Aerospace Materials

Selection of materials for a given application

Aerospace metal alloys
Properties
Relative costs
Composite materials
Material properties
Analysis methods
Manufacturing

Material Selection
The first factor to be considered in selection of a
material for a given component is the application.
Operational features principal function of the
component; description of principal loads and
environment
Design Criteria most important design properties
for satisfying the operational features
Manufacturing Processes Material form and
fabrication processes.

Properties for Screening/Rating Materials

Static strength and stiffness properties
Durability and damage tolerance properties (fracture
toughness, fatigue and corrosion resistance, etc.)
Physical properties (thermal and electrical conductivity,
coefficient of thermal expansion)
Producibility (cost, manufacturing considerations, etc.
Weight
Availability

Metal Alloys for Aerospace Application

An alloy is a mixture or solid solution of two or more metals.
The atoms of one replace the atoms of the other or
occupy interstitial positions between the atoms.

Aluminum alloys
Titanium alloys
Steels
Magnesium alloys
Nickel alloys
Beryllium alloys

Material Forms for Metals

Sheet and plate a rolled, flat product
Sheet thickness less than 0.250 in.
Plate thickness 0.250 in. or greater

Extrusion uniform cross section created by forcing

metal through a series of dies
Forging shape created by plastically deforming
metal by compression, usually in closed dies. Forging
creates high-strength, tough part with efficient use of
material.
Casting created by solidification of liquid material in
a mold
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Applications for Material Forms

Sheet and plate
Sheets are used in skin of fuselage, wings, control surfaces,
etc.
Plates are machined to varying thickness create optimum
shapes in high-cost parts

Extrusion used for uniform cross section parts (e.g.,

stiffeners on spars, ribs) where higher strength is
needed
Forging nonuniform cross section parts where highstrength is needed.
Casting lower cost parts in noncritical areas

Aluminum Alloy Characteristics

Aluminum alloys are the most widely used materials
in aircraft structures.
Al alloys are easily formed and machined.
Al alloys are relatively inexpensive.
Al alloys experience a significant reduction in strength
at higher temperatures, limiting their application in
supersonic aircraft.

Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum alloys are identified by a four-digit numbering
system that signifies the primary alloying element.

1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000

99% elemental Al
Copper
Manganese
Silicon
Magnesium
Magnesium and Silicon
Zinc

Processing used to produce specific properties (such

as heat treatment) are designated by a dashed suffix
following the four-digit alloy, e.g., 2024-T3.
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Aluminum Alloys for Airframe Structures

Group 2000: Primarily in tension applications where
fatigue and damage-tolerant design are critical
Lower wing skins
Pressurized fuselage skins
Standard material has been 2024-T3

Group 7000: Compression applications or where

static strength is more important than fatigue or
damage tolerance

Upper wing surfaces

Wing ribs
Floor beams
7075-T6, especially in military jets

Titanium Alloys
Titanium alloys offer, with their higher strength, offer
higher structural efficiencies than Al alloys.
Ti alloys are offer selected due to high temperature
endurance.
Ti alloys are significantly more expensive than Al
(high material cost, more difficult to form and
machine).
Galvanic corrosion resistance for fastening composite
structures.
The most common alloy is Ti-6Al-4V.

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Steel Alloys
Steel contains iron with a small percentage of carbon
(0.02 to 1.7%). Other alloying elements are added to
achieve specific properties such as strength,
toughness, or corrosion resistance.
The mechanical properties of steels can be varied
significantly by heat treating.
Some steels offer very high strength.
Steel alloys are not widely used in airframe structures
except where very high strength is needed.

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Steel Alloys
Steel alloys are identified by a four-digit numbering
system.
The first two digits identify the primary alloying elements,
while the last two signify the carbon content.
4130
4340

Cr-Mo with 0.3% C

Ni-Cr-Mo with 0.4% C

Standard heat treats are identified by the ultimate

tensile strength, e.g., 180 ksi.
AISI 4340 is used for thicker parts than 4130 because
it can be heat treated to a greater depth.
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Mechanical Properties
Most common metallic materials used for aerospace design are
Aluminum, Steel, and Titanium. The properties for these materials
are contained in MIL-HDBK-5. Typical data includes:
Tension:
tu = Ultimate Stress
ty = Yield Stress
E = Modulus of Elasticity
e = Elongation

Compression:
cu = Ultimate Stress
ty = Yield Stress
Ec = Modulus of Elasticity

Shear:

Bearing:

su = Ultimate Stress
G = Modulus of Rigidity

bru = Ultimate Stress

bry = Yield Stress

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MIL-HDBK-5 Terminology
Strength values are reported using symbol F. For example Fty = ty
The values reported are minimum guaranteed values based on
testing multiple specimens. The statistical confidence in the values
are given using the following bases:
A Basis: At least 99 percent of all mechanical property values are
expected to fall above the specified property values with a confidence
of 95 percent.
B Basis: At least 90 percent of all mechanical property values are
expected to fall above the specified property values with a confidence
of 95 percent.
S Basis: Minimum mechanical property values specified by various
agencies.

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MIL-HDBK-5

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Example: Material Selection for Minimum Weight Design

A commonly used criterion in selecting materials for aerospace
structures design is minimum weight. This involves selecting the
proper combination of material and design dimensions that result
in the part with minimum weight.
Consider the three loading conditions below. It is assumed that the
only design dimension to selected is thickness t.

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Example: Material Selection for Minimum Weight Design

(Continued)
The expressions relating the applied external loads to the induced
stresses are:

Buckling:

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Example: Material Selection for Minimum Weight Design

(Continued)
The weight of the member can be expressed in terms of the material
density and geometric dimensions:
W=Lbt
Solving for t from the expressions relating loads to stress and
substituting above:

(buckling)

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Example: Material Selection for Minimum Weight Design

(Continued)
Weight comparison of different materials may be conducted using
the expressions previously derived.
Axial Load:

Buckling:

Bending:

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Example: Material Selection for Minimum Weight Design

(Continued)

1.02

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Material Cost
The material cost data provided in the handout are
normalized based on the cost of 2024 Al sheet, which is
has been widely used in the structures of existing aircraft.

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Fatigue Failure
Nearly every component in an aircraft structure is
subjected to fluctuating loads, including the loads of
pressurization, takeoff, and landing.
Discontinuities such as windows, doors, and rivets
cause stress concentrations which mean these areas
are of particular concern.
Because materials subject to fluctuating loads fail at
stresses much lower than the stresses that cause
failure under static loads, fatigue behavior must be
considered in selection of materials.
Fatigue behavior is expressed as a graph of failure
stress as a function of cycles to cause failure (S-N
curve).
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Typical S-N Curves

For many steels the S-N curve
levels is asymptotic to a minimum
value, as shown for 4130, HT to
125 ksi.

Aluminum alloys do not exhibit this

asymptotic behavior, as shown for
Al 2024-T4.

Palmgren-Minor theory

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Sandwich Structure

The sandwich consists of a core material, typically honeycomb,

between two higher strength face sheets.
The face sheets and core may be made from an aluminum alloy
or a nonmetallic composite.
The face sheets possess high in-plane strength, and the core
separates them to increase bending resistance.
Design of the sandwich component must consider a variety of
failure modes, including shear failure of the bond between face
sheets and core.

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Example of Typical Transport Structure

Boeing 737 horizontal stabilizer assembly

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Typical Transport Structural Component

Boeing 737 horizontal stabilizer rib (sandwich stiffened)

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Sandwich-Stiffened Structural Component

Boeing 767 outboard aileron

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