Professional Documents
Culture Documents
S. Kalsi
E. Kyriakides
Session
Introductions
1 Fundamentals of
synchronous
machines
Time
8:30 8:40
8:40 9:50
BREAK
9:50 10:00
Topics
Energy conversion
Synchronous machine
construction
Energy transfer in a synchronous
machine
Motor and generator action
Phasor diagram for synchronous
machines
Losses
Superconducting designs
Power factor and torque angle
Example of calculations
Transients and damper windings
Saturation and the magnetization
curve
Instructor
Bradshaw
Heydt
2 Synchronous
condensers
10:00
10:30
3 Superconducting 10:30
synchronous
12:00
condensers
LUNCH
12:00 1:30
What is a synchronous
condenser?
Applications of synchronous
condensers
Analysis
Superconductivity
The superconducting
synchronous condenser (SSC)
Performance benefits of SSC in a
grid
Kalsi
Kalsi
4 Synchronous
machine models
1:30 2:30
5 State estimation
applied to
synchronous
generators
2:30 3:30
Parks transformation
Transient and subtransient
reactances, formulas for
calculation
Machine transients
Basics of state estimation
application to synchronous
generators
demonstration of software to
identify synchronous generator
parameters
Heydt
Kyriakides
BREAK
6 Machine
instrumentation
3:30 3:40
3:40 4:30
Question and
answer session
4:30 5:00
DFRs
Calculation of torque angle
Usual machine instrumentation
Heydt,
Kyriakides,
and Kalsi
All
participants
SESSION 1
Fundamentals of
synchronous machines
Synchronous Machines
Example of a rotating electric machine
DC field winding on the rotor, AC armature
winding on the stator
May function as a generator (MECHANICAL
ELECTRICAL) or a motor (ELECTRICAL
MECHANICAL)
Origin of name: syn = equal, chronos =
time
Synchronous Machines
ROTATION
FIELD WINDING
ARMATURE WINDING
Synchronous Machines
The concept of air gap flux
STATOR
ROTOR
Synchronous Machines
The inductance of the stator winding
depends on the rotor position
Energy is stored in the inductance
As the rotor moves, there is a change in the
energy stored
Either energy is extracted from the magnetic
field (and becomes mechanical energy that
is, its is a motor)
Or energy is stored in the magnetic field and
eventually flows into the electrical circuit that
powers the stator this is a generator
Synchronous Machines
The basic relationships are
POWER = ( TORQUE ) (SPEED)
ENERGY = (1/2) ( L I 2 )
POWER = d(ENERGY) / d(TIME)
Synchronous Machines
Consider the case that the rotor (field) is energized
by DC and the stator is energized by AC of
frequency f hertz.
There will be average torque produced only when
the machine rotates at the same speed as the
rotating magnetic field produced by the stator.
RPM = ( 120 f ) / (Poles)
Example: f = 60 Hz, two poles, RPM = 3600 rev/min
Synchronous Machines
d
The axis of the field winding
in the direction of the DC
field is called the rotor direct
axis or the d-axis. 90
degrees later than the d-axis
is the quadrature axis (q-axis).
ROTATION
q
The basic expression for the voltage in the
stator (armature) is
v = r i + d/dt
Where v is the stator voltage, r is the stator
resistance, and is the flux linkage to the
field produced by the field winding
Synchronous Machines
Basic AC power flow
jx
RECEIVE
SEND
Vsend
Vreceive
Synchronous Machines
Vinternal
Vterminal
The internal voltage,
often labeled E, is
produced by the field
interacting with the
stator winding, and
this is the open circuit
voltage
GENERATOR ACTION
POWER FLOWS FROM
MACHINE TO EXTERNAL
CIRCUIT, E LEADS Vt
Synchronous Machines
Vterminal
Vinternal
Synchronous Machines
Vinternal = E
TORQUE ANGLE
Vterminal = Vt
Vterminal = Vt
TORQUE ANGLE
Vinternal = E
GENERATOR
MOTOR
Synchronous Machines
Active power will flow when there is a phase
difference between Vsend and Vreceive.
This is because when there is a phase
difference, there will be a voltage difference
across the reactance jx, and therefore there
will be a current flowing in jx. After some
arithmetic
Psent = [|Vsend|] [|Vreceive|] sin(torque angle) / x
Synchronous Machines
Example
A synchronous generator stator
reactance is 190 ohms, and the internal
voltage (open circuit) generated is 35
kV line to line. The machine is
connected to a three phase bus whose
voltage magnitude is 35 kV line-line.
Find the maximum possible output
power of this synchronous generator
Synchronous Machines
Example
Work on a per phase basis
35 kV line-line = 20.2 kV l-n
Max P occurs when torque angle is 90
degrees
P = (20.2K)(20.2K)(sin(90))/190
= 2.1 MW per phase = 6.3 MW three phase
Vsend
Vreceive
Synchronous Machines
Example
If the phase angle is limited to 45 degrees, find
the generator power output
Vsend
TORQUE ANGLE
Vreceive
Synchronous Machines
Example
P = 6.3 sin(45) = 4.6 MW
Vsend
TORQUE ANGLE
Vreceive
Synchronous Machines
Losses
Rotor: resistance; iron parts moving in a magnetic
field causing currents to be generated in the rotor
body; resistance of connections to the rotor (slip
rings)
Stator: resistance; magnetic losses (e.g., hysteresis)
Mechanical: windage; friction at bearings, friction at
slip rings
Stray load losses: due to nonuniform current
distribution
EFFICIENCY = OUTPUT / INPUT
= 1 (LOSSES) / INPUT
Synchronous Machines
Losses
Generally, larger machines have the higher
efficiencies because some losses do not increase
with machine size. For example, many generators
in the 5 MW class and above have efficiencies
greater than 97%
But 3% of 5 MW is still 150 kW and for large units
e.g. 600 MW, 3% of 600 MW is 18 MW!
Cooling
Damping
Power factor
Power factor is the cosine between
voltage and current in a sinusoidal
AC circuit.
Vsend = E
Vreceive = Vt
GENERATOR
NOTATION
Power factor
Vsend
Vreceive
GENERATOR
NOTATION
Angle between
sending volts and
current
Power factor
Vsend = E
Vreceive = Vt
Angle between
receiving volts and
current
Power factor
Current in the circuit
Vreceive = Vt
Angle between
receiving volts
and current
Voltage drop in reactance
Vsend = E
COSINE OF THIS ANGLE IS
THE MACHINE POWER
FACTOR AT THE TERMINALS
MOTOR
NOTATION
Power factor
Note that the power factor
angle is controllable by the
generated voltage E and hence
by the DC field excitation.
Basic expressions
MOTOR
Vt = E + jIax
GENERATOR Vt = E - jIax
Power factor
Consider now a machine that:
1. Is operated at successively smaller
and smaller torque angle
2. Greater and greater field excitation
Vt = E + jIax
Vt
E
MOTOR
NOTATION
Vt = E + jIax
Vt
MOTOR
NOTATION
Vt = E + jIax
Current in the circuit
Vt
E
MOTOR
NOTATION
Vt = E + jIax
Current in the circuit
Vt
E
MOTOR
NOTATION
Vt = E + jIax
Current
in the
circuit
MOTOR
NOTATION
Vt
E
Vt = E + jIax
Current
in the
circuit
MOTOR
NOTATION
Vt
E
Vt = E + jIax
Current
in the
circuit
MOTOR
NOTATION
Vt
E
Synchronous condenser
operation
Ia
Q = | Vt |2 | I a |2 P 2
= | Vt || I a |
jIax
E
Synchronous condenser
operation
Nearly zero active power flow,
nearly zero power factor, nearly
perpendicular Ia and Vt, current
leads terminal voltage acting as
a motor, it acts as a capacitor
Ia
Vt
jIax
Examples
A synchronous generator is rated 100 MVA.
The machine is intended to be operated at
rated power at torque angle = 37 degrees.
The armature resistance is 0.1%, and the
reactance is 85%. The terminal voltage is
rated 34.5 kV. Find the machine internal
percent excitation and terminal pf when the
machine operates at 100 MW. Estimate the
armature I2R losses.
Examples
| Vt || E | sin( )
P=
x
(1)(| E | sin(37 o )
=
0.85
= 1.41
Examples
E = 1.41 /37o
Vt = 1.00 /0o
Ia
= 8.9o
POWER FACTOR
cos(8.9o ) = 98.8%
LAGGING
Examples
A six pole synchronous generator
operates at 60 Hz. Find the speed of
operation
Examples
RPM = ( 120 f ) / (Poles)
RPM = 120*60 / 6
= 1200
Examples
A 40 MVAr synchronous condenser
operates on a 34.5 kV bus. The
synchronous reactance is 150%.
Estimate the field excitation to obtain a
30 to 40 MVAr range of reactive power.
Examples
0.75 Q 1.0
0.75 } | I a | 1.0
Vt = E + jI a x
10 =| E f | 0 + jI a (1.5)
[1.0 | E f | 0 = 1.5 | I a | (90 + 90 )
o
At | I a |= 0.75
1.0 | E f |= 1.5 | 0.75 |
| E f |= 2.125
Examples
Vt = E + jI a x
10 =| E f | 0 + jI a (1.5)
[1.0 | E f | 0 = 1.5 | I a | (90 + 90 )
o
At | I a |= 1.00
1.0 | E f |= 1.5 | 1.00 |
| E f |= 2.50
SESSION 4
Synchronous machine
models
LI
NE
SCC
G
AP
RATED Ia
AI
R
OCC
RATED Vt
FIELD EXCITATION
LI
NE
G
AP
RATED Ia
AI
R
SCC
OCC
RATED Vt
FIELD EXCITATION
SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE =
SLOPE OF AIR GAP LINE
vF
iF
ia
LF
a
ra
rD
L aa
v D =0
iD
L bb
LD
ib
rb
va
b
rQ
Lc c
rn
v Q =0
iQ
LQ
Ln
vn
vb
rc
ic
c
rG
v G =0
iG
vc
n
LG
in
vF
iF
ia
LF
a
ra
rD
L aa
v D =0
iD
L bb
LD
ib
rb
va
b
rQ
Lc c
rn
v Q =0
iQ
LQ
Ln
vn
vb
rc
ic
c
rG
v G =0
iG
vc
n
LG
in
v = ri
ROTATION
q-axis
v = ri
v = ri
va
ra
0
v
b
0
vc
v = 0
F
0
v D
0
v
G
0
v Q
0
rb
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rc
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rF
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rD
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rG
0
0 ia
a
b
0 ib
0 i c c
0 i F F +
0 i D D
0 iG
G
rQ i Q
Q
2
2
2
2
P=
cos cos(
) cos( +
)
3
3
3
sin sin( 2 3 ) sin( + 2 3 )
= R t + + 2
PARKS TRANSFORMATION
BY APPLYING PARKS
TRANSFORMATION, THE TIME
VARYING INDUCTANCES
BECOME CONSTANTS
r
0 iq
LAD LAD 0
0 ( LAD + A d )
vq
v = 0
rF
0
0
0
0
0 iF
F
rD
0
0
0
0
0 iD
0
vD
0
v
rG
0
0
0
0
0 iG
G
rQ iQ
0
0
0
0
0
0
vQ
0
0
0
0
0
0
L0 + 3Ln
i0
0
i
0
0
0
LAD + A d
LAD
LAD
d
0
0
0
LAQ + A q
LAQ
LAQ iq
0
1
i
0
0
0
0
LAD
LAD + A F
LAD
F
B
0
0
0
LAD
LAD
LAD + A D
0
iD
0
0
0
0
LAQ
LAQ + A G
LAQ iG
0
0
0
LAQ
LAQ
LAQ + A Q iQ
0
Machine reactances
rF
vF
iF
+
ra
LF
iD
rD
La
id
LAD
LD
vd
+
q
Machine reactances
rG
ra
LG
iG
iQ
rQ
La
iq
LAQ
LQ
vq
+
d
Machine reactances
These equivalent circuit parameters are
traditionally obtained by a combination of
manufacturers design specifications and
actual tests
IEEE has a series of standardized tests for
large generators that yield several time
constants and equivalent circuit inductances
Aging and saturation are not well accounted
Change in operating point is not well
accounted
'
d
L2AD
Ld
LF
"
do
LD LF L2AD
B rD LF
'
do
LF
B rF
"
d
L"d "
do
'
Ld
'
d
L'd '
do
Ld
Subtransient open
circuit time constant in
the direct axis
Transient open circuit
time constant in the
direct axis
Subtransient short
circuit time constant in
the direct axis
Transient short circuit
time constant in the
direct axis
"
d
Ea
jiqxq
jidxd
SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR
PHASOR DIAGRAM
iara
iq
ia
Vt
id
Ea
jiqxq
jidxd
iara
iq
Vt
SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR
PHASOR DIAGRAM
POWER
FACTOR
ANGLE
TORQUE
ANGLE
id
ia
Ea
jiqxq
jiaxq
jiqxq ji x
d d
iara
iq
Vt
SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR
PHASOR DIAGRAM
idxq
POWER
FACTOR
ANGLE
TORQUE
ANGLE
id
ia
TESTS
TIME CONSTANTS
INDUCTANCES
EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT
PARAMETERS
Transient calculations
Transients in dynamic systems are calculated as solutions
of differential equations
The usual solution approach is a numerical solution of
(dX/dt) = AX + bu
Most numerical solutions relate to the approximation of
dX/dt as (delta X)/(delta t)
Solutions are iterative in the sense that the given initial
condition is used to obtain X at time t = h; then X(h) is
used to obtain X(2h), etc.
Popular solution methods include Matlab toolboxes, EMTP,
ETMSP, PSpice
The computer solutions could be used to compare with
actual field measurements. And if there are discrepancies,
the computer model could be updated to obtain better
agreement and hence a more accurate model.
SESSION 5
Session topics:
Basics of state estimation
Application to synchronous generators
Demonstration of software to identify
synchronous generator parameters
R1=5
R2=5
V2
It is desired to measure
the voltage across R2
Va = 5.1 V
Vb = 4.7 V
Va + Vb 5.1 + 4.7
V2 =
=
= 4. 9 V
2
2
5.1 18 + 4.7 20 + 15 1
V2 =
= 5.15
39
Estimator
System
Measurements
Estimated
states
EXAMPLE 1
Assume that it is desired to estimate two states (variables)
Three measurements are obtained, which form the following
equations
x1 + x2 = 3.1
2 x1 x2 = 0.2 In matrix form:
x1 3 x2 = 4.8
3.1
1 1
2 1 x1 = 0.2
x2
4.8
1 3
Process matrix
3x2
2 states 3 measurements
2x1 vector
3x1 vector
EXAMPLE 1
3.1
1 1
2 1 x1 = 0.2
x2
4.8
1 3
r = z Hx
EXAMPLE 1
There are many ways to minimize the residual r
One of the most popular is the least squares method, which
in effect minimizes the length (Euclidean norm) of the
residual r.
This method results in a simple formula to calculate the
estimated parameters
Given the system is of the form Hx=z,the vector of the
estimated parameters is given by,
x = ( H T H ) 1 H T z = H + z
H+ is called the pseudoinverse of H
EXAMPLE 1
4.8
1 3
1
1 1
3.1
1 2 1
1 2 1
0
.
2
x =
2
1
1 1 3
1 1 3
1 3
4.8
1
6
4
17.3
4
11
17
.
3
0
.
08
0
.
12
1.098
x =
1
.
972
EXAMPLE 1
To see how much error we have in the estimated parameters,
we need to calculate the residual in a least squares sense
J = r r = ( z Hx ) ( z Hx )
1 1
3.1 0.03
1.098
r = Hx z = 2 1
0.2 = 0.224
1.972
1 3
4.8 0.018
0.03
J = [ 0.03 0.224 0.018] 0.224 = 0.0514
0.018
EXAMPLE 2
V1
R1
V2
R2
V3
R3
Available measurements
V1
7.1
8.3
10.4
0
V2
0
3.2
5.1
9.1
V3
3.1
2.3
1.4
4.0
EXAMPLE 2
Substitute the measurements obtained in the desired model
V3 = aV1 + bV2 + c
3.1 = 7.1a + 0b + c
2.3 = 8.3a + 3.2b + c
1.4 = 10.4a + 5.1b + c
4.0 = 0a + 9.1b + c
In matrix form,
3.1
7.1 0 1
8.3 3.2 1 a 2.3
b =
V1
7.1
8.3
10.4
0
V2
0
3.2
5.1
9.1
V3
3.1
2.3
1.4
4.0
a
8.3 3.2
b =
10.4 5.1
c
0 9.1
1
1
1
1
3.1
2.3 0.3028
= 0.1374
1.4
4.0 5.2505
EXAMPLE 3
40 MW
50 MW
M12
M13
20 MW
30 MW
Given:
X12 = 0.2 p.u.
X13 = 0.4 p.u.
X23 = 0.1 p.u.
System base: 100 MVA
BUS 2
60 MW
BUS 1
M32
90 MW
BUS 3
EXAMPLE 3
40 MW
50 MW
M13
20 MW
BUS 2
60 MW
BUS 1
M12
SOLUTION
30 MW
90 MW
BUS 3
M32
1 = 0
1
=
(a b ) = M ab
X ab
V1 1
X
V2 2
EXAMPLE 3
Hence,
f12 =
1
1
(1 2 ) =
(0 2 ) = 52 = 0.2
0.2
X 12
f13 =
1
1
(1 3 ) =
(0 3 ) = 2.53 = 0.3
0.4
X 13
f 32 =
1
1
(3 2 ) =
(3 2 ) = 103 102 = 0.6
0. 1
X 32
0
0 .2
5
10 10 3 0.6
0
0 .2
5
0
0
10
10
5
5
0
2
.
5
0
.
3
=
0 2.5 10
0 2.5 10
0.6
10 10
2 0.0438
=
rad
0
.
1048
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
REPRESENTATION
a axis
d axis
q axis
ib
direction of
rotation
ic
iQ
iG
iD
iF
ia
iF
iD
b axis
ic
iG
ia
iQ
ib
c axis
iF
ia
LF
a
ra
rD
vD=0
iD
Laa
LD
rQ
vQ=0
iQ
Lcc
rn
LQ
Ln
vn
rG
vG=0
iG
rc
ib
Lbb r
b
va
b
vb
ic
vc
n
LG
in
DEVELOPMENT OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR MODEL
v = ri vn
a Laa
L
b ba
c Lca
= L
F Fa
D LDa
G LGa
Q LQa
Lab
Lbb
Lcb
LFb
LDb
LGb
LQb
Lac
Lbc
Lcc
LFc
LDc
LGc
LQc
LaF
LbF
LcF
LFF
LDF
LGF
LQF
LaD
LbD
LcD
LFD
LDD
LGD
LQD
LaG
LbG
LcG
LFG
LDG
LGG
LQG
LaQ ia
LbQ ib
LcQ ic
LFQ iF
LDQ iD
LGQ iG
LQQ iQ
va
ra
v
0
b
vc
0
v = 0
F
v
D
0
vG
0
v
Q
0
0
d
q
=
F
D
G
Q
0
rb
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rc
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rF
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rD
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
rG
0
0 ia a
0 ib b
0 ic c
v
0 iF F + n
0
0 iD D
0 iG G
rQ iQ
Q
L0
0
0
0
0
0
0 i0
Ld
0
0 kM F kM D 0
0 id
Lq
0
0
0
0 kM G kM Q iq
0 kM F 0 LF M X 0
0 i F
0 kM D 0 M X LD
0
0 iD
0
0 kM G 0
0 LG M Y iG
0
0 kM Q 0
0 M Y LQ iQ
DEVELOPMENT OF SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR MODEL
0 dq = Pabc
1
2
P = 2 cos
3
sin
i0 dq = Piabc
v0 dq = Pvabc
2
2
cos( 2 ) cos( + 2 )
3
3
sin( 2 ) sin( + 2 )
3
3
1
Resulting model:
i0 dq 3 x1
i0 dq 3 x1
v0 dq 3 x1
v
= [R7 x 7 ]i
[L7 x 7 ]i
FDGQ 4 x1
FDGQ 4 x1
FDGQ 4 x1
LAD LAD 0
0 iq
r
vq
0 ( LAD + A d )
v = 0
0
0
0
0
0 i F
rF
F
v
0
0
0
0
0
0
r
D
iD
D
vG
0
0
0
0
0
0 iG
rG
v
0
0
0
0
0
0
r
Q
Q
iQ
0
0
0
0
0
0
L0 + 3Ln
i0
0
i
0
0
0
LAD + A d
LAD
LAD
d
0
0
0
LAQ + A q
LAQ
LAQ iq
0
1
i
0
0
0
0
LAD
LAD + A F
LAD
F
B
0
0
0
LAD
LAD LAD + A D
0
iD
0
0
0
0
LAQ
LAQ + A G LAQ iG
+
A
0
0
0
0
L
L
L
AQ
AQ
AQ
Q
iQ
MODEL DISCUSSION
After the development of the model it is necessary to
carefully examine the available information about the
system, find out what is known in the model, what is
unknown and needs to be calculated or assumed, and what
is desired to be estimated.
For the synchronous generator case,
Unknown
Measured/Known
line-to-line terminal voltages
damper currents
line currents
current derivatives
field voltage (for an exciter with brushes)
field current (for an exciter with brushes)
Finally, some of the parameters need to be estimated through
state estimation, while the other parameters need to be
calculated from manufacturers data
i0
i
0 0 0 0 d
i
0 0 0 0 q
i
0 0 0 0 F
i
0 0 0 0 D
i
G
iQ
i0 V0
i V
0 0 0 d d
i V
0 0 0 q q
i V
0 0 0 F F
i V
0 0 0 D D
V
i
G G
iQ VQ
0
0
0
+
+
+
+
(
)
(
)
0
i
i
i
i
i
i
0
r + 3rn 0
d
F
D
q
G
Q
L
0
B
AD
r A q
1
L
(id + iF + iD )
(iq + iG + iQ ) 0 AQ
0 A d r
r
B
0
0
0
1
F
(id + iF + iD )
0
iF
L0 + 3Ln
1 0
B 0
0
0
Ad
0
0
0
0
Aq
0
0
0
0
AF
i (t + t ) i (t )
i(t )
t
DEMONSTRATION OF PROTOTYPE
APPLICATION FOR PARAMETER ESTIMATION
SESSION 6
Machine instrumentation
Session topics:
Digital Fault Recorders (DFRs)
Calculation of torque angle
Ia
V
rIa
jxqIa
3
vm sin
2
3
vm sin
2
vb + vc
1
=
cot
vb vc
3
1 vb vc
tan =
3 vb + vc
vbc + vca
2 3 cos va
Et = Vt + (r + jxq ) I a = Et
is the torque angle
P = vd id + vq iq
Q = vq id vd iq
2. Calculate the terminal voltage
Et = Vd + jVq = Et
P2 + Q2
Et
P
)
= cos (
Et I t
1
SESSION 7
Question and answer
session