Wiki: Learning Outcomes

by
Tracy Hinton
Learning
Outcomes

Role of Learner

Role of Instructor

Inputs or Conditions

Process of
Learning

Topic 1:
My Personal
Theory of
Learning

- Goal-directed
behavior
- Ability to set
goals, monitor
learning, and
adjust learning
strategies in order
to meet goals
- Observable
behavior

- Determine areas of
interest and value
- Make necessary
adjustments to improve
learning
- Make connections
between prior knowledge

- Active
participation in a
learning
environment
- Environmental
conditions must
support the type of
instruction and
learner preferences

- Building blocks
of learning
- Students find
relevance based
on their own
experiences
- Observable
behavior

Chapter 2:
Radical
Behaviorism

- Observable
behavior

- Learner is active in the

environment.
- Positive or negative
consequences that follow
behavior determine if that
behavior is repeated

- Enhance motivation with

instruction that is meaningful
and gains attention of learner
- Foster confidence in
students
- Provide opportunities for
learners to set goals and selfappraise
- Identify learning goals
- Make necessary changes to
instruction and goals with
learners input
- Determine learning goals
and contingencies of
reinforcements
- Implement program of
change in behavior
- Work with learner
throughout the process

- Discriminative
factors are part of
environmental
conditions
- Participants
distinguish
reinforced and
nonreinforced
behaviors.

Chapter 3:
Cognitive
Information
Processing

- Declarative
knowledge
- Procedural
knowledge
- Memory

- Transform, or process,
incoming material, relating
the information to what is
stored in memory. (The
new information takes on
meaning.)

- Direct learners attention

- Organize new information
- Assist with retrieval and
encoding
- Allow for practice
opportunities
- Provide opportunities for

- Environmental
sensory information

- Is not included
in this theory
- Learning is
explained with
observable
behavior and
environmental
events
surrounding its
occurrence.
- Processing and
storing
information in
memory
- Stages are
sensory memory,
working

Compatible
Instructional
Strategies
- Project-based
learning
- Student-driven
choice of topics

- Individualized
studies
- Contingency
contracts
- Token economy

- Pattern
recognition,
attention,
rehearsal,
retrieval, and
chunking are all
ways to store

learners to practice their

learning

memory, and
long-term
memory.
- Incorporating
new information
into cognitive
structure
- Processes of
subsumption,
superordinate,
and
combinatorial
learning
- Accretion,
tuning, and
restructuring of
schemata
- Automation of
schemata

information.

Chapter 4:
Meaningful
Reception
Learning

- Organized
knowledge helps
with
understanding

- Make connections
between prior knowledge
and to-be-learned
information that results in
an elaborated cognitive
structure

- Make materials meaningful

to the learner
- Activate learners prior
knowledge
- Help students to make
meaningful connections to
what they already know

- Many experiences
are potentially
meaningful.

Chapter 4:
Schema
Theory

- Organized
conceptual
knowledge &
mental models
that can be used
to interpret
events and solve
problems.
- Many
experiences are
potentially
meaningful.
- Ability to use the
tools and
concepts of a
community of
practice
- Contribute to
invention of new
practices & tools
within the
community
- Social
knowledge
- Logicalmathematical

- Construct schemata and

mental models
- Use, modify, and
automate schemata in
solving problems

- Activate learners existing

schemata
- Help learners develop
mental models
- Use thought-demanding
activities to facilitate
understanding

- Preexisting
schemata that can
be modified or
reconstructed by
analogy to account
for new knowledge

- Participate increasingly in
the activities of a
community of practice

- Help learners value

participation in a community
of practice
- Model appropriate practices
- Nurture semiosis & promote
reflexivity

- Materials &
activities of the
culture or
community of
practice

- Semiosis, or
sign activity (the
process of
interpreting &
crating signs &
sign systems)
- Legitimate
peripheral
participation

- Collaboration
- Scaffolding
- Authentic
context &
activities
- Multiple roles &
perspectives

- Invent & reinvent

knowledge through
interaction with the world
& people surrounding him

- Ask probing questions to

make children aware of
conflicts & inconsistencies in
their thinking

- Cognitive conflicts
- Concrete materials
to manipulate

- Global
restructuring
occurs through
cognitive conflict

- Project-based or
hands-on
learning activities
- Group work

Chapter 5:
Situated
Cognition

Chapter 6:
Cognitive &
Knowledge
Development/

- Anchoring ideas
- Derivative &
Correlative
Subsumption
- Superordinate
learning
- Combinatorial
learning
- Assimilation
- Activating
schemata
- Organizing
schema into
mental models
- Advance
organizers
- Comparative
organizers

Genetic
Epistemology

knowledge
- Physical
knowledge

or her.
- Experience cognitive
conflict
- Actively manipulate ideas
& objects

- Provide a rich learning

environment that encourages
peer interactions & supports
activity of the learner

Chapter 7:
Interactional
Theories of
Cognitive
Development

- Thinking,
conceptual
knowledge
- Ability to use the
tools of ones
culture
- Awareness of
ones own
thinking

- Interact with the peers,

instructor, and
sociocultural environment
to solve relevant problems

- Engage learners in socially

organized labor activities
relevant to their culture with
learning partners appropriate
for the desired goals of
instruction
- Ask midlevel questions to
incite cognitive conflict
- Involve learners in a process
of problem-solving & inquiry

- Prior knowledge
- Culturally relevant
tools
- A readiness to
learn

Chapter 8:
Biological
Bases of
Learning &
Memory

Behaviors,
emotions,
thoughts, physical
changes in the
brain

Interact with a hierarchy,

or ranking, of
environments

- Provide rich, complex, and

emotionally engaging
learning environments &
allow for practice
- Understand the interactive
relation between nature &
nurture
- Attempt to determine what
things in learning are tied to
critical periods for

Different kinds of
experiences,
maturation

- Development of
cognitive
structuring
evolves through
the stages of
assimilation,
accommodation,
& equilibrium

- Play objects
(sensorimotor
stage)
- Using concrete
objects to locate
& classify
(operational
stage)

- For Vygotsky,
mediation to
understand
cultural tools
- For Bruner, a
progression
through
increasingly
more
sophisticated
modes of
thinking
(enactive to
iconic, to
symbolic)
- For both,
learning helps to
pull
development
along
- Organizing &
reorganizing
brain structures
- Synaptic
formation &
pruning, or
taking away
unwanted parts

-Socio-cultural
learning that ties
to community
- Memory
mnemonics
- Mind maps
- Self-initiated
discovery
- Use of ZPD,
such as STAR &
AR

- Systematic
desensitization to
overcome fears
- Extensive time
& practice
- Multimodal
approach: Draws
on different
sensory modes
- Variety of

development

Chapter 9:
Motivation &
SelfRegulation in
Learning

- Goal-directed
behavior
- Ability to set
goals, monitor
progress, & adjust
learning
strategies to
assure goal
attainment

- Determine areas of
interest & value
- Calibrate learning efforts
with results
- Appraise utility of
learning strategies & make
necessary adjustments to
improve the learning
process

- Provide opportunities for

learners to set goals,
determine learning methods,
and self-appraise
- Improve motivation with
strategies that enhance
relevance, gain attention,
foster confidence, and ensure
satisfaction

Active participation
in a learning
environment

Not addressed.
Modern
approaches to
motivation &
self-regulation
are consistent
with a social
cognitive view of
learning.

Chapter 10:
Gagnes
Theory of
Instruction

- Intellectual skills
- Verbal
information
- Cognitive
strategies
- Attitudes
- Motor strategies

- Active participant in
instruction as processor of
information
- May identify own learning
outcomes, choose
conditions of learning, and
provide events of
instruction

Arranges conditions of
learning and events of
instruction based on learner
characteristics & desired
learning outcomes

- External & internal

conditions of
learning that are
dependent on
learning outcome
- Events of
instruction that
assist with the type
of learning outcome

Uses the
cognitive
information
processing
model as an
explanation of
learning

instructional
strategies, such
as
interdisciplinary
learning
strategies
- Students choose
goals. Students
set learning goals
not necessarily
performance
goals.
- Peer learning
groups, in which
learners can
reflect on their
own progress.
- Peer learning
groups, in which
students are
paired with other
learners of same
style.
- Teacher
demonstrations,
followed by
practice by
students.
(Modeling)
- Depending on
students levels
of development,
students might
create visual
displays, perform
a calculation
based on a
formula, or
compare/contrast

two issues.
- Independent
thinking activities
Chapter 11:
Constructivis
m

- Critical thinking
& reasoning skills
- Self-regulation
-Mindful reflection
- Understanding &
use of knowledge

- Making meaning of the

world surrounding him or
her
- Active construction of
knowledge

- Provide realistic & complex

learning environments that
challenge learners to identify
& solve problems
- Support learners efforts &
encourage them to reflect on
the learning process

- Information and
technology
resources to
support problemsolving efforts
- Ill-structured
problems
- Ability to be selfdirected or steps
taken to become
self-directed

Constructivists
are vague about
the process of
learning, but
they do mention
the structuring &
restructuring of
knowledge & the
dynamic nature
of knowledge

- Activities that
demonstrate
learning in
context, or
meaningful
activities.
- Flexibility,
according to
student
responses
- Mocroworlds &
problem-based
learning
- Collaborative
learning & Bubble
Dialogue
- Hypermedia
- Open-ended
learning
environments &
problem-based
learning
- Role plays &
debates

Top 10 Points for Chapter 6

1.

Introduction
Piagets view of Genetic Epistemology shows us that children learn differently than adults. Piaget called his view
Interactionism, since cognition was assumed to be an interaction between heredity and environment. He also refers to his
view as Constructivism, since he believes that acquisition of knowledge is a process of continuous self-construction. The
child constructs knowledge as he or she interacts the world, inventing and reinventing knowledge. Piaget believes that
children acquire knowledge through their actions and interactions with the environment.

2.

3.

Piagets 3 Types of Knowledge

A.

Physical knowledge An understanding of things in the environment that has been acquired through direct interaction.

B.

Logical-mathematical knowledge Abstract knowledge that must be invented within the child.

C.

Social knowledge Must be learned from others. Things that are transmitted through the environment and culture.

Stages of Development
There are 4 criteria for defining true development stages:
A.

Each stage must show a qualitative leap, or change, from the previous one.

B.
Each stage is passed through in the same order of necessity and do not regress. Children from all cultures pass through
the stages.

4.

C.

Each stage contains the abilities of all the earlier stages.

D.

Each stage demonstrates behavior that is logically consistent with the cognitive structures at each stage.

Piagets 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

A.

Sensorimotor (birth to 2) Modifies reflexes to make them more adaptive. It ifs visible, it exists.

B.
Preoperational (2 to 7) Beginning of language games and

Has difficulty seeing another persons point of view. Can mentally represent objects.
pretending.

C.
Concrete Operational ( 7 to 11) Solves concrete problems. Can demonstrate logical thought. Able to conceive of the
whole of an issue.
No hypothetical ability.
D.
Formal Operational (11 years onward) Solves abstract problems. Can plan systematic approaches to problem solving.
Can imagine possibilities
beyond the current situation.

5.

Processes of Development
A.

Assimilation Perception based on existing schemes or operations. Assimilates information about new objects.

B.

Accommodation Perception requires modification of existing schemes or operations. Makes changes to the structure.

C.
Equilibration Encompasses both assimilation and accommodation. Characterizes the childs transition from one stage to
the next. Creates a state of disequilibrium so that childs thinking shifts to reflect new realities.

6.

Criticisms of Genetic Epistemology

A.
The Sequence of Stages is Invariant. Progression might not be as rigid as Piaget contended. Some cultures might not
even reach the
Formal Operational Stage. Television might have an impact on a childs ability to reach the Formal
Operational Stage.
B.
The Stages Represent Qualitative Changes in Cognition. Since the stages are extremely different from each other, there
might be lots of
intermixing.
C.
Children Exhibit the Characteristics of Each Stage. Exhibition of a stage characteristic is not consistent, but rather
situational to different tasks.
D.
Global Restructuring Characterizes the Shift from Stage to Stage. Changes are not due to equilibrium, but can result from
specific increased knowledge.

7.

Alternative Perspectives on Cognitive Development

Although alternatives to Piaget exist, they still agree on 2 main points:
A.

Children think about any particular topic in only one way at most points in development.

B.
A major goal of developmental theory should be identifying the way of thinking used by children at particular ages
(Siegler, 1996, p. 219).
In contrast to Piaget, most alternative theories are based on the assumption that thinking is information processing (see
Chapter 3).
Here are the alternative theories:
A.
Neo-Piagetian View As processing becomes more automatic, the requirements for operating space diminish,
allowing for more storage
space. Older children can solve problems containing more operations, since the other can be held in storage while
one is being performed.

B.
Computational Model Humans mentally represent quantity through subitizing, counting, and estimating. Also,
humans use basic
processes of self-modification and generalization. Over time, children experience regularities in quantification.
C.
Componential Analysis Measurement of Intelligence is the basis for processing information. Intelligence is
composed of
metacomponents, performance components, and knowledge-acquisition components.
D.
Framework Theory Approach Evolved from research on conceptual change. This framework theory approach
draws attention to
qualitative differences and notes that learners typically have preconceived notions of scientific phenomena.

8.

Implication for Instruction

Children need to control what they learn. Its up to designers of instruction to create possibilities, not programs.
A key point here is that the discovery learning of the child is not controlled by the teacher.
The teacher must enable the child to learn in his or her own way, in order to help the child to become confident.
Children need to interact with peers in their learning.
Learning environments should find ways to challenge studentss inconsistencies, but should not seek to accelerate the
developmental process.

9.

Piagetian Perspective on Kermit and the Keyboard

Since Kermit is an adult, Piaget would have expected Kermit to have reached the formal operational stage of development.
As a result, Piagets theory would have relatively little to contribute to our understanding of Kermits learning in this story.
Since children clearly have some of the same knowledge and skills, some insights can be gained.
Physical knowledge of the keyboard has been acquired what the keys feel like and how much pressure to apply.
Since Piaget believes that this type of knowledge is learned through actions on objects, Kermit must experiment with the
keyboard to gain discovery.
Also, according to Piaget, social learning is acquired through interactions with people, but Kermit mostly learns on his own.
Piaget might feel that participation in an orchestra might greatly benefit Kermits overall learning of the keyboard.

10.

Suggestions for Wiki Content

Chapter 6:
Cognitive &
Knowledge
Developme
nt/ Genetic
Epistemolo
gy

Learning
Outcomes

Role of Learner

Role of Instructor

Inputs or
Conditions

Process of
Learning

- Social
knowledge
- Logicalmathematical
knowledge
- Physical
knowledge

- Invent & reinvent

knowledge through
interaction with the
world & people
surrounding him or
her.
- Experience cognitive
conflict
- Actively manipulate
ideas & objects

- Ask probing questions

to make children aware
of conflicts &
inconsistencies in their
thinking
- Provide a rich learning
environment that
encourages peer
interactions & supports
activity of the learner

- Cognitive
conflicts
- Concrete
materials to
manipulate

- Global
restructuring
occurs
through
cognitive
conflict
Development
of cognitive
structuring
evolves
through the
stages of
assimilation,
accommodati
on, &
equilibrium

Compatible
Instructional
Strategies
- Projectbased or
hands-on
learning
activities
- Group work
- Play objects
(sensorimoto
r stage)
- Using
concrete
objects to
locate &
classify
(operational
stage)

Top 10 Points for Chapter 7 - Interactive Theories of Cognitive Development

1. Introduction: The focus on interaction distinguishes this chapter from previous theories.
2. Jerome Bruner: "The outcome of cogitive development...is thinking." The aim of education is to make the learner as autonomous as
possible. Two major themes: a) Sequence of representational systems and b) The role of culture in cognitive growth.
3. Bruner's 3 Modes of Representation: Bruner proposed 3 systems by which people structure their understanding of the world:
a) Enactive Representation - "A mode of representing past events through appropriate motor responses" (Bruner, 1964).
b) Iconic Representation - Enables the perceiver to summarize events by organization of images and perceptions.
c) Symbolic Representation - Acquisition of a symbol system, such as the alphabet.
4. Role of Environment: Bruner, unlike Piaget, believed that influences from environment played a major role in progress through stages.
This redefines the readiness for learning. Adults may also pass through these stages when they learn a new subject.
5. Course of Cognitive Growth: Bruner believed that learning is social, as there is interpersonal interaction. He also contended that true
discovery requires a well-prepared mind and background knowledge.
6. Culture and Cognitive Growth: According to Bruner, members of different cultures make sense of their experiences in various ways.
(Examples: Eskimos, Northeastern Brazil children, and Central Africa vs. Yale students.) In the classroom, teachers should take into
account the context of situational differences when evaluating performance.
7. Vygotsky - The Social Formation of Mind: Vygotsky argues that 3 things are essential to understanding development: the interrelations,
cultural-historical, and the interpersonal. He developed his cultural-historical theory in the 1920's.
8. The Social Origins of Higher Mental Processes: Vygotsky focused on the importance of social activity. He developed 2 concepts:

a) Internalization - Transforming an activity into an intrapersonal one.

b) The Zone of Proximal Development - The gap between the skills that have developed and those that are in the process of maturation.
9. Conclusion: Bruner and Vygotsky focus on the role of interaction in development. They both realized that there is not one theory of
development, but rather a "complexity in human development." Many theories provide insight into the process of learning.
10. Suggested Wiki Content:
Chapter 7:
Interactiona
l Theories of
Cognitive
Developmen
t

Learning
Outcomes:
- Thinking,
conceptual
knowledge
- Ability to use
the tools of
ones culture
- Awareness of
ones own
thinking

Role of Learner:

Role of Instructor:

- Interact with the

peers, instructor, and
sociocultural
environment to solve
relevant problems

- Engage learners in
socially organized labor
activities relevant to their
culture with learning
partners appropriate for
the desired goals of
instruction
- Ask midlevel questions
to incite cognitive conflict
- Involve learners in a
process of problemsolving & inquiry

Inputs or
Conditions:

Process of
Learning:

- Prior
knowledge

- For Vygotsky,
mediation to
-Sociounderstand
cultural
cultural tools
learning that
ties to
- For Bruner, a community
progression
through
- Memory
increasingly
mnemonics
more
- Mind maps
sophisticated
modes of
- Self-initiated
thinking
discovery
(enactive to
iconic, to
- Use of ZPD,
symbolic)
such as STAR
& AR
- For both,

- Culturally
relevant tools
- A readiness to
learn

Compatible
Instructional
Strategies

learning helps
to pull
development
along