512 Chapter 11 1. The purpose of an amplifier is to deliver a larger signal to a load than is available from the signal source. 2. Amplifiers are characterized by their input impedance, output impedance, and a gain param- eter. 3. Inverting amplifiers have negative voltage gain, so the output waveform is an inverted version of the input waveform. Noninverting amplifiers have positive voltage gain. 4. Loading effects result from voltage drops across the internal source impedance and across the out- put impedance of the amplifier. 5, Ina cascade connection, the output of each ampli- fier is connected to the input of the next amplifier. 6. The efficiency of an amplifier is the percentage of the supply power that is converted into output sig- nal power. Several models are useful in characterizing ampli- fiers. They are the voltage-amplifier model, the current-amplifier model, the transconductance- amplifier model, and the transresistance-amplifier model. 8. According to their input and output impedances, amplifiers can be classified into four ideal types: the ideal voltage amplifier, the ideal current amy the ideal transconductance amplifier, and the ideal transresistance amplifier. The best amplifier type to select depends on the application. 9. Amplifiers may be direct coupled, in which case constant gain extends to de. On the other hand, Problems Section 11.1: Basic Amy jer Concepts PI1.1. How does an inverting amplifier differ from a noninverting amplifier? P11.2, What parameters are needed to characterize amplifiers may be ac coupled, in which case the gain falls off at low frequencies, reaching zero gain at de. Gain magnitude falls to zero at sufficiently high frequencies for all amplifiers. 10. Linear distortion can be either amplitude distor- tion or phase distortion. Amplitude distortion oc- curs if the gain magnitude is different for various components of the input signal. Phase distortion occurs if amplifier phase shift is not proportional to frequency. 11. Amplifier pulse response is characterized by rise time, overshoot, ringing, and tilt. 12, Nonlinear distortion occurs if the transfer charac teristic of an amplifier is not straight. Assuminga sinusoidal input signal, nonlinear distortion causes harmonics to appear in the output. The total har monic distortion rating of an amplifier indicates the degree of nonlinear distortion. 13. A differential amplifier ideally responds only to the difference between its two input signals (ie., the differential input signal). 14, The common-mode input is the average of the two inputs to a differential amplifier. Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the ratio of the differen- tial gain to the common-mode gain. CMRR is an important specification for many instrumentation applications. 15. De offset is the addition of a de term to the sig nal being amplified. It is the result of bias current, offset current, and offset voltage, and it can be can- celed by use of a properly designed balance circuit an amplifier? P13. What are “loading effects” in an amplifier cir- cuit? “PIL, A signal source with an open-circuit voltage Denotes that answers can be found on both CDs and on the web site www.prenhal .com/hanbleyof V; = 2 mV rms and an internal resistance of 50 k@ is connected to the input terminals of an amplifier having an open-circuit voltage gain of 100, an input resistance of 100 k2, and fan output resistance of 4 @. A 4-@ load is connected to the output terminals. Find the voltage gains Ay = Vo/V; and Ay = Vo/Vi ‘Also, find the power gain and current gain. A certain amplifier operating with a 100-2 Toad has a voltage gain of 50 and a power gain ‘0f 5000. Determine the current gain and input resistance of the amplifier. PIL6. A certain amplifier has an open-circuit volt- age gain of unity, an input resistance of 1 MQ, and an output resistance of 100 @. ‘The sig- nal source has an internal voltage of 5 V rms and an internal resistance of 100 k@. The load resistance is 50 @. If the signal source is con- nected to the amplifier input terminals and the load is connected to the output terminals, find the voltage across the load and the power de- livered to the load. Next, consider connecting the load directly across the signal source with- out the amplifier and again find the load volt- age and power. Compare the results, What do you conclude about the usefulness of a unity- gain amplifier in delivering signal power to a load? PIL, A certain amplifier operates with a resistive load, ‘The current gain and the voltage gain are equal. What can you say about the input resistance and the load resistance? .n amplifier has an open-circuit voltage gain fof 100. With a 10-k2 load connected, the volt- age gain is found to be only 90. Find the output resistance of the amplifier. p amplifier has an open-circuit voltage gain ‘Open-Circuit Amplifier Voltage Gain Tnput ‘Output Resistance _ Resistance 3 ka. 400 2 Ma 2k Problems S13 of 1000, an input resistance of 20 k&, and an output resistance of 2 2. A signal source with an internal resistance of 10k is connected to the input terminals of the amplifier. An 8-2 Joad is connected to the output terminals. Find the voltage gains Ay, =Vo/V, and Ay=Vo/Vi- Also, find the power gain and current gain. The output voltage v, of the circuit of Figure Pi11.10 is 100 mV with the switch closed. With he switch open, the output voltage is 50 mV. Find the input resistance of the amplifier. a 3 P1L11. A certain amplifier has a voltage gain of 0.1. However, the power gainis 10. Hows this pos- sible? What is the value of the current gain? How does the load resistance compare to the input resistance of the amplifier? Section 11.2: Cascaded Amplifiers P1112, Draw the cascade connection of two ampli- fiers, Find the open-circuit voltage gain of the cascade connection in terms of the open-circuit voltage gains and impedances of the individual amplifiers. P11.13. Two amplifiers have the characteristics shown in Table P11.13. If the amplifiers are cascaded in the order A—B, find the input impedance, ‘output impedance, and open-circuit voltage gain of the cascade. Repeat ifthe orderis BA. able PIL13. Amplifier Characteristics for Problem P1113514 Chapter 11 (Three amplifiers with the following character- sties are cascaded. Plifier 1: Ayor = 100, Rin = 22, Roy =1k2 Amplifier 2: Ay2 = 200, Ri2=4k2, Rye =2k2 Amplifier 3: Ays = 300, Ris = 6 k2, Rog =3k2 Find the parameters for the simplified model of the cascaded amplifier. Assume that the amplifiers are cascaded in the order 1, 2, 3. “PLAS. Amplifiers having Ay = 10, Rj = 2 k®, and R, = 2 k@ are available. How many of these amplifiers must be cascaded to attain a voltage gain of at least 1000 when operating with a 1- k@ load? Section 11.3: Power Supplies and Efficiency P1L16. Define the efficiency of a power amplifier. What is dissipated power in an amplifier? ‘What form does dissipated power take? certain amplifier has an input voltage of 100 1V rms, an input resistance of 100 k®, and produces an output of 10 V rms across an 8-2 load resistance. The power supply has a volt- age of 15 V and delivers an average current of 2A. Find the power dissipated in the amplifier and the efficiency of the amplifier. Amplifier R Figure P1118 *PIL18. Section P1120. *PHL21. P1122. P1123. * P1124, Amplifiers: Specifications and External Characteristics Find the net power delivered to the amplifier by the three desupply voltages shown in Figure PILAB. An amplifier operates from a 12-V power sup ply that supplies a current of 1.5 A. The input signal current is 1 .A rms and the input re sistance is 100 k®. The amplifier delivers 10 V ims to a 10-@ load. Determine the power dissipated in the amplifier and the efficiency of the amplifier. 1d: Addi nal Amplifier Models Draw a voltage-amplifier model. Is the gain parameter measured under open-circuit or short-circuit conditions? Repeat fora current amplifier model, a transresistance-amplifer model, and a transconductance-amplifer model. ‘Anamplifier has an input resistance of 20 2,an output resistance of 10 @, and a short-circuit current gain of 3000. The signal source has an internal voltage of 100 mV rms and an inter nal impedance of 200 ©. The load is a 5-2 resistance. Find the current gain, voltage gain, and power gain of the amplifier. If the power supply has voltage of 12 V and suppliesanav- erage current of 2 A, find the power dissipated in the amplifier and the efficiency. ‘An amplifier has an input resistance of 100 , an output resistance of 10 2, and a shor circuit current gain of 500. Draw the voltage- amplifier model for the amplifier, including numerical values for all parameters. Repeat for the transresistance and transconductance models. ‘An amplifier has a short-circuit current gain of 10. When operated with a 50-2 load, the current gain is 8. Find the output resistance of the amplifier. Amplifier A has an input resistance of 1 MQ, an output resistance of 200 @, and an oper: circuit transresistance gain of 100M2. Ampli fier B has an input resistance of 50 @, an out put impedance of 500 k@, and a short-circuitcurrent gain of 100. Find the voltage ampli- fier model for the cascade of A followed by B. Find the corresponding transconductance- amplifier model. PIL2S. Repeat Problem P11.24 if the order of the cas- cade is changed to B-A. P1126. An amplifier has an input impedance of 10 k®, an output impedance of 2 k@, and an open-circuit transresistance gain of 200 k2. Determine the open-circuit voltage gain, the short-circuit current gain, and the short-circuit transconductance gain 'Pt127. An amplifier has an input resistance of 1 kQ, an output resistance of 200 2, and a short-circuit transconductance gain of 0.5 S. Determine the open-circuit voltage gain, the short-circuit current gain, and the open-circuit transresistance gain. Section 11.6: Ideal Amplifiers PIL28. Give the input and output impedances for an ideal-voltage amplifier. Repeat for each of the other ideal amplifier types. PLL29, An ideal transconductance amplifier having a short-circuit transconductance gain of 0.1 S is connected as shown in Figure P11.29. Find the resistance R, = v,/i, seen from the input ter- minals. "PLL30, Repeat Problem P11.29 assuming that the am- plifier has an input resistance of 1000 @, an output impedance of 20 @, and an open-circuit transresistance gain of 10k. PL31, An amplifier has an input resistance of 1 Q,an output resistance of 1 @, and an open-circuit P1132. *PH33. PH34. P1135, Problems 515 voltage gain of 10. Classify this amplifier as an approximate ideal type and find the cor- responding gain parameter. In deciding on an amplifier classification, assume that the source and load impedances are on the order of 1k. Repeat Problem P11.31 if the inputimpedance is 1 MQ, the output impedance is 1 M@, and the open-circuit voltage gain is 100. Ina certain application, an amplifier is needed to sense the open-circuit voltage of a source and force current to flow through a load. The source resistance and load resistance are vari- able, The current delivered to the load is to be nearly independent of both the source resis tance and load resistance. What type of ideal amplifier is needed? If the source resistance increases from 1 k@ to 2k and this causes a 1% decrease in load current, what is the value of the input resistance? If the load resistance increases from 100 to 300 @ and this causes a 1% decrease in load current, what is the value of the output resistance? We need to design an amplifier for use in recording the short-circuit current of experi- ‘mental electrochemical cells versus time. (For this purpose, a short circuit is any resistance less than 10 @.) The amplifier output is to be applied to a strip-chart recorder that de- flects 1 cm 41% for each volt applied. The input resistance of the recorder is unknown and likely to be variable, but it is greater than 10 k@. A deflection of 1 cm per milliampere of cell current is desired with an accuracy of about 3%. What type of ideal amplifier is best suited for this application? Using your best judgment, find specifications for the am- plifier’s input impedance, output impedance, and gain parameter. An amplifier is needed for documentation of voltages in the earth created by a Navy extremely low frequency (ELF) antenna in northern Michigan (used for communication with submarines), Voltage waveforms occur- ring between probes to be placed in the earth are to be amplified before being applied to the re