Lecture Notes for CO1 (Part 1)

INTRODUCTION TO HEAT
TRANSFER
Week 1

Rizalman Mamat
Universiti Malaysia Pahang

Course Outcome 1 (CO1)

Students should be able to understand and
analyse the concept of conduction,
convection and radiation heat transfer.

Lesson Outcomes from CO1 (Part 1)

To explain the mechanism of various modes and
equations for the estimation of heat transfer
To derive the generalize 3-dimensional heat
conduction equation
To develop the one-dimensional heat conduction
form from the generalize 3-dimensional equation
for various geometries
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THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER

Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one
system to another as a result of temperature difference.
Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat
transfer as a system undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another.
Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of
energy transfers and variation of temperature.

THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER

Heat transfer is always occurs from the higher-temperature
to the lower-temperature of an object.
Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
conduction, convection, radiation.

Example of heat transfer equipment are

heat exchangers, boilers, condensers,
radiators, heaters, furnaces, refrigerators,
and solar collectors are designed primarily
on the basis of heat transfer analysis.

HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:

electrical,
thermal,
kinetic,

magnetic,
chemical, and

potential,

nuclear.

mechanical,

Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a unit

mass basis) of a system.

The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the

internal energy of a system.

Internal energy: May be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and

potential energies of the molecules. The velocity and activity of the
molecules are proportional to the temperature.

Sensible heat: The kinetic energy of the molecules.

Latent heat: The internal energy associated with the phase of a

system. The internal energy that cause the changes of object phase.

Chemical (bond) energy: The internal energy associated with the

atomic bonds in a molecule.

Nuclear energy: The internal energy associated with the bonds

within the nucleus of the atom itself.

What is the difference between thermal

energy and heat?

Internal Energy and Enthalpy

In the analysis of systems

that involve fluid flow, we
frequently encounter the
combination of properties u
(internal energy) and Pv (flow
energy or flow work).

The combination is defined

as enthalpy (h = u + Pv).

Enthalpy is a measure of the

total energy of a
thermodynamic system

Specific Heats of Gases,

Liquids, and Solids

Specific heat: The energy required to

raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance/element by one degree.

Two kinds of specific heats:

specific heat at constant volume cv
specific heat at constant pressure cp

The specific heats of a substance, depend

on temperature and pressure.

At low pressures all real gases approach

ideal gas behavior, and therefore their
specific heats depend on temperature only.

PV=mRT @ P=RT @ P=RT (Ideal Gas)

Unit for specific heat

Differential changes in
internal energy and enthalpy

Incompressible substance: A
substance whose specific volume (or
density) does not change with
temperature or pressure.

Therefore cv and cp value are same

(=c) for incompressible substances.

The specific heats of incompressible

substances depend on temperature
only.

What is the difference between incompressible substance and compressible substance?

Energy Transfer
Energy can be transferred by two
mechanisms: heat transfer Q and work W.
Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat
transferred per unit time. (unit J/s or W)
Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per unit
area normal to the direction of heat transfer.
when

is constant:

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THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy principle)
states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a process;
it can only change forms.

The energy balance in normal

form
The energy balance in the rate
form

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In heat transfer problems, it is convenient

to write a heat balance as below

and all the conversion of nuclear, chemical,

mechanical and electrical energies into
thermal energy called as heat generation.
What is the difference between steady systems and unsteady system?
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Energy Balance for

Closed Systems (Fixed Mass)

A closed system consists of a fixed mass.
The total energy E is the internal energy U.
This is especially the case for stationary
systems since no changes in the velocity or
elevation during a process.

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Energy Balance for

Steady-Flow Systems
However, many engineering devices (water
heaters, car radiators, etc) involve mass flow in
and out of a system, and are modeled as control
volumes.
The term steady means no change with time at a
specified location.
Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing
through a cross section of a flow device per unit
time.
Volume flow rate: The volume of a fluid flowing
through a pipe or duct per unit time.

When changes in kinetic and potential energy is

negligible, there is no work interaction occurs
thus the energy balance is:
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Surface Energy Balance

A surface contains no volume or mass,
and thus no energy. Therefore, a surface
can be viewed as a fictitious system
whose energy content remains constant
during a process.

This relation is valid for both steady and

transient conditions, and the surface
energy balance does not involve heat
generation since a surface does not
have a volume as shown in figure.

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HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS-recap

Heat is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system
to another as a result of temperature difference.

Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:

conduction
convection
radiation

All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature

difference.

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CONDUCTION
Conduction: The energy transfer from the more
energetic particles to the adjacent less energetic
particles.

The rate of heat conduction is proportional to the

temperature difference across the layer and the heat
transfer area, but is inversely proportional to the
thickness of the layer.

Fouriers law of heat

conduction

Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.
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Fouriers law of heat conduction

Thermal conductivity, k: The ability of a material

to conduct heat.
Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the
temperature curve on a T-x diagram.

Heat flow in the direction of decreasing temperature.

The temperature gradient becomes negative when
temperature decreases with increasing x.
Thus, the negative sign in the equation ensures that
heat transfer in the positive x direction is a positive
quantity.
The rate of heat conduction
through a solid is directly
proportional to its thermal
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conductivity.

Thermal
Conductivity : k
Thermal conductivity: The rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness of the material per unit
area per unit temperature difference.
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure
of the ability of the material to conduct heat and the
value is vary with its temperature.
A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that
the material is a good heat conductor, and a low
value indicates that the material is a poor heat
conductor or insulator.
FYI, pure crystals and metals have the highest
thermal conductivities, and gases and insulating
materials the lowest.
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The variation of
the thermal
conductivity of
various solids,
liquids, and gases
with temperature.
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CONVECTION
Convection: The heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent
liquid or gas that is in motion.
The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer.

Heat transfer from a hot surface

to air by convection.
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The cooling of a boiled egg by

forced and natural convection.

Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also
considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during
the process, such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the
fall of the liquid droplets during condensation.
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Newtons law of cooling for convection

h
As
Ts
T

convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 C

the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
the surface temperature
the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface

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RADIATION

Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic

waves (or photons).

Heat transfer by radiation is fastest and does not require the presence
of medium (energy from sun to earth).

In heat transfer, we study on thermal radiation (radiation emitted by

bodies because of their temperature).

Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and

gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.

However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon

for solids.

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StefanBoltzmann law
= 5.670 108 W/m2 K4
StefanBoltzmann constant
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation
at the maximum rate (fig. below)
Radiation emitted by real surfaces

Emissivity : the ability of surface to emit energy by

radiation (a blackbody = 1).
0 1.

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Another important radiation property of a surface is

Absorptivity : the ability of surface to absorb radiation energy.
0 1
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it ( = 1).
Kirchhoffs law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at
a given temperature and wavelength are equal.

The absorption of radiation incident on

an opaque surface of absorptivity.

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Net radiation heat transfer: The difference between the

rates of radiation emitted by the surface and the radiation
absorbed.

When a surface is completely enclosed by a

large surface at temperature Tsurr separated
by a gas (such as air) that does not intervene
with radiation, the net rate of radiation heat
transfer between these two surfaces is given
by

ps : radiation is usually significant relative to

conduction or natural convection, but not to
forced convection.

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When radiation and convection occur

simultaneously between a surface and a gas:

Combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined

includes the effects of both convection and radiation.

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SIMULTANEOUS HEAT
TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids,
but by conduction and radiation in semitransparent
solids.
A solid may involve conduction and radiation but not
convection. A solid may involve convection and/or
radiation on its surfaces exposed to a fluid or other
surfaces.
Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by
radiation in a still fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by
convection and radiation in a flowing fluid.
In the absence of radiation, heat transfer through a
fluid is either by conduction or convection, depending
on the presence of any bulk fluid motion.
Convection = Conduction + Fluid motion
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation.
Most gases between two solid surfaces
do not interfere with radiation.
Although there are three mechanisms of
Liquids are usually strong absorbers of
heat transfer, a medium may involve
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radiation.
only two of them simultaneously.

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