Types of Rocks

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Types of Rocks
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Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
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Chapter : Geology
File Reference: AGE10702
For additional information on this subject, contact

J.L. McKissack on 874-2514
Geology
Types of Rocks
CONTENTS
PAGES
THE NATURE OF ROCKS ................................................................................................ 1

IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS ......................................................................................... 1
Texture........................................................................................................................................................1
Mineral Composition................................................................................................................................. 1
Rock Forming Minerals........................................................................................................................... 14
Feldspars.................................................................................................................................................. 14
Quartz ...................................................................................................................................................... 14
Mica......................................................................................................................................................... 15
Calcite...................................................................................................................................................... 15
Dolomite.................................................................................................................................................. 15
Gypsum ................................................................................................................................................... 15
Halite ....................................................................................................................................................... 15
TYPES OF ROCK............................................................................................................. 16
Igneous Rock........................................................................................................................................... 16
Sedimentary Rock ................................................................................................................................... 20
Clastic rock.............................................................................................................................................. 20
Metamorphic Rock .................................................................................................................................. 27
WORK AID....................................................................................................................... 35
GLOSSARY ...................................................................................................................... 49
Geology
Types of Rocks
THE NATURE OF ROCKS

Rocks are made by different geological processes. Most rocks can be described by their
texture and mineral composition. This type of study of rocks is called lithology. Lithology
comes from the Greek,lithos for stone, and logos for word.
IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS
Texture
Texture means the overall appearance which includes size, shape and how particles are put
together. Grains may lay flat and parallel to each other giving the rock a flaky texture. When
the texture looks like plates of rock laid upon each other, it is called a platy texture. The
minerals in the rock may be all together in one layer: the texture is then called layered and
platy. Rocks may be from fine to course grained.
Texture may identify the material that formed the rock such as rock fragments or crystals.
Different types of rock within a group will have other indicators which will be discussed
under rock types. Metamorphic rock, for example, may be foliated, or stacked like leaves in
layers. Other types of metamorphic rock may be granular and without shape. Some rocks
may look like chalk and be very soft. This type of rock is called "chalky". The appearance
and texture of a rock help to identify it. Figure 1 shows several rocks with different textures.
Figure 2 shows three major types of rock with different textures.
Mineral Composition
The type and the amount of mineral present in the rock is another way to identify a rock. A
mineral is a chemical element or compound which occurs naturally in the earth. Minerals
have a definite range of chemical composition and usually have a characteristic crystal form.
Living material is organic. Minerals are inorganic because they are not formed from living
material. Although rock and mineral are inorganic in nature, many such as coal and reefs, are
formed by organic processes.
Rocks are made of minerals. A rock is any naturally formed mass of mineral material. It will
usually have a variable chemical composition. A rock usually does not have a true crystal
form.
Geology
Types of Rocks
A few rocks contain only one mineral. Limestone for example, contains only calcite. Most
rocks contain two or more minerals such as granite which contains three minerals: feldspar,
quartz and mica.
Minerals present in a rock can indicate whether the rock was formed in the crust or in the
mantle of the earth. The crust minerals differ from those in the mantle. Temperature and
pressure also differ. Figure 3 shows the differences at various depths in the earth.
Geology
Types of Rocks
TEMPERATURE ( C )
0
500
1000
1500
2000
0
100
DEPTH ( km )
50
200
TEMPERATURE
RISE
PRESSURE, KILOBARS
100
300
400
TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE RISE AT GREATER
DEPTHS OF THE EARTH.
TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
FIGURE 3
Geology
Types of Rocks
Since one of the main ways of identifying rocks is by the minerals in the rock, some ways of
identifying the mineral are necessary. You can identify minerals by such characteristics as
hardness, streak, color, luster, cleavage, fracture, tenacity, specific gravity and crystal system.
Hardness
Hardness ranges from (1) for talc, which is the softest, to (10) for diamond which is the
hardest. It is determined by observing what material will leave a mark on other material when
scratched. Diamond (the hardest) will scratch all other material. Talc (the softest) will
scratch no other material. Quartz (7) will scratch minerals 1-6, but will not scratch minerals
8-10. See Figure 4.
A very simple hardness test may be conducted with common objects such as those shown in
Figure 4B. Each item will scratch a mineral of the indicated hardness. Your fingernail will
scratch talc (1), gypsum (2) but will not scratch calcite (3).
Streak
When a mineral is rubbed across a piece of unglazed tile, it may leave a line similar to one
made by a crayon. This line is composed of the powdered mineral. The color of this
powdered material is known as the, "Streak of the mineral." The unglazed tile is known as
the, "Streak Plate." The test is shown in Figure 5. It may be used to determine color.
Geology
Types of Rocks
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
NO.
A.
1 - TALC ( SOFTEST )
2 - GYPSUM
3 - CALCITE
4 - FLUORITE
5 - APATITE
6 - FELDSPAR
7 - QUARTZ
8 - TOPAZ
9 - CORUNDUM
10 - DIAMOND ( HARDEST )
HARDNESS SCALE ( ONE MINERAL SCRATCHES ANOTHER )
HARDNESS
ITEM
FINGERNAIL
ABOUT
2 1/2
COPPER PENNY
ABOUT
GLASS
5 - 5 1/2
KNIFE BLADE
5 1/2 - 6
STEEL FILE
6 1/2 - 7
B.
COMMON OBJECT ( SCRATCHES MINERAL )
HARDNESS TESTS ( SCRATCH )
FIGURE 4
Geology
Types of Rocks
Color
Color is usually the first thing that attracts attention. However, the color of the same minerals
may vary greatly from one specimen to another. Color is a valuable indicator only in
minerals with one color. Azurite is always blue, malachite is green, and pyrite is yellow.
When examining for color it is important to take three factors into consideration: whether the
light is natural or artificial, whether the surface is fresh or weathers, and whether the mineral
is wet or dry. The streak test also may help.
Luster
The appearance of the surface of a mineral in reflected light is called "luster." Some minerals
such as silver and gold shine like metal. These have a "metallic" luster. Others have a nonmetallic luster. Some of the most important non-metallic lusters are:
adamantine
brilliant glossy luster - typical of diamond;
vitreous
glassy - looks like glass- quartz or topaz;
resinous
a luster of resin;
greasy
like an oily surface;
pearly
like mother-of-pearl, such as talc;
silky
the luster of silk such as satin-spar gypsum;
dull
no luster, such as chalk and clay;
Other terms may be used to indicate degree of luster present:
shining
bright reflected light;
glistening
sparkling brightness or luster;
splendent
glossy brilliance or luster.
Geology
Types of Rocks
Cleavage
If a mineral crystal breaks in an irregular pattern it is called a fracture. If it breaks smoothly
along the crystal plane it shows, "cleavage." The cleavage planes and the angles between
them are constant for any given mineral. Minerals may have from one to six directions of
cleavage.
Three types of cleavage are shown in Figure 6 and examples of each are given.
Fracture
Many minerals have distinctive fractures. Their broken surface are clues to their identity.
Some of the more common are:
conchoidol
fracture resembles smooth curved surface of a shell;

common in chipped glass, quartz and obsidian;
splintery or fibrous
fibers or splinters along fractured surface - pectolite;
hackly
rough, jagged edges - copper and silver;
uneven
rough, irregular surface; common in many minerals;
even
smooth - magnesite; and,
earthy
like dirt - kralinite.
Figure 7 shows three types of fractures.
Geology
Types of Rocks
A. CUBIC
B. RHOMBIC
C. PERFECT BASAL
CLEAVAGE OF MINERAL
FIGURE 6
Geology
Types of Rocks
Tenacity
Tenacity of mineral refers to how the mineral resists tearing, crushing, bending or breaking.
Some common kinds of tenacity are:
brittle
- broken easily;
elastic
- returns to its original shape after bending such as sulfur;
flexible
- will bend, but will not return to its original shape such as
talc;
sectile
- can be cut with a knife such as gypsum;
malleable
- can be hammered into sheets such as gold or copper; and,
ductile
- can be drawn out to form wire such as gold, silver, or

copper.
Geology
Types of Rocks
Density or Weight
The difference in weight can be determined by holding two objects, one in each hand. It is
easy to tell that feathers weigh more than an equal volume of rock. Gold is the heaviest or
most dense mineral. It feels very heavy compared to most silicate minerals. The weight can
be translated into a unit weight ratio. The system used is to compare the weight of a mineral
to the weight of the same mass of water. This is called, "Specific Gravity". Specific gravity
is an indication of weight.
Crystal Systems
Most minerals are solidified from fluids. During the process, their atoms are arranged in
geometric patterns producing crystals. Six types of crystal systems have been identified, as
shown in Figure 8. The identification is based on axes. Axes are imaginary lines that run
through the middle of the crystal. Figure 9 illustrates axes. Systems vary with the number,
length and angles of axes. Each system yields crystals with a distinct shape. Within each
system, each mineral crystal grows in a special shape or habit. This habit can be modified by
temperature, pressure and impurities. Three crystal habits are shown in Figure 10.
10
Geology
Types of Rocks
a3
a2
a1
A. ISOMETRIC ( HALITE )
B. TETRAGONAL ( ZIRCON )
a 1 a3
a2
a1
c
b
a2
D. ORTHORHOMBIC ( STAUROLITE )
C. HEXAGONAL ( QUARTZ )
c
b
a
E. MONOCLINIC ( ORTHOCLASE )
F. MONOCLINIC ( ORTHOCLASE )
CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
FIGURE 8
11
Geology
Types of Rocks
CRYSTAL AXES. ( SHOWN AS INTERSECTING DASH LINES )
CRYSTAL AXES
FIGURE 9
12
Geology
Types of Rocks
A.
CUBIC
C. TABULAR
A. COLUMNAR
CRYSTAL HABIT
FIGURE 10
13
Geology
Types of Rocks
Rock Forming Minerals

There are over 2,000 different minerals in the earth's crust. Few are part of the most common
rocks. Minerals that make up most of the rocks are called rock-forming minerals. Most of
the rock-forming minerals are called silicates. Silicates are made of some type of metal
combined with oxygen and silicon. Other common rock-forming minerals are discussed
below. Figure 11 shows rock-forming minerals from nine groups.
Feldspars
Are the most important group of rock-forming minerals. Feldspar is very common and makes
up about 60% of the earth's crust. It is found in most igneous rock. The two main types of
feldspar are orthoclase and plagioclase.
Quartz
Quartz is one of the most widely distributed of all minerals. Quartz is found in many igneous
rock and some sedimentary and metamorphic rock. Quartz may occur with other minerals. It
may be the only mineral present as in pure sandstone and quartzite. Most sand is made up of
quartz fragments. Quartz is used in electronic equipment. Sandstone is used for building
stones. Quartz sands are used as abrasives and in making concrete and glass.
14
Geology
Types of Rocks
Mica
Mica is usually easy to identify. Mica typically occurs in paper-thin, shiny, elastic cleavage
plates. Mica, like feldspar, is an aluminum silicate. Only two types of mica are important as
rock-forming minerals: muscovite and biotite.
Calcite
Calcite is composed of calcium carbonate; it occurs in many sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks. Calcite is the principal ingredient of limestone. It occurs in crystalline, granular or
chalky masses. Calcite is also found as veins of minerals, in caves and springs and in shellfish. Calcite is the principal mineral in marble, and is used in making many products such as
cement, lime, plaster, ornamental stone, glass, paint and fertilizers.
Dolomite
Dolomite is common in sedimentary rock where it often occurs mixed with calcite. Dolomite
may be found in ore deposits. Dolomite is harder than calcite and is used for building stone.
Much marble consists of dolomite; it is used also to make cement.
Gypsum
Gypsum is a product of evaporation, is very common and occurs in deep beds. It is either
colorless or white and it is important to the manufacture of plasterboard, plaster of paris and
fertilizer. Gypsum is also used to make Portland cement and ornamental stone.
Halite
Halite is normally called rock salt. It is colorless to white. Halite is found in gulf regions
because it forms when seawater evaporates. Halite occurs in thick beds and salt domes which
have squeezed up through the earth's crust because of the density difference between the salt
and the surrounding parent rock.
15
Geology
Types of Rocks
Types of Rock
There are three types of rock, each formed from a different geological process. Geological
processes were covered in AGE 107.01. The three types of rock are igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic. Igneous rock is formed from molten rock. Sedimentary rock is formed
from small rock fragments that have been deposited in layers. Metamorphic rock is rock that
is changed due to high temperature and pressure in the earth. Figure 12 shows the three types
of rock and the three processes.
Igneous Rock
Igneous rock is formed of molten rock. The word Igneous means, "fire". The hot
temperatures deep within the earth melt the rock and minerals. This melted material is called
magma.
Magma and volcanos were covered also in module AGE 107.01. Figure 13 reviews where
volcanos erupt. There are two types of igneous rock: extrusive and intrusive.
Extrusive rock is igneous rock that spills out on the surface of the rock.
Intrusive rock is igneous rock that does not reach the surface. Intrusive rock intrudes or
forces its way into other rock formations.
16
Geology
Types of Rocks
Extrusive Igneous Rock

Extrusive igneous rock is also known as volcanic rock. Much of the extrusive igneous rock
comes from volcanic eruptions. It is formed when molten rock or magma flows out of the
earth onto the surface and cools. The rock becomes solid. The rock may also flow out of
great cracks in the earth.
Lava flows at different rates of speed. Some lava is thin and flows like water. Some is thick
and flows like syrup (See Figure 14.) Different thicknesses of lava will form different
patterns and shapes. Some of these different shapes are shown in Figure 15.
Igneous rock is constantly produced from magma. Magma is replenished by plate material
from convergent plate boundaries. Figure 16 show this concept.
Crystal - Magma loses gases and cools rapidly as it reaches the surface. A microcrystalline
texture results. The crystals can only be seen with a microscope. Crystals form when
minerals become solid. Minerals cool and become solid in sequence according to their
cooling rate. Different minerals cool faster than others. This process gives igneous rock an
interlocking crystalline texture. Figure 17 show how crystals form.
17
Geology
Types of Rocks
1.
FIRST MINERAL STARTS FORMING

IN MOLTEN MAGMA.
3.
2. SECOND MINERAL FORMING.
LAST MINERAL TO FORM FILLS ANY REMAINING SPACE.
CRYSTALS TAKING SHAPE

FIGURE 17
18
Geology
Types of Rocks
Obsidian - Some of these rocks cool so rapidly that no crystals occur. This produces volcanic
glass or obsidian. Figure 18 shows a picture of obsidian. The most common extrusive
igneous rock is basalt. Basalts are dark in color, heavy and fine-grained. Basalt rocks
commonly form shapes like columns, called columnar jointing. Columnar jointing is caused
when basalt rock splits, shrinks and pulls apart as it cools. Figure 19 illustrates columnar
jointing.
Pumice is another extrusive igneous rock that is found in many places. Pumice is lava that
becomes solid while steam and gases are still bubbling out. It is formed from a fast cooling,
frothy mass of lava and has many small holes like a sponge. Pumice is very light weight and
can float on water. Pumice is typically light colored. Pumice has the same chemicals as
obsidian and granite. Granite will be covered later under intrusive igneous rock.
Figure 20 shows pumice rock.
Intrusive Igneous Rock

Intrusive igneous rocks were formed underground from molten lava. This rock became solid
beneath the surface of the earth. Deeply buried intrusive rock cools more slowly than surface
rock. This slow cooling gives a coarse texture to the rock. Granite, shown in Figure 21, is an
example of course-textured, intrusive igneous rock. Some typical intrusive rocks are granite,
gabbro and diorite.
Granite is the most common and best known of the intrusive rocks. Granite always contains
the minerals quartz and feldspar, and is usually light in color. Granite, a hard, long-lasting
rock, is used in building and for monuments. Figure 22 shows granite
Diorite is made of rock minerals and is even textured. These intrusive igneous rocks are
shown in Figure 22 B.
Gabbro is a heavy, dark-colored igneous rock with a coarse grain. Gabbro has no quartz in it.
Gabbro is shown in Figure 22 C
Intrusive Rock Features

Intrusive rock masses take on the features of the void they fill. Some features are illustrated
in Figure 23. Batholith, dike, sill, laccolith and lopolith are examples of these features
19
Geology
Types of Rocks
Batholith is a deep, dome-shaped intrusive rock.

Dike is a wall of igneous rock such as dolorite pushed up through vertical cracks in other types
of rocks.
Sill is a sheet of igneous rock pushed into horizontal cracks between layers of other rock.
Laccolith is a lens-shaped intrusion that forms a dome and the dome's overlying rock.
Lopolith is a saucer-shaped intrusion between rock layers. Lopoliths can be hundreds of miles
in diameter.
Sedimentary Rock
The second type of rock is sedimentary rock. Erosion and deposition of sediment were
covered in AGE 107.01. The formation and types of sedimentary rocks are the subject of this
module. Figure 24 is a review of the lithification process and shows where sediments
accumulate. Rock fragments are picked up and transported by wind, water, and ice and
dropped at some point. These droppings are deposited in layers or strata called sediments
which become compacted and cemented together. This process, which forms sedimentary
rock, is known as lithification. Figure 25 shows where rock-forming fragments will settle or
deposit. Figure 26 shows the lithification process.
There are two types of sedimentary rock: clastic and chemical.
Clastic rock
Clastic rock is also known as detrital or fragmentary rock. Clastic sediments are rock
fragments which are made from other rocks by natural erosive processes. These fragments
are transported by mechanical means such as wind, water and ice. They are sometimes
known as mechanical sediments.
20
Geology
Types of Rocks
Some of the more common types of sediment can range in size and material. The three types
of material are mud, sand and gravel as shown in Figure 27.
The sizes range from clay size particles to boulders. Although we use the term clay as type of
material it is a "size" of particle in this case. Specifically, it is very small mud particles. This
size scale is called Wentworth scale. This is a simplification of the entire sizing process to
show the various sizes and materials involved in sedimentary processes. Figure 28 shows a
different scale used by some scientists. Calcareous shale has large amounts of lime and is
used for making cement. Oil shale is a brown or black shale used to make petroleum
products.
21
Geology
Types of Rocks
1. BEFORE COMPACTION
2. AFTER COMPACTION
3. BEFORE CEMENTATION
4. AFTER CEMENTATION
LEGEND :
CLAY PARTICLES
MINERAL PARTICLES
NATURAL CEMENT
THE LITHIFICATION PROCESS
FIGURE 26
22
Geology
Types of Rocks
Millimeters
Cobble ( - 6 to - 8 )
Pebble ( - 2 to - 6 )
GRAVEL
Boulder ( - 8 to - 12 )
Granule
Very coarse sand
Coarse sand
Medium sand
SAND
4096
1024
256
64
16
4
3.36
2.83
2.38
2.00
1.68
1.41
1.19
1.00
0.84
0.71
0.59
0.50
0.42
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.210
0.177
0.149
0.125
0.105
0.088
0.074
0.0625
0.053
0.044
0.037
0.031
0.0156
0.0078
0.0039
0.0020
0.00098
0.00049
0.00024
0.00012
0.00006
Wentworth Size Class
Fine sand
Very fine sand
Coarse silt
Medium silt
Fine silt
Very fine silt
MUD
(1 Kilometer )
Clay
WENTWORTH SIZE SCALE
SEDIMENT SIZE
FIGURE 27
23
Geology
Types of Rocks
Some of the most common types of clastic sedimentary rock are shale, sandstone and rudites.
Shale is the most common sedimentary rock. Shale is formed in silt, clay and "clay size"
particles of other minerals which harden into rock. Figure 29 illustrates shale. Shale is finegrained, thin-bedded and splits easily along bedding planes. Bedding planes are the dividing
line between layers of sedimentary rock. Carbonaceous shale is black because of the carbon
content caused by organic matter. Calcareous shale has large amounts of lime and is used for
making cement. Oil shale is a brown or black shale used to make petroleum products.
Sandstone is formed of cemented grains of sand and has a granular texture. Sandstone is the
second most common sedimentary rock. It contains quartz minerals and may contain sandsize particles of calcite, gypsum and rod. Sandstone is used in sandpaper and as a building
stone. Figure 30 shows four types of sandstone. Figure 31 shows mountains of sandstone.
Rudites means coarse. Rudites are coarse rock fragments mixed with finer particles. Rudites
are cemented together with natural concrete. These concreted rock are named conglomerates,
breccia, and tillite. Three rudites are shown in Figure 32.
Conglomerate means lumped together. Conglomerates are naturally concreted rocks. They are
made of rounded pebbles of many sizes and are found in front of mountains and in coastal
waters. The pebbles are rounded because they have been abraded by mechanical
transportation over long distances. The rounded pebbles are shown in Figure 32 A. Rock
size may vary from silt-size to boulder. Figure 33 shows types of conglomerates where
fragments and composition are different.
Breccia is another rudite. Breccia contains sharp pebbles because it has not been transported
and is found close to the original source. It is shown as B in Figure 32. Breccia often may be
found at the base of mountains.
Tillite is sometimes called a rudite. Most scientist now separate it from conglomerates and
breccias. Tillite is a poorly sorted, ice-eroded, ice-transported debris that becomes solid rock.
Many tillite clasts have flat faces caused by abrasion during movement. Tillite is formed from
sediment from glaciers. Tillite may have rounded edges. Figure 33 B shows a tillite clast or
conglomerate. Tillite will be covered more in another module.
24
Geology
Types of Rocks
Chemical Rock
Sediments from materials dissolved in water are called chemical sediments. Chemical
sediments form chemical sedimentary rock. There are two types of chemical sediments:
organic and inorganic. organic sediments are made from living things. Inorganic sediment is
made of non-living things.
Organic Rock
Organic sediment is formed with the help of plants and animals. Shell fish in the ocean ingest
calcium from the seawater. Calcium carbonate is used to make their shell. Dead shell fish
remain on the bottom of the ocean on beds of fine rock particles.
The combination of shell and rock particles make an organic sediment. Seaweed goes
through the same process. Figure 34 shows three types of organic rocks. Figure 34 A is coal
formed mainly from dead plants. Figure 34 B shows coquina, an example of rock formed
from dead seashells. Figure 34 C is chalk which also is formed from seashells. A microscope
must be used to see the seashells in chalk because they are so small.
Types of Organic Sedimentary Rock
Organic Limestone - Coquina and chalk shown in Figure 34 are types of organic limestone.
Organic limestone may form in shallow water offshore from reefs as shown in Figure 35.
Coal shown in Figure 36 A is an organic sedimentary formed from dead plants. The dead
plant material is compacted by the weight of the earth above. The increased pressure raises
the carbon content. Higher carbon content causes coal to burn hotter. Coal is different
because of the heat and pressure to which it was exposed during its formation. Even types of
coal differ because of the processes that formed them. Figure 36 shows processes that form
different types of coal.
Peat is a burnable substance but not considered coal. Peat is found near the surface and has
not gone through the process that forms coal. There are three basic types of coal, lignite,
bituminous and anthracite. The three are listed in the order of hardness and carbon content
and their burning ability. Anthracite burns the hottest because the carbon content is highest.
25
Geology
Types of Rocks
Inorganic Sedimentary Rocks

Salt domes form because of the difference in density between the salt and surrounding rock.
These are called evaporite intrusions and they are similar to lava intrusions. They have many
shapes but most form a dome shape. Evaporite minerals are less dense than most common
minerals found in sediment. This small density difference causes evaporites to rise slowly in
mound shaped masses. The upward movement stops when balance is attained. Sometime
they reach the surface of the earth. Some are organic.
Travertine and tufa are two types of inorganic limestone.
Travertine forms stalactites and

stalagmites in caves. These were discussed in module AGE 107.01. Tufa is another
inorganic limestone. Tufa is a spongy, porous limestone formed when calcite is deposited
around geysers and hot springs. Figure 37 shows a deposit of tufa around a hot spring.
Dolomite is also named magnesium limestone. Dolomite is formed when some of the calcium
in limestone is replaced by magnesium. Dolomite is also called an evaporite. Figure 38

shows dolomite and gypsum.
Evaporites are sedimentary rock that form from seawater. Evaporites include gypsum and rock
salt. Figure 39 shows rock salt under huge salt domes. Many times oil is found around these
salt domes.
Physical Characteristics of Sedimentary Rock

Sedimentary rocks have features which make them different from igneous or metamorphic
rock.
Bedding is the most common feature of sedimentary rock. Figure 40 shows bedding or strata.
The process is call stratification. Each bed is separated by a, "bedding plane". The bedding
plane is the top of one bed and the bottom of another. These beds are formed as sediment is
deposited. Changes in the deposition agent will affect the texture and thickness of the bed.
Wind decrease may cause thinner beds. A change in wind direction may cause a change in
color. Water flow decreasing or changing course also may cause changes. Figure 41 shows
two types of bedding.
Texture of rock is determined by size, shape and arrangement of sedimentary material.
Conglomerates have course textures. Limestone has a fine texture.
26
Geology
Types of Rocks
Ripple Marks are formed by wind or water in sand dunes or on river bottoms and beaches.
They give information about how the rock was deposited and formed. Figure 42 is an
example of ripple marks in rock.
Mud Cracks form on dry lakes and stream beds. These mud cracks in sedimentary rock give
informations about how the rock was formed. Figure 43 is an example of mud cracks.
Concretions are found in shale, limestone and sandstone. Concretions are harder than the rock
in which they are contained. They are formed around fossils and other matter and may vary
in size. Rock may erode and leave the harder concretions behind. Figure 44 illustrates
concretions.
Geodes are concretions that are hollow and are sometime lined with crystals. They are most
common in limestone. Figure 45 illustrates a geode.

Fossils are remains or evidence of ancient plants and animals preserved in the earth's crust.
They are the preserved hard parts of the living matter. Most fossils are found in sedimentary
rock. They are not preserved in hot molten lava. Metamorphic rock has changed so much
during formation that fossils have been destroyed. Figure 46 illustrates a fossil.
Sedimentary Facies The term facies describes how a particular rock will be different from the
other rock deposited at the same time. Figure 47 illustrates this concept. A facies change
occurs when there is a lateral or vertical change in the type of rock or fossil present in the
deposits of the same age. This change is caused by a change in the environment such as the
depth of the water or tidal action.
Metamorphic Rock
The third type of rock is metamorphic rock. Metamorphic signifies change. Metamorphic
rocks are igneous or sedimentary rock that have been changed by heat, pressure and fluids.
The change causes the rock to be more compact and more crystalline. Crystalline means a
more defined internal structure. These rock have been buried deep in the earth and the high
temperature and pressure have changed them. When subjected to these changes, limestone
becomes marble; and sandstone, quartzite.
27
Geology
Types of Rocks
Agents of Metamorphism
There are three main agents of metamorphism: heat, pressure and chemically- active fluids.
Heat is probably the most important agent of metamorphism.
Heat is sometimes present

along with pressure and chemical fluids. Metamorphism occurs within a temperature range of
100 to 800 degrees centigrade.
Pressure is caused mainly by the weight of the rock on top of the rock undergoing change.
Figure 48 shows how heat and pressure help the rock forming process. High pressure reduces
space in the parent rock minerals. This process produces re-crystallization which forms new
minerals. Different pressures within the same rock mass can cause a change in texture.
Chemically-Active Fluid. Heated water solutions in magma may react with the rock around it to
change the chemicals. This process may produce new minerals from outside sources.
Chemically-active fluids are responsible for the formation of most heavy mineral deposits
such as copper, zinc, lead, gold and silver. The process is called metasomatism. Invading or
external fluids introduce new elements that change the rock's chemical composition. This
happens many times at shear boundaries.
28
Geology
Types of Rocks
MILES
5
C
10
15
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
TEMPERATURE C
A. SEDIMENTARY ROCK
B. CONTACT METAMORPHISM
C. BURIAL METAMORPHISM
D. REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
E. IGNEOUS ROCK
HEAT AND PRESSURE
FIGURE 48
29
Geology
Types of Rocks
Types of Metamorphism
This module will cover only the three most important types of metamorphism: contact,
regional and burial.
Contact Metamorphism is the process whereby country rock (which surrounds igneous rock) is
intruded by igneous rock. Contact metamorphism causes great changes. Limestone intruded
by hot magma may be changed for a few inches in the contact area or may be changed for
many miles. Figure 49 shows this process. Many of the more simple metamorphic rocks are
found in the baked zone of the altered country rock. The baked zone is the immediate area
around the igneous intrusion.
Physical changes are produced when magmatic fluid intrudes country rock minerals. This
process often causes recrystallization. This process also produces new or larger minerals and
changes the texture of the rock. Magnetic fluids often bring in new elements and compounds
which will change the chemical composition of the original rock or form new minerals.
Regional Metamorphism occurs during strong structural deformation such as mountain forming
earth movements. Earth movements are covered in AGE 107.01. The great pressures
produced as rock layers are folded, fractured and crumbled to cause large areas of complex
metamorphic changes. Pressure may be so great that things like fossils, strata and mineral
grain are destroyed. The rock produced is usually much harder. Figure 50 A shows the zones
of metamorphism.
Burial Metamorphism.
Figure 50 B shows how temperature, pressure and depths affect

metamorphism, and the products formed. The typical igneous intrusions temperature Zone 1
produce Hornfels while Zone 2 (slow burial) produces greenschist and Zone 3 (rapid burial)
produces blueshist. This process also affects interlayered volcanic rock. Figure 50 shows this
process.
30
Geology
Types of Rocks
Texture of Metamorphic Rock
There are two types of metamorphic rock textures: foliated and nonfoliated.
Foliated Metamorphic Rock
Foliated metamorphic rock are metamorphic rocks that have been flattened, widened and
arranged in parallel layers. Figure 51 shows an example of the concept of foliation. Figure
52 is an example of foliated rock. There are four types of foliation: slaty, phyllitic, schistose
and gneissic. Some rocks are named from these textures.
Slate is made from shale. Slate has very fine crystals that cannot be seen with the unaided eye.
It does not show banding, and splits easily into thin, even slabs. Slate occurs in colors of
grey, black, green and red. Slate is used in roofing, chalk boards and sidewalks. Rock that
resemble slate are known as slaty. Figure 53 A shows the texture of slate
Phyllite are more fine-grained than schists and coarser than slate. It has a silky sheen when
broken which is caused by fine grains of mica. Most phyllite are formed in shale with
pressure higher than slate. The pressure is not as high as the pressure required to produce
schists. Figure 53 B shows the texture of phyllite.
Schist is a medium course grained rock. It is formed under great pressure in parallel layers
and will split easily along the layers. It is usually formed from slate. Fine grained igneous
rock may also form schist. If is named for its primary mineral, ie, mica or chlorite Schist.
Schist is shown in Figure 53 C
Gneiss is pronounced as "nice". Rock gneiss is a coarse-grained, highly metamorphosed and
foliated rock with alternating bands of minerals. The bands are alternately light and dark.
The bands are folded and irregular. Some gneiss resembles schist but does not split easily.
Bonding may be because of the original sediment rock bedding. Gneiss undergoes intense
regional metamorphism.
Figure 54 A shows the texture of gneiss. Figure 54 B shows the bonding design.
31
Geology
Types of Rocks
1. MICA FLAKES HAPHAZARDLY ARRANGED IN SHALE
2. THE SAME FLAKES FOLIATED - ALIGNED BY DIRECTED PRESSURE - IN

SLATE, WHICH SPLITS ALONG ITS FOLIATION PLANES.
FOLIATION
FIGURE 51
32
Geology
Types of Rocks
Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks have a granular texture and do not have foliation or layers.
Some nonfoliated rocks resemble igneous rocks except in their mineral composition. Three
types of nonfoliated rocks are: quartzite, marble and anthracite.
Quartzite is formed from quartz sandstone. See Figure 55 A. It is composed of a crystalline
mass of tightly cemented sand grains and is one of the most resistant rocks. Quartzite is white
when formed from pure quartz sand; red, yellow or brown, when it contains impurities.
Marble is a course-grained crystalline that contains calcium carbonate.
It is formed from
limestone or dolomite. Since it is formed by recrystallization, all evidence of fossils or
stratification is destroyed. Marble is white when pure, but may have impurities. See Figure
55 B.
Anthracite is hard coal. Soft, bituminous coal when compacted, folded and heated, becomes
anthracite, or hard coal. Anthracite coal has a high, fixed amount of carbon, since most
volatile materials are eliminated during the carbonization process.
33
Geology
Types of Rocks
START
MAGMA
Me
ltin
g
MET
IGN
EO
ROC US
KS
N
IO
AT
Z
I
LL
TA
S
Y
CR
AMO
RPH
ISM
Weathering
IC
RPH
AMO S
K
ROC
MET
n
sio on
Ero ortati
nsp
Tra
Y
AR
T
N
ME KS
DI OC
E
R
S
SE
DI
M
EN
TS
Lithification
CYCLE MAY BE INTERUPTED
ROCK CYCLE
FIGURE 57
34
Geology
Types of Rocks
WORK AID
TABLE 1 IGNEOUS ROCK IDENTIFICATION CHART
COLUMN 1
COLUMN 2 COLUMN 3
COLUMN 4
COLUMN 5
COLUMN 6
_____________________________________________________________
Minerals
__________________________________
Texture
Quartz
Feldspar
Other
Rock
Name
Helpful
Distinguishing
Features
_____________________________________________________________
Coarse-grained
Grains uniform in
size
Abundant
Abundant.
Potassium
feldspar exceeds
plagioclase
Muscovite and/or
biotite common
Hornblende sometimes present
Granite
Quartz and feldspar predominant.

Light-colored rock, commonly
pink, white shades of gray. Make sure
potassium-feldspar exceeds plagioclase.
Easily confused with granodiorite
Coarse-grained
Grains uniform in
size
Abundant
Abundant.
Plagioclase
exceeds potassium feldspar
Muscovite and/or
biotite common.
Hornblende sometimes present
Grandiorite
Quartz and feldspar predominant

Shades of gray
Coarse-grained
Grains uniform in
size
Sparse or
Absent
Abundant.
Plagioclase
Potassiumfeldspar rare or
absent
Biotite and/or
hornblende common.
Pyroxene sometimes
present
Diorite
About equal amounts of light and dark

colored minerals. A darker rock than
grandiorite . Absence or sparsity of
quartz diagnostic
Coarse-grained
Grains uniform in
size
Sparse or
Absent
Abundant.
Potassiumfeldspar exceeds
plagioclase
Biotite, hornblende,
nepheline may be .
present
Syenite
Commonly pink or red. Distinguish

from granite by quartz content
Coarse-grained
Grains uniform in
size
Absent
Common.
plagioclase
only
Pyroxene abundant.
Olivine may be present
Gabbro
Dark minerals exceed light. A dark

colored rock. Distinguish from
peridotite and pyroxenite by
common plagioclase
Coarse-grained
Grains uniform in
size
Absent
Plagioclase
is abundant
Pyroxene and olivine

minor constituents
Anorthosite
A light-colored rock consisting very

largely of plagioclase
Coarse-grained
Grains uniform in
size
Absent
Rare or absent
Pyroxene abundant.
Pyroxenite
A dark-colored rock consisting

very largely of pyroxenes
Coarse-grained
Grains uniform in
size
Absent
Rare or absent
Olivine abundant.
Pyroxene common to
abundant
Peridotite
Dark-colored rock. Olivine is

commonly a clear green and grain
rounded
Medium-grained
Grains uniform in
size
Rare or
absent
Abundant.
Plagioclase
only
Pyroxene common.
Diabase
A common medium-grained, darkgray-colored rock. Look for

pyroxene and plagioclase.
Distinguish from basalt by grain
size and lack of extrust volcanic
features. Often called trap rock.
35
Geology
Types of Rocks
TABLE 1 IGNEOUS ROCK IDENTIFICATION CHART (Cont'd)

COLUMN 1
COLUMN 2 COLUMN 3
COLUMN 4
COLUMN 5
COLUMN 6
_____________________________________________________________
Minerals
__________________________________
Texture
Quartz
Feldspar
Other
Helpful
Distinguishing
Features
Rock
Name
_____________________________________________________________
Fine-grained
Grains uniform in
size
Abundant
Hard to see
because of
grain size
Abundant.
Potassiumfeldspar exceeds
plagioclase
Hornblende,
biotite may be
present
Rhyolite
A light-colored volcanic rock.

White, gray, red, purple. May contain
some glass. Often shows signs of
flowage
Fine-grained
Grains uniform in
size
Sparse or
Absent
Abundant.
Plagioclase
exceeds
potassiumfeldspar
Pyroxene,
hornblende, biotite
may be present
Andersite
A dark colored volcanic rock. Shades

of gray, brown, green purple. Glass is
not common
Fine-grained
Grains uniform in
size
Absent
Abundant.
Plagioclase
only
Pyroxene, common.
Olivine often present
Basalt
A common dark-colored volcanic rock.

No quartz present. Often rings like a
bell when struck with a hammer
Glassy
---
-----
-------
Obsidian
A dense glass. May contain some

vesicles
Glassy
---
-------
Pumice
A glassy froth
A few feldspar
crystals may
be present
NOTE TO USE THIS TABLE

1.
Determine Texture. Find Texture under Column 1 in the Chart.
2.
Use Column 2 to determine the quantity of quartz present.
3.
Use Column 3 to determine which feldspars are present.
4.
Use Column 4 to determine if any other minerals are present.
5.
This will determine the type of igneous rock specified in Column 5.
6.
This can be varified by picture recognition in Table 4, Rock Picture Identification Chart.
Compare the rock to the picture.
36
Geology
Types of Rocks
TABLE 2 SEDIMENTARY ROCK IDENTIFICATION CHART
COLUMN 1
COLUMN 2
COLUMN 3
_____________________________________________________________
Rock Name
Composition
Critical Tests
________________________________________________________________________
1. Clastic Sedimentary Rock:
Conglomerate
Cemented particles, somewhat rounded, considerable percentage of pebble size
Large particles more than 2 mm in diameter; smaller

particles and binding cement in interstices
Breccia
Fragments conspicuously angular, with binding cement
Large particles of pebble size or larger
Sandstone
Rounded fragments of sand size, 0.02 to 2 mm; binding cement
Grains commonly quartz, but other minerals qualify

in general classification
Arkose
Important percentage of feldspar grains, sand size or

larger
Essential that feldspar grains make 25 percent or

more of rock; some may be larger than sand size
Graywacke
Fragments of quartz, feldspar, rock fragments of any

kind, with considerable clay
Poor assortment of several kinds of ingredients, with

considerable clay in matrix
Siltstone
Chiefly silt particles, some clay
Surface is slightly gritty to feel
Shale
Chiefly clay minerals
Surface has smooth feel, no grit apparent
2. Chemical Sedimentary Rock

Limestone
Calcite; may be even-grained and crystalline
Easily scratched with knife; effervesces in cold dilute

hydrochloric acid
Dolostone
Dolomite; may be even-grained and crystalline
Harder than limestone, softer than steel; requires

scratching or powdering for effervescence in cold
dilute hydrochloric acid
NOTE TO USE THIS CHART:

1.
Look at the composition of the rock and compare it to the description in column 2.
2.
Perform the Critical Test in column 3.
3.
Compare rock with picture in Table 4.
37
Geology
Types of Rocks
TABLE 3 METAMORPHIC ROCK IDENTIFICATION CHART

COLUMN 1
COLUMN 2
_____________________________________________________________
Rock Name
Distinguishing Characteristics
_____________________________________________________________
1.Foliated Metamorphic Rock
Slate
Cleaves into thin, plane plates that have considerable luster; commonly the sedimentary layers of parent rock
make lines on plates; thin slabs ring when they are tapped sharply
Phyllite
Surfaces of plates highly lustrous; plates commonly wrinkled or sharply bent; grains of ga
rnets and other
minerals on some plates
Schist
Well foliated, with visible flaky or elongate minerals (mia, chlorite,hornblende); quartz a prominent
ingredient; grains of garnet and other accessory minerals common; foliae may be wrinkled
Gneiss
Generally coarse-grained, with imperfect but conspicuous foliation; lenses and layers differ in mineral
composition; feldspar, quartz, and mica are common ingredients
2. Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rock

Quartzite
Consists wholly of quartz sand cemented with quartz;outlines of sand grains show on broken surfaces; the
breaks passing through the grains; wide range in shades of color
Marble
Wholly crystallized limestone or dolostone; grain varies from coarse to fine responds to hydrochloric acid test,
as do calcite and dolomite; accessory minerals have developed from impurities in original rock
Granofels
Coarse-grained rock, commonly with the composition of a granite, but without mineral layering
Hornfels
Hard, massive, fine-grained rock, commonly with scattered grains or crystals of garnet, andalusite, staurolite, or
other minerals that are common in zones of contact metamorphism
NOTE TO USE THIS CHART:

1.
Compare the rock with distinguishing characteristics in Column 2.
2.
Compare the selected rock with the picture in Table 4
38
Geology
Types of Rocks
TABLE 4 - ROCK IDENTIFICATION PICTURE CHART

1.
Igneous rock
2.
Granite
3.
Diorite
Well defined crystals
NOTE: Pictures are magnified.
39
Geology
Types of Rocks
TABLE 4 - ROCK IDENTIFICATION PICTURE CHART (Cont'd)

4.
Gabbro
5.
Obsidian
6.
Pumice
40
Geology
Types of Rocks

7.
Sedimentary Rock
8.
Sandstone
9.
Conglomerate
Crystals worn by weathering and erosion.
41
Geology
Types of Rocks

10. Breccia
11. Limestone
a. Chalk (Powdery Limestone)
b. Coquina (Shelly Limestone)
42
Geology
Types of Rocks

12. Dolomite
13. Metamorphic Rock
Crystals aligned under stress
14. Slate
43
Geology
Types of Rocks

15. Phyllite
16. Schist
17. Gneiss
44
Geology
Types of Rocks

18. Quartzite
19. Marble
45
Geology
Types of Rocks
TABLE 5
A.
This Work Aid is used to identify minerals in rocks.
Hardness Scale
(One mineral scratches another)
No.1-Talc (Softest)
No.2-Gypsum
No.3-Calcite
No.4-Fluorite
No.5-Apatite
No.6-Feldspar
No.7-Quartz
No.8-Topaz
No.9-Corundum
No.10-Diamond (hardest)
B.
Common item (scratches mineral)

ITEM
HARDNESS
Fingernail
About 2 1/2
Copper penny
About 3
Glass
5-5 1/2
Knife blade
5 1/2-6
Steel file
6 1/2-7
46
Geology
Types of Rocks
TABLE 6-CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS

This Work Aid is used to identify minerals in rock
LUSTER:
Adamantine
brilliant glossy luster - typical of diamond.
Vitreous
glassy, looks like glass quartz or topaz.
Resinous
a luster of resin.
Greasy
like an oily surface.
Pearly
like mother-of-pearl such as talc.
Silky
the luster of silk, such as satin-spar gypsum.
Dull
no luster, such as chalk and clay.
Other terms may be used to indicate degree of luster:
Shining
bright reflected light.
Glistening
sparkling brightness or luster.
Splendent
glassy brilliance or luster.
47
Geology
Types of Rocks
TABLE 6-CHARACTARISTICS OF MINERALS (Cont'd)

Tenacity
Tenacity of mineral is how it resists tearing, crushing, bending or breaking. Some common
kinds of tenacity are:
Brittle
broken easily.
Elastic
Returns to its original shape after bending,-sulfur
Flexible
Will bend but will not return to original shape,-Talc
Sectile
Can be cut with a knife, -gypsum
Malleable
Can be hammered into sheets, - gold, copper.
Ductile
Can be drawn out to form wire, - gold, silver and copper.
Fracture
Many minerals fracture in a distinct way. Their broken surfaces are clues to their identity.
Some of the more common are:
Conchoidal
fracture resembles smooth curved surface of a shell.

Common in chipped glass, quartz and obsidian.
Splintery or fibrous
fibers or splinters along fractured surface, - ectolite.
Hackly
rough jagged edges, - copper and silver.
Uneven
rough irregular surface, common in many minerals.
Even
smooth, - magnesite
Earthy
like dirt - kralinite.
48
Geology
Types of Rocks
GLOSSARY
agent
Something that produces an effect; the cause of an event.
basalt
A common, extrusive, igneous rock from lava; heavy and dark

colored.
batholith
A large intrusive magma mass more than 40 sq. mi. of surface

and no known floor.
bedding
The arrangement of sedimentary rock in layers.
bedding plane
The bottom of one layer of sedimentary rock and the top of the
next layer. It separates each layer from the next layer.
biotite
1. A widely distributed mica mineral

2. An igneous rock formed almost entirely of the mineral biotite.
breccia
A coursed-grain clastic rock composed of angular broken rock

fragments.
calcareous
A rock that contains 50% or more calcium carbonate.
calcite
A common rock forming minerals found in limestone.
calcium carbonate
A chemical compound formed in nature as calcite and agonite.
carbonaceous
A rock containing large amounts of organic material.
carbonization
The conversion of organic matter to carbon; driving out other

elements by heat, pressure, or natural processes.
chalk
A soft white rock of limestone.
clastic rock
Fragment of other rock transported long distances from place of

origin.
49
Geology
Types of Rocks
coal
A combustible rock containing high amounts of carbon.
columnar jointing
The effect of vertical shrinking and splitting on basalt rock.
compound
The chemical joining of two or more elements.
carbonization
The conversion of organic matter to carbon; driving out other

elements by heat, pressure, or natural processes.
contact metamorphism
Change in rocks lying near an igneous intrusion.
coquina
A process limestone made from shells and shell fragments.
crystal
Smooth, angular shapes in rock.
crystalline
Composed of crystals.
dike
An igneous instrusion that cuts across the bed of country rock.
diorite
An angular, crystalline igneous rock.
dolomite
1
A common rock forming mineral
2
A sedimentary rock made of 50% or more of the mineral
dolomite.
element
A substance that can not be further broken down by chemicals.
evaporite
A sedimentary rock made of mineral produced from salt water

through evaporation.
extrusive rock
Igneous rock that comes to the surface of the earth.
faceted
A rock that has been ground flat on one or more sides by natural
agents such as glaciers.
50
Geology
Types of Rocks
facies
1
The appearance of rock units reflecting the conditions of
its origin.
2
Being able to distinguish between a specific rock and
other rock from nearby areas.
feldspar
The most abundant, rock-forming mineral.
foliated
Arrangement of rock grains in layers or planes.
gabbro
A granular, igneous rock
gneiss
A foliated metamorphic rock like granite.
granite
A very hard, natural igneous rock of quartz crystalline structure
gypsum
A widely distributed mineral of calcium sulfate used in soil

building, plaster board and plaster of paris.
halite
A natural salt called rock salt.
igneous
A type of magmatic rock.
inorganic
Not made of plant or animal material.
intrusion
A forcible entry of another rock, into or between, other rock.
intrusive rock
Igneous rock that does not reach the surface of the earth but fills
the cracks under the earth's crust.
laccolith
An igneous intrusion with a lens-shaped top. It is circular with a

diameter of about five miles.
limestone
A sedimentary calcium carbonate rock group which is made

mostly of the mineral calcite.
lithification
The conversion of sediment to rock.
51
Geology
Types of Rocks
lithology
Study of rocks using texture and mineral composition.
lopolith
A saucer-shaped igneous intrusion up to 100 miles across.
magmatic fluid
Fluid produced in magma. It may be seawater trapped at the

time of formation of the magma.
magnesius
Containing magnesium.
metamorphic
Change due to heat, pressure and fluids.
metamsomatism
Change in the chemical composition and texture of rock.
mica
Rock forming mineral consisting of crystals that split easily.
micro crystalline
Crystals that cannot be seen by the unaided human eye.
mineral
Chemical elements which occur naturally in the earth's crust.
mus covite
A mineral of the mica group found commonly in gneiss and

schist.
obsidian
An extrusive igneous rock formed by the rapid cooling of

magma where no crystals form this gives a glass-like rock.
organic
Living or previously living animal and plant material.
ortho clase
A rock forming mineral of the alkali feldspar group found in

granite.
parent rock
The rock from which sediment or other rocks are made.
phyllite
1. A general term for minerals with a layered crystalline

structures.
2. A metamorphic rock.
phyllitic
Rocks that appear similar to phyllite.
plagioclase
A common, rock-forming mineral.
52
Geology
Types of Rocks
plane
A flat or level surface.
platy
Elements of rock in layers like stocks of plates.
pumice
A lightweight, extrusive, igneous rock with so many pores or air

holes that it will float.
quartz
A important rock-forming mineral of crystalline silica.
quartzite
A hard sandstone of quartz grains solidly cemented together.
recrystallization
The formation of new crystalline mineral grains in a rock.
regional metamorphism
Changes in rock over a large area of the earth.
rudite
Consolidated sedimentary rock of rounded or angular fragments

larger than sand.
sandstone
A medium-grained clastic sedimentary rock of many round or

angular rock fragments cemented together with quartz sand and
clay.
schist
A strongly foliated crystalline rock formed by metamorphism

that splits easily into flakes or slabs.
schistose
Resembling schist.
sedimentary
Rock made from sediment through a natural process.
shale
A fine-grained, sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation of

clay, silt or mud.
silicates
Insoluble metal salts that combine oxygen and silicon.

largest class of mineral used in building materials.
sill
A flat, igneous intrusion that parallels the layer of the

surrounding rock.
The
53
Geology
Types of Rocks
slate
A compact, fine-grained metamorphic rock that splits easily into

thin plates.
slaty
Resembles slate in texture and characteristics will split easily.
stratification
The process of depositing sediment in layers.
textures
How rock appears in size and shape, and how particles are joined
together.
till
Unsorted glacial debris.
tillite
A consolidated sedimentary rock formed from glacial till
travertine
A mineral consisting of a massive, layered calcium carbonate

formed by deposition of hot spring waters.
54

Types of Rocks

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THE NATURE OF ROCKS ................................................................................................ 1

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THE NATURE OF ROCKS

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TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

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HARDNESS SCALE ( ONE MINERAL SCRATCHES ANOTHER )

COMMON OBJECT ( SCRATCHES MINERAL )

HARDNESS TESTS ( SCRATCH )

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brilliant glossy luster - typical of diamond;

glassy - looks like glass- quartz or topaz;

like an oily surface;

like mother-of-pearl, such as talc;

the luster of silk such as satin-spar gypsum;

no luster, such as chalk and clay;

Other terms may be used to indicate degree of luster present:

bright reflected light;

sparkling brightness or luster;

glossy brilliance or luster.

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fracture resembles smooth curved surface of a shell;

fibers or splinters along fractured surface - pectolite;

rough, jagged edges - copper and silver;

rough, irregular surface; common in many minerals;

smooth - magnesite; and,

like dirt - kralinite.

Figure 7 shows three types of fractures.

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- returns to its original shape after bending such as sulfur;

- can be cut with a knife such as gypsum;

- can be hammered into sheets such as gold or copper; and,

- can be drawn out to form wire such as gold, silver, or

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CRYSTAL AXES. ( SHOWN AS INTERSECTING DASH LINES )

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Rock Forming Minerals

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Extrusive Igneous Rock

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FIRST MINERAL STARTS FORMING

2. SECOND MINERAL FORMING.

LAST MINERAL TO FORM FILLS ANY REMAINING SPACE.

CRYSTALS TAKING SHAPE

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Intrusive Igneous Rock

Gabbro is shown in Figure 22 C

Intrusive Rock Features

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Batholith is a deep, dome-shaped intrusive rock.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

THE LITHIFICATION PROCESS