CHEMISTRY

Composition of Matter
Matter - Everything in

universe is composed of
matter
Matter is anything that

occupies space or has mass

Mass quantity of

matter an object has

Weight pull of gravity
on an object

Elements
Pure substances that cannot be broken

down chemically into simpler kinds of

matter
More than 100 elements (92 naturally
occurring)

90% of the mass of an

organism is composed of 4
elements (oxygen, carbon,
hydrogen and nitrogen)
Each element unique
chemical symbol
Consists of 1-2 letters
First letter is always

capitalized

Atoms
The simplest particle of an

element that retains all

the properties of that
element
Properties of atoms
determine the structure
and properties of the
matter they compose
Our understanding of the
structure of atoms based
on scientific models, not
observation

The Nucleus
Central core
Consists of positive

charged protons and

neutral neutrons
Positively charged
Contains most of the
mass of the atom

The Protons
All atoms of a given element have the

same number of protons

Number of protons called the atomic
number
Number of protons balanced by an equal
number of negatively charged electrons

The Neutrons
The number varies slightly among atoms

of the same element

Different number of neutrons produces
isotopes of the same element

Atomic Mass
Protons & neutrons are found in the nucleus of

an atom
Protons and neutrons each have a mass of 1
amu (atomic mass unit)
The atomic mass of an atom is found by adding
the number of protons & neutrons in an atom

The Electrons
Negatively charged high energy particles

with little or no mass

Travel at very high speeds at various
distances (energy levels) from the nucleus

Electrons in the same energy level are

approximately the same distance from the

nucleus
Outer energy levels have more energy than
inner levels
Each level holds only a certain number of
electrons

Energy Levels
Atoms have 7 energy levels
The levels are K (closest to the nucleus), L,

M, N, O, P, Q (furthest from the nucleus)

The K level can only hold 2 electrons
Levels L Q can hold 8 electrons (octet
rule)

Periodic Table
Elements are arranged by their atomic number

on the Periodic Table

The horizontal rows are called Periods & tell
the number of energy levels
Vertical groups are called Families & tell the
outermost number of electrons

Compounds
Most

elements do
not exist by
themselves
Readily
combine with
other
elements in a
predictable
fashion

A compound is a pure

substance made up of
atoms of two or more
elements

The proportion of atoms are

always fixed

Chemical formula shows

the kind and proportion of

atoms of each element
that occurs in a particular
compound

Molecules are the

simplest part of a
substance that
retains all of the
properties of the
substance and
exists in a free
state
Some molecules are

large and complex

Chemical Formulas
Subscript after a symbol tell the number of

atoms of each element

H20 has 2 atoms of hydrogen & 1 atom of
oxygen
Coefficients before a formula tell the number
of molecules
3O2 represents 3 molecules of oxygen or (3x2)
or 6 atoms of oxygen

The physical and

chemical
properties of a
compound differ
from the physical
and chemical
properties of the
individual
elements that
compose it

The tendency of

elements to combine and

form compounds depends
on the number and
arrangement of electrons
in their outermost energy
level
Atoms are most stable

when their outer most

energy level is filled

Most atoms are not stable

in their natural state

Tend to react (combine)
with other atoms in order
to become more stable
(undergo chemical reactions)
In chemical reactions bonds
are broken; atoms
rearranged and new
chemical bonds are formed
that store energy

Covalent Bonds
Formed when two atoms share one or

more pairs of electrons

Ionic Bonds
Some atoms become stable by losing or

gaining electrons
Atoms that lose electrons are called
positive ions

Atoms that gain electrons are called

negative ions
Because positive and negative electrical

charges attract each other ionic bonds

form

Energy and Matter

Energy

The ability to do work or cause

change
Occurs in various forms
Can be converted to another form
Forms important to biological systems
are chemical, thermal, electrical and
mechanical energy
Free energy is the energy in a
system that is available for work

States of Matter
Atoms are in constant motion
The rate at which atoms or molecules in

a substance move determines its state

Solid

Molecules tightly linked together in a

definite shape
Vibrate in place
Fixed volume and shape

Liquids

Molecules not as tightly linked as

a solid
Maintain fixed volume
Able to flow and conform to
shape of container

Gas
Molecules have little

or no attraction to each
other
Fill the volume of the

occupied container
Move most rapidly
To cause a substance to change

state, thermal energy (heat) must be

added to or removed from a substance

Energy and Chemical Reactions

Living things undergo

thousands of chemical
reactions as part of
the life process

Many are very complex

involving multistep sequences

called biochemical pathways
Chemical equations

represent chemical reactions

Reactants are shown on the

left side of the equation

Products are shown on the

right side

The number of each kind

of atom must be the

same on either side of
the arrow (equation must
be balanced)
Bonds may be broken or
made forming new
compounds

Energy Transfer
Much of the energy

organisms need is provided

by sugar (food)
Undergoes a series of
chemical reactions in
which energy is released
(cell respiration)
The net release of free
energy is called an
exergonic (exothermic)
reaction

Reactions that involve a

net absorption of free

energy are called
endergonic (endothermic)
reactions
Photosynthesis is an
example
Most reactions in living
organisms are endergonic;
therefore living organisms
require a constant source
of energy

Most chemical reactions require energy

to begin
The amount of energy needed to start

the reaction is called activation energy

Certain chemical

substances
(catalysts)
reduce the
amount of
activation
energy required
Biological

catalysts are
called enzymes

Enzymes are an important class of

catalysts in living organisms

Mostly protein
Thousands of different kinds
Each specific for a different chemical

reaction

Enzyme Structure
Enzymes work on

substances called
substrates
Substrates must fit into
a place on an enzyme
called the active site
Enzymes are reusable!

Reduction-Oxidation Reactions

Many of the chemical reactions that help

transfer energy in living organisms involve

the transfer of electrons (reductionoxidation = redox reactions)

Oxidation reaction reactant loses

electron(s) becoming more positive

Reduction reaction reactant gains

electron(s) becoming more negative

Solutions

Solutions
A solution is a

mixture in which 2
or more substances
are uniformly
distributed in
another substance

Solute is the

substance dissolved
in the solution
Particles may be

ions, atoms, or
molecules

Solvent is the

substance in which
the solute is
dissolved

Water is the

universal solvent

Solutions can be composed of

varying proportions of a given

solute in a given solvent --- vary
in concentration (measurement of
the amount of solute)
A saturated solution is one in
which no more solute can be
dissolved
Aqueous solution (water) are
universally important to living
things

Dissociation of water
Breaking apart of the water
molecule into two ions of
opposite charge (due to strong
attraction of oxygen atom of
one molecule for H atom of
another water molecule)
H2O H+ (hydrogen ion) +
OH- (hydroxide ion)
H+ + H2O H3O (hydronium
ion)

Acids and Bases

One of the most important aspects of a

living system is the degree of acidity or

alkalinity

Acids

Number of hydronium ions in solutions is

greater than the number of hydroxide

ions
HCl H+ + Cl-

Bases
Number of hydroxide ions in solution is

greater than the number of hydronium

ions
NaOH Na+ + OH-

pH Scale
logarithmic

scale for
comparing the
relative
concentrations
of hydronium
ions and
hydroxide ions
in a solution
ranges from 0
to 14

Each pH is 10X
stronger than next
e.g. ph 1 is 10 times
stronger than ph 2

the lower the pH the stronger the acid

the higher the pH the stronger the base
pH 7.0 is neutral

Buffers
Control of pH is very

important
Most enzymes function
only within a very narrow
pH
Control is accomplished
with buffers made by the
body
Buffers keep a neutral
pH (pH 7)

Buffers neutralize

small amounts of
either an acid or base
added to a solution
Complex buffering

systems maintain the

pH values of your
bodys many fluids at
normal and safe levels