JJ207 Thermodynamic Topic 2 First Law of Thermodynamics

JJ207-THERMODYNAMICS 1
Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes
TOPIC 2
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS AND ITS PROCESSES
At the end of the topic you will be able to:
2.0
Describe forms of energy.

Describe energy transfer by heat and energy transfer by work.
Classify the mechanical forms of work.
Distinguish the mode of energy transfer between closed and open systems. .
Defined of a closed system.
Describe the non-flow energy equation.
Explain the specific heat, internal energy, enthalpy of ideal gases, solids and
liquids.
Calculate the energy balance for close systems.
Definition of an open system.
Describe control volumes; steadily flow processes and engineering devices,
unsteadily-flow processes.
Calculate mass and volume flow rate and the continuity equation
Determine and explain the steady flow energy equation (Negligible change in
kinetic or potential energy) leading to the concept of enthalpy - typical
applications such as turbine, compressor, boiler, nozzle, diffuser and heat
exchanger.
Calculate the energy balance for open systems.
INTRODUCTION
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he First Law of Thermodynamics is the most basic and fundamental law of nature.
While its name makes it sound intimidating, it is actually the most intuitive law of
nature as well. The First Law of Thermodynamics provides a method for accounting
for all energy inputs, outputs and stores within a system. One of the most fundamental laws of
nature is the conservation of energy principle. It simply states that during an energy
interaction, energy can change from one form to another but the total amount of energy
remains constant. That is, energy cannot be created or destroyed.
2.1
The First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy can exist in

many forms such as
thermal, kinetic,
potential, electric,
chemical,
Figure 2.1
Pictures showing types of energy
The first thermodynamic law is the formulation of a more general law of physics (the
law of conservation of energy) for thermodynamic processes. The first law of
thermodynamics is simply a statement of conservation of energy principle and it asserts that
total energy is a thermodynamic property. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can
only change forms. This principle is based on experimental observations and is known as the
First Law of Thermodynamics. The First Law of Thermodynamics can therefore be stated as
follows:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be

transformed from one form into another.
The First Law of Thermodynamics
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During a transformation, the change in the internal energy of a system is equal with
the sum of work and heat exchanged by the system with its surroundings.
dQ dW = dU
Where: dQ are positive if they are transferred into the system and negative if they are
released by the system.
To apply the first law of thermodynamics to a cyclic process we have to remember that
internal energy is a system variable. In a cyclic process, the system returns at the same state,
hence there is no change in its internal energy. In this case, work produced by the system
equals the heat exchanged by the system. When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle
then the net heat supplied to the system from its surroundings is equal to the net work done by
the systems on its surroundings.
In symbols,
dQ = dW
(2.1)
where represents the sum of a complete cycle.

2.2
Forms of Energy
Energy is the ability to do work. It is one of the basic human needs and is an essential
component in any development programme. In this lesson, we are going to look at the forms
that energy exists, namely: heat, light, sound, electrical, chemical, nuclear and mechanical.
These forms of energy may be transformed from one form to the other, usually with losses.
a)
Heat energy, also referred to as thermal energy, is really the effect of moving
molecules. Matter is made up of molecules, which are in continual motion and in a
solid, vibrate about a mean position. The motion of any molecule increases when the
energy of the substance is increased. This may cause an increase in the temperature of
the substance or lead to a change of state. The higher the temperature, the greater the
internal energy of the substance.
b)
Light energy, is a type of wave motion. That is, light is a form of energy caused by
light waves. It enables us to see, as objects are only visible when they reflect light into
our eyes.
c)
Sound energy, is also a type of wave motion. Sound energy may be converted into
electrical energy for transmission, and later the electrical energy can be converted
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back into sound energy at the receiving end. An example of such transformations
could be seen in the microphone and the loudspeaker.
d)
Electrical energy, is really the effect of moving electrical charges from one point to
another in a conductor. Electrical charges moving through a conductor is called
electricity. Electrical energy may be easily changed into other forms of energy to suit
our particular needs. Lightning is an example of electrical energy. Electric current is
the means by which electrical energy is most easily transported to places where it is
needed and converted into other forms.
e)
Chemical energy, is the energy stored within chemical compounds. A chemical

compound is formed by the rearrangement of atoms that is accompanied by energy
loss or gain. This energy is the chemical energy gained or lost in the formation of the
compound. Food, biomass, fuel and explosives have a store of chemical energy. The
energy from food is released by chemical reactions in our bodies in the form of heat.
Fuels like coal, oil and natural gas contain chemical energy that may be converted into
other forms of energy like heat and light. The chemical energy present in a given fuel
is determined by its calorific value the heat liberated when 1 Kg of the fuel is burnt.
Batteries and explosives also contain chemical energy that could be converted into
other forms of energy, some beneficial, others harmful.
f)
Nuclear energy, also known as atomic energy, is energy stored in the nucleus of an
atom. It is this energy that holds the nucleus together and could be released when the
nuclei are combined (fusion) or split (fission) apart. Nuclear energy can be used for
peaceful purpose as well as destructive purposes (as in the atomic bomb). Considering
peaceful purposes, nuclear energy is used to generate electricity in nuclear power
plants, produce steam for driving machines, powering some submarines and
spacecrafts. In these applications, the nuclei of uranium atoms are split in a process
called fission. Nuclear energy is also the source of the suns energy. The sun combines
the nuclei of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms in a process called fusion.
g)
Mechanical energy, is the kind of energy that can do mechanical work directly.
Naturally occurring sources of mechanical energy include winds, waterfalls and tides.
There are two kinds of mechanical energy, namely kinetic energy and potential energy:
Kinetic energy, is the energy a body possesses by virtue of its motion. A moving
body of mass, m kg and velocity C m/s possesses kinetic energy. Thus, the
magnitude of the kinetic energy of an object depends both the mass and the
velocity of the object. Flowing water and winds have kinetic energy.
Potential energy, is the energy of a body due to its position or shape. This form of
energy could be considered as energy stored in a body to be released when it
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begins to move or change its position or shape. Quite often, potential energy
changes to kinetic energy. A ball at the top of a slope, water behind a dam, a
compressed spring and a stretched elastic band possess potential energy.
Energy conversion. One important property of energy is its ability to change from one form
to another form. For example, chemical energy from fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) can
be converted into heat energy when burned. The heat energy may be converted into kinetic
energy in a gas turbine and finally into electrical energy by a generator. The electric energy
may subsequently be converted into light, sound or kinetic energy in our homes through
various household appliances. During any energy conversion, the amount of energy input is
the same as the energy output. This concept is known as the law of conservation of energy and
sometimes referred to as the First Law of Thermodynamics. This law states: energy cannot be
created nor destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another. Thus, the total energy
of an isolated system is always constant and when energy of one form is expended an equal
amount of energy in another form is produced.
2.3
Energy Transfer by Heat and Work
Historically, heat was considered to be a fluid that can spontaneously flow from a hot
body to a cold body. Heat is a form of energy which crosses the boundary of a system during a
change of state produced by the difference in temperature between the system and its
surroundings. The unit of heat is taken as the amount of heat energy equivalent to one joule
or Nm. The joule is defined as the work done when the point of application of a force of one
newton is displaced through a distance of one meter in the direction of the force.
Work transfer is defined as a product of the force and the distance moved in the
direction of the force. When a boundary of a close system moves in the direction of the force
acting on it, then the system does work on its surroundings. When the boundary is moved
inwards the work is done on the system by its surroundings. The units of work are, for
example, Nm or J. If work is done on unit mass of a fluid, then the work done per kg of fluid
has the units of Nm/kg or J/kg. Consider the fluid expanding behind the piston of an engine.
The force F (in the absence of friction) will be given by:
F = pA
(2.2)
where
p is the pressure exerted on the piston and
A is the area of the piston
If dx is the displacement of the piston and p can be assumed constant over this
displacement, then the work done W will be given by,
W = F x dx
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= pA x dx
= p x Adx
= p x dV
= p(V2 V1)
where dV = Adx = change in volume.
IS
(2.3)
PRESSURE
dx
Figure 2.3 Work transfer

When two systems at different temperatures are in contact with each other, energy will
transfer between them until they reach the same temperature (that is, when they are in
equilibrium with each other). This energy is called heat, or thermal energy, and the term "heat
flow" refers to an energy transfer as a consequence of a temperature difference.
2.4
Sign Convention for Work Transfer
It is convenient to consider a convention of sign in connection with work transfer and

the usual convention adopted is:
if work energy is transferred from the system to the surroundings, it is donated as
positive.
if work energy is transferred from the surroundings to the system, it is donated as
SURROUNDINGS
negative.
BOUNDARY
WORK W2
+ ve
SYSTEM
WORK W1
- ve
Figure 2.4 Sign Convention for work transfer

2.5
Sign Convention for Heat Transfer

The sign convention usually adopted for heat energy transfer is such that :
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if heat energy flows into the system from the surroundings it is said to be
positive.
if heat energy flows from the system to the surroundings it is said to be
negative. It is incorrect to speak of heat in a system since heat energy exists only
when it flows across the boundary. Once in the system, it is converted to other
types of energy.
SURROUNDINGS
HEAT
ENERGY
Q1
ve
+
HEAT ENERGY
Q2
-ve
SYSTEM
BOUNDARY
Figure 2.5 Sign convention for heat transfer
2.6
Specific heat capacity

The specific heat capacity (symbol C) is the amount of heat, expressed in kJ, which
must be transferred to or from 1 kg of a given material to cause its temperature to change by
1C. Hence, the unit of measurement is kJ/kg.C or in thermodynamics scale the unit is
kJ/kg.K. The word specific, used in this and other terms we will use later, refers to 1kg.
2.7
Internal Energy
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Internal energy is the sum of all the energies a fluid possesses and stores within itself.
The molecules of a fluid may be imagined to be in motion thereby possessing kinetic energy
of translation and rotation as well as the energy of vibration of the atoms within the
molecules. In addition, the fluid also possesses internal potential energy due to intermolecular forces.
Suppose we have 1 kg of gas in a closed container as shown in Figure 2.7. For
simplicity, we shall assume that the vessel is at rest with respect to the earth and is located on
a base horizon. The gas in the vessel has neither macro kinetic energy nor potential energy.
However, the molecules of the gas are in motion and possess a molecular or 'internal' kinetic
energy. The term is usually shortened to internal energy. If we are to study thermal effects
then we can no longer ignore this form of energy. The symbol for internal energy is U and in
the International System (SI) it is measured in joules (J) or kilojoules (kJ). 1kJ = 1000J. Also,
we shall denote the specific (per kg) internal energy as u J/kg.
Now suppose that by rotation of an impeller within the vessel, we add work dW to the
closed system and we also introduce an amount of heat dQ. The gas in the vessel still has zero
macro kinetic energy and zero potential energy. The energy that has been added has simply
caused an increase in the internal energy.
The change in internal energy is determined only by the net energy that has been
transferred across the boundary and is independent of the form of that energy (work or heat)
or the process path of the energy transfer. In molecular simulations, molecules can of course
be seen, so the changes occurring as a system gains or loses internal energy are apparent in the
changes in the motion of the molecules. It can be observed that the molecules move faster
when the internal energy is increased. Internal energy is, therefore, a thermodynamic property
of state. Equation 2.4 is sometimes known as the non-flow energy equation and is a statement
of the First Law of Thermodynamics.
dU dQ - dW
or,
U 2 U 1 Q12 W12
(2.4)
dW
dQ
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Figure 2.7 Added work and heat raise the internal energy of a close system
2.8
Enthalpy (H) and Specific Enthalpy (h)
A more useful system variable for this course is enthalpy. Enthalpy (H), unit kJ is the
sum of internal energy and the product of pressure and volume of the system.
H = U + p V
In a thermodynamic system with fixed volume and pressure, enthalpy has the same meaning
as internal energy and it is also measured in kilojoules (kJ). The reference condition regarding
enthalpy differs from one substance to another. For water (H2O), the reference condition is
defined at a temperature of approximately 0.01C and a pressure of approximately 0.61
kPa(a). This is the only combination of pressure and temperature at which ice, water and
vapour can stably exist together. The condition is referred to as the triple point. Every
substance has its own triple point. At the triple point enthalpy of the substance is considered to
be 0.
The enthalpy contained in one kg of a substance is known as specific enthalpy (h). Specific
enthalpy depends on the material, its pressure, temperature and state. Specific enthalpy data
for light and heavy water can be found in steam tables. Specific enthalpy (h) is measured in
kJ/kg.
h = u + p v
Therefore, taking the value of (h) and multiplying it by the mass, one can obtain the value of
enthalpy (H).
H = m h
Example 2.1
Wout = (+) ?
Qin = +10 kJ
SYSTEM
Win= -2 kJ
Qout = -3 kJ
The figure above shows a certain process, which undergoes a complete cycle
of operations. Determine the value of the work output for a complete cycle,
Wout.
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Solution to Example 2.1

Q = Qin + Qout
= (10) + (-3)
= 7 kJ
W = Win + Wout
= (-2) + (Wout)
Qin is +10 kJ
Qout is 3 kJ
Win is 2 kJ
Wout is +ve
Hence Q - W = 0
W = Q
(-2) + (Wout) = 7
Wout = 9 kJ
Example 2.2
A system is allowed to do work amounting to 500 kNm whilst heat energy
amounting to 800 kJ is transferred into it. Find the change of internal energy
and state whether it is an increase or decrease.

U2 U1 = Q12 W12
now,
W12 = +500 kNm = 500 kJ
Q12 = +800 kJ
U2 U1 = 800 500
= 300 kJ (Since U2 U1, the internal energy has increased)
Example 2.3
During a complete cycle operation, a system is subjected to the following:
Heat transfer is 300 kJ supplied and 150 kJ rejected.
Work done by the system is 200 kJ.
Calculate the work transferred from the surrounding to the system.
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Q = Qin + Qout = (300) + (-150) = 150 kJ
W = Win + Wout = (Win) + (200)
Hence Q - W = 0
W = Q
(Win) + (200) = 150
Win = - 50 kJ
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2.9
STEADY FLOW PROCESSES
In heat engine it is the steady flow processes which are generally of most interest. The
conditions which must be satisfied by all of these processes are:
i.
ii.
iii.
The mass of fluid flowing past any section in the system must be constant with respect
to time.
The properties of the fluid at any particular section in the system must be constant
with respect to time.
All transfer of work energy and heat which takes place must be done at a uniform rate.
A typical example of a steady flow process is a steam boiler, operating under a constant load
as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 2.9. In order to maintain the water level in the boiler, the
feed pump supplies water at exactly the same rate as that at which steam is drawn off from the
boiler. To maintain the production of steam at this rate at a steady pressure, the furnace will
need to supply heat energy at a steady rate. Under these conditions, the properties of the
working fluid at any section within the system must be constant with respect to time.
STEAM
OUT
WATER
LEVEL
BOUNDRY
WATER
IN
FURNACE
Figure 2.9 Steam Boiler
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2.10
Equation of Continuity
This is an equation which is often used in conjunction with the steady flow energy
equation. It is based on the fact that if a system is in a steady state, then the mass of fluid
passing any section during a specified time must be constant. Consider a mass flow rate (in
) kg/s flowing through a system in which all conditions are steady as illustrated
symbol, m
in Fig.2.10.
1
2
C2
C1
2
AREA A1
AREA A2
Figure 2.10 Mass flowing through a system

Let A1 and A2 represent the flow areas in m2 at the inlet and outlet respectively.
Let v1 and v2 represent the specific volumes in m3/kg at the inlet and outlet
respectively.
Let C1 and C2 represent the velocities in m/s, at the inlet and outlet respectively.
Then mass flowing per sec = volume flowing per sec m3/s
volume per kg
m3/kg
A1C1 kg
=
at inlet
v1
s
=
i.e.
2.11
A2 C 2 kg
at outlet
v2
s
A1C1 A2 C 2
=
v1
v2
(2.5)
STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

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This equation is a mathematical statement on the principle of Conservation of Energy

as applied to the flow of a fluid through a thermodynamic system.
The various forms of energy which the fluid can have are as follows:
a)
Potential energy
If the fluid is at some height Z above a given datum level, then as a result of its
mass it possesses potential energy with respect to that datum. Thus, for unit
mass of fluid, in the close vicinity of the earth,
Potential energy = g Z
9.81 Z
b)
Kinetic energy
A fluid in motion possesses kinetic energy. If the fluid flows with velocity C,
then, for unit mass of fluid,
Kinetic energy =
C2
2
c)
Internal energy
All fluids store energy. The store of energy within any fluid can be increased or
decreased as a result of various processes carried out on or by the fluid. The
energy stored within a fluid which results from the internal motion of its atoms
and molecules is called its internal energy and it is usually designated by the
letter U. If the internal energy of the unit mass of fluid is discussed this is then
called the specific internal energy and is designated by u.
d)
Flow or displacement energy

In order to enter or leave the system, any entering or leaving volume of fluid
must be displaced with an equal volume ahead of itself. The displacing mass
must do work on the mass being displaced, since the movement of any mass
can only be achieved at the expense of work.
Thus, if the volume of unit mass of liquid (its specific volume) at entry is v1
and its pressure is P1, then in order to enter a system it must displace an equal
specific volume v1 inside the system. Thus work to the value P1v1 is done on
the specific volume inside the system by the specific volume outside the
system. This work is called flow or displacement work and at entry it is energy
received by the system.
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Similarly, at exit, in order to leave, the flow work must be done by the fluid
inside the system on the fluid outside the system. Thus, if the pressure at exit,
is P2 and the specific volume is v2 the equation is then,
Flow or displacement work rejected = P2v2
e)
Heat received or rejected

During its passage through the system the fluid can have direct reception or
rejection of heat energy through the system boundary. This is designated by Q.
This must be taken in its algebraic sense.
Thus,
Q is positive when heat is received.
Q is negative when heat is rejected.
Q = 0 if heat is neither received nor rejected.
f)
External work done

During its passage through the system the fluid can do external work or have
external work done on it. This is usually designated by W. This also must be
taken in its algebraic sense.
Thus if,
External work is done by the fluid then W is positive.
External work is done on the fluid then W is negative.
If no external work is done on or by the fluid then W = 0.
Figure 2.11 illustrates some thermodynamic system into which is flowing a fluid with
pressure P1, specific volume v1, specific internal energy u1 and velocity C1. The entry
is at height Z1 above some datum level. In its passage through the system, external
work W may be done on or by the fluid and also heat energy Q may be received or
rejected by the fluid from or to the surroundings.
The fluid then leaves the system with pressure P2, specific volume v2, specific internal
energy u2 and velocity C2. The exit is at height Z2 above some datum level.
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P1, v1
U1,C1
P2 ,v2
u2 ,C2
Figure 2.11 A schematic of a steady flow system

The application of the principle of energy conservation to the system is,
Total energy entering the system = Total energy leaving the system
or, for unit mass of substance,
C12
C2
q gZ 2 u 2 P2 v 2 2 w
2
2
This is called the steady flow energy equation.
gZ 1 u1 P1v1
(2.6)
This equation is not applicable to all energy forms. In such cases, the energy forms
concerned are omitted from the energy equation.
In equation 2.6, it was stated that the particular combination of properties of the form,
h = u + Pv is called specific enthalpy and is designated as h. Thus, the steady flow
energy equation is written as
C12
C2
q gZ 2 h2 2 w
2
2
gZ1 h1
or, in the easy way the equations becomes

C 22 C12
Z 2 Z 1 g
2
q w h2 h1
Note:
(2.7)
q = specific heat (kJ/kg)

w = specific work (kJ/kg)
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(kg/s) the equation may be written as

and with the flow rate, m
C 2 C12
Z 2 Z 1 g
Q W m h2 h1 2
2
Note: Q = heat flow (kJ/s or kW)

W = work (kJ/s or kW)
2.12
(2.8)
APPLICATION OF STEADY FLOW EQUATION

The steady flow energy equation may be applied to any apparatus through which a
fluid is flowing, provided that the conditions stated previously are applicable. Some of
the most common cases found in engineering practise are dealt with in detail as below.
a) Boilers
In a boiler operating under steady conditions, water is pumped into the boiler
along the feed line at the same rate as which steam leaves the boiler along the
steam main, and heat energy is supplied from the furnace at a steady rate.
2
2
WATER
IN
STEAM
OUT
SYSTEM
BOUNDRY
1
Q
FURNACE
Figure 2.12.1 Steam Boiler

The steady flow energy equation gives
C 2 C12
Z 2 Z 1 g
Q W m h2 h1 2
2
(2.9)
In applying this equation to the boiler, the following points should be noted :
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i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Q is the amount of heat energy passing into the fluid per second
W is zero since a boiler has no moving parts capable of affecting a
work transfer
The kinetic energy is small as compared to the other terms and may
usually be neglected
The potential energy is generally small enough to be neglected.
(kg/s) is the rate of the flow of fluid.
m
Hence the equation is reduced to
Q m h2 h1
b)
(2.10)
Condensers
In principle, a condenser is a boiler reverse. In a boiler, heat energy is supplied

to convert the liquid into vapour whereas in a condenser heat energy is
removed in order to condense the vapour into a liquid. If the condenser is in a
steady state then the amount of liquid, usually called condensate, leaving the
condenser must be equal to the amount of vapour entering the condenser.
VAPOUR
WATER
OUT
SYSTEM
WATER
IN
BOUNDARY
CONDENSATE
Figure 2.12.2 Condenser

C 22 C12
Z 2 Z 1 g
Q W m h2 h1
2
Points to note,
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i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Q is the amount of heat energy per second transferred from the system
W is zero in the boiler
The kinetic energy term may be neglected as in the boiler
The potential energy is generally small enough to be neglected
is the rate of the flow of fluid.
m
Thus the equation is reduced to

Q m h2 h1
(2.11)
Example 2.4
A boiler operates at a constant pressure of 15 bar, and evaporates fluid at the
rate of 1000 kg/h. At entry to the boiler, the fluid has an enthalpy of 165 kJ/kg
and on leaving the boiler the enthalpy of the fluid is 2200 kJ/kg. Determine
the heat energy supplied to the boiler.
2
STEAM OUT
2
SYSTEM
WATER
IN
BOUNDARY
1
1
Q
C 2 C12
Z 2 Z 1 g
Q W m h2 h1 2
2
Q = heat energy per hour entering system

W = work energy per hour leaving system = 0
= fluid flow rate = 1000 kg/h = 0.278 kg/s
m
h2 = 2200 kJ/kg
h1 = 165 kJ/kg
C1& C2 = neglected
Z1& Z2 = neglected
Thus, the steady flow energy equation becomes
Q m h2 h1
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0.278
kg
2200 165 kJ
s
kg
565.73
kJ
s
Example 2.5
If 65 % of the heat energy supplied to the boiler in example 2.4 is used in
evaporating the fluid, determine the rate of fuel consumption required to
maintain this rate of evaporation, if 1 kg of fuel produces 32000 kJ of heat
energy.
Heat energy from fuel required per seconds =
565.73
0.65
= 870.4 kJ/s @ kW
Heat energy obtained from the fuel = 32 000 kJ/kg
Fuel required =
870.4 kJ kg
x
32000 s
kJ
= 0.0272 kg/s
Example 2.6
Fluid enters a condenser at the rate of 35 kg/min with a specific enthalpy of
2200 kJ/kg, and leaves with a specific enthalpy of 255 kJ/kg. Determine the
rate of heat energy loss from the system.

= 35 kg/min = 0.58 kg/s
m
C 2 C12
Z 2 Z 1 g
Q W m h2 h1 2
2
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For a condenser, W = 0, and the term representing the change in kinetic and potential
energy may be neglected. Therefore the equation is reduced to
Q m h2 h1
From the above equation
Q 0.58
kg
kJ
( 255 2200)
s
kg
= - 1 128.1 kJ/s
ACTIVITY 1)
2.1)
In an air conditioning system, air is cooled by passing it over a chilled water coil
condenser. Water enters the coil with an enthalpy of 42 kJ/kg and leaves the coil with
an enthalpy of 80 kJ/kg. The water flow rate is 200 kg/h. Find the rate of heat
absorption by the water in kilowatts.
2.2)
In a steady flow system, a substance flows at the rate of 4 kg/s. It enters at a pressure
of 620 kN/m2, a velocity of 300 m/s, internal energy 2100 kJ/kg and specific volume
0.37 m3/kg. It leaves the system at a pressure of 130 kN/m2, a velocity of 150 m/s,
internal energy 1500 kJ/kg and specific volume
1.2 m 3/kg. During its passage
through the system the substance has a loss by heat transfer of 30 kJ/kg to the
surroundings. Determine the power of the system in kilowatts, stating whether it is
from or to the system. Neglect any change in potential energy.
Answer to ACTIVITY 1)
2.1)
Data:
= 200 kg/h =
m
200
0.056 kg/s
3600
h1 = 42 kJ/kg; h2 = 80 kJ/kg
Q =?
The diameter of the water tube in a cooler is normally constant. Therefore,

there is no change in water velocity and kinetic energy. In general the change
in potential energy is also negligible.
The equation of steady flow is therefore reduced to
Q m h2 h1
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= 0.056(42 80)
= - 2.13 kJ/s or kW
The rate of heat absorption by the water is 2.13 kW
2.2)
By neglecting the change in potential energy, for a unit mass of substance, the
steady flow energy equation becomes:
C 22 C12
Z 2 Z 1 g
q w h2 h1
2
(1)
q is written negative since 30 kJ/kg are lost to the surroundings.

From equation (1)
C12 C 22
Specific work, w = (u1 u1 ) ( P1v1 P2 v 2 ) (
)q
2
Worki in kilojoules (kJ)
Specificwork, w = (2100-1500) + (620x0.37 -130x1.2) + (
300 2 150 2
) +(-30)
2 x10 3
= 676.75 kJ/kg.
= 4 kg/s
The substance flows at the rate of, m
w
Output (since W is positive), W = m
= 4 x 676.75
= 2707 kJ/s or kW
c)
Turbine
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A turbine is a device which uses a pressure drop to produce work energy which is used
to drive an external load.
FLUID IN
1
Qout
SYSTEM
Wout
BOUNDARY
FLUID OUT
Figure 2.12.3 Turbine

C 22 C12
Z 2 Z 1 g
Q W m h2 h1
2
Points to note :
i.
The average velocity of flow of fluid through a turbine is normally high, and
the fluid passes quickly through the turbine. It may be assumed that, because of
this, heat energy does not have time to flow into or out of the fluid during its
passage through the turbine, and hence Q = 0 .
ii.
Although velocities are high the difference between them is not large, and the
term representing the change in kinetic energy may be neglected.
iii.
Potential energy is generally small enough to be neglected.
iv.
W is the amount of external work energy produced per second.
The steady flow energy equation becomes
- W m h2 h1
or
W m h1 h2
(2.12)
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Example 2.7
A fluid flows through a turbine at the rate of 45 kg/min. Across the turbine the
specific enthalpy drop of the fluid is 580 kJ/kg and the turbine loss 2100 kJ/min
in the form of heat energy. Determine the power produced by the turbine,
assuming that changes in kinetic and potential energy may be neglected.

C 2 C12
gZ 2 gZ1
Q W m h2 h1 2
2
Q = heat energy flow into system = -2100 kJ/min = -35 kJ/s

W = work energy flow from system kJ/min
= fluid flow rate = 45 kg/min = 0.75 kg/s
m
h2 h1 = -580 kJ/kg
C1& C2 = neglected
Z1& Z2 = neglected
Therefore the steady flow energy equation becomes

Q W m h2 h1
-35 kJ/s W = 0.75 kg/s (-580 kJ/kg)
W = (-35) + (435) kJ/s
= 400 kJ/s
= 400 kW
d)
Nozzle
A nozzle utilises a pressure drop to produce an increase in the kinetic energy of
the fluid.
1
2
SYSTEM
FLUID
IN
BOUNDARY
FLUID
OUT
2
1
Figure 2.12.4 Nozzle

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C 2 C12
Z 2 Z 1 g
Q W m h2 h1 2
2
Points to note :
i.
The average velocity of flow through a nozzle is high, hence the fluid
spends only a short time in the nozzle. For this reason, it may be
assumed that there is insufficient time for heat energy to flow into or
out of the fluid during its passage through the nozzle, i.e. Q = 0.
ii.
Since a nozzle has no moving parts, no work energy will be transferred
to or from the fluid as it passes through the nozzle,
i.e. W = 0.
iii.
Potential energy is generally small enough to be neglected.
Hence the equation becomes
C 22 C12

0 m h2 h1
2

C 22
h1 h2 C12
2
or
C 2 2 h1 h2 C12
(2.13)
Often C1 is negligible compared with C2. In this case the equation becomes
C 2 2 h1 h2
(2.14)
Example 2.8
Fluid with a specific enthalpy of 2800 kJ/kg enters a horizontal nozzle with
negligible velocity at the rate of 14 kg/s. At the outlet from the nozzle the
specific enthalpy and specific volume of the fluid are 2250 kJ/kg and
1.25 m3/kg respectively. Assuming an adiabatic flow, determine the required
outlet area of the nozzle.

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C 2 C12
gZ 2 gZ1
Q W m h2 h1 2
2
When applied to the nozzle, this becomes
C 2 C12
0 m h2 h1 2
2
Since the inlet C1 is negligible, this may be written as

C 2 2 h1 h2
2 2800 2250 10 3
= 1049 m/s
Applying the equation of continuity at outlet gives

From m
C 2 A2
,
v2
A2
v2
m
C2
14 1.25
1049
= 0.01668 m2
ACTIVITY 2
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT
INPUT!
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2.3
Steam enters a turbine with a velocity of 16 m/s and specific enthalpy

2990
kJ/kg. The steam leaves the turbine with a velocity of 37 m/s and specific
enthalpy 2530 kJ/kg. The heat lost to the surroundings as the steam passes
through the turbine is 25 kJ/kg. The steam flow rate is 324000 kg/h. Determine
the work output from the turbine in kilowatts.
2.4
In a turbo jet engine the momentum of the gases leaving the nozzle produces
the propulsive force. The enthalpy and velocity of the gases at the nozzle
entrance are 1200 kJ/kg and 200 m/s respectively. The enthalpy of the gas at
exit is 900 kJ/kg. If the heat loss from the nozzle is negligible, determine the
velocity of the gas jet at exit from the nozzle.
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ANSWER TO ACTIVITY 2)
2.3
Neglecting the changes in potential energy, the steady flow energy equation is
C 2 C12

Q W h2 h1 2
2

Q is negative since heat is lost from the steam to the surroundings
C12 C 22
- Q
2
specific W = h1 h2
= (2999-2530) +
(16 2 37 2 )
25
2 x10 3
= 434.443 kJ/kg
The steam flow rate = 324000/3600 = 90 kg/s
W = 434.443 x 90
= 39099.97 kJ/s or kW
39100 kW
39.1 MW
2.4
The steady energy flow equation for nozzle gives
C 22 C12
0 m h2 h1
2
On simplification,
C 2 2 h1 h2 C12
21200 10 3 900 10 3 200 2
= 800 m/s
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e)
Throttling process
A throttling process is one in which the fluid is made to flow through a restriction ,
e.g. a partially opened valve or orifice, causing a considerable drop in the pressure of
the fluid.
2
1
Figure 2.12.5 Throttling process

C 2 C12
Z 2 Z 1 g
Q W m h2 h1 2
2
Points to note:
i.
Since throttling takes place over a very small distance, the available area
through which heat energy can flow is very small, and it is normally assumed
that no energy is lost by heat transfer, i.e. Q = 0.
ii.
Since there are no moving parts, no energy can be transferred in the form of
work energy, i.e. W = 0.
iii.
The difference between C1 and C2 will not be great and consequently the term
representing the change in kinetic energy is normally neglected.
iv.
The potential energy is generally small enough to be neglected.
The steady flow energy equation becomes
or
(h2 h1)
0= m
h2 = h1
(2.15)
i.e. during a throttling process the enthalpy remains constant.

Example 2.9
A fluid flowing along a pipeline undergoes a throttling process from 10 bar to 1
bar in passing through a partially open valve. Before throttling, the specific
volume of the fluid is 0.3 m3/kg and after throttling is 1.8 m3/kg. Determine the
change in specific internal energy during the throttling process.
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For a throttling process, the steady flow energy equation becomes
or
(h2 - h1)
0= m
h2 = h1
From h = u + Pv,
u2 = h2 - P2v2
u1= h1 - P1v1
Therefore the change in specific internal energy
u2 u1 = ( h2 - P2v2 ) - ( h1 P1v1)
= ( h2 - h1 ) ( P2v2 - P1v1 )
= 0 ( 1 x 102 x 1.8 10 x 102 x 0.3 ) kN/m2 x m3/kg
= 120 kNm/kg
= 120 kJ/kg
f)
Pump
The action of a pump is the reverse of that of a turbine, i.e. it uses external
work energy to produce a pressure rise. In applying the steady flow energy
equation to a pump, exactly the same arguments are used as for turbine and the
equation becomes
- W m h2 h1
(2.16)
Since h2 > h1, W will be found to be negative.
OUTLET
2
Q
SYSTEM
W
BOUNDARY
1
INLET
Figure 2.12.6 Pump

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Example 2.10
A pump delivers fluid at the rate of 45 kg/min. At the inlet to the pump the
specific enthalpy of the fluid is 46 kJ/kg, and at the outlet from the pump the
specific enthalpy of the fluid is 175 kJ/kg. If 105 kJ/min of heat energy are lost to
the surroundings by the pump, determine the power required to drive the pump if
the efficiency of the drive is 85 %.
= 45 kg/min
The flow rate of fluid, m
= 0.75 kg/s
The steady flow energy is
C 22 C12
Z 2 Z 1 g
Q W m h2 h1
2
Q = - 105 kJ/min = - 1.75 kJ/s

W = work energy flow (kJ/s)
h1 = 46 kJ/kg
h2 = 1.27 kJ/kg
m = 0.75 kg/s
The kinetic and potential energy may be neglected
Substituting the data above with the steady flow energy equation gives
(h2 h1)
Q-W= m
- 1.75 W = 0.75 (175 46)
W = -1.75 (0.75 x 129)
= - 98.5 kJ/s
= - 98.5 kW
(N.B. The negative sign indicates work energy required by the pump)
Since the efficiency of the drive is 85 %
Power required by the compressor = - 98.5 x
100
85
= - 114.8 kW
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TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT

INPUT!
2.3
A rotary air pump is required to deliver 900 kg of air per hour. The enthalpy at
the inlet and exit of the pump are 300 kJ/kg and 500 kJ/kg respectively. The air
velocity at the entrance and exit are 10 m/s and 15 m/s respectively. The rate of
heat loss from the pump is 2500 W. Determine the power required to drive the
pump.
2.4
In Activity 2, for question No. 2.4, if the diameter of the nozzle at exit is
500 mm, find the mass flow rate of gas. The gas density at the nozzle inlet and
exit are 0.81 kg/m3 and 0.39 kg/m3 respectively. Also determine the diameter of
the nozzle at the inlet.
2.3
Data : m
900
= 0.25 kg/s
3600
h1 = 300 kJ/kg
h2 = 500 kJ/kg
C1= 10 m/s
C2= 15 m/s
Q = 2500 W = 2.5 kW
W=?
C 22 C12
Z 2 Z 1 g
Q W m h2 h1
2
Neglecting the change in Potential energy since it is negligible
C 2 C12

Q W m h2 h1 2
2
-W = 0.25 [( 500- 300) + (
15 2 10 2
)] + 2.5
2 x10 3
W = - 52.5 kW
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2.4
0.5 2
= 0.196 m2
4
Data : A2 =
1 = 0.81 kg/m3
2 = 0.39 kg/m3
=?
m
d =?
Mass flow rate at exit,
= A2 C2 2
m
= 61.2 kg/s
From the mass balance,
Mass entering the nozzle = mass leaving the nozzle = m
= A1 C1 1 = A2 C2 2
m
On substitution
A1 x 200 x 0.81 = 61.2
On simplification
A1 = 0.378 m2
or
d1 = 0.694 m
= 694 mm
SELF ASSESMENT)
You are approaching success. Try all the questions in this self-assessment section and
check your answers with those given in the Feedback to Self-Assessment on the next
page. If you face any problem, discuss it with your lecturer. Good luck.
1
Steam flows through a turbine stage at the rate of 4500 kJ/h. The steam
velocities at inlet and outlet are 15 m/s and 180 m/s respectively. The rate of
heat energy flow from the turbine casing to the surroundings is 23 kJ/kg of
steam flowing. If the specific enthalpy of the steam decreases by 420 kJ/kg in
passing through the turbine stage, calculate the power developed.
A rotary pump draws 600 kg/hour of atmospheric air and delivers it at a higher
pressure. The specific enthalpy of air at the pump inlet is 300 kJ/kg and that at
the exit is 509 kJ/kg. The heat lost from the pump casing is
5000 W.
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Neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energy, determine the power
required to drive the pump.
3
A nozzle is supplied with steam having a specific enthalpy of 2780 kJ/kg at the
rate of 9.1 kg/min. At outlet from the nozzle the velocity of the steam is 1070
m/s. Assuming that the inlet velocity of the steam is negligible and that the
process is adiabatic, determine:
a)
the specific enthalpy of the steam at the nozzle exit
b)
the outlet area required if the final specific volume of the steam is
18.75 m3/kg.
Fluid at 10.35 bar having a specific volume of 0.18 m 3/kg is throttled to a

pressure of 1 bar. If the specific volume of the fluid after throttling is
0.107
3
m /kg, calculate the change in specific internal energy during the process.
Have you tried the questions????? If YES, check your answers now.
1.
476 kW
2.
353 kW
3.
2208 kJ/kg; 2660 mm2
4.
175.7 kJ/kg
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JJ207 Thermodynamic Topic 2 First Law of Thermodynamics

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JJ207 Thermodynamic Topic 2 First Law of Thermodynamics

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JJ207-THERMODYNAMICS 1

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Describe forms of energy.

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

The First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy can exist in

Pictures showing types of energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

where represents the sum of a complete cycle.

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Chemical energy, is the energy stored within chemical compounds. A chemical

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Energy Transfer by Heat and Work

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Figure 2.3 Work transfer

Sign Convention for Work Transfer

It is convenient to consider a convention of sign in connection with work transfer and

Figure 2.4 Sign Convention for work transfer

Sign Convention for Heat Transfer

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Specific heat capacity

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Enthalpy (H) and Specific Enthalpy (h)

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Solution to Example 2.1

Solution to Example 2.2

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Solution to Example 2.3

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

STEADY FLOW PROCESSES

Figure 2.9 Steam Boiler

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Figure 2.10 Mass flowing through a system

STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

This equation is a mathematical statement on the principle of Conservation of Energy

Flow or displacement energy

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Heat received or rejected

External work done

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Figure 2.11 A schematic of a steady flow system

or, in the easy way the equations becomes

q = specific heat (kJ/kg)

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

(kg/s) the equation may be written as

Note: Q = heat flow (kJ/s or kW)

APPLICATION OF STEADY FLOW EQUATION

Figure 2.12.1 Steam Boiler

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Hence the equation is reduced to

In principle, a condenser is a boiler reverse. In a boiler, heat energy is supplied

Figure 2.12.2 Condenser

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Thus the equation is reduced to

Solution to Example 2.4

The steady flow energy equation gives

Q = heat energy per hour entering system

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes

Heat energy from fuel required per seconds =

Solution to Example 2.6

Topic 2- First Law of Thermodynamics and its processes