2 STRESS To explain the transmission of force through a deformable solid requires the development of the concept of stress. Some people think that stress is the central physical concept of continuum mechanics and elasticity theory. The present chapter introduces the reader to stress and its mathematical char- acterization. In particular, those aspects that have important consequences for applications are carefully developed because they will be used, in one way or another, in the succeeding chapters. 2.1 THE STRESS VECTOR CONCEPT We consider a solid body in static equilibrium under the action of forces. It will be convenient to separate the forces into two distinct classes: (1) surface tractions and (2) body forces and moments. Surface tractions are force distributions which are applied to the surface of the solid, whereas body forces act on the internal matter of the solid. Examples of body forees are the action of gray sgnetic attraction or repulsion. We now consider a subregion B of the solid, as shown in Fig. 2.1a. Subregion B is in a state of static equilibrium, and it is subjected to “sorface tractions” over its (by- othetical) surface S, and to body forces and moments throughout B. Next, we consider a generic point Q in the interior of the solid, but on the surface of the subregion B. At Q we construct a tangent ‘normal unit vector v as shown in Fig. 2.16. The point Q is also on the surface of the complementary region A. With reference to region A, the tangent plane TI has the exterior normal unit vector ~» at Q. We shall next consider the transmission of forces from region A to B across the plane II in the neighborhood of the point Q. We denote by 4S a small subregion of the plane TI containing the point Q. The force resultant acting on the area AS, caused by the action of A upon B, is denoted by the symbol AF. We now define the stress vector T acting at Q by T= jim HSE ey © Fig. 21 (a) Region and subregion. (b) Stress vector. If, in @.1) we let A530 such that it always contains the point Q, then (2.1) serves as the operational definition of the stress vector T acting at the point Q fon a plane II with normal unit vector ». It is important (o note that even though Q is held fixed, the vector T will change for variations in the orientation of ». For this reason we sometimes write T=T(»). It should be recognized that T is a bound vector, that is, sliding along its line of action or parallel translation is not permissible, as it is in the case of a free vector. 2.2 EQUILIBRIUM With reference to Fig. 2.16, we now require that the solid subregion B be in ‘equilibrium, If F and M denote the body force and body moment vectors, respectively, per unit volume, then the necessary and sufficient conditions for46 -staess static equilibr-um are expressed by $= fr = J dV + f Tds=0 (22) m= f [((RxF) Ste D+M]av+ [(RxT)ds<0 (2.3) where S is the surface bounding th has e li e region B and R= xe, is the ‘esr of pcm point inthe dfomed onguation xe Copter ). We now imagine the body B to be divided into two parts, B, and By, by Passing a plane E through an interior point P of B as shown ia Fig. 22. As consequence of this mental experimen, B, and B, now become separte bodies, and (2.2) applies to each one of th Fadi A022) spp sack one of them. With the notations shown in [rare [Tea5~0 (om Te) Tiny Teo) Cy Mig. 22. (a) Surface traction vector. (0) Cauchy's lemma, rQuupriuM 47 toB, { Fav+ f TE) ds + {Tmpas-o (24d) to B,: free {Toas+ [7m as—0 (4c) where B= B,+B, and S=S,+S,. We now add (240) and (24), and subtract (2.4a) from the sum, obtaining {i704 7m] as—0 ‘This result must be valid for all bodies and for all planes which pass through P. Thus we conclude that T(n)+T(—n)=0, or T(-2)=-Te) (25) that is, T is an odd function of n. The result, (2.5), is known as Cauchy's Jemma ‘We shall next prove Cauchy’s theorem, which is stated as follows: The stress vector on any surface passing through the point P in B is a linear homogeneous function of the components of the positive normal to the surface at £. The coefficients of this linear function are the stress vectors ‘which act on the planes passing through P normal to the corresponding coordinate axes. To prove Cauchy's theorem, we apply (2.2) to’ the ‘etrahedron shown in Fig, 2.3. We denote by A the perpendicular distance from P to the surface ABC, the area of which we call S. The volume of the tetrahedron is V= AS. The areas of the remaining faces of the tetrahedron are related to S as follows: S,=PBC= mS Syn PCA= 1,5 Sy= PAB=n,5 where m is the unit outer normal'to S, The average density of force acting on the body is defined by Mat fra maya [Teds.tha) Fig-23. Tetrahecron fee body With the aid of these definiti Yeh te ions, (2.2) can be written for the tetrahedron in VAP) + SMa) + S,CT(—e,)) + 5,67(-e,)) + S,01(—€))=0, Upon dividing by 5 we obtain

myCE(— ey) + maT ~03)) + ng Te) = — 34RD, ‘We now take the limit of each term in this equation as h-»0, ing that jim =T(a) in@-r Thus we obtain Ta) + mT(—e,)+mT(~e,)+n,1(—e,)=0, ‘Upon application of Cauchy's lemma (2.5), this equation becomes Ta) =n,T(e,) + 2,T(e,) + nsT(e,) (26a) or, in indicial notation, T(a) =n Te) (2.6b) ‘THE STRESS TENSOR CONCEPT 49. It will often be convenient to write T(e)=T,, so that T=nT,. (2.66) Equations (2.6) are characterizations of Cauchy's theorem. With the aid of (2.6c) and the divergence theorem (See Section 1.11) we have JsTdS= {5,745 [pT dV so that (2.2) is transformed into f(T +F)av—0. 2 However, the region B is arbitrary, and it is assumed that the integrand function is continuous. Therefore T,+F=0 inp en Similarly [RxTds= fRxt), d= f (RxT),av and (2.3) is transformed into [Rx +M+(RxT),Jav=0. ‘The integrand function vanishes, sc that Rx(T,,+F)+R,, xT,+M=0 in B. If it is now assumed that M=0 in B (as is the case for most applications) and if we use (2.7), then R,xT,=0 in B. However, R,=6,, and therefore exT=0 inB, 28) 23 THE STRESS TENSOR CONCEPT. ‘We now write the stress vectors T, in component form, that is, we set Trent rier? nies 76, 29a) Tra ty@1 + ty + Taxes tye; (2.9) 14 rast Ts 746, (2.90)50. STRESS. or, in abbreviated notation Tene es) From an inspection of (2.9), itis evident that x; is the component of the stress vector T, in the direction of the unit.vector e,. The nine scalar quantities 1, are called stress components, and they are displayed in Fig. 2.4. The compo- nent of a stress vector notmal to the surface associated with that stress vector is called the normal stress, ry And Tay are normal stresses. A ‘the surface is called a shear stress, stresses. and noting the linear independence of thn inB. (210) Substitution of (2.9) into (2.8) results in (see (1.27) (exce)ey= etary =O or, in unabridged notation, \(Fa5~ Fn) $C. Tha) $e Ma Tay) =O. ‘Thus we conclude that nyt @u) % % Fig. 24. Stress tensor components. the solid. We also note that the symmetry ‘upon the vanishing of the body moment We now proceed to demonstrate that the nine scalar quantities 1, at the point P of the solid are the components of a Cartesian tensor of order two. With the aid of (2.6c) a1 subscripts denote axes w wetter, we have m= dy, where gp, on Toe pipet to Mete ee ioe IEEE Miya) or Cpe Gey 9. ‘This equation must be valid for arbitrary choice of the vector n. Hence Toe = yikes. (2:12) In view of Section 1.6 and (2.12), the quantities x, transform like a tensor of order two. Thus we conclude that stress is a symmetric tensor of order two. 24 PRINCIPAL AXES AND STRESSES Ithas been shown in Section 2.4 that the state of stress at a point of a solid is characterized by the symmetric stress tensor (2.13) where 7 =7,. With reference to (2.60) and (2.9) we have T= n.T,= 778), and eT = ny y= rita = Ty 80 that Ty= Amt rama ty Ty= 72h + ttt tatty Ty= 7 yymy brags tty (2.14a) ) (2.146) Equations (2.14) are known as Cauchy's formulas. They give the components of the stress vector T acting on the plane with outer ‘normal unit vector