdaraha jacaylka, in: XO 5/30:74+53: 6466: 74+72:5+78: 7489: 7+101:6+114:6+ 13223+150:3+156:6.