Fairs (GEORGE BASALLA University of Dalware (OWEN HANNAWAY Jos Hopkins Unitosty ee oo eee eee a ae eee ee Pela = ee ee ee THE FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN SCIENCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES Their religious, institutional, and intellectual contexts EDWARD GRANT rina Untersty CAMBRIDGE‘Game, New tor Nets Mas, Cpe Ton ‘Spppors SboPuna, Dt igs Mv St Sede othe en New ok, svmieanbreens [nbemao on hire wwncambgearrssss caste Unteiy Fr ‘hs pseu incopy Saja aon cg ss bine poratern oer calscelcmang sen ‘overcomplete Pisin of Cambege Unrate st pueda spony ant Acs rer he abi al fo te Bre ray scons Papbick ‘erie Univety Pes no meni or he pesto ay ‘roar ert pry toa i st arnt po ad Jom {ott any etn on och Web shel mui ete or appope To ay colleaguos past and present ‘inte of History ane Philosophy of Scence Indiana Universit-BloomingtonI Contents Price {LM NOMA EMPIRE AND THE IST Sx CENTURIES Christianity and pagan learaing ‘lexaemeratiterature: Chistian commentaries on the creation tievount in Conese ‘Christanty and Greco-Roman culture “The sfate of sence and natural pilesophy during the fist sb ‘centres of Ciistiaty “The seven Iierl arts 2. 1 NEW AEGROMING: THE AGE OF TRANSLATION Education and Jearing in the twelfth century [Latin tanaations from Arabic ana Greek ‘The vanslaion of the works of Aristotle ‘The diwemination and assimilation cf Ariso's natural ilsophy “The Contutons of Grevk commentators ‘he contuton ffm commentators Preudo-Arttelian works Reception of e eanaains 23. fe Mepisval UNvaRSTY ‘Shadents and masters “Teaching in the ar faculty page xt 28Be8 RBs 2 8 »vii Costs “The curiculum of the art faculty Logic ‘The quadriviem The thre philosophies “The higher faculties of theology and medicine ‘The social and intellectual role ofthe university ‘The manuscript culture of the Middle Ages 4. nist mie stot AGES RENTED FROME AnteTOTLE ‘The teresa region: Realm of incessant change “Motion in Aristotle's physics ‘Natural motion of sublunae bodes Violen, oF unnatural, motion ‘The celestial region Tncorruptible ae changes 5. IE RECEPTION AND IMPACT CF ARSTOTELIAN LEARNING AND ‘The Condemnation of 1277 “The eternity ofthe world The doctrine ofthe double ruth Limatations on God's absolute power ‘Two senses ofthe hypothetical in medieval natural philosophy ‘The thelogian-natral philosophers (6 WHAT THE MIDDLE AGES DID WITH MS ARITOTRUAN LECACY “The eres region "The eases of motion Tnlernal resistance and natural motion in a vacuum Violent motion ina vacium anc impetus theory ‘The Kinematics of mation “Motion as dhe quantication of « quality: The itension ‘and remieion of forms ‘The celestial region ‘The threeor> compromise ‘The numberof total orbs Celestial incoraptibilty and change ‘he causes of colestial maton External movers Intemal movers Inernal and external movers combined Does the eth have a day axial ration? sesaras gesea ¢ Bees s aeaRee ys Contr ‘The world at 2 whole, and what may lie beyond Ts dhe world crested or eternal? (On the posible existence of ether words [Does space or voi exit hevond our Word? 7. MEDIEVAL NATURAL PAILISOPHY, ARSTOTELANS, “The questions tnerature ofthe late Mile Ages [Natural philosophy in other ierary nodes ‘The cosmos as subject matter of ratsal philosophy “The big piture ‘The operational details ‘What is natural philosophy? ‘The questions in natural philosophy ‘The fechnigues and methodologies of natural philosophy ‘Abstract methodology Methodologies that were actually we “The role of mathematics in natural pilosophy ‘The cue of natural philosophy in oder disciplines Music CChacecterstic featres of medieval nturl philosophy Aristotelians and Anstotelianism 8. HoW THE FOUNDATIONS OF EARLY MODERN SCIENCE ‘The cantextual preconditions that made the Scientific Revolution possible “The translations ‘The wniveries ‘The theologiavnatural philosopher Religion and natural philosophy in medieval Islam ‘A comparson of natural philoeaony in Islam and the Chustan West “The other Chistanity:Scenoe and natural philosophy in the Byzantine Empire ‘The substantive preconditions that made the Scientific Revolution posible “The exact aciences Natural y: The mother of all sciences ‘Medieval natural philosophy and the language of scence w wy 1 m w w a ry 13 138 is. 7 11 12 1 8 132 12 156 158 155 16h 168 m Fat m cre 16 12 186 1 12 12 188x Consents Medieval natural philosophy and she problems of science Freedom of ingury and the autonomy’ of reason (On the relationship between medieval and easly modern ‘On the relationship between carly and late medieval sence Greco-ArabicLatn science: A triumph of three civilizations ows Bisiography Inder 18 19 Preface ‘Twenty-five years have passed since the publication of Physial Science Inthe Midite Ages in 1971 in the John Wiley History of Science Series, dnd nineteen years since Cambridge University Prese assumed respon Silty forthe series in 1977 Inthe early 19605, Iwas asked to revise the book but other duties and zesporsbiites mace the task unfeasible. ‘When I finally had the opportunity a few years ago, the prospect of ong a revision no longer seemed inviting Too mut had happened in the inerza Merely expanding the old veesion with new material ~ and there has been much off since 1971 ~ while retaining the easier struc ture and general outlook was, frankly, unappealing, My sense of the medieval achievement in science and natural philosophy and my ue derstanding ofthe intellects envirounent that produced it a8 well as, iy pereption ofthe relationship between medieval science andthe Sc nlc Revolution, had all been Fundamentally transformed Between 12 and 1916, Pierre Dahen, a famous French physicist ‘umd historian, wrote iften Volum on medieval scence. Duhem was the first fo blow away the dust of centri from manuscript codices hat hha lain untouched singe the Middle Ages. What he discovered led him tomate the starting cai that the Sdentifie Revolution, associated with the glorious names of Nicholas Copericus, Galileo Gaile, Johannes Kepler René Descartes, and Isaac Newton, was But an extension and laboration of physical and cosmological ideas formulated In the four. teenth century pearly by Parisian masters atthe University of Pacis. ‘Duhem regarea medieval scholastic natural philosophers 2s Gallo’: precursors By his numerous publications, Duhem made medieval sc nce a respectable research field and placed the late Middle Ages inthe Imainsiream of scientific development He thus sled the hiatus that had ‘Dusted between Gresk snd Arse cence, om the one extreme, and early tmovdem science in soveneenth-century Europe, onthe other. For the ist time the history of sence was provided with a genuine sense of con- Sint ‘Duhem’s claims seemed extravagan to most historians of science, and evento many medievals, who offen suferd from an inferiority com:a Foundations of modern science in the Middle Ages induenc ed Beco signlan and cant and woul only ncete wih ine Imporaemesir of his impacts the production of Lace aera is works a abject tha wl betel oa ake cnn \Vietually all ofthe ancient Greck testses translated fat Latin from lems forthe faith? Although these teases were new to Westesr tuners to ‘rope, feats ie cae uae ich eleva Calan i Bic Newtons mee Geert St cence stp ofthe Roman Emp, bt atin ators inte et seh ie ease Sou aeons ao re Sy ren Sighs re tact Merten eae ow seb Spratt is ese aan ie eh Speen cris ean of SELIIGE mek en soaeer seen 3 The medieval university description ofthe structure and operation of the medieval univer- A sises is esetlal because ofthe Spportance ofthese institutions for ‘development of Western science. The universities had emerged a8 2 ofthe transformation of society and intellectual life that had oc in Westem Europe by the twelfth century highly feudalized Earope ofthe seventh and eighth centuries was cally altered bythe eleventh nti. During the late eleventh and ‘entuses, politcal conditions improved dramatically, due in 00 ‘measure to French-speaking feudal lords who brought reasonably le governments to Normandy, England, Italy, Silly, Spain, and Por- fal The vigor of revitalized Europe is also evidenced bythe recon ‘Of Spain, which was well underway by the end ofthe eleventh ‘Wh the establishment of geater security, Europe's economy revived, | apd the standard of lving rose forall segments of society. Tis was “Secasloned By significant agaculsra improvements, mest notably the “Sdvent of the heavy plough, to which the horse was nov hamessed _nstend of the ox, This substitution was made possible by the introduc- _ Hon of the nated horseshoe and the ells hamess, which together made " porees far more effective agricultural mgines than oxen, Noles signi feant was the replacement ofthe twoeld system oF cop rotation with “fhe three‘eld system, which als allewed fora mujor increas In food production. An augmented food supaiy was instrumental in bringing Hout ¢ considerable growth in the popslation, which, in turn, madé | possible an expansion of oes and towns, Indeed, the increased popu Fition eventually made it necestary © build hundreds of new towns. Europeans began to colonize previously unpopulated or underpopulated lands or they drove eastward agains! the Slavs, asthe Germans did in their movement boyond the Elbe River. In the Low Countries, they even ‘pagan to reclaim land fom the sea. Europeans were on the move and. ‘Saniicant migzations occurred, Many ofthe new tons were populated | py itee men, often former serfs who Fad fle to the towns in hopes of Deter itea Foundations of maderm science in the Middle Ages By the end ofthe teh century the lv of commerce and manu facturing in Europe wos probably gear than t had been athe haga of the Rosin Empie. Beneen the ith and thiteeh crt Eos {ope was transformed. A money ena ha oo Ganges in goverment were io inte ofingThe Seva bteen the tos ar i'n he one hand nd ta and eae ‘lers onthe oter hand, war sndenray, ncesngy ator pope tons sought as much elégovemment a ey cold and sell toe themselves fom tne ipod by heweaay nelen Thee of 8 commune with is atendae righ of ctaencip was developed European ces cpportnistally sided wth pope kang xtpros or independent princes to increase fi power tnd poe thr og, Thus cen temo power fre nthe ecome polle e- aos ad cultural lie ofthe European continent, Bea the univer Sis of rope were uban cretons oe might ine at ey. we Somehow the producto he free fa dente, ht ae Nese incor, Cte were only a necessary, 304 wes coeiton for he ernergence of wiversen Uibansstn may have provid an sea ‘atx within whic universes could develop and outs, fat wat arly» gunantes thatthe proce woul nal ocr othe oot kt scl of ancient Faye art Mempoamia, hemos eens oe tan cvzations had come and gone, bat none had proved ey hing phat that conned teas liselfina place a question Place, a question tantamount ta asking whether the novia ong isin a plo. Conve tht fi ta ten plc Covi St ter dd net te ued thi ino mate bay and Bese we being peroeived as inconsist Laer prtaa * sphere by arguing that the last sphere is in a indirectly by the earth, is in 3 place essentially (yer se). Thomas hough ‘ridiculous to say that the f ae acenaly ea mee ect in ‘Pe ie ace ry Motion in Aviso’ physics systematic and comprehensive treatment of lt The ccoue tas ra the center of the work ae the word and form naturally ito» sphere So neon Tee Plc of any parca boay? Ane ine of pac sed pen fundamen concen eae a What the Mile Ages inkerited from Aristotle 1 upon discussions satered through & aumber of his works, es iy the Physics and On the Heaven i sisinat word that ad no empty spaces and was a material Grim motion, of lesl motion, a teas sometimes calle, had to be one place in that plenum to another. Aristotle distinguished to ff motion: natural and violent (cr unnatural) a division that prob- voigiated in gross observation, The division of local motion into alana violent and the ister of concepts arguments, and. physical pions associated with these twe contzary motions formed the core ‘Asistole'ssublanar physics. url motion of sublunar bodies, Aristotle's concept of natural motion 1 gm obvious properiste abserved i the four elements Et onned the material basis of al teres odes, When falling from heights, sme bodies, lke stones were fen to move instaight lines toward the centr ofthe earth Other bod Tc a fre or smoke, always semed fo rise toward the nar ephere Ml away from the earth's contr, Because the cass of bodies that fell aly toward the center of the earth os, on the bass of experienc, ved to be heavier than the classes of bodies that rose, Aristotle Gonciuded cha, when unimpeded, a heavy, oF earthy, body moved nat ally downvvard in a surg fine toward the center ofthe ess. Thus [inter ofthe earth of more presely, the geomeétic center of the verse was the satura place of ll heavy bodies. Conversely, ight moved neturally upward in a stvaight line toward the lunar re, which wes conceived as dis natural place. Arstote described ature up-and-down motions es accelerated. et us now apply these generalizations specifically to the four ele i Whenever an elemental body, composed primarily of earth, ws ove is own natural place ~ whether that place was in water, ai, oF ery segion above the air ~it war deemed absolutely heavy because, Monpeded, it would fall toward toward the earth's conte. Fire was Teparded a8 absolutely light i unimpeded, Ore would always rise up- rl feos the regions below foward its natural place above ait, and ow he hunt sphere To exaphasiz fire's absolute lightness, Arisiole cared itm palpable fact” that "the greater the quantity fof fire] the Uighter the mass is acd the quicker fsupward movement.”* By assuming hat tho greater the quantity of fe, te lighter It becomes and the faster Ht isey, Aristotle seems to have dissciated absolute lghtnes from the UEpncept of weight. a concept that e aninteligible inthis context. As for Aiucl and ain Aristotle regarded tem as intermediate elements pos: Gesing ony teative beaviness and lightness. When below is natural [pace somevhere within the earth, water would naturally ise; but when. Apove ts natural place in aio fir, would fall, Alt, however, wouldered fom Aristotle cy undatios of madera science in the Middle Ages when in the 1 of earth or waters Thus far we have described the idealized, natural behavior ofeach of the four elements. But the clement didnot exist in @natoraly potion state In the real wuld Bodies were actually compounds mak oof varying proportions of all four dement. Bodies that fl natural ward the earth's center di so because their predominant clemen we heavy (the heavier the body, the greater it sped of descent hve Oa ose naturally upward did so because they tere domed Oy» hae sleet the greater the quantity of sr or fie in an ayo ery bese ‘he greater would be its speed of sce, Three pars of opposites played a significant role in Aristotle's Dretation of the structure of he terestal or sublunas eons be schematized a follows What he Mie Ages " fe and inanimate thing capable of motion is moved by someth ng else Sipe enn te ved me a) Bote a ang Nor we dy ew an eT ea au Aide gr Sie Sei Segue eee) 2 a ed deh olen Te geen sth i at gly rn te Slt se nef on th ee all pope Sot ti to fire, one of which is the spentaneous ability to rise naturally Sn keels cic sgt ics oe Sian here Tan fag ee nee tual place of ie, but rse when inthe natural place 1. Concave suri of unr sphere Geometric ete of univer (or emer. |3, Absolute lightness (fre) Absolute heaviness (earth) ‘of a body as if its weight lightness fol nd ets cog ay ang equal, Aristotle concluded that velocity is diet porn © sible ote whe meee dey oe mean Feeh which it moves, and thatthe time ofits motion is direetly pro- Seat saan ey of te mum on vey foportional to it weight. For example, the speed of a ody cud te bl olding the medium constant) Ere ydubing weg Peg a he dray athe nation nd lg the ne of doar) inl th neo nao co dad ete Aoshng the dens of be met but ping he righ conse age feo te Slang hd te ey fe un coun Dee as een hat ning ey Dos Son iy gcd neal Atte Ue Those opposites served as vil boundary condo for Atte’ setae acount ofthe motion of aun The tehane toner ee ‘haan abso igh ody (re) woul atrally oe ae ward toward the iar sphere, hes the phen en ee 15 that an aboltly hey Body woul all Sealy mS fight lve toward the car's cater. Althongh Abu tees fat cual was denser tana ad wate e would eve dein dona sxplaied the fll of» toe trogh aor see ee ea Because it abst heey he fous nol ruc wf nate je lt the surae ofthe lan spere beset see dene ten eh ee ot sr but ater beerse shaogo ede Poses weight in sown ata pce, 00 at the ol ee resoved fir wouldnt al or nav downer Widrtntoehe ee nov 2 hat Artois intone abscate hesines serge vas harly conducive tote edvancr of pysin thought viewed ia gicnt improvement ever Pato and teeter oh had atebuted weigh fo al things, ad for whom weit en sie onept OF tie two possiblities une him, Are ons ee shat woud prove hisorcl lest bp Fc ddsn heres bor he made it syst hen dependant ona vary oat eae is choosing fo avoid the relate comparsons of Fag sao To provide» causal explanation formar! matin (and, as we hl sf Wolent ot unnatural mosons wel) Arcee Sian ee eral principe hat every elec as scan and sur Bet ee 4 mtn, Motons tare or stars Fee rae hed ot of evny tom, lr ature pines. Ts Ei horizontal teajectory, is in violent motion; the motion of a fire that is w faneh dowtovard out of to natural place fvard the ‘ar ama enon far vhen fede Fn a lve ower heer or oped cowed erat ‘ f fire is characterized as a violent motion. Aristotle formulated Pace aa iaede ead ar cwtoeWhat the Mia Ages inbred from Aristotle vanished entirely, leaving @ vacuum, motion would be insta (Ge beyond any rao, as he put) bsurlty of an infinite speed was only one of a number of i that prompted Arse to reject the existence of a vacuum, The Bdumental principles that he believed operative tn the world would Gees in Void spaces. Motion wordd be Impossible fora numberof “The homogeneous nature of a1 extended vod space meant that part must be identical to every other par. Because differentiable fal places could not exist in a hemnogeneoss space, bodies would on far ving eden rther than aoe. Ag ‘Foundations of ndations of modern science in the Middle Ages ‘rules are couched in terms of force, resisting body eae Spee sense ee Ra stint efor et soto Be ei Sous i be led and hd ican oy cold oa ips To ale ld baled and Held crtanes& a air ee ec ae ie aan abe Berne it ha fo be In det pis cee wit ae ay ore Eaneone throwing: a stone upward or pushing a slong sours of power that ead «by to conta ae one T motors would be imposiie, ts would violent motion Meena median Arisa deenad essen! for violent rotion elds absent the rid were infin and mean could somehow Bit tot motion eitns would be unending ~ for what would stop a intmoon void Wat ached ter Bodin act tra places ‘ori the abvene of external esistarcs, would be Batnancos Aung Atstot's remaining argument agains the voi sotwrthy. Bis of diferent weg would neces} fallin Bid with equl veltes, hich Antolle regarded as an absurdly se hey sgh to ll wih speed ht are cel proportional © pose weight: But the lates eatnehip could ony cuca in {pine where a Reavier body cewestuough te material medium vay than doe less henvy Bay. Inthe absence of « medium, ie rr no plausble renean why One Boy should move witha ct speed than another. He therere concluded thatthe wos was Sour» plenuin led everywhere wich matter. RM tht he i Aste aged th the a med se fhe example ofa stone = was the sour of connaous setae that the original mover mt ely pus te ose second unit intr, simultaneously ants the no eT ais and $0 on. A the procs cones the mate eon eae air gradually diminishes unti] a unit hed fe to it the power to move the body further Artatons nism, Anstole employed the medium as both motive poner eta ir Ney ce Std seen efor aoe Physical contact with the body it moved, bit he 2 sly conn tht the Sane etsy a bre on ‘the motion of that same body event the imposttie Oso tam nl a ee ie ok a obvious that resistance to motion increased. as the acnay of {he medium increased, and decreas a the meting sae na ‘Ris nf rarefacton ofthe medium wo eal as eee indeite increase in speed, Arolle concluded thet" prof he werd at Ars nvishned beyond eek a tre ne nal deren rom Be tees pr see sot rie necks repens s0 nem Pee ces the sengood to pope tht Eph Se Veuad ference eee cange vs asf he GELS on then nc of change ha to cua the eet Be eer lon was rare for Anse by hb bebe But FE, Toca revealed no angen the eaves Because the fur TE be stare pon me inven cece chang ty PES) crib ne chagrin a On te SEEING) Arwen cntnied te nto eter motion Se bcs Sabana eens ert water, an i) wi he ob ss lr nd seming vara ela moon of be planedof Foundations of modern scence in the Middle Ages ‘xed stars in the eelestial re and the cielo, the former complete in eet convinced Ans irealar figure was necessarily and naturally pe lure, Because the fou simple Cement observed circular motion ofthe eee sociated with a cliferent Vind of sinh or ether, As If to emphasize the special importance ofthe ether, Arsotle often he oppose called ithe “first body.” Its primary properties were naroc of those of the terrestrial elements, Where terest voneres eeeee aturally with recliner motions the ether moved naturally yh circular motion, which was auperir because the ctie war coesles tect whereas the straight lin was not. Where the four elonents aon the bodies compounded of them were in's continual state ot fer na eles ether suffered no substintial, qualitative, or quanates changes. Substantial change was impossible because Acstole neve that the pais of opposite, or cantry, ques, sich ts hotnone wet goldness, wetness and dryness, rareand dense, which were base forces for change in the tereestial region, were absent from the heavens eet therefore played no role the tn the heavens le hin fo deny the ee ‘es lightness and heaviness, ftom which he concluded that the lesa ther could be neither ight or heay.Lighmess and heaviness feces region were associated wth upward and downed veal fa motions: heavy bodies approach the earth when eo see lly downward, and ight bodies “ceded from Une earth when Gay ‘moved naturally upward Ip the sbsnce of heuines ad lone the heavenly region Arisod infered tat recline notions edd ao cur there. Thus 0% only wast obevationally evident thet he cee al motion were cola, but, fom the very properties of fe ise twas apparent to Arto tha reclnear seions sen ae, Sle in the ele! region ~ Because planets and stars ae observed to move around the sky, Ar ‘nl infered tht change of poston wes the only kindof change fo ible in the heavens, Celestial bodes continually change ha eas by moving around the ky with efortns uniform, circa sen te union, eeular motion ies natural notion, down motions are natural But where up an dows Wee eee ‘stl motions, circular metion had no cntary Aasote ceetece circular motion, which lacked contrary motion, wae seta bales composed of celestal the, which ached coneay amie fo the absence of al conraen, change neil wan observed ie ae nae thereof the contrary quae gion. The contrast between the straight ling ‘and Incomplete, the later closed and ol, ihe needed convincing that the orto the rectinesr fig Bodies moved with natural ee linear (upward and downward) motion, Aristotle concladed det fe ial bodies must necessarily be ab ie elemental body ith element re, Arisblle's rjcion of contrary qualities | What the idle Ages inhetedfrom Avistotle ferpaly sound the ith natural, uniform, circular mo- eet ee el gent Si ree, ee re eat eater a tds etn te eaten Romogeneous, with al is parts identical. A glance th eens Bree tn en nec an sect rita mete De ae aa atte elt aor plants we st ame ether, why did they seem ier ron ne anole Why dl ce rope va? 10 ene ice ri eer re rar on antec ames Fe te sate of however, Aristotle was EE eeertgeemnree eo en Se oe fee ee Sha ns tage somehow embedded in these spheres and ced aound by the Ar qealy founded i itric spheres, the planet Saturn, Enotion; ane wa for its proper motior. along the zodiac, or ecliptic; ar BOSS Sipe eee ASL fe ee Saar lee cechoy ce “quite clear they were6 Foundations of made science in the Middle Ages Sen ans hg pun Se ee a bs tert ior a aps i Beeaittac faley tener reas Se Rater ie cree fou Silas icc Spo meee eee capacee pee SS ate ns ea hes re ny © sot en pa aS: Sica then Wien ats a ae ah ee soto ta apnea sate ates vec Baraca Semon apa men Cea eee Soper nell Ot canton Seeigr ciedethnatyeg soya Se Someta ie meee Ein te ite wean sara amy Ecrmst i akira ora eae an eo hay on Rcvoae dobre ts a ee Echt coerconatahc aoe Carlet Sigh sc What the Mule Ages inkritd frm Avistate o - vere capable of causing motion without themselves being in mor potentially infinite regress of causes and effec fo ll motions ff a hal withthe unmoved movers, which were thus the ultimate hie sources ofall motions. Alrough Arise spoke of Hfty-ve ved movers, his concep of God focused on the unmoved mover with the sphere of the fxed stars, the outermost circumference ‘world. For Aris, this most remote of unmoved movers was prime mover” which enjoyed a speci status as first among equals. ese iy role asa celetial mover differed in no way from that I ther unmoved movers, or nligences, as they were usually idan immaterial unmoved mover cause a physical ob to move? 2 ‘motion by being loved” was Anstote's response (Mete= itis 127.107203-4). Presaely what he meant by this, Aristotle left Gl How were the motive ruse and the thing moved eared? ‘nly did his cryptic phrase lx tae ingenuity of many subsequent tors, but the Intriguing thcught of love as a cosmic moive ce also seems to have captured the fancy of poets and jongiurs. In last Hine ofthe cine Condy, Dante speaks of "The love tat moves fe sun and the other stare” (Vamor che move dole e Tale ste)” and sonyinous French song proclaims “Love, love makes the world go (Lamour, Vanour fai tourer 'e mande\" Tf an English-language Tailed to appear inthe Middle Ages or the Renaissance, It in the Clbert and Solivan operetta llth, where we that "Its love that makes the world go round” Although ii by ‘means certtin that Aristotle is theultimate source of these poetic Aenients, he is surly a~ if notte ~ leading candidate Because he characterized the celestial ether as a divine and incorrupt ubstance and viewed tereatrial matter ar the source of incessant age by means of generation nd corrupion, Aristotle was convinced tthe unchanging celenal region exercised a dominant iniuence on aways changing terrestrial region. Ie was iting that 2 nobler and ‘erfect thing should influence «less noble and less perfect thing. “Hee also was « powerful reinforcement fr teaditionl astoogical bei “The varus ways in which celestial ominance was effected oxercised ‘the mind of natacal philosophers uel the end ofthe seventeenth cen= {tury when the conception ofthe cosmos wat radically altered. But a8 Sith the cause of celestial motion, Aristotle lft an ambiguous legacy. ‘Aihough Ariitle belloved that tersral bodies were subject to eee=~ fal domination, he alo belived that they were capable of casing effects | by themselves and were not merely passive enities dependent on ce Jest causes As ensises composed oftatter andl frm, terrestrial Bodies : ‘natures of their own that vere capable of producing effects ‘beavy body felt toward the centr of the earth not by vstue of any Instead of the four spheres that Callippus required 4 tn Callypus eed Sr at wee dat Ate dese ven Sly "re thought ft neceory (0nd Sriracing ling ra attr eee led dit aoe the Strapon thas tak ee ippurs tom oftaguiesralcnart he to fifty-five physical ag Reece AStomenou gusto wos mdi posed: what ste none ee tein tnd wihunton Chaar gonna St fate tana sd and co aaa conmologicl treatise, On {he Heavens, be appealed to an internal principle ‘movment nen he rbd e cee shee ee Paty ome ao rave sae rece ey GISbAe'9) hain Ne Pye ed hig Ss a, ‘externa spiritual movers, or iveligencen wore the cameative ‘ofthe rotary motions of eestl orb In ths scheme, Astle sesso Sheth py adie tea ae ee68 Foundations of modem science in the Midite Ages What she Mile Ages inetd from Aristotle ° cesial power but because it possesed a nature that enabled it to do tom all oes in perfection and nde in aproach ery nea fo 0 when otherwise unimpeded. Each species of snimste and inane pest ity umansty can tan being had characteristic features and properties that enabled i ndde Ud Knowles, historfan of medieval philosophy, was not exagger- wal members to ac i scrordance with tore properties ‘The mode for celestial activ and influence on terres tr wns undoubtedly the Sun, whose influences were manifest and palpable. Is sto be virtually infalile because in over one thousand years no error sual maith around the eit produced the sessonay which in ta detected in hs writings” Proce various generations od coruptos, Human persion et is was ako geal sed he Latin West Date spoke for " y, By when he described Arista the Master of them that know assertion that "man is bepoten ty man and by the sun aswell ™ Wah juinas regarded Aristotle cs someone who had attained the the exception of he Moon evidence for cles activity by the oe Fhesi posible evel of human thought without Senet of he Chestan planets was vitally noneste. Nevertheless, ARSON ensued ths Fe might spore tha with auch reverential tides medieval they were also actively lnvlved interest change Dut he fled fas woul hav sought to ay slo ss pole tthe gest as explain how the activites of cesta! bodies other tan the Sun wees for reason already give, the often moved away, In chapter 6, ‘elated tothe independent natures of teresa bodies Once aay subs be the manner in which Arisiode’s medieval disciples and ad~ sequent commentators were lle thet vn devices, a altered and expanded his natural philosophy, even as they upheld yo te a sya we eateeerri pene be ted save to dee ee ay ee a we ec are eeohotee e mveaiin a Dla nant pes eh Seema ar oe ee ‘Sess gon btn Spaetaar nes ea aud St te et eae ae Krad te etre aben he es eat ee tien swede meni ce et iy Sates pd na ot ae ne se Poop tr di chs ee gr a Wet eA po aa es pension ohn Senora ec ce ocean sage cea eit a Fo aoe ng tr rice ane Meer scscn bog te ten RSs we deste ind ea ea Sea gun ofc ae as Rete ame gion ec tai See te Wei Neves Adc ewe aed eo a sine par ccc Sra aan a fal wy he wes Sap Pao HT ee Sous Orie ea cena met on Fon ye a 1s egret tena he pect See lg wh gt tr te fo ei Sets Seek eek SC enemy meee SAW sere eS E led this “the most iripressive eulogium ever given by sr Siisoper to anther" sed, Avert cidered rt5 __, The recepticn and impact o Aristotelian learning and the vetetion of the Church and its theologians Mix’ points of conflict existed between Church doctrine and idess espoused in the natural books of At q inode os into Lan Chesonont ne Nitec the Chun ands thecopa sage Gash was hardy invitbe vas not lang cing eae hare tthe Unveryo arwh ea ae ene theless a he Lats Mae Ages teas ate oe tha pear acts nye te oe en eae a irate o onus he maa npe as a ot Ae were ental wconedand gt ea ak the muse and espa adel neste neh tentially problematc for ay rece hat a hey ght he for aaa aa THE CONDENNATION OF 1277, The strug agaist Ato was concentrated in he Univers sd i envions, In 120200 afer aatodes works teed ee ‘phy hed become available in Latin, the provincial synod of Sens | ee ht the tots of Asst on i At nt! ppt Feral of eccommneton Cred ee Seah ‘eas repeated in 215, specify forthe Univer of Part Gh agen {5/1 he sme ban nas moda an ven pape eran Geogy IX: who, ina famoas Bl, Pano sche flicn ae ey herrea the Maga Car fe Uva of Pay me ta Otesre Argon ease purge! of eee Wek me {pointed a dceman comsnson on Spa Foros te own the popes canoe fated hima a epon ea fe sad epu teti Arate va nrc Cacul Itnoe extended he ban ote Utero ean ftom whence had emansted tome yeas eats (239) bono ‘ses and std cf Tuoare where eo ts Pasi in public or secret ander Arison learning andthe Church ant ts tenogians 71 at Pais were openly sted. The anon Aristo books on ral plowphy Parts naam eff approximate Toy years Blas at th et, Grappessthrtonly Anne seve nd loge ever publy taught nt Pare cespte the pbc and private ban epysialand philowpin wks were probaly end pre) i St yc oto tesa aoe fr lose corte the Criversty of i chad all of Arcs aval work The nero, but evi placed upon Para Sovtars were san end and by cold row engy the ane prveger a ther Oxford collegues @ re never Gee th ight to aya comment pons the ono Atte during the lng yes of proibon at Pars. MDa the Ina 17, second phase ofthe stage developed bans nied by Sunt Sonaventze (on of Fanaa) (1221-170 merle theologians sought to eas Hats on Art's pow Fc was he cane of te new pag and Arabi lari. The ind long pase when 4 snp an onthe reading of Aros i oud be inlemented to any eee Rather than ban Works one ive tnevngans cought f9 coe wth he problem by the onder ‘res thar tey thought em dangers ond fens When ine epparent stir epestd warning about the pr of Se ulwy were tom aval te rand tasogins apple 0 bho of Pas Eien Tempe wh, in 127, itervent ad co 1 erie tht were dened oor roe the tangs of Ars tr om he emer of Aveo the work of Artem ha mater fas tte Uva of Fara insta an oa ct red them 0 aveid corideaton of thealogal soca for Feison amar master fend hse able to vod a thecal "he wos farther sworn t save in favor ofthe fh. The nen- Site cntovrsy was undercoe by Giles of Rome's Eres of Tilwphos,witentometone fete 1279 and 127 which Gls ied st of ener dwn ro the works ofthe non Chtan Mlsphers Aste Aveo Aviemn,Alazll (Ghazal Td Manes Maimonides Hien tes cuter failed shtml scontred Pope ohn XA! traces the bishop of Su Etnne Tempo fo invest Within ee esx Merch Ta Temper etn on te advice chs holon vse, sted 9 ive condemnation of 19 Propstons “Ahoagh the Int of uais Content by theolgiceathoies was mmwn up in hate, stout sppae onde and wah ile ence fr craistecy or rept. many of them were clevant to sence ae fatal pllcnply The contention ofan at, however dd nt of Tel ty the aie was conver trl Peso. The ortios may ee hive aggre importance or Simpy have Porotved Fw potential dangerbe psbleGncuson Indeed omen Foundations of moder sconce in the Middle Ages condemned articles may not have been expressed in writing but were Pethaps only spoken either in public digpates or in private converse: tions: Moreover, the inclusion of an article may even have confeted ‘pon itan importance that it weuld not otherwise have had. Most of the 219 articles condemned in I:77 reflected sues tht were dicey associated with Arstolle's natural philosophy, and, therefore thee cone ‘demnation formed part ofthe recsption of Avstotlia learning Before turning to those specitic issues, however, ii escent to de- serbe an intense interdiscplinary struggle in the thirteenth centry ins ‘volving the faculties of ats and theology. Essentially the question was whether the ats faculty was entitled to equal stature withthe theological faculty. The confit expressed iseln mutnerous ways but in none more basic than the overriding struggle tween reason and revelation, Reason ‘was the mode of analysis in philosophy, which wa often considered oo extensive with the theoretical sciences, most of which would ot them. | scives become independent pneu the seventeenth entry ad later The ae masters ruled over he domain ef reason and: eros, pilsopy. But dhalogane ha sway ves revelation anf oe dial understand why te held the upper hand ina soy dom irate by clon Most thitenth-century theologians were convinced that revlaton ws superior fal frms of knowedge a hereon merbed 0 tnitonal doctrine of sess lingo the hanna thse (One of the mos impart of thee tenth century tclopans Set Banavence,devoted an ent ate te poposon tat Ws see se subjects taught in the as aut tthe Crier of Pa wa bord tothe dispine led theogy taught Inthe alo hes logy. tn his trate Reraing the rs Tay (De econ. eon ‘tBelgiam) Bonaventie sought chow that estoy te pega the scence, Decne inthe nl easy all ang ae aan depend upon divine llumination ‘om Sacred Sempre the sony of ‘ich the exchsive domain of cologne th Bonventre wor {ha of many hcl fathand Rasen mere artnet fe wth he former uta ging aed ivocng he es “The techers in the a feales ef Pais and hehe hed sadly iret view of he slasoship cf thet dacpline fo theology nthe ‘roses sence, they tua plosnhy, wh atu needed fe se ial at Idi mc ply id te Physics natural pllosophy, and mera phlosophy. Beesse phloscphy {a whole was Used overvhningy eth elunge of ee ee es prtesrs thought of themes at fullawers of Aso se feguted him asthe embodiment of rasan analyse. deed, oe lvtinods were bated upon the expeaton ef Arcos dats oa thoughts Asa mark of ther sper him meal cls ats Aristtelin learning ad the Chur and ts teogians 73 yee ety he oh lh So en ete es a Bee ag esate ya tana ten sre a i ig ri nl nay oes atc sete hS ce omtcae ag wag eae aeons anda $2 Seen es ep ee wal wey tenet erent Pa tat eta ey bee So aoe ee ait nade tattenr ano beesh a eater tone Be eet ier nen ae ay ae re tee Estlipcc bigness cin oh ir Tye ly ne vs fest ree le nie Lea Chae ince ec en ead sean tes ie rie ele lt ar bb iro sr te ae enter hic eed Se eer ae rane sae e's ge ee eee “eclosion pee ica Fetter bt ee ee ane PLES moa came ame Fema hl ah nn nde ge wp toate ar le eae Sure hem iat at paseo ceabecens [sot a plop wa ply eating an pas dome “Ine tneoogy Pope Gregory De snag wo preserve te wena ela fiehp between theology and phkcsophy, with the later serving a= _Rindmuitn toe former Indeed, Gg ttle sie once. 6 | tng ack to the Chun tery, that ors o bates fh wh atu fetvon were potentially dangerous ease they implied that somehow {ath could ot sand lone In 128 Gregory ordered he theological mace fers a Paro exclude natural pllos3ry fom the helog.‘7% Foundations of modern science in the Middle Ages Gregory's ban didnot prevsl Not only was phbsophy recognized as an atone dip, val Aekete tae futher Jat ae Church thought they ere sevived from ie fo tne always sae he more than anyone, Thomas Aquinas lefine the relation ‘between theology and philosoph cid oy nati Penden science The hindamered those who do theslogy should nex philosophize? With respect fo heck * that « theologian should use logic natural phlor phy. and metaphysics to the extent neces although he weld at © approved of thologting in philosophy. By establching tnclogy {an independent science, Thomas implicitly concaded autonomy 0 phe losophy (and, therefore, also to ratural phlowophy) as a scl a ‘ough he still regarded i a5 subordinate to theology, In the confi tat began between philosophy and thology inthe thsteauh century, logy held the upper hand. Until the seventeenth century, undemee, eae reveled ruts of ath had ulinate pronty over demonoid The tert ofthe word uring the 10 some ars maser, or phinophers were lady ox {Ecaiatonomy inte Gacpibw by rescaing slay eae ‘tl pnp Bt # sea be indienne ea he ‘nya tht concen ncante enn te fn fete a Stoned tie eamely he ty te wel Te aes we ‘lain tetveen cena nd lan athe Nile Agee war Fal lori or wn te sb nd Sree Se Een Darin Wary cron ie nace Se Fellow fom hit spunents atthe cn ofthe fst ao Ae conde a they exing oe snd tone, tht “he world ase whole wa mt gonad sad nel See 2 tome alg, Sr wige a eral Raving Sv beter Slits whale ie" Beene Aas aad hs toler pee ek fm coin tat he world etal punts eee eee craton aneurin Geena As eons he ces ce oh ‘essen ay potently dangerous 2 ef e M9 bees done 527 (nor thn en pet) wert devoted Redon nt Scplin with Ante fname ‘were authorites in thology, but ‘against the use of natal philosophy n theology ee ae pencils oftheir the ewe tft wi he be pn a Pcp a ded Aviston ering andthe Catch a tsps 75 ity ofthe world was thus manifeted in numerous ways. For ex pple ace 9 condemned the proposition tat "tere as ist a il there be a Isom the contac there alays was art always be te generation of man fom man anise 98 condemned the Prop fon that “the word ib etemal Secste that which has a nakere By sof which it could exist though the whole fatre [surely] has 2 By means off which i could have existed through the whole apd cle 107s claim tha the elments are eternal but Bat "they ‘on made [or cesta) anew in fhe elaonshp which they now "wat alo condemned se the ‘uthories condemned the cemty of the in twenty-seven diferent verso we might expect to rd that efi the work's tenty was wespread. In fac no be has Yet en dented who beld tis eres! opinion without qulifstion. thn, dl te authors condena twenty seven als to prevent “issenination ofa proposition th no one sees to have explicitly SP Although is posse that sme oral of these propositions held in private and tat this was Common knowledge, & more kely Tes inthe mare ofthe rexponas fo aims abou the eternity of Pirin is evident nthe eae ofthe ro best known ars as ‘tihe tirtonth century, Boethiesof Daa (@ ater 123) and Sige Drabant (dca, 1284) both of whem fled France for Hayter the mlgetion ofthe Condensation of 1277 owifus and Siger each vote a tetise on the eet ofthe wor dh Bouthiu slo sonadered tin his Custos on He Psi (Questions 7 ibres Pyscoum) In his treatie On te Eker of th Worl (De eats muni), Both argues thst no philosopher cou demon that a fist motion had ever came into being, and Pence 8 be ofthe world is'nt determinable. The eternity ofthe Word sno more dens thn i eto. aigh 702. bi prot coud be foriher postion Bootie nists that Step onto betecn the Coton fy na phsnphy The mst preva He concludes tha the worlds ot ets but was ted anew, thought be ‘Eeyuutete! by argument pt tay De tc het fer ngs ht protain tote sh For tiny od demote they we ot lg os la burt are“ ae many ge Bo ait ‘me erst com Ke gay a» a Somes tei again metal sme seh ow, and ha Peto ing rene int genom And who docs nt bene {Ear ings ths ean] wow seo to hrw thew tings by mun i oo | Inhis Question on he Physic, howe, wren at apprimately the | same time, Boethus anges that prime matter fs ermal and therforersa xnng ev th Crch ed teogns 77 nthe aplication of tral rest ta rior principe and sense ld pot he rcnci wr the th fh, Unde ch Sercs the faith Faw be upheld. But wae opbel ambi i beceue te ate masters nly Ie the reasoned conlsions of hlosoghy inact, even as Dy procaimed the conesponding, fo he fay I the eternity ofthe worl for ample wos cons appropri conclusion natal plesophy, was nevertbless ere ath and therfore fas be reeled. Unde ch eet was obvious thatthe eguments in favor ofthe eeity Bfite word had not been rected because they were fated, but on sty were conay 0 he faith lef the inpresion tat here to ttn, one for aa pics. and ore forthe ath. Be- Set masters ual stsined fom reconling Arstol’s prince ‘ed conclusions ~in whch Sey presumably beleved~ withthe aly they swe fo be aut advancng the cause of Aro the very leas they appear fo have conveyed an impression to the fae tha they subcrbed to a dati of double wth ae Sin the Condemation of 127. In Rs prologue tthe conde the bishop of Par rely mentors» doctine of double tah ‘er cerources those who say tat “things ae ve scoring 0 Sophy, but ot avrg tote Cato ys thee cold be o ontary truths" Asan exemplication of meaning, the bishop oil atic 9, which condenned those who believed that "2 ulsophe ough fo deny altel te newness, the ton ofthe word because he depends on nara causes and na Tefal however can deny the emit ofthe world be te they depend upon superna aus” “Arugh some ara mets appert Rave came cose to impict expance of double uth no ae aster has yet been scovered Who elcved ray ina doce of te double eth, Baton the ass of as cay bon sa he an srerstand why many teens ave though that oetius of Daa, siger of Brabant and others = | gen including ne ofthe on, Thomas Aquinas ~ sual beleved in | Se tena ofthe wo event thy prose thei fit to the | Ghestan dogo ot creation. All hss rade wvly apparent in Ar- fran Mausersdescrpion of Boel of Dac’ appronch thee Ey ofthe wor: For thee fo be two conc thy he Csi uth at te wor ‘tral oll hve oS oped pnp ta at he Ard tel But elk an oc enter statement atthe cry fe wort tan Went py dass bom he pose tcl phonon pls Bee taser at flow heh tal ce but ie 76 Foundations of moders science in the Middle Ages ieee eg a os rr ttre aise ct id ge God is still perceived as creator cf both r hee efepewnce samara ee cot a ete sa Se Ae en Ms owe Semler sae aes SoS SEES om aa Seca Senet re stot te ts "eaten ante sty See ce onan igre teeter tnt ae Tea gee cen ey Serine an inns Sestlapaen er oe ere a te question of the eternity ofthe world — the afts masters y de a cp ea rem ot ‘compel 10 so by oath as far back as. a one ro} in effect until the fifteenth zentury. 1272 « rqeicement tat re he op acy att oe coe ee a SESS hs yaar teatarte formul in favor of creation or et2r Pam ai eet atthe ery fhe nr sty farce en vers strat tm naan {herbi in the creation ofthe world a described in Genesee hee a a 8s put it “That dhe world hod = is an object, bu esinoing of fh, ‘The dctrine ofthe double tat hen ant musts ed oe at however, ow Jn manera a the holga ena and Sop ee slo and ten expe sate th the a of ml nec~ ounctions of modern sioce in te Mile Ages ing problems in favor ofthe faith OOF two typos of hypothetical agaments mentioned ear, the ist “shows how medieval natural philosopaers managed to cope successfully ith Aciaotl’s eas tht were contrary t0 the faith ce Were, in sme nse, subversive fi #he second, which derives from the impact ofthe “concept of God's absolute power as expressed In the Condernation of 1207, reveals method by which natural philosophers transcended the “Bound of Aristotle's confining principles and broke fee to consider pos ites they anight not othervise have contemplated. by emphasizing God's absolute power to do anything shor of logical contradiction, the articles condemned in 1277 had a curious, and prob ‘unintended, eect they encouraged speculation about natura i= povsibiities in the Aristotelian word sytem, which wore often treated hypothetical possibilities. The supernaturally generated ateatives, i anedieval natural philosophers considered inthe wake of the con- ton, sccastomed them fo conser possibilites that were beyond ‘scope of Aristotle's natural philosophy, and often in diret cont® Ariston lensing andthe Crh aed its theca fein ofthese and simular imaginary examples was wslly mad ‘of Arettelian principles, even though the conditions imagined ontray to fac! ancl impossble within Arstoteisn natural pr fs Founations of moder scence inthe Middle Ages ‘ith i The contemplation of hypothetiesl possibilities dat were nate | tally impossible in the Aristotelian word vlew seas so wisespread fi sgeulation about them became an inegyal feature of Tate medieval gh ‘ OF all the themes of natural pilosophy iuenced by the Condem: | ation of 1277, with its overriding theme of God's absolute power nang ‘yas affected more than the concep of vacwum, the very ides of sac Aristotle thought absurd and impossible. None could deny that the por | sible existence of vacua had poweral implications for theology. As Cog ‘id the concept of Go's ascate power become a convenient ie fer he ton fie a agate Gunn which tn generated nove answers. Although Bose speculative responses. Fed to the overtivow ofthe Aviston werd view, Bey di as tee Stlogs some of ial pence a eu “They made mary aware that hinge might be ge oterwise han rest of Antote's peso fara a he dtr, he Condenoaton of 27 was neve alle evr yf bhp of a oy any pope In 335, ‘iro years aller Thomas Aquinas wae mace stall of ed scl tht ad been By San Thomas were formally 2 eaving the Teulnng ats stil fleet Tivough the rest idle As and event the seve cen, oe a er ol the condenined “ace of Pats” was ced y tesogine a phlonphers But wae the Condemnation of 1277 signet ‘n meval natal phleophy? Did i ares give ith sence au Perce Duheny the great Pioneer (weston Ino eval scence, calmed? Or were hey relevant to the advent of mod feence ae Alwnde Koyre an eminent stosan ofthe Seni Pino ee two snexsmet ses Aogh he wth may omewhere between thew extreme, i elusive and may be lt finite. We ca be ean ny hy onan the Batons of Artin rata ponophes and mide alma plwopiy moe ering han # would this bes and even produc few sigpicart surprises, The "natura ies” that nee ta commence ofS nde yepresnied aastion o natelpilsephy, but they dd not ler ai boy of that pli. They ddr revolutionize Aitotlan ‘hlosophy nor ene i be abandoned apace in which t create the word? An argument by Averzoes presented (Csistans witha dilemma: ether concede tat the world is eer, or | ‘accept the existence of an eternal preceaton void space that God io uted in order to have a place ir which to create the werld, The need for a preereation void space was condemned in 1277 by attile 2k, Which proclaimed that "Before the generation ofthe word, there was Place without thing loated in i¢ which is a vacuum" “The concept of vacuum was also inheeat in aries M4 and 49, which ‘eal respectively, with the possiblity of other worlds and with ihe ren linear motion of our own World, both natal impossbiies in Ase, fotle’s cosmos. The two articles generated serious discussion about the Possible existence of void space Beyond our wodd. Although no articles ‘ofthe Condemnation of 1277 were directed at the posabity of rasta within our cosmos it was obvious that if God could create a vaciusy beyond the world he surely could do so within the world And 50H wat that afte 1277 God was fequewy imagined to anna al ox pat ofthe matter that existed inthe material plenum of our world, Wika this now empty space, many differnt situations were Imagined fr fu ther discussion. Would the surrounding celestial spheres immediately collapse inward as nature sought to prevent formation of 3 vacir? Would the empty interval bea vaewm or space? Iall baie itn te concave surface ofthe last sphere were aillated, so that no taies ‘remained, would i sill be meaningful to describe that concave susace a8 place eventhough i would bea place without body? Could a sme plsoed within such a vacuum be capable of cetilinear motion? Wena i be pusibe to measure distances wihin sucha vacuum? I people wece Somehow located inthis vacuum, would they be able © see tnd heat ‘each other? And, finaly, if a5 was sommonty believed, celestial Bong governed the Behavior of bodies Ir the sublinar region, what would happen toa spherically shaped piece of earth that was located i the at ‘ndlosed within a house if God destnyed everything outst that house, ‘ncuding the celestial orbs and all bodies? During the late Middle ges, THE THEOLOGIAN-NATURAL PHILOSOPHERS ed them dng the hitch cnt some clog ted Pes of Ast aur poy ang im oan wo ts cipurgte hen a al conden consi ot hens ad Co are al i er Pe ompan pont aetna eae Rong themselves ot many lus ad were BY to fn aprant inthe aude vata iit even he nt