Chapter16

FIREARMS,TOOLMARKS,
ANDOTHERIMPRESSIONS

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

161

Introduction
Structuralvariationsandirregularitiescaused
byscratches,nicks,breaks,andwearmay
permitthecriminalisttorelate:
Abullettoagun
Ascratchorabrasionmarktoasingletool
Atiretracktoaparticularautomobile
Individualization,agoalofinallareasof
criminalistics,frequentlybecomesanattainable
realityinfirearmandtoolmarkexamination.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

162

GunBarrelMarkings
Theinnersurfaceofthebarrelofagunleaves
itsmarkingsonabulletpassingthroughit.
Thesemarkingsarepeculiartoeachgun.
Thegunbarrelisproducedfromasolidbarof
steelthathasbeenhollowedoutbydrilling.
Themicroscopicdrillmarksleftonthebarrels
innersurfacearerandomlyirregularandserve
toimpartauniquenesstoeachbarrel.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

163

GunBarrelMarkings
Themanufactureofabarrelalsorequires
impressingitsinnersurfacewithspiral
grooves,astepknownasrifling.
Thesurfacesoftheoriginalboreremaining
betweenthegroovesarecalledlands.
Thegroovesservetoguideafiredbullet
throughthebarrel,impartingarapidspinto
insureaccuracy.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

164

GunBarrelMarkings
Thediameterofthegunbarrel,measured
betweenoppositelands,isknownascaliber.
Onceamanufacturerchoosesariflingprocess,
theclasscharacteristicsoftheweaponsbarrel
willremainconsistent,eachwillhavethesame
numberoflandsandgrooves,withthesame
approximatewidthanddirectionoftwist.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

165

LandsandGrooves
Land

Diameter
Caliber
Groove

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

166

Striations
Striations,whicharefinelinesfoundinthe
interiorofthebarrel,areimpressedintothe
metalasthenegativesofminuteimperfections
foundontheriflingcutterssurface,ortheyare
producedbyminutechipsofsteelpushed
againstthebarrelsinnersurfacebyamoving
broachcutter.
Thesestriationsformtheindividual
characteristicsofthebarrel.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

167

Striations
Itistheinnersurfaceofthebarrelofagunthat
leavesitsstriationmarkingsonabulletpassing
throughit.

CourtesyofC.Fanning

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

168

BulletExamination
Notworifledbarrels,eventhosemanufactured
insuccession,willhaveidenticalstriation
markings.
Thenumberoflandsandgroovesandtheir
directionoftwistareobviouspointsof
comparisonduringtheinitialstagesofan
examinationbetweenanevidencebulletanda
testfiredbullet.
Anydifferencesintheseclasscharacteristics
immediatelyservetoeliminatethepossibility
thatbothbulletstraveledthroughthesame
barrel.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

169

TheComparisonMicroscope
Thecomparisonmicroscopeservesasthesingle
mostimportanttooltoafirearmsexaminer.
Twobulletscanbeobservedandcompared
simultaneouslywithinthesamefieldofview.
Notonlymustthelandsandgroovesofthetest
andevidencebullethaveidenticalwidths,but
thelongitudinalstriationsoneachmust
coincide.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1610

Handguns
Semiautomatic
CourtesyofC.Fanning

CourtesyofC.Fanning

CourtesyofC.Fanning

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1611

Handguns
Revolver

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1612

Shotguns
Unlikerifledfirearms,ashotgunhasasmooth
barrel.
Shotgunsgenerallyfiresmallleadballsor
pelletsthatarenotimpressedwithany
characteristicmarkingsthatcanberelated
backtotheweapon.
Thediameteroftheshotgunbarrelisexpressed
bythetermgauge.
Thehigherthegaugenumber,thesmallerthe
barrelsdiameter.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1613

FiringaWeapon
Theactofpullingthetriggerservestorelease
theweaponsfiringpin,causingittostrikethe
primer,whichinturnignitesthepowder.
Theexpandinggasesgeneratedbytheburning
gunpowderpropelthebulletforwardthrough
thebarrel,simultaneouslypushingthespent
cartridgecaseorshellbackwithequalforce
againstthebreechblock.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1614

FiringaWeapon
Theshellisimpressedwithmarkingsbyits
contactwiththemetalsurfacesoftheweapons
firingandloadingmechanisms.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1615

CartridgeCaseComparison
Thefiringpin,breechblock,andejectorand
extractormechanismalsoofferahighly
distinctivesignatureforindividualizationof
cartridgecases.

CourtesyofC.Fanning

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1616

CartridgeCaseComparison
Theshapeofthefiringpinwillbeimpressed
intotherelativelysoftmetaloftheprimeron
thecartridgecase.
Thecartridgecase,initsrearwardthrust,is
impressedwiththesurfacemarkingsofthe
breechblock.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1617

CartridgeCaseComparison
Otherdistinctivemarkingsthatmayappearon
theshellasaresultofmetaltometalcontact
arecausedbythe:
Ejector,whichisthemechanisminafirearm
thatthrowsthecartridgeorfiredcasefrom
thefirearm.
Extractor,whichisthemechanismina
firearmbywhichacartridgeofafiredcase
iswithdrawnfromthefiringchamber.
Magazineorclip,whichisthemechanism
thatinafirearmholdsthebullets.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1618

ComputerizedImaging
Theadventofcomputerizedimaging
technologyhasmadepossiblethestorageof
bulletandcartridgesurfacecharacteristicsina
manneranalogoustoautomatedfingerprint
files.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1619

ComputerizedImaging
TheNationalIntegratedBallisticsInformation
Network,NIBIN,producesdatabasefilesfrom
bulletsandcartridgecasingsretrievedfrom
crimescenesortestfiresfromretrieved
firearms,oftenlinkingaspecificweaponto
multiplecrimes.
Itisimportanttoremember,however,thatthe
ultimatedecisionformakingafinal
comparisonwillbedeterminedbytheforensic
examinerthroughtraditionalmicroscopic
methods.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1620

GunpowderResidue
Whenafirearmisdischarged,unburnedand
partiallyburnedparticlesofgunpowderin
additiontosmokearepropelledoutofthe
barrelalongwiththebullettowardthetarget.
Ifthemuzzleoftheweaponissufficientlyclose,
theseproductswillbedepositedontothetarget.
Thedistributionofgunpowderparticlesand
otherdischargeresiduesaroundabullethole
permitsanassessmentofthedistancefrom
whichahandgunorriflewasfired.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1621

GunpowderResidue
Theprecisedistancefromwhichahandgunor
riflehasbeenfiredmustbedeterminedby
meansofacarefulcomparisonofthepowder
residuepatternlocatedonthevictimsclothing
orskinagainsttestpatternsmadewhenthe
suspectweaponisfiredatvaryingdistances
fromatarget.
Bycomparingthetestandevidencepatterns,
theexaminermayfindenoughsimilarityin
shapeanddensityuponwhichtobasean
opinionastothedistancefromwhichtheshot
wasfired.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1622

GunpowderResidue
Incaseswheretheweaponisheldincontact
withorlessthan1inchfromthetarget,astar
shaped(stellate)tearpatternaroundthebullet
holeentrance,surroundedbyarimofa
smokelessdepositofvaporousleadisusually
present.
Ahaloofvaporouslead(smoke)deposited
aroundabulletholeisnormallyindicativeofa
dischargeof12to18inchesorless.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1623

GunpowderResidue
Thepresenceofscatteredspecksofunburned
andpartiallyburnedpowdergrainswithout
anyaccompanyingsootisoftenobservedat
distancesupto25inches(andoccasionallyas
faras36inches).
Morethan3feet,willusuallynotdepositany
powderresidues,andtheonlyvisualindication
isadarkringaroundthehole,knownasa
bulletwipe.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1624

GunpowderResidue
Whengarmentsorotherevidencerelevanttoa
shootingarereceivedinthecrimelaboratory,
thesurfacesofallitemsarefirstexamined
microscopicallyforthepresenceofgunpowder
residue.
Chemicaltests,suchastheGreisstest,maybe
neededtodetectgunpowderresiduesthatare
notvisible.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1625

GunpowderResidue
Thefiringdistancesinvolvingshotgunsmust
againberelatedtotestfiring.
Themuzzletotargetdistancescanbe
establishedbymeasuringthespreadofthe
dischargedshot.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1626

PrimerResidueonHands
Thefiringofaweaponnotonlypropels
residuestowardthetarget,butgunpowderand
primerresiduesarealsoblownbacktowardthe
shooter.
Asaresult,tracesoftheseresiduesareoften
depositedonthefiringhandoftheshooter,and
theirdetectioncanprovidevaluable
informationastowhetherornotanindividual
hasrecentlyfiredaweapon.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1627

PrimerResidueonHands
Examinersmeasuretheamountofbariumand
antimonyontherelevantportionofthe
suspectshands,suchasthethumbweb,the
backofthehand,andthepalm.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1628

PrimerResidueonHands
Theymayalsocharacterizethemorphologyof
particlescontainingtheseelementsto
determinewhetherornotapersonhasfired,
handledaweapon,orwasnearadischarged
firearm.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1629

SerialNumbers
Increasingly,thecriminalistisrequestedto
restoreaserialnumberwhenithasbeen
removedorobliteratedbygrinding,rifling,or
punching.
Restorationofserialnumbersispossible
throughchemicaletchingbecausethemetal
crystalsinthestampedzoneareplacedundera
permanentstrainthatextendsashortdistance
beneaththeoriginalnumbers.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1630

FirearmEvidenceCollection
Firearmsarecollectedbyholdingtheweapon
bytheedgeofthetriggerguardorbythe
checkeredportionsofthegrip.
Beforetheweaponissenttothelaboratory,all
precautionsmustbetakentoprevent
accidentaldischargeofaloadedweapon.
Inmostcases,itwillbenecessarytounloadthe
weapon.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1631

FirearmEvidenceCollection
Whenarevolverisrecovered,thechambers,
theirpositions,andcorrespondingcartridges
mustberecorded.
Firearmevidencemustbemarkedfor
identification(usuallyatagonthetrigger
guard)andachainofcustodymustbe
established.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1632

FirearmEvidenceCollection
Bulletsrecoveredatthecrimescenearescribed
withtheinvestigatorsinitials,eitheronthe
baseorthenoseofthebullet.
Theobliterationofstriationmarkingsthatmay
bepresentonthebulletmustbescrupulously
avoided.
Theinvestigatormustprotectthebulletby
wrappingitintissuepaperbeforeplacingitin
apillboxoranenvelopeforshipmenttothe
crimelaboratory.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1633

FirearmEvidenceCollection
Firedcasingsmustbeidentifiedbythe
investigatorsinitialsplacedneartheoutsideor
insidemouthoftheshell.
Dischargedshotgunshellsareinitialedonthe
paperorplastictuberemainingontheshellor
onthemetalnearestthemouthoftheshell.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1634

ToolMarks
Atoolmarkisconsideredtobeanyimpression,
cut,gouge,orabrasioncausedbyatoolcoming
intocontactwithanotherobject.
Acarefulexaminationoftheimpressioncan
revealimportantclasscharacteristics,suchas
thesizeandshapeofthetool.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1635

ToolMarks
Butitisthepresenceofanyminute
imperfectionsonatoolthatimparts
individualitytothattool.
Theshapeandpatternofsuchimperfections
arefurthermodifiedbydamageandwear
duringthelifeofthetool.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1636

ToolMarks
Thecomparisonmicroscopeisusedtocompare
crimescenetoolmarkswithtestimpressions
madewiththesuspecttool.
Whenpractical,theentireobjectorthepartof
theobjectbearingthetoolmarkshouldbe
submittedtothecrimelaboratoryfor
examination.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1637

ToolMarks
Undernocircumstancesmustthecrimescene
investigatorattempttofitthesuspecttoolinto
thetoolmark.
Anycontactbetweenthetoolandthe
markedsurfacemayalterthemarkandwill,
attheleast,raiseseriousquestionsaboutthe
integrityoftheevidence.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1638

OtherImpressions
Impressionsofotherkinds,suchasshoe,tireor
fabricimpressions,maybeimportantevidence.
Beforeanyimpressionismovedorotherwise
handled,itmustbephotographed(includinga
scale)toshowalltheobservabledetailsofthe
impression.
Iftheimpressionisonareadilyrecoverable
item,suchasglass,paper,orfloortile,the
evidenceistransportedintacttothelaboratory.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1639

OtherImpressions
Ifthesurfacecannotbesubmittedtothe
laboratory,theinvestigatormaybeableto
preservetheprintinamannersimilartolifting
afingerprint.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1640

OtherImpressions
Whenshoeandtiremarksareimpressedintosoft
earthatacrimescene,theirpreservationisbest
accomplishedbyphotographyandcasting.
Inareaswhereabloodyfootwearimpressionis
veryfaintorwherethesubjecthastracked
throughbloodleavingatrailofbloody
impressions,chemicalenhancementcanvisualize
latentornearlyinvisiblebloodimpressions.

FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.

By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1641

PointsofComparison
Asufficientnumberofpointsofcomparisonorthe
uniquenessofsuchpointswillsupportafindingthat
boththequestionedandtestimpressionsoriginated
fromoneandonlyonesource.
Newcomputersoftwareandwebsitesmaybeableto
assistinmakingshoeprintandtireimpression
comparisons.
Also,bitemarkimpressionsonskinandfoodstuffs
haveproventobeimportantevidenceinanumberof
homicideandrapecases.
FORENSIC SCIENCE : An Introduction, 2nd ed.
By Richard Saferstein

2011, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458

1642