Renewable Energy

HOW DOES A BIOGAS PLANT WORK

Organic input materials such as foodstuff remnants, fats or sludge can be fed into the biogas plant as substrate.

Renewable resources such as corn, beets or grass serve as feed both for animals such as cows and pigs
as well as for the micro organisms in the biogas plant.

Manure and dung are also fed into the biogas plant.

In the fermenter, heated to approx. 38-40 C, the substrate is decomposed by the micro organisms
under exclusion of light and oxygen. The final product of this fermentation process is biogas with methane
as the main ingredient. But aggressive hydrogen sulphide is also contained in the biogas. A fermenter made
of stainless steel has the clear advantage that it withstands the attacks of the hydrogen sulphide and is usable
for decades. Furthermore, a stainless steel fermenter provides the opportunity to operation the biogas plant
also in the thermophile temperature range (up to 56 C).

Once the substrate has been fermented, it is transported to the fermentation residues end storage tank and
can be retrieved from there for further utilisation.

The residues can be utilised as high quality fertiliser. The advantage: Biogas manure has a lower viscosity
and therefore penetrates into the ground more quickly. Furthermore, the fermentation residue quite often
has a higher fertiliser value and is less intense to the olfactory senses.

But drying it and subsequently using it as dry fertiliser is also an option.

The biogas generated is stored in the roof of the tank and from there it

is burned in the combined heat and power plant (CHP) to generate electricity and heat.

10

The electric power is fed directly into the power grid.

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The heat generated can be utilised to heat building or to dry wood or harvest products.

12

Processing of biogas

13

Gas supply to the national grid or gas filling stations

Which substrates can be used?

For the generation of biogas, a multitude of organic substrates can be used. In the decision for or against certain
substrates, the individual circumstances have to be taken into consideration. But the biogas yield of the different
substances, which is decisive for the efficiency of the biogas plant, also has to be taken into consideration. Our
employees are looking forward to providing you with advice regarding the optimal composition of your formula. At our
own laboratory we can furthermore accurately determine the methane content of your substrates.
Below, you will find some substrates that our customers are already using successfully:

Agriculture:
Farm manure:
e.g., cow manure, pig manure, poultry droppings, dung
Renewable resources:
e.g., corn, whole crop silage, grass, grains, beets
Agricultural by-products:
e.g., beet leafs, harvest residues

Industry
Wastes of plant origin:
e.g., contents of the biowaste bin, food remnants, fryer grease, slop/silage, draff/marc, pressed beet slices, potato
peelings, grass clippings
Wastes of animal origin:
e.g., fat, animal blood, gastro-intestinal contents, slaughter waste
other substrates:
e.g., sludge

How can biogas be utilised?

Biogas is a real all rounder and with its multitude of utilisation options, it is the only renewable
energy source that is flexibly utilisable.

Electricity: is generated either through the burning of biogas at the CHP or through the utilisation of pre-processed
biogas, the so-called biomethane. Biomethane is available everywhere through the natural gas grid.

Heat: when power is generated at a CHP, heat is created. This heat can be used for the heating of buildings,
swimming pools or for drying wood. With an intelligent heat utilisation concept, the efficiency of the biogas plant is
considerably increased.

Natural gas: through various methods, biogas can be cleaned from the undesirable components and be fed into the
natural gas grid as biomethane or also as so-called bio natural gas.

Fuel: biomethane as fuel provides a very high CO2 savings potential. With the additional of biomethane to natural
gas, the CO2 output can be lowered considerably in comparison to gasoline. The biomethane of one hectare of corn
permits a car to drive approx. 60,000 km.

Why biogas?

Biogas has a multitude of utilisation option and is furthermore storable. As such, biogas is far
superior to other renewable energies. Furthermore, biogas plants can generate power
continuously and independent of sun, wind and water.
Good reasons for biogas
1. Biogas makes our energy production safer
2. Biogas does not just supply electric power but also heat
3. Biogas is a replacement for natural gas
4. Biogas can be used as fuel
5. Biogas is good for the climate and saves CO2
6. Organic residues can be sensibly utilised and do not need to be simply disposed of
7. Biogas manure can replace mineral fertiliser
8. Biogas plants can be utilised by industry and agriculture
9. Biogas strengthens rural areas and creates jobs

Biogas Plant Virtual Tour

Biomass energy

Biomass is a renewable energy source consisting of living or recently living

organisms. Generally, this means plants and trees in the form of industrial and
agricultural scrap.The amount of CO2 returned to the atmosphere when biomass
fuels are burned is almost identical to the amount that was removed from the
atmosphere while these organisms were growing. This maintains a closed carbon
cycle, which significantly reduces the environmental impact. Although fossil fuels
are technically also organic, millions of years separate the time during which
CO2 was originally absorbed by the plant, dinosaur, or other organism, and its
release back into the atmosphere.

How a biomass-fired energy plant works

Using materials from nature to heat, cook and produce energy is by no means a new concept. In
fact, it is the oldest source of renewable energy, used since our ancestors first learned to use fire.
Today we can recover energy from biomass in highly efficient energy plants generating heat,
process steam, electricity, syngas, and/or bio-oil. Most of the biomass energy solutions are
combined heat and power

How does a biomass combustion plant work?

Some biomass needs pre-treatment before the fuel is fed onto a combustion grate where it is
burned. The heat from the combustion is used to fire the boiler, which in turn generates hot water
or steam. The steam turns a turbine that produces electricity.
Using biomass as a replacement for fossil fuels reduces emissions and recycles biological waste
from many forms of industrial products. Thus, biomass technology solves serious problems by
protecting the earth and atmosphere from greenhouse gas emissions.
Click and watch the video

Ever Green Biomass Gasification Plant Demo Video

Geothermal power plants

HOW IT WORKS
Geothermal power plants exploit the heat of deep Earth, because the temperature of our planet
increases as we descend towards the Earth core. This increase in temperature, which is called
geothermal gradient, equal to about 3 degrees for every hundred meters of depth but in some
areas, where there are geothermal systems, it is much higher, so to have temperatures of 250350C at a depth of about 2000-4000 m.
Through the fractures of rock strata, heated water and vapour rise to the surface and are
intercepted and produced by geothermal wells.
The vapour delivered from the wells is then convoyed into steam pipelines and sent to
the turbine, where the energy is converted into mechanical rotation energy.
The axis of the turbine is connected to the alternator which, by spinning, converts the
mechanical energy into electrical alternate current that is transmitted to the (AC) transformer.
The latter raises the voltage rate to 132.000 volts and feeds it into the distribution network.
The steam leaving the turbine is taken back to a liquid status in a capacitor, while the
uncondensable gases contained in the steam, are dispersed into the atmosphere.
A cooling tower can cool the water produced by steam condensation and can supply cold water
to the capacitor.
The condensed water output from power plants is re-injected into deep rocks from which the
steam has been extracted.
When the wells provide a liquid phase with a temperature below 180C circa, the heat of the fluid
is used to evaporate, in a special heat exchanger, another liquid at a low boiling point (usually
isobutane or isopentane) which, once transformed into steam in turn, will be channelled into
the turbine triggering the procedure described above.

ENERGY COURSE

Italy was the first country in the World to deploy geothermal energy, with the first generation plant
constructed 1913 in Larderello. Since then the history of geothermal power has been a source
of pride for the Italian energy industry. Italy, with about 700 MW, is one of the World's leading
producers and by far the largest in Europe. Its geothermal generation is focused in Tuscany,
which is therefore the Italian Region with the highest renewable production.

Steam turbine

HOW IT WORKS
The steam turbine consists of two main components: the rotor, a large line of steel on which are
mounted a number of "wheels" consisting of several rows of pallets and of a chest, a cylindrical
steel casing inside which are fixed nozzles and other rows of pallets. These do not rotate, but
form "rings", which come between the pallet rows of the rotor and are necessary to guide
correctly the steam from one row of mobile palettes to another. The box is divided longitudinally
into two halves, connected by large bolts. The steam, passing through the successive rows of
fixed and mobile pallets from one end of the turbine to the other, sets the rotor in motion, thus
turning its pressure and temperature energy into mechanical energy.

Alternator

structure
The alternator is an electricity generator. It consists of two basic parts, one fixed and one rotating,
respectively called stator and rotor, on which are arranged insulated copper windings. The two
windings are called inductor and induced.

PUMP

Structure
The pump used in geothermal power plants has a vertical axis pump set in motion by a 6000 volt
electric motor.
The pump consists of a forged steel cylinder inside which a body, called rotor, is rotated
centrifuging water and giving it the necessary pressure to make it reach the boiler.The pumps
used for feeding boilers of combined cycle groups are of the kind with several centrifugal
impellers, mounted on the same shaft. Each of the rotating wheels spins in a ring that contains
the diffusers capable of transforming kinetic energy into pressure energy.

CAPACITOR

Structure
The capacitor is connected to the turbines exhaust and essentially consists of an empty volume
through which passes the vapour and through which water is uniformly sprayed in the form of
small droplets, so as to bring water and steam in close contact. Un-condensable gases present in
geothermal steam are extracted from the capacitor by a compressor so as to maintain the
vacuum level required.

COOLING TOWER

Structure
A building shaped like a cuboid, with several short chimneys; or circular, with a broad and deep
cement fireplace that can reach 100 meters in height. Inside it, the water drips down and meets
with a strong current of air that goes from the bottom up, entering from the base and exiting from
the chimney. During this journey part of the water evaporates extracting heat from the rest of it,
which is collected in the cold water bath, whilst the warm and moist air comes out from the
chimney.

EXTRACTION WELLS

Structure
Its characteristics are similar to those of oil wells. Inside it is covered with steel pipes all the way
down to the extraction area (geothermal reservoir) where there can either be no pipe coating, or
there can be pipes with numerous holes to allow the extraction of geothermal fluids. The
extraction wells are connected to steel pipings (steam pipelines) that allow to carry the steam to
the geo-thermoelectric plant. The fluids contained in a geothermal reservoir can sometimes reach
the surface spontaneously through the subsoil, resulting in natural geothermal manifestations
such as geysers, fumaroles and hot springs.

RE-INJECTOR WELL

structure
Its characteristics are similar to those of oil wells. Inside it is covered with steel pipes all the way
down to the extraction area (geothermal reservoir) where there can either be no pipe coating, or
there can be pipes with numerous holes to allow the extraction of geothermal fluids. The
extraction wells are connected to steel pipings (steam pipelines) that allow to carry the steam to
the geo-thermoelectric plant. The fluids contained in a geothermal reservoir can sometimes reach
the surface spontaneously through the subsoil, resulting in natural geothermal manifestations
such as geysers, fumaroles and hot springs.

VISIT

HYDROELETRIC POWER PLANT

HOW IT WORKS
A hydroelectric power plant converts the hydraulic energy of a watercourse, be it natural or
artificial, into electricity. Generally, the functional scheme includes the infrastructure barrier,
a dam or crossbar, which intercepts the stream, creating a tank or basin, where a layer of
water is created.
Through works of abduction, canals and junction tunnels the water is piped into lading
tanks and, through the penstocks, into the turbines through inlet (safety) valves and
flow regulators (distributors), according to the energy demand. The water activates
the turbines and flows out, ending up into the spillway channel through which it is returned
to the river. In direct connection with the turbine, according to a vertical or horizontal axis
provision, there is the alternator, which is a rotating electric machine capable of converting
the mechanical energy provided by the turbine into electricity. The power thus obtained
must be transformed, if it is to be transmitted over long distances. Therefore, before being
fed into transmission lines, electricity passes through the transformer which lowers the
intensity of the current produced by the alternator, but raises the voltage to thousands of
volts. Once arrived at its intended destination, before it can be used the energy must pass

into a transformeronce more, only this time its intensity of current is raised and the
tension lowered, so as to make it suitable for domestic purposes.

Energy course

How it works
The term small hydro is conventionally used for hydroelectric systems with a capacity
up to 10 MW, which differ from plants with a higher capacity. In fact, while the latter require
large barrages (dams) and extended artificial lakes for water accumulation, small hydro
systems practically work like the old wind mills (obviously as a high-tech version), without
almost any environmental impact.
On the contrary, they offer several environmental advantages. First of all they supply
energy without emitting polluting substances, dust particles, heat and greenhouse gasses,
thus helping to reduce local pollution and global warming.

BASIN

STRUCTURE
The water basin is obtained by obstructing the course of a river. Size and shape of a river
basin are generally determined by the geological characteristics of the area, while the
branching of the catchment basin, or the density of small waterways, also depends upon,
essentially, the rainfall regimen, the soil and vegetation types and human activity.

DAM
DAM

STRUCTURE
An infrastructure meant to obstruct a water course, thus forming a basin or a tank with
entrance infrastructures, tunnels or channels, and infrastructures for the overflow of
excess water and spillways. The dams can be divided into two broad categories: gravity
dams and arc dams. Gravity dams are generally carachterized by a triangular or
trapezoidal vertical section, and by a straight horizontal section, which may sometimes be
curved instead. The stability and resistance to buoyancy (hydrostatic push) are entrusted
only to the weight of the building. With arch dams, the buoyancy (hydrostatic push) of
water flooded is transferred on the side walls upon which the dam itself leans. Convex
shaped ones can be built only to osbtruct not very wide valleys with rocky sides to which
the dam is anchored.

TURBINE

Kaplan turbine

Francis turbine

Pelton turbine

STRUCTURE
A hydraulic turbine is essentially composed of a modulating body, a distributor, and a
wheel or impeller. The first convoys and regulates the water flow, the latter converts the
kinetic energy taken from the water into rotational energy. From a construction point of
view, to obtain the highest possible return there are 3 different types of turbine:
Pelton
A hydraulic turbine typically used with high jumps (50-1300 m) and small flows. Pelton
turbines consist of a distributor with one or more nozzles (usually up to 6) in relation to the
scope to be sent to the impeller and by a wheel, keyed on the drive shaft that transmits
rotation to the electricity alternator. Each nozzle creates a stream, whose flow is regulated
by a needle valve.
Francis
A hydraulic turbine with fixed rotor blades, typically used with medium or low jumps (from
10 to 250 meters) and medium flows. Francis turbines are characterized by the fact that
water enters the impeller in a radial centripetal direction, and also by an axial exhaust. In
fast Francis turbines, the feeding is always radial, while the discharge of water is usually
axial; in these turbines the water moves as in a pressurized pipe: through a distributor
(fixed body) it reaches the wheel (moving body) to which it gives up its energy, without
entering at any time in contact with the atmosphere.
Kaplan
Hydraulic turbine with adjustable impeller blades typically used with high flow and low jump
(from 5 to 30 meters). These are axial flow turbines, generally used for low jumps (2-20
meters). In Kaplan turbines, the blades of the wheel are always adjustable, while the ones
of the distributor can be either fixed or adjustable. When both turbine blades and those of

the distributor are adjustable, the turbine is a real Kaplan (or double setting turbine); if
only the lades of the wheel are adjustable, then the turbine is a semi-Kaplan (or single
setting).

Penstock

Pensto
ck

STRUCTURE
Penstocks generally consist of sheet steel pipes or reinforced concrete. Their front ends
are fitted with shut-off and safety devices (generally butterfly valves) and the back ends
with interception devices (rotary or butterfly valves) of turbines'security, below which
regulatory bodies are installed (turbine distributors), directly related to the same turbines.

VALVE

Needle valve

Rotary valve

Butterfly Valve

The types of valve used in hydroelectric plants are:

Butterfly
consisting of a circular lens that rotates around a pivoting axis perpendicular to the rotating
pipe where the valve is mounted. They are used in systems with jumps up to 200 m and
have a maximum diameter of 4-5 meters. These are not regulation valves, they are on /
off type ones (completely open or completely closed).
Rotary
consisting of a spherical body inside which there is a rotating shutter with the same crosssection of the pipeline. The use of this type of valve, which can reach diameters of 4
meters, is fit for jumps up to 1500-1600 m. This one is also of the on / off kind.
Spindle
The shutter body of this type of valve has the shape of a spindle that is moved in axial
direction for opening or closing operations. This valve can regulate the water flow.

Restitution Infrastructure

The restitution infrastructures are mainly composed of a channel or tunnel either

pressurized or in free surface, which return the flows used to the water stream through a
proper artifact outlet.

TRANSFORMER

The transformer is a static electricity machine capable of transferring, by exploiting the

phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, alternate current electricity from one circuit to
another, changing its characteristics. Schematically, a transformer consists of two
windings, each made by a number of copper wire spires, wrapped around a highly
magnetically permeable iron core, one of which receives energy from the power line, while

the other is connected to use circuits. In the most recent constructions there is only one
winding, in this case called "autotransformer".

ALTERNATOR

The alternator is an electricity generator. It consists of two basic parts, one fixed and one
rotating, respectively called stator and rotor, which are surmounted by windings of
isolated copper. The two windings are said inductor (surmounts the rotor) and induced
(surmounts the stator).

Virtual tour Hydroeletric power plant

Hydrogen Power Plant

Watch the video

Hydrogen Power Plant

A hydrogen power plant is a concept design for a new widespread

source of electricity. Essentially, it is a facility which uses hydrogen to
produce electrical energy. Plans were first laid by GE in 2006; however, the
logistics of supplying the power plant has delayed its construction. The cost
involved with obtaining the hydrogen means that the overall cost of
hydrogen-based electricity will be greater than that of current nuclear and
petroleum-produced electricity.

Fusina: Hydrogen Power plant

How Does a Hydrogen Power Plant Work?

Large tanks of liquid hydrogen will feed into thousands of hydrogen fuel
cells. These fuel cells are solid structures containing an electrolyte fluid and
two terminals, much like batteries. The reactants flow into the cells, in this
case hydrogen and oxygen. They intermingle with the electrolyte to produce
an electrical charge and water as a byproduct. The water flows out another
port while the electricity is siphoned off the terminals and held in gigantic
multi-ton batteries. The electricity resides in the batteries until it is needed, in
which case it is sent out through the local power grid just like any other type
of power plant. In theory, this could be a near perfect source of energy as it
has no dangerous byproducts and is just as fuel-efficient as the average

internal combustion engine. The biggest problem is, and always has been,
obtaining cheap supplies of hydrogen.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Hydrogen is a versatile energy carrier that can be used to power
nearly every end-use energy need. The fuel cell an energy
conversion device that can efficiently capture and use the power of
hydrogen is the key to making it happen. 4Stationary fuel cells
can be used for backup power, power for remote locations,
distributed power generation, and cogeneration (in which excess

heat released during electricity generation is used for other

applications). 4Fuel cells can power almost any portable application
that typically uses batteries, from hand-held devices to portable
generators. 4Fuel cells can also power our transportation, including
personal vehicles, trucks, buses, and marine vessels, as well as
provide auxiliary power to traditional transportation technologies.
Hydrogen can play a particularly important role in the future by
replacing the imported petroleum we currently use in our cars.

Fuel Cells

Fuel cells directly convert the chemical energy in hydrogen to electricity,

with pure water and potentially useful heat as the only byproducts.

Hydrogen-powered fuel cells are not only pollution-free, but also can have
two to three times the efficiency of traditional combustion technologies.

A conventional combustion-based power plant typically generates

electricity at efficiencies of 33 to 35 percent, while fuel cell systems can
generate electricity at efficiencies up to 60 percent (and even higher with
cogeneration).
The gasoline engine in a conventional car is less than 20% efficient in
converting the chemical energy in gasoline into power that moves the vehicle,
under normal driving conditions. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, which use electric
motors, are much more energy efficient and use 40-60 percent of the fuels
energy corresponding to more than a 50% reduction in fuel consumption,
compared to a conventional vehicle with a gasoline internal combustion engine.
In addition, fuel cells operate quietly, have fewer moving parts, and are well
suited to a variety of applications.

How Do Fuel Cells Work?

A single fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two
electrodes, an anode and a cathode. Bipolar plates on either side of the cell
help distribute gases and serve as current collectors. In a Polymer Electrolyte
Membrane (PEM) fuel cell, which is widely regarded as the most promising for
light-duty transportation, hydrogen gas flows through channels to the anode,
where a catalyst causes the hydrogen molecules to separate into protons and

electrons. The membrane allows only the protons to pass through it. While the
protons are conducted through the
membrane to the other side of the cell, the stream of negatively-charged
electrons follows an external circuit to the cathode. This flow of electrons is
electricity that can be used to do work, such as power a motor.
On the other side of the cell, oxygen gas, typically drawn from the outside air,
flows through channels to the cathode. When the electrons return from doing
work, they react with oxygen and the hydrogen protons (which have moved
through the membrane) at the cathode to form water. This union is an
exothermic reaction, generating heat that can be used outside the fuel cell.

Hydrogen tour
The power produced by a fuel cell depends on several factors, including the
fuel cell type, size, temperature at which it operates, and pressure at which
gases are supplied. A single fuel cell produces approximately 1 volt or less
barely enough electricity for even the smallest applications. To increase the

amount of electricity generated, individual fuel cells are combined in series to

form a stack. (The term fuel cell is often used to refer to the entire stack, as
well as to the individual cell.) Depending on the application, a fuel cell stack
may contain only a few or as many as hundreds of individual cells layered
together. This scalability makes fuel cells ideal for a wide variety of
applications, from laptop computers (50-100 Watts) to homes (1-5kW), vehicles
(50-125 kW), and central power generation (1-200 MW or more).

Photovoltaic Power plant

HOW IT WORKS

The photovoltaic system is a set of mechanical, electrical and electronic components that concur to the
capture and conversion of all available solar energy, making it usable in the form of electricity. This is done
by exploiting a physical phenomenon, known as the photovoltaic effect (i.e., the ability of some suitably
doped semiconductor materials to generate electricity when exposed to light radiation.
When photons (energy particles from the sun) strike a photovoltaic cell, a portion of energy is absorbed by
the material and some electrons, displaced from their position in the atomic structure, flow through the
(properly treated) semiconductor material, producing a direct current that can be collected on the surface of
the cell.
More cells are connected in series or in parallel and packed to form a module, which is the basis of the
photovoltaic implant.
PV systems can be divided into two categories: those connected to the electricity grid (grid-connected) and
the isolated ones (stand-alone). In the first case, the current generated is sent to an inverter from which it
comes out in the form of alternate current, which can then be transformed into medium-voltage current from
the transformer before being fed into the distribution line. In the latter case however, that of the isolated
plants, they can feed powerloads in both direct current (without the presence of an inverter) and alternate
current forms, but they generally have a storage system. In this type of photovoltaic system it is necessary to
store electricity to ensure the continuity of supply even at times when it is not produced. That is ensured by
electrochemical accumulators.
The system connected to a network, however, does not incorporate storage systems because the energy
produced during the hours of sunshine is fed into the power grid; vice versa during the hours of little or no
sunshine, the local powerload is fed from the network.

HOW IT WORKS

HOW IT WORKS
Italy is not excluded from this development, since in this country distributed generation is
growing at a pace that could have never been predicted just a few years ago. For
example, in 2008 and 2009, about 70,000 PV systems were installed in Italy.
These plants have a limited capacity (up to 20 kW), allowing each home to become a
small power station capable of meeting the needs of the family and, at the same time, to
inject power in the public grid.

CELLS

STRUCTURE

The cell is the primary device at the base of every photovoltaic system for electricity
production. A photovoltaic cell is essentially a large-surface diode which, if exposed to the
sun, converts sunlight radiation into electricity. The cell behaves like a tiny battery and
produces a current of 3 amperes with a voltage of 0.5 volts and thus an output of nearly
1.5 watts.
Photovoltaic cells are usually of a dark blue color, because of the titanium oxidate present
in the anti-reflective coating, which is essential to optimize the uptake of solar radiation.
Their shape is usually square and the measure may vary from that of the most common
(10 x 10 cm, 12.5 x 12.5 centimeters or 15 x 15 cm) to that of the more unusual (5 x 15 cm
and 10 x 15 centimeters).
For the manufacture of the cells the materials now mainly used are crystalline
silicon, amorphous silicon, gallium arsenideand telloluro cadmium. The flow of
electrons is directed and focused by an electric field created inside the cell, with the
overlap of two layers of silicon, each of which is injected with another particular chemical
element (doping operation), phosphorus or boron, at a ratio of one atom for every million
atoms of silicon. Of all the energy hitting the solar cell in the form of light radiation, only a
portion is converted into electricity. The conversion efficiency of commercial crystalline
silicon cells is typically between 10% and 20%.

MODULE

STRUCTURE
The PV module, which is the basic component of PV systems, is obtained from the
electrical connection of solar cells connected in series or in parallel. These are assembled
between a top layer of glass and a lower layer of plastic (the Tedlar) and enclosed by an
aluminum frame. The most common photovoltaic modules are made up of 36 or 72 cells.
In the rear of the module there is a junction box in which are housed by-pass diodes and
electrical contacts. The PV module has a size of about half a square meter and the
normal sizes on the market range from 100 to 300 Watts of power .

PANEL

STRUCTURE
The photovoltaic panel is a set of modules connected in series or in parallel in a rigid
structure. A number of cells, assembled and linked together, form the photovoltaic module
and multiple modules, mounted on a rigid structure, constitute a photovoltaic panel. The
PV system is obtained by connecting several panels, in order to obtain the desired voltage
and current and blending them with a control and power conditioning system (inverter ).

STRING

STRUCTURE
In order to provide the required voltage, more modules or more panels, depending on the
power required, are electrically connected in series forming a string.

FIELD

STRUCTURE
The electrical connection in parallel of multiple strings constitutes the photovoltaic field. In
the planning phase of a PV field, some choices that will affect its functioning must be
made. A fundamental choice is the one regarding series or parallel configuration of the
modules, because it determines the electrical characteristics of the PV. The strings of a
field can be arranged in parallel rows with the desired angle. The minimum distance
between the panel rows cannot be set at random but must be such as to prevent the
shadow of the front row from covering the back row. It is therefore necessary to calculate
the minimum distance between rows depending on the height of the panels, the latitude of
the location and the (inclination) angle of the panels.

INVERTER
Click and visit

"Cerratina"

STRUCTURE
The electricity generated by photovoltaic panels is of continuous type. Since the national
distribution system is based on alternate current an electronic device, the inverter, is
capable of transforming (and therefore used) direct electricity to alternate. Energy is
transferred from a photovoltaic power station to users through specific devices, necessary
to transform the current produced by the modules and adapt it to the needs of final users.
All of these devices are called BOS (Balance of System) and include, in addition to the
inverter, the transformer, the switchboards and auxiliary plant systems.

HAVE A LOOK AT THE GLOBAL SOLAR

IRRADIANCE

Virtual tour of a photovoltaic power plant

Heat collectors

Solar collectors are either non-concentrating or concentrating. In the nonconcentrating type, the collector area is the same as the absorber area. In
these types the whole solar panel absorbs light. Concentrating collectors have
a bigger interceptor than absorber.
Flat-plate and evacuated-tube solar collectors are used to collect heat for space
heating, domestic hot water or cooling with an absorption chiller.

Applications

The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where the demand
for hot water has a large impact on energy bills. This generally means a
situation with a large family, or a situation in which the hot water demand is
excessive due to frequent laundry washing. Commercial applications include
car washes, military laundry facilities and eating establishments. Solar water
heating systems are most likely to be cost effective for facilities with water
heating systems that are expensive to operate, or with operations such as
laundries or kitchens that require large quantities of hot water. Unglazed liquid
collectors are commonly used to heat water for swimming pools. Because these
collectors need not withstand high temperatures, they can use less expensive
materials such as plastic or rubber. They also do not require freeze-proofing
because swimming pools are generally used only in warm weather or can be
drained easily during cold

WIND POWER MAP

WIND POWER PLANT

HOW IT WORKS
A wind power plant consists of a group of aero generators of medium (600-900 kW) or
large (> 1MW) size, arranged over the territory in order to better exploit the wind resource
of the site; the aero generators are connected together electrically through underground
conduits. The wind power plant is associated with a delivery car-station, which in turn is
connected to the national grid.
The aero generators consist essentially of a car or nacelle, supported by a metal structure,
which is connected to a rotor, which in turn consists of a set of blades mounted on a hub
and designed to steal part of the wind's kinetic energy, so as to transform it into
mechanical energy. When the wind blows the rotor spins, thus activating the electrical
generator which, via a gearbox, has the function to convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
The wind's kinetic energy is transmitted from the rotor to a generator connected to the
control and transformation systems which regulate the production of electricity and any
network connection. The electricity produced in the car is piped to the ground through

electrical cables; the same thing happens to the signals needed to control the proper
functioning of the aero generator.

ENERGY COURSE

HOW IT WORKS
Wind power is the worldwide most successful source for electricity generation. In the ten
years going from 2000 to 2009, wind installed capacity grew at an extraordinary rate, rising
from just over 10,200 MW to about130,000 MW. These systems are particularly suitable
for single homes, as well as for agriculture, tourism and small and medium businesses.
Thanks to technological advance and to the introduction of specific incentivating
mechanisms, these wind distributed generation systems are increasingly expanding, even
if only in areas with sufficient wind speed.

AERO GENERATOR

STRUCTURE
The typical configuration of a wind turbine consists of a metal support structure of either
lattice or tubular type bearing a nacelle, or ship, at its top; the nacelle houses the slow
transmission shaft, the gerbox, the speed shaft, the electric generator and the auxiliary
equipment. At the extremity of the slow transmission shaft and outside the nacelle a rotor
is mounted, and it consists of a hub equipped with blades. The aerogenerator begins
working with a wind of about 3 m / s (10 km / h) and reaches its full power when it comes
to about 17 m / s (50 60 km / h).

ANEMOMETER

STRUCTURE
The anemometer consists of a vertical axis and three cups which 'capture' the wind. It
includes a speed and direction sensor. The number of revolutions per minute is recorded
by an electronic device that automatically halts the generator if the wind speed is above 25
30 meters per second.

Control System

STRUCTURE
The control system consists of a series of computerized devices that are used to monitor
the aero-generator's operating conditions and check the bearing support. In the event of a
malfunctioning, the control system automatically blocks the wind turbine and sends an
intervention notice to the tele-conduction point of the facility.

YAW SYSTEM

STRUCTURE
The motion of the nacelle (ship) in relation with the support structure is achieved by gears
driven by an actuator which can either be electric or hydraulic.

ALTERNATOR

STRUCTURE
Normally, a brake is mounted on the shaft speed, and below it is the electric generator
from which branch the power cables.

GEARBOX

STRUCTURE
The slow transmission shaft is connected to a gearbox from which branches off a speed
shaft, which rotates with an angular velocity given by the slow shaft multiplied by the
multiplication ratio of the multiplier

ROTOR

STRUCTURE
The rotor consists of a hub on which are set blades (usually 2 or 3, with diameters varying
from 40 to 50 meters, made of composite materials reinforced with fiberglass or innovative
composite materials) capable of rotating at a speed exceeding 200 kilometers per hour.
The hub is connected to a first shaft, or slow transmission (output) shaft, which rotates at
the same angular velocity of the rotor. Since high intensity winds BLOW for a very short
time during the year, it is not cheap to adopt wind turbines with fixed pitch rotors and size
them to take advantage of these limited periods of strong winds. Indeed, the significant
increase in the cost of the machine, due to the strong resistance of the blades and the high
peak power, would not be offset by modest increases in electricity produced. This
increased cost can be avoided by limiting the energy conversion process of the aerogenerator under the strong winds' regimen and this limitation is usually achieved by
adopting variable pitch blades the setting of which reduces the aerodynamic efficiency of
the rotor. The pitch can be varied in a continuous or stepped way; in the latest large size

machines it is preferable to adopt a blade type that can be adjusted only in the part closest
to the tip.

TOWER

STRUCTURE
The average height of a tower is comprised between 40 and 60 meters. The tower may
consist of a metal structure the shape of a truncated cone (with an internal ladder that
allows to go up and down for maintainance purposes) or of a lattice trellis metal structure.

TRANSFORMER

STRUCTURE
The transformer is a static electric machine which, by exploiting the electromagnetic
induction phenomenon, turns the parameters of the incoming power, tension and current,
into values of exiting current and tension that are predefined at a constant power (unless
there are any trasformation losses). Schematically, a trasformer consists of two windings,
each formed by a number of coils of copper wire wrapped around a highly permeable iron
core. Of these, one receives energy from the feedline, whilst the other is connected to the
circuits of use.

VISIT THE ENERGY PLANTS PARK

What's inside a wind turbine?

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY

COAL POWER PLANT

HOW IT WORKS
Due to its high availability, secure supply, competitiveness and highly secure handling,
transportation and use its nonflammable, and its not explosive or polluting for either

land or water - coal is the primary fuel for electricity generation in the world and in Europe.
The energy path in a coal fired power station starts in the steam generator area, which
contains the burners used for coal combustion.
The high temperature of combustion gasses produces the conversion into steam of the
water contained in the pipes of the heat engine. The steam reaches the turbine through
thick pipes, and makes it rotate at 3,000 revolutions per minute.
The turbine is connected to an alternator which generates electricity. The fumes, after
having emitted their heat to the steam generator, are sent to the chimney following their
passage through denitrificators, dust collectors and desulphators, in order to abate,
respectively, nitrogen oxides, dust particles and sulphur dioxide. The steam, after having
transmitted a large portion of its energy to the turbine, is conveyed to
the condenser where it transfers its residual heat to the sea water with which it never
comes in contact extracted by means of specific pumps. This steam is thus converted
into water that is once more transferred by means of pumps to the steam generator in
order to start the cycle over. The voltage of the energy produced by the alternator is
heightened to 380 kV so that it can be grid-connected.

ENERGY COURSE

HOW IT WORKS
Worldwide, 39 % of electricity produced comes from coal, whilst in the 27 EU countries it
amounts to 33%. For the future, electricity generation from coal is bound to grow

strongly.Remarkable, however, is the technological innovation of the plants, which

provides us, today, with a greater efficiency of at least ten points compared to a few years
ago, with very low emissions. In particular, investments in "clean coal" technologies made
in Italy, For instance, the 1,980 MW Torrevaldaliga Nord plant, opened in July 2008 in
Civitavecchia, is one of the most advanced in the world: coal transport and handling
systems are completely sealed (the fuel never comes in contact with the air) and
emissions Are reduced up to 88% compared to the previous fluel-oil plant.

Steam generator

STRUCTURE
A steam generator essentially consists of a furnace in which the injected air and fuel are
burnt, thus heating and steaming the water flowing in the pipes and coils forming the
generator itself. Moreover, each generator is equipped with two rotating air heaters to
recover the heat from exiting fumes, as well as from blowing and auxiliary systems.

Steam turbines

STRUCTURE
The turbine is a machine that converts the mechanical energy of a fluid in motion (liquid or
gas) into kinetic energy. In the case of thermal power stations, the fluid in question is
superheated steam. The essential element of the turbine is the rotor, which consists of a
wheel with "palettes". The mechanical energy gained by the rotor is then transmitted to a
crankshaft that is used to activate an electrical generator named alternator.

ALTERNATOR

STRUCTURE
The alternator is an electricity generator. It consists of two basic parts, one fixed and one
rotating, respectively called stator and rotor, on which are arranged insulated copper
windings. The two windings are called inductor (mounting the rotor) and induced
(mounting the stator).

TRANSFORMER

STRUCTURE
The transformer is a static electricity machine capable of transferring, by exploiting the
phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, alternate current electricity from one circuit to
another, changing its characteristics. Schematically, a transformer consists of two
windings, each made by a number of copper wire spires, wrapped around a highly
magnetically permeable iron core, one of which receives energy from the power line, while
the other is connected to circuits of use. In the most recent constructions there is only one
winding, in this case called "autotransformer".

FEEDING PUMP

STRUCTURE
The pump used in coal-fired power has a vertical axis pump set in motion by a 6000 volt
electric motor.

CONDENCER

STRUCTURE
The capacitor is connected to the turbines exhaust and essentially consists of an empty
volume through which passes the vapour and through which water is uniformly sprayed in
the form of small droplets, so as to bring water and steam in close contact. Uncondensable gases present in geothermal steam are extracted from the capacitor by a
compressor so as to maintain the vacuum level required.

CATALYZER

STRUCTURE
The NOx removal process based on reaction with ammonia and oxygen requires high
temperatures: this may occur at the temperatures of fumes coming out of the boiler due to
the presence of suitable catalysts, consisting of "grids" coated with oxides of vanadium,
tungsten and titanium, inserted in layers (usually 2 or 3) inside the denitrificator.

DUST COLLECTOR

STRUCTURE
The operation is based on the principle of attraction between bodies with electrical charge
of opposite sign. The precipitators consist of a set of thread-like elements and plates,
arranged vertically in the smoke duct and held in tension by a system of DC power in order
to have an ionized electric field inside the duct. Thread-like electrodes have the task of
negatively charging solid particles of smoke, which will then be attracted by positively
charged plates. Systems of vibrators and shakers of the plates provide, at regular
intervals, the dropping of soot in the underlying hoppers.

DESULPHURIZER

STRUCTURE
The operation is based on the principle of attraction between bodies with electrical charge
of opposite sign. The precipitators consist of a set of thread-like elements and plates,
arranged vertically in the fume duct and held in tension by a system of direct current power
in order to have an ionized electric field inside the duct. Thread-like electrodes have the
task of negatively charging the solid particles of fumes, which will then be attracted by
positively charged plates.
Plates' vibrator and shaker systems provide, at regular intervals, the dropping of soot into
the underlying hoppers.

Chimney

STRUCTURE
The chimney is made of a sturdy concrete "coating" containing numerous pipes, one for
each production unit, in order to increase the speed of fumes' outlet and allow the raising
of its plume.

VISIT THE POWER PLANT IN PORTO TOLLE

Click and select Grand Tour to view the phases of coal-fueled energy production from start to finish

NUCLEAR ENERGY
Nuclear energy is a way of creating heat through the fission process of atoms. All power plants convert
heat into electricity using steam. At nuclear power plants, the heat to make the steam is created when
atoms split apart -- called fission. (Other types of power plants burn coal or oil for heat to make steam.)
It also releases energy in the form of heat. The released neutrons can then repeat the process. This
releases even more neutrons and more nuclear energy. The repeating of the process is called a chain
reaction. In a nuclear power plant, uranium is the material used in the fission process.

The heat from fission boils water and creates steam to turn a turbine. As the turbine spins, the generator
turns and its magnetic field produces electricity. The electricity can then be carried to your home, so you
can work on the computer, watch television, play video games, or make toast!

NUCLEAR REACTORS
There Are Two Types of Reactors
The Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

PWRs keep water under pressure so that it heats, but does not boil. Water from the reactor and the water
in the steam generator that is turned into steam never mix. In this way, most of the radioactivity stays in
the reactor area.Pressurized Water Reactors are known as "PWRs." They keep water under pressure so
that it heats but does not boil. Water from the reactor and the water that is turned into steam are in
separate pipes and never mix.

And the Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

Boiling Water Reactors are known as "BWRs." In BWRs, the water heated by fission actually boils and
turns into steam to turn the generator. In both types of plants, the steam is turned back into water and
can be used again in the process.
Radioactivity must be carefully managed because it can be dangerous if not handled properly. It can
damage human cells or cause cancer over time. Since the fission process creates radioactivity, all nuclear
power plants have many safety systems that protect workers, the public and the environment. For
example, systems allow the fission process to be stopped and the reactor to be shut down quickly. Other
systems cool the reactor and carry heat away from it. Barriers keep the radioactivity from escaping into
the environment.
In reactors, radioactive material is contained inside small ceramic pellets about the size of an adult's
finger. They are placed in long metal rods inside a reactor vessel, which is enclosed in a concrete and
steel containment building. These buildings have walls three to six feet thick!

Virtual Nuclear Power Station

RADIATION

In Reactors, Radiation Is Trapped and Contained in Several Ways:

Small amounts of radioactivity can be released into the environment but only
under controlled and monitored conditions. The only major accident in a
nuclear power plant in this country was at Three Mile Island near Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania, in March 1979. At Three Mile Island, there was major fuel
damage, and radioactive gases and contaminated cooling water filled the
containment building. Some radioactivity was released into the atmosphere,
but it didn't hurt people or the environment.
A much more serious accident happened in 1986 at Chernobyl in the former
Soviet Union. That reactor was built differently than those in the U.S. Most
importantly, it had no containment system. The reactor core was severely
damaged and a large amount of radioactivity was released into the
environment.

Pressurized Water Reactors

In a typical commercial pressurized light-water reactor(1) the core inside the reactor vessel creates heat,
(2) pressurized water in the primary coolant loop carries the heat to the steam generator, (3) inside the
steam generator, heat from the steam, and (4) the steam line directs the steam to the main turbine,
causing it to turn the turbine generator, which produces electricity. The unused steam is exhausted in to
the condenser where it condensed into water. The resulting water is pumped out of the condenser with a
series of pumps, reheated and pumped back to the steam generators. The reactor's core contains fuel
assemblies that are cooled by water circulated using electrically powered pumps. These pumps and other
operating systems in the plant receive their power from the electrical grid. If offsite power is lost
emergency cooling water is supplied by other pumps, which can be powered by onsite diesel generators.
Other safety systems, such as the containment cooling system, also need power. Pressurized-water
reactors contain between 150-200 fuel assemblies. See also animated diagram.

CLICK FOR A VIRTUAL TOUR

RADIOACTIVE WASTE

Nuclear power plants generate two types of waste: high-level and

low-level.
High-level waste includes the fuel that was used in the nuclear reactor, called "spent fuel." It is highly
radioactive and very dangerous. It must be cooled for several years in deep pools inside the plant, after
which it can be transferred to special casks, which are like big, concrete barrels. Some of the fission
products in the spent fuel will take many years to lose their radioactivity. A special disposal site is needed
for this type of waste. In early 2012, a Blue Ribbon Commission of policy experts recommended creating
one or more large facilities where the waste from several nuclear plants can be stored until a disposal site
is found.

Virtual Tour
Low-level waste can come from nuclear reactors or from hospitals or
universities. Low-level waste is not as dangerous as high-level waste. It can be
shipped to low-level waste disposal facilities. There, it is packaged, buried in
trenches and covered with soil. States are responsible for selecting new
disposal sites or using those that already exist.
Nuclear power provides about 20 percent of our nation's electricity. And
nuclear materials help in thousands of medical procedures and dozens of
industrial uses. But many scientists believe we haven't yet found all the ways
to use nuclear materials. The NRC will be closely regulating any peaceful use of

nuclear material to protect public health and safety, and the world in which we
live.