In a laboratory where measurement accuracies of 10 ppm or better are required,

specialized measurement equipment is used. High-accuracy bridges and digital

voltmeters with special error-correcting functions are used. Accuracies of high-end
measurement equipment can reach 0.1 ppm (parts per million). These instruments have
functions to compensate for errors such as thermoelectric voltages and element selfheating. In addition to temperature, strain on and impurities in the wire also affect the
sensors resistance vs. temperature characteristics. The Matthiessen rule states that the
resistivity (r) of a metal conductor depends on temperature, impurities, and deformation. r
is measured in (W cm): (32.20) Proper design and careful material selection will
minimize these effects so that resistivity will only vary with a change in temperature.