Professional Documents
Culture Documents
First Edition
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
SCOPE
1.2
SURFACE DRESSING
1.3
1.4
1.5
RESEALING
2.
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
2.1
GENERAL
Description
Types of Bitumen Binders
Selection of Type and Grade
Bitumen in Ghana
Viscosity
Methods to Change Viscosity
Polymer Modified Bitumen (PMB)
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
2.2
BITUMEN
Base Crudes
Production
Standard Classification
Specification Requirements
Physical Properties of Bitumen
6
6
6
6
6
7
2.3
CUTBACK BITUMEN
Production
Grades and Applications of Cutback in Ghana
Setting Up
10
10
10
10
2.4
BITUMEN EMULSION
Description
Types
Composition
Production
Standard Grades
Special Products
Specification
Breaking of an Emulsion
Handling and Storage
Mixing Emulsions
Field Behaviour
Co-efficient of Expansion
12
12
12
13
13
13
14
14
14
16
16
16
17
2.5
POLYMER MODIFIED BINDERS (PMBs)
General
Adhesion and Cohesion Characteristics
17
17
18
2.6
ADDITIVES
General
18
18
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Cutter Oil
Adhesion Agent
3.
CHIPPINGS
18
18
19
3.1
GENERAL
Source Rock
Types of Chippings in Ghana
19
19
19
3.2
CHIPPING REQUIREMENTS
Material and Shape Requirements
Wearing Qualities
Adhesion
Shape
Grading
One Sized Chippings
Average Least Dimension (ALD)
19
19
19
20
20
22
22
23
3.3
PRECOATING OF CHIPPINGS
General
Precoating Materials
25
25
25
3.4
GEOTEXTILES
General
Choice of Geotextile
26
26
26
4.
TYPES OF TREATMENT
27
4.1
GENERAL
27
4.2
CLASSIFICATION OF TREATMENTS
Initial treatments
Seals
Reseals
Types of Seals and Reseals
Other Treatments
27
27
28
28
29
29
5.
DESIGN
30
5.1
GENERAL
Definitions
30
30
5.2
DESIGN OF PRIMES
General
Design Procedure
Application Rates
30
30
31
31
5.3
DESIGN OF PRIMERSEALS
General
Design Procedure
34
34
34
5.4
DESIGN OF SEALS AND RESEALS
General
Single Application Seals
Double Application Seals
Binder
Chipping Size
38
38
38
38
39
39
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Chipping ALD
Curing of Primerseals
Seal and Reseal Design Procedure
Chipping Design Procedures
Design Calculation Sheet
39
39
40
42
43
5.5
DESIGN OF BITUMEN EMULSION SEALS
General
Binder Design Primersealing
Binder Design Seals and Reseals
Emulsion Calculations
Maximum Allowable Rates
Design Calculation Sheet
Chipping Design Procedures
48
49
49
49
49
50
50
50
5.6
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Primerseal
Seal
Double Seal Hot Applied Bitumen
52
52
53
56
5.7
DESIGN SHEETS
Prime Design
Primerseal Design for Cutback Bitumen
Primerseal Design for Bitumen Emulsion ( 70% Bitumen)
Seal and Reseal Design for Hot Applied Bitumen Binder
Double Seal Design for Hot Applied Bitumen Binder
Seal and Reseal Design for Bitumen Emulsion
59
59
60
60
61
62
64
5.8
DETERMINING AVERAGE LEAST DIMENSION (ALD)
General
Apparatus
Sampling
Procedure
Calculation
65
65
65
65
65
66
5.9
SAND TEXTURE TEST
Equipment
Test Sites
Test Procedure
Calculate Surface Texture Depth (T)
68
68
68
68
69
71
71
71
71
74
75
76
76
77
78
79
6.
80
CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE
6.1
PREPARATIONS FOR SEALING
General
Inspections
80
80
80
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Site Preparation
Supply of Binder
Supply and Precoating of Chippings
Sampling of Chippings
Plant Requirements
Spray Gang
Traffic Control Strategy
Job Instructions
Repairing Pavement before Sealing
81
81
81
84
84
85
85
86
86
6.2
HANDLING HOT BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
General
Transferring Material
Heating
Mixing Bituminous Materials
Storage
87
87
87
88
88
92
6.3
PREPARATION OF PAVEMENT SURFACE
General
Primers and Primerseals
Seals and Reseals
94
94
94
95
6.4
SPRAYING OPERATIONS
Setting Out
Spray Width
Quantity of Binder to be Sprayed
Loading the Distributor
Spraying
Spray Nozzles
Measurement of Binder Quantity
Binder Temperature
Traffic Control
Cut Off Paper
Positioning the Distributor and Chipping Trucks
Commence Spraying
Remove Cut Off Paper
Determine Binder Application Rate
Overlap Longitudinal Joints
95
96
96
96
96
97
97
97
97
97
97
97
98
98
98
99
6.5
CHIPPING OPERATIONS
Loading
Spreading
Rolling Chippings
Sweeping
99
99
99
101
102
6.6
TRAFFIC CONTROL
General
Spraying Operation
Protection of New Bituminous Seals
103
103
104
104
6.7
PRIMING
Spraying Temperature
Primer Set Up
Covering Primes
After Care
104
104
104
105
105
6.8
PRIMERSEALING
Spraying Primerbinder
Trafficking the Primerseal
105
105
106
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6.9
SEALING AND RESEALING
Curing of Primes and Primerseals
Spraying Binder
Trafficking Seals and Reseals
After Care
106
106
106
106
106
107
107
107
108
108
108
108
108
108
108
109
109
110
110
112
6.12
113
6.13
113
7.
7.1
GENERAL
115
7.2
115
115
7.3
BITUMEN DISTRIBUTOR
Calibration
Spraying Certificate and Table
Spraying Jets
115
116
117
117
7.4
CHIPPING LOADER
121
7.5
CHIPPING SPREADERS
121
7.6
ROLLERS
121
7.7
BROOM
122
8.
8.1
GENERAL
123
123
8.2
DEFECTS IN TREATMENTS
Initial Treatments
Retreatments
123
123
124
8.3
REMEDIES
Priming
Primersealing
Sealing
124
124
124
125
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
9.
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
127
9.1
GENERAL
Basic Requirements
127
127
9.2
SIGNING THE WORKSITE
Planning
Design
Installation
Operation
Removal
127
127
128
128
129
129
9.3
TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS
Functions of a Traffic Controller
Equipment
Instructions
Approach Tapers
130
130
130
130
131
10.
SAFETY
134
10.1 GENERAL
Storage and Blending Areas
134
134
10.2 PERSONNEL
Manual Handling
Falls
Protective gear
Burns Treatment (see Bitumen Burn Card)
Shock
Fumes
Hydrogen Sulphide
Skin Exposure
Public Safety
Contractors / Subcontractors
135
135
135
136
136
136
136
137
137
137
137
138
138
138
138
139
139
140
140
140
141
141
141
141
142
142
142
142
143
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
SCOPE
This manual has been prepared to assist personnel involved in surface dressing in
Ghana. It provides a reliable approach to all aspects of surface dressing including
design and practice.
The information provided is based on the current best practice of overseas road
authorities and the experience of road agency staff of Ghana.
1.2
SURFACE DRESSING
Surface dressing is the common name given to the method of applying a bituminous
film that water proofs the surface, and acts as a binder to hold the stone chips in
place. The stone chips then provide the wearing surface for traffic. Surface dressing
however, is also known as sprayed sealing.
The main objectives of surface dressing are:
The choice of a surface dressing over asphalt depends on many factors including the
operating environment and financial considerations. On a flexible pavement in rural
locations, surface dressing will generally be selected unless other factors notably
traffic volume dictate a higher class pavement and surfacing.
1.3
1.4
Pavements which are to be surface dressed in Ghana are often made up of naturally
occurring materials. On the more heavily trafficked roads a mechanically stabilised
rock or manufactured crushed material is often used for the road base.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
To prepare a pavement for initial sealing (the first sprayed seal ) the top of the
pavement is watered, rolled and graded to provide a surface with a smooth tight and
uniform texture. The surface dressing is then applied to the prepared surface. While
there are various techniques, essentially they are all a sprayed layer of bitumen with
stone chips rolled into the bitumen.
Proper preparation of the pavement surface is essential to achieve a first class
surface dressing. Therefore the pavement must properly designed and constructed
to withstand the expected traffic loading before sealing is done.
The traffic runs on top of the stone chippings and the tyres do not come into contact
with the bitumen. A sketch of the basic arrangement of a sprayed seal is shown in
Figure 1.1.
The stone chippings are one sized and must be clean and durable. They must also
be precoated with a mixture of diesel fuel oil and bitumen before being spread onto
the bitumen.
Figure 1.1
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.5
RESEALING
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
2.1
GENERAL
Description
The basic material used as a binder for bituminous surfacing work is residual
bitumen, obtained by processing the residual from the refining of naturally occurring
crude petroleum.
Types of Bitumen Binders
Various grades of bitumen binders are generally prepared and used in one of the
following forms:
Bitumen
Cutback Bitumen using kerosene as a solvent (cutter)
Bitumen Emulsion
Polymer Modified Bitumen or PMB (by the addition of natural rubber or other
polymers)
Fluxed bitumen using diesel as a solvent (not used in Ghana)
For economy, a binder should have as long a life as possible and be resistant to
hardening by weathering. To achieve this, the binder used should contain the largest
proportion of the softest practical grade of bitumen to perform in the service
conditions expected
Bitumen in Ghana
The bitumen used for surface dressing in Ghana is grade AC10 as discussed
below. It is also proposed to introduce polymer modified bitumen in the future for use
in special circumstances, such as areas subject to high speed traffic, and to
minimise crack reflection in distressed pavements or to improve chipping retention.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Viscosity
Viscosity is the main property used to classify grades of bitumen. It gives an
indication of the state of the bitumen at various temperatures. The variation in
viscosity of grade AC10 bitumen with temperature is shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Variation in Viscosity with Temperature of Grade AC-10 Bitumen
Temperature
C
25
60
70
135
185
Approx. Viscosity
Poise
500,000
1000
300
1.5
0.8
Condition
Very Viscous, semi-solid
Heavy Liquid
Free flowing liquid
Heating
Cutting back
Emulsification
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.2
BITUMEN
Base Crudes
Deposits of crude petroleum occur all over the world in varying quantities and
qualities. The bitumen used in Ghana is supplied by the oil refinery in Cote DIvoire.
The refinery imports the crude petroleum from Venezuela which is one of the worlds
most important oil producing areas. The crude petroleum found in Nigeria is
unsuitable for the production of bitumen.
Bitumen is also found in naturally occurring deposits but these cannot compete
economically with refinery-produced bitumen and are not generally used in the road
industry.
Production
Crude petroleum is a mixture of a large number of individual hydrocarbons, many of
them closely related to each other, with boiling ranges which extends continuously
from far below 0C to above 300C.
At the refinery crude oil, is distilled by heating with the lighter fractions evaporating
off leaving a residue. This residue is processed to produce a soft bitumen.
The various grades of bitumen are produced by blowing air through the soft bitumen
to oxidise it and make it harder or by combining soft and harder grades. The end
product is known as residual bitumen.
A sketch of the distillation process is shown in Figure. 1.2.
Standard Classification
The residual bitumen is classified into grades mainly on the basis of viscosity
measured at 60C. The grade of bitumen specified by the Road Agencies for use in
sealing work in Ghana is grade AC10 which has a viscosity of 1000200 Poise at
60C.
Specification Requirements
Grade AC -10 bitumen must conform to the properties of ASTM D3381.92 as shown
in Table 2.2 .
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 1.2
Table 2.2
Properties of Bitumen ASTM D3381.92
Test
AC-2.5
AC-5
AC-10
AC-20
AC-40
25050
80
200
500100
110
120
1000200
150
70
2000400
210
40
4000800
300
20
219
232
232
163
177
99.0
99.0
99.0
99.0
1250
100
99.0
2500
100
5000
50
10000
20
20000
10
(a)
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity (SG) of a material may be taken as the mass of a volume
of that material compared to the volume of mass of an equal volume of water.
The specific gravity of bituminous materials is normally given at 150C.
Using the fact that 1 tonne = 1000 kilogram and that 1 litre of water has a
mass of approximately 1 kilogram, the volume of material delivered can be
calculated from the known mass.
For convenience the specific gravity, mass per litre, and litres per tonne that
may be used for conversion from mass to volume are tabulated in Table 2.3
(b)
Co-efficient of Expansion
Bitumen expands when heated and contracts when cooled from a given
temperature. The rate of expansion or contraction is uniform and is expressed
as the co-efficient of expansion. For convenience, the multiplier to be used to
correct volumes for any temperature between 15C and 200C are shown in
Table 2.4
Table 2.3
Mass and Litres Conversion Table
Material
Specific
Gravity
Kilograms
per Litre
Litres per
Tonne
1.030
1.030
970
Cutback Bitumen
AMC 00
AMC 0
AMC 1
AMC 2
AMC 3
AMC 4
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1.00
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1.00
1115
1085
1060
1040
1020
1000
Bitumen Emulsion
1.00
1.00
1000
Flux Oil
0.84
0.84
1190
Cutter
0.78
0.78
1285
0.95
0.95
1055
Grade AC-10
bitumen
Adhesion Agent
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 2.4
Bitumen Volume Correction Tables
BITUMEN VOLUME CORRECTION TABLES
0
Temperature
C -celsius
Multiplier
Temperature
C -celsius
Multiplier
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
195
200
205
210
215
220
1.0000
1.0034
1.0068
1.0102
1.0137
1.0171
1.0205
1.0239
1.0273
1.0307
1.0341
1.0376
1.0410
1.0444
1.0478
1.0512
1.0546
1.0580
1.0615
1.0649
1.0683
1.0717
1.0751
1.0785
1.0819
1.0854
1.0888
1.0922
1.0956
1.0990
1.1024
1.1058
1.1093
1.1127
1.1161
1.1195
1.1229
1.1263
1.1298
1.1332
1.1366
1.1400
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
195
200
205
210
215
220
1.0000
0.9970
0.9940
0.9910
0.9880
0.9850
0.9820
0.9790
0.9760
0.9730
0.9701
0.9671
0.9641
0.9611
0.9581
0.9551
0.9521
0.9491
0.9461
0.9431
0.9401
0.9371
0.9341
0.9311
0.9281
0.9251
0.9221
0.9191
0.9161
0.9131
0.9102
0.9072
0.9042
0.9012
0.8982
0.8952
0.8922
0.8892
0.8862
0.8832
0.8802
0.8772
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.3
CUTBACK BITUMEN
Production
Cutback bitumen is manufactured from refinery produced bitumen, cut back (thinned)
with petroleum solvents of selected volatility to produce products which are more
fluid and of easily worked viscosities. The distillation range of the solvent used
determines the curing characteristics and the types that may be made.
Standard Grades
These grades were originally divided into grades based on viscosity as detailed in
Table 2.5. However, following a review in 1998, it was decided to include a second
grading system to extend the viscosity range. The two grading systems are detailed
in Table 2.6. The grade of cutback bitumen specified for primersealing is AMC4
which contains 16 % cutter by volume.
Proprietary Grades
These grades were also divided based on viscosity, but using refinery residues
and/or different cutters to the standard grades. They may or may not comply with the
Standard Grades.
These grades are produced in the field by mixing AC-10 bitumen, and cutter to
produce grades which are broadly equivalent in performance to the standard grades.
Setting Up
Cutbacks set up or thicken and increase in viscosity after spraying by three
processes:
Reduction in temperature
Loss of the light oils by evaporation
Selective absorption of the oils by the fines in the pavement material.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 2.5
Grades of Cutback Bitumen Originally Specified
MC-30
Min.
Max.
MC-70
Min.
Max.
MC-250
Min.
Max.
MC-800
Min.
Max.
MC-3000
Min.
Max.
30
38
(100)
-
140
-
0.2
3,000
66
(150)
-
6,000
-
0.2
800
66
(150)
-
1,600
-
0.2
250
66
(150)
-
500
-
0.2
70
38
(100)
-
40
75
25
70
93
0
20
65
20
60
90
0
15
60
10
55
87
0
45
35
80
0
15
15
75
50
55
67
75
80
300
100
99.0
1200
-
300
100
99.0
1200
-
300
100
99.0
1200
-
300
100
99.0
1,200
-
300
100
99.0
1,200
-
60
-
0.2
Table 2.6
Grades of Cutback Bitumen Currently Specified
Classification
Priming
Primerseal
Seal
Additional
Grade
AMC00
AMC0
AMC1
AMC2
AMC3
AMC4
AMC5
AMC6
AMC7
2.4
Approx.
ASTM Grade
MC30
MC70
MC250
MC800
MC3000
Viscosity Cst
8-20
30-60
70-140
250-500
500-1500
1500-5000
5000-12000
12000-32000
% Kerosene
by volume
56
44
34
27
21
16
11
7
3
BITUMEN EMULSION
Description
Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which a substantial amount of very finely
divided bitumen is suspended in water by means of one or more emulsifying and
stabilising agents.
Types
The nature and type of emulsifying agents control the type of the bitumen emulsion
that is produced. The types of bitumen emulsion manufactured for road making
purposes are:
(a)
Anionic
Anionic emulsion is one in which the suspended bitumen particles are
negatively charged.
(b)
Cationic
Cationic emulsion is one in which the suspended bitumen particles are
positively charged.
(c)
Non Ionic
Non-ionic emulsion is an inverted bitumen emulsion, which is basically
droplets of water dispersed in bitumen, and the bitumen has no electrical
charge. These emulsions are not commonly used.
Composition
Bitumen emulsions are manufactured from three components, which may be varied
in proportion in the mixture to provide specific properties. The components are:
Binder - generally AC-10 bitumen, but other grades may also be used.
Water
Emulsifier
Production
Bitumen emulsion is commonly manufactured using a colloid mill. In a colloid mill the
bitumen is subjected to a shearing force by means of two discs or cylinders rotating
in opposite directions, or in the same direction at different speeds, with only small
clearance between them. The shearing force from the mill produces fine droplets of
bitumen. The size of the droplets can be varied, by adjusting the clearance in the
mill. The two phases, bitumen and water plus emulsifier, are introduced into the mill
together. The mixture from the mill, is usually discharged into a holding tank fitted
with a mechanical stirrer to continue mixing the components and prevent
sedimentation.
Standard Grades
Bitumen emulsions are produced to conform to specific grades which are defined
according to the time it takes the emulsion to break, i.e. the time it takes to form a
continuous film of bitumen over the surface to which the emulsion is applied. The
standard grades are shown in Table 2.7.
Table 2.7
Standard Grades of Bitumen Emulsion
Type of emulsion
Anionic
Cationic
Grade
ARS = rapid setting
AMS = medium setting
ASS = slow setting
CRS = rapid setting
CMS = medium setting
CSS = slow setting
CAM = aggregate mixing
Special Products
Polymer Modified Binder (PMB) emulsions are special products that are currently not
available for use in Ghana. They are generally designed to suit particular
applications, for example, polymers may be added to improve the early strength,
produce a binder for a Strain Alleviating Membrane (SAM), a High Strength Seal
(HSS) or reduce temperature susceptibility.
Specification
Emulsions used in sealing and resealing work are normally the rapid setting type.
They are also predominantly cationic emulsions because they can be used with a
wider range of chippings and better tolerate the presence of water than anionic
emulsions.
The properties required of the cationic standard grades of bitumen emulsion
produced are given in Table 2.8.
Breaking of an Emulsion
A bitumen emulsion is said to break" when the bitumen and water separate out and
the bitumen forms a film on the surfaces to which the emulsion is applied. Breaking
can be seen by the emulsion changing colour from brown to black. The time taken to
break cannot be exactly predicted as it is influenced by the prevailing weather
conditions and the chippings. Rapid setting emulsion will break more quickly under
the same conditions than a medium or slow setting grade.
The types of bitumen emulsion produced break by different actions.
(a)
Anionic Emulsion
The breaking of an anionic emulsion normally occurs when the water is lost by
evaporation or absorption. The breaking of an anionic emulsion is therefore
more influenced by the prevailing weather conditions.
R E Q U IR E M E N T S F O R C A T IO N IC E M U L S IF IE D B IT U M E N
TYPE
GRADE
TE S TS
V is c o s ity ,S a y b o lt fu ro l a t 2 5 o C s
V is c o s ity ,S a y b o lt fu ro l a t 5 0 o C s
S to ra g e S ta b ility te s t 2 4 h , %
C la s s ific a tio n te s t
C o a tin g a b ility a n d W a te r re s is ta n c e
C o a tin g o f d ry a g g re g a te
C o a tin g a fte r s p ra y in g
C o a tin g w e t a g g re g a te
P a rtic le c h a rg e te s t
S ie v e te s t
B re a k in g In d e x (w ith s ilic a fille r) g
D is tilla tio n
O il d is tilla te b y v o lu m e o f E m u ls io n %
R e s id u e %
T e s t o n re s id u e fro m d is tilla tio n te s t
P e n e tra tio n 2 5 o C , 1 0 0 g 5 s
o
D u c tility 2 5 C 5 c m /m in , c m
S o lu b ility in T ric h lo ro e th y le n e %
T A B L E 2 .8
R A P ID S E T T IN G
C R S -1
C R S -2
m in
m ax
m in
m ax
M E D IU M S E T T IN G
C M S -1
M S -2 h
m in
m ax
m in
m ax
S L O W S E T T IN G
C S S -1
C S S -1 h
m in
m ax
m in
m ax
20
20
100
1
Passes
P o s itiv e
0 .1
<100
100
400
1
P asses
P o s itiv e
0 .1
<100
3
60
80
40
9 7 .5
80
40
9 7 .5
450
G ood
F a ir
F a ir
F a ir
P o s itiv e
0 .1
8 0 -1 4 0
3
65
120
50
80
40
9 7 .5
100
P o s itiv e
0 .1
>120
P o s itiv e
0 .1
>120
12
65
120
20
450
G ood
F a ir
F a ir
F a ir
P o s itiv e
0 .1
8 0 -1 4 0
12
65
120
50
100
40
40
9 7 .5
57
90
80
40
9 7 .5
57
120
40
40
9 7 .5
90
(b)
Cationic Emulsion
Cationic emulsions break for the same reason, but the positive charge on the
bitumen particles also reacts with the negative surface charge on the
chippings which gives a more rapid break and good adhesion. This is an
important advantage in the use of cationic emulsions as it makes them less
dependent on evaporation.
Mixing Emulsions
Anionic and cationic emulsion must not be mixed because when they come into
contact, the emulsions will break. Care is required when changing from one type to
another. It is essential to remove all traces of the material last used by flushing out
all tanks, hoses, etc. with clean water. If the emulsion has broken and a bitumen
residue is left in the equipment this may be removed using kerosene or distillate
followed by thorough flushing with clean water.
Field Behaviour
Cationic rather than anionic emulsions are commonly used in Ghana because they
are compatible with the chippings which generally have a negative surface charge.
However, the type of chippings to be used and whether the surface is positive or
negatively charged should be determined before the type of emulsion is chosen.
Bitumen emulsions should achieve results similar to cutback bitumen. An emulsion
primer is required to soak into and bind the pavement surface the same way as a
cutback bitumen prime. An emulsion primerseal is also required to soak into and
bind the surface of the pavement yet have sufficient binder remaining to hold the
chippings and waterproof the pavement, in the same way as a cutback bitumen
primerseal.
Ministry of Road Transport
Co-efficient of Expansion
Bitumen emulsion expands when heated and contracts when cooled from a given
temperature. The rate of expansion or contraction is uniform and is expressed as the
co-efficient of expansion. For convenience, the multiplier to be used to correct
volumes for any temperature between 15C and 85C are shown in Table 2.9.
Table 2.9
Volume Correction Tables Bitumen Emulsion
Part A
Table for calculating the volume of
bitumen emulsion at a temperature
above 15C to its volume at 15C
Temperature C
Multiplier
15
1.000
20
0.9980
25
0.9956
30
0.9935
35
0.9913
40
0.9890
45
0.9868
50
0.9845
55
0.9823
60
0.9800
65
0.9778
70
0.9755
75
0.9733
80
0.9710
85
0.9688
3.
Part B
Table for calculating the volume of
bitumen emulsion at a temperature above
15C from its volume at 15C
Temperature C
Multiplie r
15
1.0000
20
1.0020
25
1.0043
30
1.0065
35
1.0088
40
1.0111
45
1.0134
50
1.0157
55
1.0181
60
1.0204
65
1.0228
70
1.0251
75
1.0274
80
1.0297
85
1.0320
General
Polymer modified binders, PMBs are currently not available for use in Ghana but
have been included for completeness. They are used in surface dressing to:
3.1
ADDITIVES
General
Additives are used to temporarily or permanently alter some of the physical
properties of bitumen. The common additives are:
Cutter
Adhesion agent
Flux oil (or diesel which is not used in Ghana)
Other additives are:
Polymers (Granular scrap tyre rubber, SBS, and EVA as discussed above)
Anti-foaming agents (Not used in Ghana)
Cutter Oil
Cutter oil, which is more commonly known as kerosene, is used to temporarily
reduce the viscosity of grade AC-10 bitumen. In Ghana cutter oil is mainly used in
the field to produce cutback bitumen for primer sealing. It is also used to flush and
clean out bitumen from tanks, spray bitumen hoses, equipment etc.
Adhesion Agent
Adhesion agents are generally made from tallow, fish oil, sunflower oil or similar
material, which improves the adhesion between the binder and chippings.
It is generally added directly to the bitumen but may also be added to the chipping
pre-coating material, or both. A typical adhesion agent is Redicote 422N which is
available in Ghana.
Ministry of Road Transport
4.
CHIPPINGS
4.1
GENERAL
The name commonly used for stone chips in Ghana is chippings. However,
chippings are also known as aggregate. In sprayed sealing the function of the
chippings is to provide the surface for traffic to travel on and to transmit the wheel
loads to the base pavement material.
Source Rock
The material from which crushed chippings are produced should be either clean
quarried spalls of approved igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary rock free from
bedding planes or lines of weakness which would affect the product, or hard clean
gravel. It should be free from clay, organic matter, unsound rock and elongated flat
particles.
4.2
CHIPPING REQUIREMENTS
Wearing Qualities
The best indicator of the wearing qualities of a material is the Los Angeles Abrasion
(LAA) Test result. This test requires a sample of chippings and a number of steel
balls to be placed in a cylinder. The inside of the cylinder is fitted with shelves to lift
and drop the chippings and steel balls as it is rotated at a constant speed for a set
number of revolutions. The wearing quality of the chippings is measured by the
amount of breakdown during the test. The greater the amount of material broken
down, the poorer the quality of the chippings.
Ministry of Road Transport
Adhesion
Adhesion between bitumen and chippings varies depending on the type and charge
of the stone. Adhesion values are determined by a laboratory test for the
assessment of resistance to stripping in the presence of moisture on samples of
chippings.
Shape
Chippings should be cubic in shape with crushed angular faces but not flat or flaky.
In practice a quantity of flat particles is always present. A flat particle is defined as a
particle having its least dimension (thickness) less than 0.6 of its mean dimension.
The quantity of flat particles is determined by the Flakiness Index test which
measures the percentage by volume of flat particles in the sample. In practice testing
and calculations are carried out on a "per mass" basis.
The lower the Flakiness Index the better the shape of the chippings, that is, the
higher the percentage of cubical stones as shown in Figure 3.1 (a) and 3.1 (b)
In Ghana the maximum permissible Flakiness Index for Size 14mm is 25% and for
Size 7 and Size 10 mm is 30%. A good quality chipping is in the range of 20 to 25%.
Table 3.1
Material and Shape Requirements of Chippings
Test
Limit
Max %
30
Max %
25
Max %
12
Flakiness Indexes:
Elongation Indexes:
10% Fines
Wet / Dry Strength Ratio
Stripping Test [ASTM D1644-80]
Max (14mm)
(10mm, 7mm)
25
30
Max
35
Min (dry) KN
210
75
Max%
Grading
The ideal grading for surface dressing work is one which all the particles of stone are
very close to one size. One sized chippings are defined as chippings of which 60 to
70% by mass of the whole material passes a sieve of a specified size and is retained
on a sieve having an opening of 0.7 of the specified size.
For reasons of economy and practicability some variation from the ideal must be
allowed, but the range of grading should be limited as much as is reasonably
possible.
The grading requirements for one sized chippings are specified in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2
Grading of Chippings
Percentage by Weight Passing
Nominal Sizes
Sieve
Size (mm)
14mm
26.5
19.0
13.2
9.5
6.7
4.75
2.36
1.18
Min ALD
100
95-100
0-20
0-5
0-0.5
7.0
10mm
100
85-100
0-30
0-5
0-0.5
5.0
7mm
5mm
100
85-100
0-30
0-10
0-0.5
3.5
100
85-100
0-30
0-5
2.5
(ii)
Grading Method
The chippings sample may be tested in the laboratory to determine its
grading, median size and the flakiness index and then the ALD calculated.
The ALD is expressed in millimetres and is used to calculate the base rates of
application of binder in sprayed work.
Air voids
ALD
4.3
PRECOATING OF CHIPPINGS
General
All chippings used in sprayed sealing should be pre-coated. A suitable pre-coating
material should be selected for the type of chipping material being used.
Pre-coating Materials
The purpose of a pre-coating material is to improve the adhesion between the binder
and the chipping by:
The pre-coating material generally used in Ghana is a diesel and bitumen based
material comprising 90% diesel (de-waxed distillate or gas oil) and 10% bitumen.
Adhesion agent (0.5%) should be added if available. These proportions however,
may be varied to obtain the improved adhesion.
Pre-coating of chippings at a nominal rate of 12litres/m is recommended in Ghana
but again this can be varied by testing to obtain the best uniform coating of the
chippings.
The bitumen based pre-coating materials provide improved adhesion compared to
distillate or other oil based materials.
4.4
GEOTEXTILES
General
Geotextile fabrics are not currently available for use in Ghana but have been
included for completeness. They may be used to reinforce seals and reseals.
Choice of Geotextile
There are many geotextiles available for use in sprayed bituminous seals. The
following characteristics are desirable:
Needle bonded filaments are more stable than resin bonded joins which may
become unstable when in contact with hot bitumen.
Polyesters fabrics are the most suitable as they do not melt easily, absorb
only small amounts of water and are less sensitive to sunlight than other
types.
Polypropylene fabrics may also be used provided that the bitumen spraying
temperature is less than the softening point (165C) of the material. Signs of
heat susceptibility include shrinking or melting along the edges of the fabric
after being covered with hot bitumen. Polypropylene fabrics are not
recommended for use with Polymer Modified Binders (PMBs) because of the
required spraying temperatures. However, where the binder is a Polymer
Modified Binders (PMB) emulsion, sprayed at temperatures below 90C, the
fabric can be used without risk.
The properties of geotextiles suitable for sprayed seals are given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3
Properties of Geotextiles
Property
Mass
Thickness
Elongation
Bitumen Saturation
Melting Point
Roll width
Roll Length
Typical Values
140gm/sq metre
0.6mm
25-30%
0.9 litre/sq. metre
250C
4m
150 or 300m
5.
TYPES OF TREATMENT
5.1
GENERAL
Bituminous surface dressing is the term generally used to describe the method of
surfacing where the binder is sprayed onto the prepared road surface and covered
with chippings. The other treatments are primes and surface enrichments where no
chipping is applied.
The main objectives when applying a sprayed bituminous surface dressing are:
(a)
(b)
Waterproof the pavement surface, that is, stop rain and surface runoff
reaching the pavement
(c)
5.2
CLASSIFICATION OF TREATMENTS
Sprayed work can be broadly divided into four groups: initial treatments, seals,
reseals, and other treatments.
Initial treatments
Initial treatments are applied to unsealed surfaces (new or reconstructed) and are
either a Prime, or a Primerseal.
The functions of the initial treatment are:
(a)
Prime
The function of the prime is to provide a short life weatherproof surface which
bonds tightly to the unsealed surface by penetrating the pavement. It also
provides a uniform surface for the application of the seal.
The material used for priming in Ghana is cutback bitumen. The grade of
cutback is selected so it penetrates 5 to 10 mm into the pavement surface.
The harder and more compact the pavement surface the lower the viscosity of
the cutback (and higher percentage of cutter) required to achieve the
penetration.
(b)
Primerseal
The function of a primerseal is to provide a light weatherproof wearing surface
incorporating chippings. A primerseal uses a cutback binder which is intended
to act as a primer and penetrate the pavement surface, and binder to retain
the chippings.
The cutback generally used for primersealing in Ghana is cutback grade
AMC4 with 16% cutter (kerosene). This cutback has been selected to
achieve penetration of 2-3 mm into the surface of the pavement.
The use of emulsion for primerseals is being carried out on limited basis and
performance is being monitored.
(c)
(i)
Prime
This treatment is used when the surface is not trafficked or only subject to
light construction traffic before sealing.
(ii)
Primerseal
This treatment is used when the surface is to be trafficked immediately.
The Ministry of Road Transport policy is that all initial treatments will be
primerseals.
Seals
Seals are applied to primed or primersealed surfaces. The function of the seal is to
provide a lasting weatherproof surface. It is designed for compatibility with the
surface underneath (without penetration) and for chipping retention.
Reseals
A reseal is applied directly over an existing sealed surface. Where the existing
surface has a variable texture or is bleeding, flushing, or stripped, remedial pretreatment should be undertaken.
In some circumstances, such as an old seal cracking due to pavement movement, or
high heavy vehicle traffic volumes, a polymer modified binder (using crumb rubber or
other polymer), a geotextile reinforced seal, or double application seal may be
necessary.
Ministry of Road Transport
Single Seals
Single seals comprise a single application of grade AC-10 bitumen binder and
a single application of chippings over a primed or primersealed surface.
(b)
Single Reseal
A reseal is the utilisation of a single seal to an existing bituminous surface to
restore a previously sealed surface to a satisfactory condition.
(c)
Double Seals
A double seal consists of two applications of binder and chippings. The
chippings in the second application are normally no more than half the size of
the first, and the spread rate is just sufficient to fill the voids in the first
application.
Other Treatments
(a)
Dust Suppression
A dusty road surface can be treated by the application of a low viscosity, slow
curing oil, or a diluted bitumen emulsion.
(b)
Surface Enrichment
Surface enrichment is a light application of bituminous emulsion, to an
existing bituminous surface, to increase the binder content around at the
surface. This is generally done without the addition of chippings but may be
done using a light covering of dust to minimise delay to traffic. Usually suited
to low traffic areas or where traffic may be detoured.
6.
DESIGN
6.1
GENERAL
The success of a sprayed seal depends on many factors, some of which are beyond
the direct control of the designer. The most important factor that can be controlled is
the design which involves selection of :
(a)
(b)
the type, size and rate of application of chipping if part of the treatment.
All design binder application rates and additive mixing rates are measured and
expressed at 15OC. For conversion to rates at higher temperatures for spraying
operations see Table 2.4
Application rates for primes and primerseals are expressed as mixtures. All other
rates are expressed in terms of residual binder.
Definitions
The following definitions apply:
Seal :
Reseal :
6.2
DESIGN OF PRIMES
General
Priming is the application of a primer to a prepared pavement prior to the application
of a sprayed seal.
The function of priming is to assist in achieving and maintaining an interfacial bond
between the pavement and the sprayed seal. A primer should therefore penetrate,
and strengthen the pavement near its surface.
The selection of the type and grade of primer, and the rate of application, is based
on the type of pavement material, the degree of compaction, moisture content, the
prevailing conditions and the life expected of the primer.
Design Procedure
A prime is designed to penetrate the surface by 5 to 10 mm. The best practice is to
use an application rate that has been determined from previous field trails or from
previous priming experience with the base material. However, if this is not available,
the design method to determine the rates of application for priming is as follows:
(i)
(ii)
Once an application rate has been determined it should be tested on a small area of
the job to confirm the penetration and application rate. The final result should be a
hard, dry, black surface with the desired penetration.
Application Rates
(a)
Low Rates
In practice where a seal is to be applied on the same day or shortly after the
primer, the application rates specified can be reduced. However, this practice
is not desirable.
For example, if a light primer (56% cutback) has been selected, the rate of
application can be reduced to 0.30-0.60 Litres/square metre (L/m2). When
using light rates of application followed by sealing in the one day, it is also
necessary to consider absorption of the seal binder into the lightly primed
pavement.
Some of the low viscosity primer may also have a cutting back effect on the
binder. In such cases it is necessary to increase the binder rate and decrease
the amount of cutter in the binder. This should be based on experience as it is
difficult to estimate.
It is suggested that rather than use a light primer at a low rate of application to
allow early application of the seal coat, that a primerseal be applied.
(b)
Normal Rates
Where a primer of the correct viscosity for tightly bonded and fine surface
conditions has been selected the normal rate of application should be about
1.0 -1.1 L/m2 as shown in Table 5.3. This usually results in a uniformly primed
surface. If it appears that a heavier rate of application is required, it is
preferable to use a heavier grade of primer at the normal rate of application
(sandstones, limestones and other very porous pavement excepted).
The rate of application should be varied according to the compaction of the
pavement and the moisture content of the surface. In general the rate of
(c)
Heavy Rates
On sandstone, limestone and other very porous pavements, the normal rate
of application should be about 1.3 to1.5 L/m2 of a heavy viscosity primer.
To minimise absorption, provide a uniformly primed surface and avoid undue
delay to traffic, it is preferable to apply the heavy rates in two separate
applications, generally about two or three days apart.
If the rate of application is in excess of 1.5 L/m2, then the pavement is
unsuitable for priming and should be treated by other means, e.g.
primersealing.
Table 5.1
Evaluation of Surface Type
Surface Type
Description
Hard and dense when compacted
Tightly
Bonded
Fine
Coarse
Table 5.2
Typical Primer, Grades and Rates of Application
Surface Type
Primer
AMC Grade
Tightly Bonded
Light Primer
AMC00
Field prepared
AMC0
Fine
Coarse
Cutback
Bitumen (%)
(56%)
50%
(44%)
Dry
0.6 1.1
Damp
0.5 0.8
Dry
0.8 -1.1
Damp
0.5 0.8
Dry
0.9 1.3
Damp
0.5 0.8
Medium Primer
AMC0
(44%)
Field prepared
40%
Heavy Primer
AMC1
Field prepared
(34%)
30%
Table 5.3.
Surface Type, Primer Grades and Application Rates
Residual Prime Mixture
6.3
DESIGN OF PRIMERSEALS
General
Primersealing is the application of a primerbinder to a prepared pavement which is
then covered with chippings as a temporary treatment prior to applying the sprayed
seal.
A primerseal is designed to seal a pavement immediately after construction. The
binder used for a primerseal is more viscous than a primer and less viscous than a
normal binder and is required to act as both a primer and binder. That is, the binder
is required to penetrate the pavement as well as acting as a binder for the chippings.
A primerseal must also cure to a very hard surface.
Design Procedure
A primerseal is designed to penetrate the pavement surface by 2 - 5 mm. The best
practice is to adopt an application rate that has been successfully used on previous
jobs with the same materials and construction standards. However, if this is not
available, the design method to determine the rates of application for priming is as
follows:
(a)
Select Primerbinder
The grade of cutback bitumen specified for use in Ghana for primersealing is
AMC4 which contains 16 % cutter by volume.
Cationic rapid setting bitumen emulsion (minimum 70% bitumen content) has
been specified for use on a trial basis at the present time.
(b)
(c)
(i)
Select the Basic Primerbinder Application Rate from Table 5.4 for cutback
bitumen for the traffic volume (vehicles/lane/day).
(ii)
Add an allowance for the surface condition from Table 5.5 to the Basic
Primerbinder Application Rate to give the Design Application Rate. From
experience, the average total allowance is generally about +0.2 to +0.3 L/m2.
(d)
(e)
(f)
Curing Period
A primerseal must be cured to a hard surface before a seal is applied. The
cutback bitumen binder is cured by evaporation of the cutter oil and hardening
of the bitumen. From experience, the minimum evaporation period in Ghana is
three months.
However, if the surface is not hard and the seal is applied, the surface texture
of the seal may become flushed or bleeding due to embedment of the
chippings into the primerseal binder.
Field trials are being conducted to determine the minimum period to be
allowed for the primerseal seal to harden before the seal is applied.
In the interim, to ensure that all primerseals, regardless of primerbinder type
are hard and able to be sealed the following minimum period should be
allowed before the seal is applied:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Table 5.4
Basic Rates for Primerbinder (Cutback bitumen)
and Rates for Chippings
Chipping
Size
300-2000
Chipping
Application
Rate
>2000
(mm)
7
1.3
1.2
1.1
(m2/m3)
150 - 190
10
1.4
1.3
1.2
120 150
14
1.5
1.4
1.3
90-110
Note:
The application rates given are intended as a guide only. Actual rates should be determined
by onsite trials.
The above rates do not include any allowance for surface texture, or absorption by the base.
Table 5.5
Surface Condition Allowances for Primerbinders
Allowance (L/m2)
Surface Condition
0.0 to + 0.1
+ 0.1
Fine surfaces
+ 0.2
Coarse surfaces
+ 0.2 to + 0.4
Table 5.6
Typical Rates of Application of Primerbinder (Cutback Bitumen 16% Cutter)
RESIDUAL PRIMERSEAL MIXTURE
(Cold Sprayer Rate. Residual bitumen at 15C
Pavement
Tightly Bonded
Vehicle/Lane/Day
<300 300- >2000
2000
Chipping mm Application Rate
Chipping
2
3
Litres / m
m /m
7
1.35
115
10
1.35
1.25
1.15
100
14
1.45
1.35
1.25
80
Vehicle/Lane/Day
<300 300- >2000
2000
Chipping mm HotCutback
Chipping
Litres / m
m / m.
7
1.46
115
10
1.46 1.35
1.24
100
14
1.56 1.46
1.35
80
Pavement
Pavement
Fine Bonded
Fine Bonded
Vehicle/Lane/Day
<300 300>200
2000
0
Chipping mm Cold Cutback
Chipping
2
3
Litres / m
m /m
7
1.4
115
10
1.4
1.3
1.2
100
14
1.5
1.4
1.3
80
Vehicle/Lane/Day
<300 300- >2000
2000
Chipping mm HotCutback
Chipping
Litres / m
m / m.
7
1.51
115
10
1.51 1.40 1.30
100
14
1.62 1.51 1.40
80
Pavement
Pavement
Coarse
Coarse
Vehicle/Lane/Day
<300 300>200
2000
0
Chipping mm Cold Cutback
Chipping
Litres / m
m / m.
7
1.5
115
10
1.5
1.4
1.3
100
14
1.6
1.5
1.4
80
Vehicle/Lane/Day
<300 300- >2000
2000
Chipping mm HotCutback
Chipping
Litres / m
m / m.
7
1.62
115
10
1.62 1.51
1.40
100
14
1.73 1.62
1.51
80
Pavement
Pavement
Crushed Rock
Crushed Rock
Vehicle/Lane/Day
Vehicle/Lane/Day
<300 300>200
<300 300- >2000
2000
0
2000
Chipping mm Cold Cutback
Chipping
Chipping mm HotCutback
Chipping
Litres / m
m / m.
Litres / m
m / m.
7
1.6
115
7
1.73
115
10
1.6
1.5
1.4
100
10
1.73 1.62
1.51
100
14
1.7
1.6
1.5
80
14
1.83 1.73 1.625
80
NB: - PRIMERSEAL mixture of Bitumen, Cutter and Adhesion Agent is to be treated as RESIDUAL.
i.e. Spray Rates are inclusive of Bitumen, Cutter and Adhesion agent
Pavement should be slightly DAMP (not wet) after sweeping and just prior to Primersealing
Use 1% adhesion agent in Primerbinders
Recommend 10mm Chipping for Primerseals
6.4
General
The design objective is for the residual binder to be about 50 to 60% of the height of
the chippings layer two years after construction. The residual binder comprises
bitumen, and adhesion agent, but does not include cutter oil or water.
The amount of binder required will depend on the size, shape and orientation of the
chippings, embedment of chippings into the base, texture of surface onto which the
seal is being applied, and absorption of binder into either the pavement or chippings.
All application rates determined by this method are stated in L/m2 of residual binder
at a temperature of 15C. In determining the actua l field application rate, allowances
must be made for proportion of the cutter oil or water (emulsions) and the volume
corrected for the spraying temperature.
Both layers of a double seal are designed as for single seals except that for the first
layer the basic voids factor is reduced (in accordance with Table 5.10 in the Design
Method).
The second layer is designed without any surface texture or embedment allowances.
As general rule, the total binder required for both layers will be about 70% of that
required for the two layers designed as separate reseals.
Where the second application is to be delayed by between one week and several
months after the first application, but the seal is to be trafficked :
The first application should be designed as a single seal or reseal (as appropriate).
For the second application, the binder application rate may be reduced to a minimum
(i.e. the basic rate without adjustment for surface texture or embedment) and the
chipping spread rate reduced by up to 30% (i.e. use 30% less chippings). This
should fill the void spaces in the first seal and avoid excessive loss of chippings.
Binder
The grade of bitumen specified for use in Ghana for sealing and resealing is straight
grade AC 10.
Cationic rapid setting bitumen emulsion (minimum 70% bitumen) has been specified
for use on a trial basis at the present time.
Chipping Size
The chipping size is selected based on the surface texture of the primerseal.
Generally a Size 14 mm chipping is selected for sealing over a Size 10 mm chipping
primerseal. However, the size of chipping may need to be adjusted if during the
design process detailed below, it is found that the surface texture allowance is too
high.
Chipping ALD
The design must be based on the ALD of the chippings in stockpile to be used for
the work.
Curing of Primerseals
When a primerseal is to be sealed, it must be sufficiently cured or hard as discussed
under the section on Primerseals.
(b)
(c)
(d)
Measure ALD
Determine the ALD (Average Least Dimension) of the chippings.
(e)
(f)
(i)
(ii)
Prime:
Concrete:
Asphalt:
a well textured seal, with the chippings embedded into the binder to
of the chipping height.
Hungry chipping embedded into the binder to the chipping height. The
binder is not visible between the chipping particles.
(g)
(h)
(i)
(b)
(c)
Table 5.7
Chipping Shape Adjustment (Va) to Basic Voids Factor
Chipping
Shape
Flakiness
Index (%)
Voids Factor
Adjustment*
(L/m2 /mm)
Flaky
26 to 35
- 0.01
Angular
average
15 to 25
0.0
Angular
good
Cubic
+ 0.005
< 15
+ 0.01
Note : Adjustments are applied to the mid-line voids factor from Figure 5.1a or 5.1b,
as appropriate.
Table 5.8
Traffic Effects Adjustment (Vt) to Basic Voids Factor
Flat or downhill
0-15% HV
Slow moving
climbing lanes
0
15 - 30%
HV
> 30% HV
- 0.01
- 0.02
- 0.02
- 0.03
Overtaking
lanes (cars
only)
+ 0.01
Key:
HV
Heavy Vehicles
Table 5.9
Surface Texture Allowance (AT) L/m2
For Proposed Seal or Reseal
SIZE
5mm
Bleeding
-Flushed
<0.7mm
Smooth
0.9mm
Matt
1.0mm
Hungry
1.4mm
Very Hungry
>1.8mm
7mm
Bleeding
-Flushed
<0.7mm
Smooth
1.0mm
Matt
1.2mm
Hungry
1.7mm
Very Hungry
>2.0mm
10mm
Bleeding
-Flushed
<0.7mm
Smooth
1.0mm
Matt
1.4mm
Hungry
1.9mm
Very Hungry
>2.2mm
14mm
Bleeding
-Flushed
<0.7mm
Smooth
1.0mm
Matt
1.6mm
Hungry
2.4mm
Very Hungry
>3.2mm
20mm
Bleeding
-Flushed
<0.7mm
Smooth
1.0mm
Matt
1.8mm
Hungry
2.9mm
Very Hungry
>3.5mm
Notes:
A = Specialised treatment necessary
N/R = Consider alternative treatments
Note 1
For Absorption >1% add +0.1 Litre/m2
For absorption < 1% add 0 0.1 litre/m2
5mm
A
A
0
0
+0.2
+0.3
A
-0.1
0
0
+0.2
+0.3
-0.3
-0.1
0
+0.1
+0.2
+0.3
A
-0.2
0
+0.1
+0.2
+0.3
A
A
0
+0.1
+0.2
+0.3
14mm
-0.2
-0.2
-0.2
-0.1
0
0
0
0
0
+0.1
+0.1
+0.1
+0.2
+0.2
+0.2
+0.3
+0.3
+0.3
-0.2
-0.2
-0.2
-0.1
-0.1
0
0
0
0
+0.1
+0.15
+0.2
+0.2
+0.25
+0.3
+0.3
+0.35
+0.4
-0.2
-0.2
-0.2
-0.1
-0.1
0
0
+0.1
+0.1
+0.2
+0.3
+0.3
+0.3
+0.35
+0.4
+0.4
+0.4
N/R
-0.3
-0.3
-0.3
-0.1
-0.1
-0.1
0
+0.1
+0.1
+0.15
+0.2
+0.25
+0.25
+0.3
+0.35
+0.35
+0.4
+0.4
-0.3
-0.3
-0.3
-0.1
-0.1
-0.1
0
+0.1
+0.2
+0.15
+0.2
+0.35
+0.25
+0.3
+0.4
+0.35
+0.4
N/R
Note 2 Texture allowance for:
Seals over primes 0.0 to +0.2litre/m2
Seals over asphalt 0.0 to +0.3 litre/m2
Figure 5.2
Embedment Allowance AE
Table 5.10
Modification to Design Voids Factor
for the first layer of Double seal Vm
Traffic Volume
(vehicle/lane/day)
Modification to VF
< 500
0.75
500 1000
0.80
1001 2000
0.85
> 2000
0.90
Table 5.11
Basic Spread Rates for 10 & 14 mm Chippings (F)
Binder
type
AC -10
900
ALD
900
ALD
Emulsion
800
ALD
800
ALD
PMB
750
ALD
800
ALD
Note: For shoulder seal/reseal, the basic chipping spread rate (m2/m3) may be increased up
to 800/ALD.
Table 5.12
Factor (I) to be applied to Chipping Spread Rates
Obtained from Table 5.11
Type of Seal
Single
Double
1 layer
nd
2 layer
Double
Delayed application of second layer
st
1.1
1.0 (no adjustment)
1 layer
nd
2 layer
st
Note:
Factors greater than 1.0 indicate that less chippings are to be used.
6.5
Ministry of Road Transport
DESIGN
OF
BITUMEN
EMULSION
SEALS
General
Cationic rapid setting bitumen emulsions (minimum 70% bitumen) are being used on
a limited scale for primersealing and sealing works. The Road Agencies are
monitoring their performance.
= 100-C x D
100
where:
C=
D=
(b)
= 100 x RB
B
where:
RB =
B=
For Primerseals
Design in accordance with the procedures in 5.3.
(b)
Table 5.13
Emulsion Factor (EF)
Product
Emulsion Factor
(EF)
1.0
1.1 1.2
Table 5.14
Basic Rates for Primerbinder (Bitumen Emulsion 70%Bitumen)
and Rates for Chippings
Chipping
Size
(mm)
7
Chipping
Application
Rate
(m2/m3)
150 190
10
1.70
1.55
1.45
120 150
14
1.80
1.70
1.55
90-110
Note:
The application rates given are intended as a guide only. Actual rates should be determined
by onsite trials.
The above rates do not include any allowance for surface texture, or absorption by the base.
6.6
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Primerseal
A primerseal is to be placed on a reconstructed section of highway.
The job details are as follows:
The top layer of pavement has been constructed using a finely bonded gravel. A
cutback bitumen binder with 16% cutter and Size 10 mm chippings has been
selected.
The traffic volume AADT is 3600 vpd but it is assumed that the traffic volume is split
50/50 for each direction of travel.
The completed calculation sheet is detailed in Figure 5.3
DESCRIPTION
CHIPPING
Size
Type
Traffic volume v/l/d
RATE
(L/sqm)
10 mm
Granite
1800
1.3
0.1
0.0
NA
Figure 5.3
1.4
120-150
Seal
(i)
(ii)
Bitumen emulsion
A bitumen emulsion (Cationic rapid setting with 70% bitumen) seal is to be placed
over a primerseal on a section of highway.
The job details are as follows:
Traffic 930 v/l/d ,
Heavy vehicles 10%
No steep grades
Chipping Size 10 mm granite
Shape angular average
ALD 8.2 mm
The existing surface is a size 10 primerseal about one year old with surface texture
T = 1.0 mm. Ball penetration results indicate an average embedment of 3.0 mm.
The completed calculation sheet is detailed in Figure 5.5.
DESCRIPTION
VALUE
RATE
COMMENT
CHIPPING
Size
10 mm
Type
Granite
ALD
5.9 mm
380
0.18
Angular Average
0.00
20%
-0.01
NA
0.00
VF = Vf + Va + Vt
0.17
Stripping/Bleeding Check
OK
A= ALD x VF
1.00
ALLOWANCES (Litres/sqm)
Existing surface size
10 mm
1.4 mm
+0.3
NA
0.0
3 mm
0.0
Total Allowance
0.0
ADOPTED
APPLICATION
RATE
1.30
1.30
+0.3
Other factors
NA
152
Figure 5.4
DESCRIPTION
VALUE
RATE
COMMENT
Chipping
Size
14 mm
Type
Granite
ALD
8.2 mm
930 v/l/d
0.16
Angular Average
0.00
10%
0.00
NA
0.00
VF = Vf + Va + Vt
0.16
OK
1.1
A = ALD x VF x EF
1.44
ALLOWANCES (Litres/sqm)
Existing surface size
10 mm
1.0 mm
+0.1
NA
0.0
3 mm
-0.1
Total Allowance
0.0
Other factors
BITUMEN DESIGN APPLICATION RATE (litres/sqm)
= A + AT + ABA + AE
0.0
% BITUMEN IN EMULSION
1.44
70%
0.70
ADOPTED
APPLICATION
RATE
Litres/m2
2.06
Say 2.1
OK
97
A hot applied bitumen (grade AC-10) double seal is to be placed over a primerseal
on a section of highway. The double seal is to be applied with no delay between
applications.
The job details are as follows:
Traffic 2500 v/l/d,
Heavy vehicles 16%
No steep grades
Chipping Size first application 14 mm granite
ALD 8.6 mm
Shape angular average
Chipping Size - second application 10 mm granite
ALD 6.1 mm
Shape angular average
The existing surface is a size 10 primerseal about one year old with surface texture
T = 1.3 mm. Ball penetration results indicate an average embedment of 1.0 mm.
The completed calculation sheet for the first application is detailed in Figure 5.5a, the
second application in Figure 5.5b, and the chipping spread rate in Figure 5.5c.
DESCRIPTION
VALUE
14 mm
Granite
8.6mm
2500
From Fig 5.1
0.14
RATE
COMMENT
ADJUSTMENT CHIPPING
FACTORS
Chipping Shape Va - Table 5.7
Angular Average
0.00
16%
-0.10
N.A.
0.00
VF = Vf + Va + Vt
0.13
0.9
A= ALD x VF x Vm
ALLOWANCES (Litres/sqm)
Existing surface size
10mm
1.3 mm
8.6x.13x0.9
+ 0.3
N.A.
0.0
1.0 mm
-0.1
1.01
+0.2
ADOPTED
APPLICATION
RATE
1.21
1.20
OK
DESCRIPTION
VALUE
10 mm
Granite
6.1 mm
2500
From Fig 5.1
0.14
Angular Average
0.00
RATE
COMMENT
JOB NO.
Second Application Chipping
Size
Type
ALD
Traffic volume v/l/d
Basic voids factor Vf
ADJUSTMENT CHIPPING
FACTORS
Shape Va - Table 5.7
Commercial Vehicles Vt - Table 5.8
16%
-0.01
N.A.
0.00
VF = Vf + Va + Vt
A = ALD x VF
0.13
0.79
ALLOWANCES (Litres/sqm)
Absorption chippings ABA
Total
N.A.
0.0
0.0
ADOPTED
APPLICATION
RATE
0.79
0.80
105
1.1
115
115
147
1.0
147
147
6.7
DESIGN SHEETS
Prime Design
Job Details
Date: Job / Order No:....
Office:
Road No. / Name:
..
Location:
Roadloc:
To
..
... km to km from towards
..
Length Width ...mtr.
Area sq.mtr.
No. of lanes.
.mtr.
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
%
Table 5.2
%
Table 5.1
L/m
Table 5.2
L/m
L/m
DESCRIPTION
RATE
(L/sqm)
CHIPPING
Size
Type
Traffic volume v/l/d
BASIC APPLICATION RATE (Litres/sqm)
Design Rate Table 5.4
ALLOWANCES (Litres/sqm)
Surface condition Table 5.5
Absorption chippings
DESIGN APPLICATION RATE (litres/sqm)
LOOSE CHIPPING SPREAD RATE m2/m3
Design Rate Table 5.4
DESCRIPTION
RATE
(L/sqm)
CHIPPING
Size
Type
Traffic volume v/l/d
BASIC APPLICATION RATE (Litres/sqm)
Design Rate Table 5.14
ALLOWANCES (Litres/sqm)
Surface condition Table 5.5
Absorption chippings
DESIGN APPLICATION RATE (litres/sqm)
LOOSE CHIPPING SPREAD RATE m2/m3
Design Rate Table 5.4
DESCRIPTION
VALUE
RATE
COMMENT
CHIPPING
Size
Type
ALD
Traffic volume v/l/d
Basic voids factor Vf
VF = Vf + Va + Vt
Stripping/Bleeding Check
A= ALD x VF
ALLOWANCES (Litres/sqm)
Existing surface size
Surface texture AT Table 5.9
Absorption chippings ABA
Embedment AE - Fig 5.2
ADOPTED
APPLICATION
RATE
Total Allowance
Other factors
DESIGN BINDER APPLICATION RATE BD (litres/sqm)
BD = A + AT + ABA + AE
DESCRIPTION
VALUE
RATE
COMMENT
ADJUSTMENT CHIPPING
FACTORS
Chipping Shape Va - Table 5.7
Commercial Vehicles Vt - Table 5.8
Climbing lane Vt Table 5.8
BASIC APPLICATION RATE
Design Voids Factor VF
VF = Vf + Va + Vt
A= ALD x VF x Vm
ALLOWANCES (Litres/sqm)
Existing surface size
Surface texture AT - Table 5.9
Absorption chippings ABA
Embedment AE- Fig 5.2
Total Allowance
ADOPTED
APPLICATION
RATE
Second Application
DOUBLE SEAL DESIGN CALCULATION SHEET
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
VALUE
RATE
COMMENT
JOB NO.
Second Application Chipping
Size
Type
ALD
Traffic volume v/l/d
Basic voids factor Vf
ADJUSTMENT CHIPPING
FACTORS
Shape Va - Table 5.7
Commercial Vehicles Vt - Table 5.8
Climbing lane Vt - Table 5.8
BASIC APPLICATION RATE
Design Voids Factor VF
Basic Application Rate A
VF = Vf + Va + Vt
A = ALD x VF
ALLOWANCES (Litres/sqm)
Absorption chippings ABA
Total
ADOPTED
APPLICATION
RATE
Chipping Application
FIRST LAYER LOOSE CHIPPING SPREAD RATE
ALD
Basic Rate F
Spread Factor
DESIGN LOOSE SPREAD RATE m2/m3
SECOND LAYER LOOSE CHIPPING SPREAD RATE
ALD
Basic Rate F
Spread Factor
DESIGN LOOSE SPREAD RATE m2/m3
DESCRIPTION
VALUE
RATE
COMMENT
Chipping
Size
Type
ALD
Traffic volume v/l/d
Basic voids factor Vf
VF = Vf + Va + Vt
From Fig 5.1
From Table 5.13
A = ALD x VF x EF
ALLOWANCES (Litres/sqm)
Existing surface size
Surface texture AT - Table 5.9
Absorption chippings ABA
Embedment AE - Fig 5.2
Total Allowance
Other factors
BITUMEN DESIGN APPLICATION RATE (litres/sqm)
= A + AT + ABA + AE
% BITUMEN IN EMULSION
ADOPTED
APPLICATION
RATE
Litres/m2
6.8
DETERMINING
DIMENSION (ALD)
AVERAGE
LEAST
General
The direct measurement method is one of the most reliable methods of determining
ALD as it is based on actual measurements. The method uses a vernier calliper, a
dial gauge, or a slotted gauge, and is applicable to chippings Size 5 mm and larger.
Apparatus
The following apparatus is required:
(a)
(b)
A slotted gauge consists of a metal frame with slots 2 mm, 4 mm, 6 mm, 8
mm, 10 mm, 12 mm, 14 mm, 16 mm and 18 mm wide arranged consecutively.
The tolerance for all slots is 0.05 mm.
(c)
(d)
Sampling
The test portion of chippings is prepared as follows:
(a)
(b)
Discard all size fractions where the material is present in an amount of less
than 10 percent of the whole sample.
(c)
Recombine the remaining size fractions and reduce the size of the sample by
quartering or riffling to obtain the test portion of at least 100 stones.
Procedure
General.
(a)
Spread the stones on a flat surface and turn them such that they lie with their
least dimension in a vertical plane.
(b)
Determine the least dimension of each stone by vernier calliper dial gauge, or
slotted gauge method.
(c)
Record the least dimension in the appropriate class size (between 0 mm and
20 mm in 2 mm intervals) calculation table.
Set the vernier scale to an opening of 2.0 mm. Record the number of stones
passing through the opening in the minimum dimension orientation in the
calculation table. Repeat the procedure for vernier scale openings from 2mm
to 18mm.
Dial Gauge Method.
(a)
(b)
Slide each stone under the dial gauge in the minimum dimension orientation.
Record the minimum dimension obtained for each stone.
(c)
Separate the stones into class sizes with 2 mm intervals, i.e. between 0 and 2
mm, 2 mm and 4 mm, etc.
(d)
(a)
Slide the stones through the slotted gauges in the minimum dimension
orientation.
(b)
Separate the stones into class sizes with 2 mm intervals as for the dial gauge
method and then count the number in each class.
Calculation
The average least dimension (ALD) based on the class frequency distribution is
calculated using Table 5.15.
Table 5.15
Calculation of ALD
Class least
Dimension
A
Number of
particles
B
Less than 2
2 to 4
4 to 6
6 to 8
8 to 10
10 to 12
11
12 to 14
13
14 to 16
15
16 to 18
17
18 to 20
19
AxB
SUM B =
SUM of A x B =
Average Least Dimension (ALD)=
(Sum (A x B) SUM B) to the nearest 0.1mm
Report ALD to the nearest 0.1mm
6.9
The Sand Texture Test is used to assess the surface texture of an existing sprayed
seal. That is, the average depth from the top of the chipping to the binder level of a
primerseal, seal, or reseal . The surface texture depth is then used to determine the
allowances required for the design of seals and reseals.
Equipment
graded sand 100% passing 0.600mm sieve and retained on the 0.300mm sieve.
300 mm ruler
bannister brush
measuring container such as a white film canister which has a known volume
between of 31.8 cc or a small plastic bag with a standard measured volume of
sand
Test Sites
Inspect the whole of the job and mark with paint the large scale changes of surface
texture. Do not mark small texture changes.
Assess each zone with particular attention being paid to traffic volumes,wheel paths,
super-elevations, climbing areas and hilly terrain.
Be aware of variability of texture across pavement and test and interpolate results.
Test wheel path locations for traffic greater than 1000 vehicles/lane/day and test
average texture of lane for traffic less than 1000 vehicles/lane/day.
Test Procedure
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fill standard volume container with sand by dipping into the jar,
tapping the cylinder and striking off excess. (or take measured plastic bag
samples of beads or sand)
(d)
Pour contents of the container into a small pile on to the area being tested
(e)
Use the straight edge or ruler to rotate the sand on the road surface to work the
sand down into the surface voids in a circular motion working from the center
outwards and forming a uniform diameter sand circle.
(f)
Continue to work the sand to form as neat a circle as possible until the diameter
of the circle stabilizes and all the sand has migrated into the surface voids.
Use the ruler to measure the diameter of the circle (mm) in a number of diagonal
directions and average the four readings.
(h)
Table 5.16
Surface Texture Depth
Diameter
(mm)
100
Av
Texture
Depth
mm
4.0
Diameter
(mm)
180
Av
Texture
Depth
mm
1.2
110
3.3
190
1.1
120
2.8
200
1.0
130
2.4
220
0.8
140
2.1
240
0.7
150
1.8
260
0.6
160
1.6
280
0.5
170
1.4
300
0.4
6.10
The Ball Penetration Test is used to determine chipping embedment into the road
surface.
The test method procedure measures the depth of penetration by a 19 mm diameter
steel ball into road surface under the impact of a standard load.
Definitions
The road surface includes the road base, prime, primerseal and existing seals.
Seals are considered to be soft when the ball penetration unit sinks into the surface
under its own weight.
Apparatus
The Ball Penetrometer is shown in Figure 5.7.
Procedure
(a)
1.
Unscrew the ball penetrometer tip from the top of the base and
screw into the bottom of the penetrometer base after removing the keeper
screw.
2.
Remove the Ball Penetrometer transit pins B&C shown in Figure 5.8.
3.
Sit the Ball Penetrometer on an area typical of the road surface to be sealed.
4.
Level the Ball Penetrometer with the leveling feet until bubble is approximately
centred.
5.
Rest one knee firmly on the units base, at the same time grasp the rear of the
unit near the top. The unit should now be stable and ready for operation. The
free hand is used to raise the hammer weight.
6.
Zero the direct measurement scale, by adjusting the thumb screw and locking
nut on top of the hammer. Locking the thumb screw is optional.
7.
Apply one blow of the hammer by raising the hammer weight to the top of the
unit and allowing it to fall freely.
8.
9.
Repeat steps 2 to 8 another 4 times at each location. Average and record the
results of the tests to the nearest 0.5mm. Each repeat test should be carried
out within a radius of 100mm of the initial test.
NOTE: Hands are to be kept clear of collar around base at all times.
(b)
1.
Replace the case hardened screw in ball tip with blank screw-in tip
2.
3.
Detach base of penetrometer frame by removing the two base screws. The
detached upright section minus the gauge pin, is not used in this part of the
procedure.
4.
5.
Remove the 19mm case hardened steel ball from the base and place on an
area typical of the road surface to be sealed.
6.
7.
Place the assembled depth gauge into the slots of the base sleeve (with the
knurled end facing the steel ball) and measure down to the top of the steel
ball by releasing the screw and lowering the knurled end onto the steel ball.
Remove the gauge and note the measurement to the nearest 0.5mm.
8.
Place the hammer through the collar in the base so that the blank tip contacts
the steel ball.
9.
Apply one blow of the hammer by raising the hammer weight to the top of the
unit and allowing it to fall freely.
10.
Remove the hammer and replace the depth gauge. Measure to the top of the
steel ball. Record the determined difference (penetration) between the first
and second readings to the nearest 0.5mm.
Figure 5.7
Ball Penetrometer
Figure 5.8
Ball Penetrometer
6.11
Ministry of Road Transport
RESISTANCE
TO
STRIPPING
OF
CHIPPINGS
GHA test method T230 is used to assess the resistance of chippings to stripping in
the presence of moisture with or without precoating and with or without binder
adhesion agents.
This method is also known as the Plate Test or Stripping Test. It is not applicable to
chippings which pass a 9.50 mm BS sieve.
Note: When performing this test using modified binders, the softening point must first
be determined.
Apparatus
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
9.5 mm BS sieve.
Test Samples
Each chipping test sample shall consist of at least 50 particles of a similar size which
are representative of the chippings submitted for testing. In general, five test
samples are required.
The binder should be a sample of the type and class from the same source of supply
or manufacture as the binder proposed for use in the field. The binder may consist
of bitumen, scrap rubber bitumen or polymer modified bitumen.
Chippings
Samples shall be prepared as follows:
As received
Clean and Dry
The chipping particles shall be washed and scrubbed to remove adhering
dust, and dried to constant mass in an oven at a temperature in the range of
105C to 110C.
Dusty
The chipping particles shall be lightly sprinkled with dried clay screened to
pass a .075 mm sieve. Excess dust should be shaken from the particles
before applying the chipping particles to plates.
Saturated Surface Dry
The chipping particles shall be soaked in water at room temperature for 24
hours allowed to drain for about 15 minutes then spread on an absorbent
cloth and rolled or patted until all visible films of water are removed. Larger
particles may be wiped individually.
Saturated Surface Wet
The chipping particles shall be soaked in water at room temperature for 24
hours and then allowed to drain for 15 minutes before applying the chipping
particles to the plate.
(b)
Precoating Material
This should be prepared and applied in accordance with the proportions to be
used. If a proprietory product it should be applied in accordance with the
manufacturers recommendations.
The chipping test samples, shall be placed in the 500 mL container and the
precoating material added in small increments. After each addition the
container should be scaled and shaken or rolled to mix the precoating onto
the chipping particles. Continue adding and mixing small increments until the
chipping particles have a dull damp appearance without any inundation.
Remove the precoated chippings from the container and stand on a tray or in
a flat dish for 24 hours before applying the chippings to the plates.
(c)
Adhesion Agent
The adhesion agent should be prepared and applied to the binder in
accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations:
Weigh out sufficient binder for the number of plates allowing approximately
35gram for each plate. Determine the mass of binder to the nearest 1gram
and calculate the quantity of adhesion agent as a percentage by mass.
Gently warm the binder until fluid and add the adhesion agent. Stir the
mixture at frequent intervals until the temperature of the mixture reaches
180C. Place the mixture in an oven at a temperature within the range of 185
+ 5C. Allow the mixture to remain in the oven for 60 2 minutes. Remove
the mixture from the oven and allow to cool to room temperature.
As hot binders can cause burns, samples must be handled with gloves or
tongs. Suitable safety glasses and/or face shields are also to be worn.
Test Procedure
(a)
(b)
Place a zinc or aluminium plate on the balance. Pour the fluid binder on to
the plate until 30 to 35 grams have been spread.
(c)
Remove the plate from the balance and gently heat on a hot plate to ensure a
uniform thickness of the binder film. Allow the plate and binder to cool to
room temperature.
(d)
Gently hand press the 50 aggregate particles (test portion) into the binder film
on the plate. Place the plate into an oven at 60 + 2C or at [Binder Softening
Point + 20C + 2C] whichever is the higher, for 24 hours.
(e)
Remove the plate containing the binder and aggregate particles from the oven
and immerse in the water bath at 50 2C for 4 days.
(f)
After 4 days the temperature of the water in the water bath shall be lowered to
24 2C and maintained at this temperature for one hour, or transfer the plate
to another container of water at 24 2C for one hour.
(g)
Remove the plate and contents from the water bath and pull the chippings
from the binder with the aid of long-nosed pliers. Use steady vertical pressure
when pulling the chipping particles to avoid sliding the particles while
manipulating the pliers.
(h)
Sort the chipping particles into groups according to the following features:
Completely Stripped - less than one quarter of the contact area is coated
with binder.
Partly Stripped - between one quarter and three quarters of contact area is
coated with binder.
Not Stripped - more than three quarters of the contact area is coated with
binder.
Note: The black binder on the contact surface may be very thin. To confirm the
presence of binder, place a filter paper (Whatman No 1) over the contact area of the
inverted chipping particle and apply firm pressure with the index finger. Lift the filter
paper by its edges.
If the chipping is lifted with the filter paper and remains attached to the paper for
greater than 5 seconds a binder film is present. When using scrap rubber bitumen,
the binder film remaining on the chipping may be thinner than that usually
encountered with other binders.
Calculations
(a)
(b)
Reporting
Report the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(c)
(f)
(g)
7.
CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE
7.1
General
It is essential to plan and prepare for bituminous sealing work so as to ensure that a
high standard seal is produced at minimal cost.
Inspections
The site must be inspected well in advance of the planned date of sealing to enable
the selection or determination of:
(a)
sealing treatment
(b)
(c)
location of sites for handling and storage of binder and for stockpiling,
precoating and loading of chippings.
The sites should be selected so that they are:
(i)
near the site of the work and closest to the source of supply.
(ii)
(iii)
clear of the road formation, drains, side tracks, trees, poles or other
obstructions.
(iv)
of suitable size and shape for handling and storage of binder or for
stockpiling, precoating and loading of chippings.
(d)
(e)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The pavement should also be inspected a day or two before the bituminous sealing
to ensure that the preparation work has been satisfactorily completed.
To ensure that all information is collected during the site inspection, complete the
checklists shown in Section 6.11.
Site Preparation
The sites for Binder Handling and Storage and Chipping Stockpiles should be
prepared by:
(a)
(b)
(c)
locating storage tanks and other equipment for ease of handling and storage
of binders.
Supply of Binder
The following actions should be taken to ensure satisfactory delivery of the binder:
(a)
(b)
determine the manner of supply (eg. road tanker) and requirements relating to
delivery, eg temperature.
(c)
determine the sampling and testing procedure to be used for the contract.
Supply of Chippings
Whether chippings have been supplied as part of the contract, or have been
purchased directly from the quarries, the following action should be taken:
always test samples of chippings before acceptance and delivery to site
check quantities and locations of deliveries
arrange regular sampling and testing
measure stockpiles
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(b)
Stockpiles
For ease of precoating and loading operations, and measurement, stockpiles
should be:
rectangular in shape at base of stockpile.
of uniform side slopes between 1.5 and 3 horizontal to 1 vertical
1.2 metres high (approximately).
A clear space of 10 metres width on at least one end and 3 metres width on
at least one side is required.
(c)
Precoating Chippings
(i)
General
All chippings should be precoated before use in bituminous surfacing work.
(ii)
Precoating materials
Precoating materials are described in Section 3. Chippings which have been
precoated with diesel fuel oil based precoat should be stockpiled for at least
one week before use. If stockpiles are covered to prevent contamination, the
chippings may be suitable for use for several months. However, if they have
not been used within 6 months light precoating may be required.
(iii)
Application rates
The application rates for precoating material are detailed in Section 3.3.
However, they should be such that each chipping particle is uniformly coated
and has a dull, damp appearance. No free precoating material should be
evident.
The following field check may be made to determine whether or not the
chippings are correctly precoated:
Fill a white plastic bag to about one third full with some of the precoated
chippings.
Close the top of the bag and shake it several times so that the chippings
contact the inside surface of the bag.
If the inside of the bag is dusty, then the precoat has been under applied.
If the inside of the bag is relatively clean with the exception of a few streaks
of precoat, then the precoating rate is correct.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
If the inside of the bag is covered with an oily coating, then the precoat has
been over applied.
(iv)
Method of precoating
Chippings maybe precoated using the following methods:
Quarry Crushing Plant
Where practical, chippings should be precoated by the quarry supplying
chippings. The precoating agent is normally applied at the specified rate as
the chippings come off the conveyor belts into stockpile or into the trucks for
delivery to the job site.
Payloader (front end loader)
Precoating of chippings can be undertaken at stockpile sites using a
payloader and bitumen distributor hand distributor.
The chippings should be clean and dry with a minimum of dust. They are
loaded into the bucket of the payloader and the precoating fluid sprayed
evenly over the chippings. The volume of precoating fluid applied is based on
application rate and the volume of the payloader bucket.
A stockpile of the partially precoated chippings is constructed and then turned
over with the payloader until all chippings are uniformly coated.
Large stockpiles of chippings can also be precoated using the same method.
The required volume of precoating agent is sprayed onto the stockpile and
then the stockpile is turned over until all the chippings are uniformly coated.
(v)
Condition of chippings
Chippings should be precoated only when they are dry and clean.
Treat the chippings as follows:
If the chippings are precoated when damp, they should be allowed to dry
before being used for sealing.
Fines and dust should be removed from chippings before precoating.
(vi)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Sampling of Chippings
Before designing a seal or reseal, the chippings should be sampled from stockpile
and the ALD determined.
Plant Requirements
All necessary items of plant should be on site in good working order before the
commencement of sealing operations.
The plant used by a typical spray gang includes:
bitumen distributor
road tanker
chipping precoater
chipping loader
chipping spreader
drag broom
tender truck
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Spray Gang
A spray gang for a normal sealing operation may comprise:
1 foreman
1 ganger (penciler)
1 distributor driver
1 distributor operator
1 heater attendant
1 loader operator
2 roller operators
4 labourers
The size of the spray gang may need to be increased or decreased depending on
the type and extent of the work.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(c)
(d)
arranging for the supply and use of all necessary signs, traffic control devices
and pilot vehicles where necessary.
Job Instructions
For each section of the work, prepare job instructions for the Foremen or Supervisor
who will supervise the work. Information to be included in the job instructions
comprises:
sources of materials
type(s) of binder
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Patching should be done with suitable pavement material, compacted, and then
sealed. Alternatively, asphalt can be used for patching.
It should also be noted that repairs and patching should be done at least 6-8 weeks
in advance of sealing to allow time for the volatiles to evaporate. Fresh patches and
repairs will often result in unsightly fatty or stripped areas in the seal coat.
7.2
HANDLING
MATERIALS
HOT
BITUMINOUS
General
Bitumen and cutback bitumen that comply with the specification should give
satisfactory service provided they are handled and stored correctly.
Implementation of the following procedures should prevent accidents and damage
to, or contamination of, these materials.
Transferring Material
Bituminous materials are usually handled very hot and require special equipments
for storage and application. Serious burns can be caused by the liquid coming into
contract with the skin.
Water should not be allowed to contact hot bituminous materials, as this will cause
boil over and foaming, which may lead to a fire or explosion.
The following precautions are to be taken when transferring bituminous materials:
Never unload heated materials until at least 20 minutes after the heaters are
turned off.
Do not load cleaning oil, or cutter oil into an empty hot tank unless the
temperature in the tank is below 100C.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Heating
(a)
Bituminous Material
Bituminous material should not be heated above the maximum temperatures
shown in Table 6.1.
(b)
Cutback Bitumen
The following precautions should be taken when heating cutback bitumen:
Extreme care should be taken as the volatile vapours given off are easily
ignited.
Only heat cutback bitumen if its temperature is below the recommended
minimum temperature for spraying.
Do not heat cutback bitumen at a rate greater than 15C per hour.
Only heat cutback bitumen in distributors.
Circulate cutback bitumen in the distributor during heating and continue
circulating for at least 20 minutes after burners have been turned off.
(c)
Bitumen Emulsion
The following precautions should be taken when heating emulsion:
Apply heat gently.
Use gentle agitation.
Warm pumps before use.
Do not apply direct heat to emulsion with a fire or blow torch.
Do not heat emulsion at a rate greater than 15C p er hour.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Cutback bitumen
The procedure for adding cutter oil or kerosene to bitumen is:
(i)
(ii)
If there are concerns that water may be present, pour cutter oil into a
cut-down 200 L drum before pumping into distributor. If water is present, it
can be seen at the bottom of the cut-down drum. Alternatively, use a waterfinding paste.
(iii)
Pump cutter oil at ambient temperature into the empty distributor tank.
The quantity of cutter oil pumped into the distributor should be predetermined
on the basis of the percentage of cutter oil required in the cutback bitumen
and the quantity of cutback bitumen to be produced.
(iv)
Pump hot bitumen (grade AC-10 bitumen) into the distributor tank,
observing all the safety precautions
The temperature of the bitumen should be adjusted so that the resultant
cutback bitumen is at the required temperature for spraying. This obviates
the need to heat the cutback bitumen.
(v)
(vi)
Circulate the mixture of cutter oil and bitumen for at least 15 minutes
before spraying.
(b)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
If adhesion agent will not pour from the drum, it may be warmed or mixed with
a small quantity of cutter to make it fluid.
To ensure uniform dispersion of the adhesion agent throughout the binder,
the mixture should be circulated for 15 minutes before spraying.
Table 6.1
Maximum Heating Temperatures for Various Bituminous Binders
Type of Material
Class or Grade
Bitumen
AC 10
Cutback Bitumen
AMC00
AMC0
AMC1
AMC2
AMC3
AMC4
AMC5
AMC6
AMC7
Note: 1.
Equivalent %
cutter
Max.
Temp.
Heating
(C)
190
56
44
34
27
21
16
11
7
3
30
55
80
100
115
135
150
160
175
Cleaning
(a)
General
Cleaning procedures should minimize the risk of:
injury to personnel due to fire, explosion or other cause.
damage to equipment due to fire or explosion.
contamination of bituminous materials.
(b)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(i)
(ii)
Internal cleaning
Additional precautions to be taken when personnel are working inside tanks
used for bituminous materials are:
Degas the tank or flush with boiling water to remove all dangerous fumes
before commencing the cleaning operations.
Isolate any mixing mechanism with a lock out tag.
Isolate any valves used to control the delivery of bituminous materials or
heat to the tank with a lock out tag.
Any person who has to work inside the tank must retain the vehicles
ignition key the whole time work is in progress inside the tank. Place a
large sign *Person working in Tank* on each side of the vehicle.
Disconnect the vehicle and distributor batteries and any other power
sources which are normally used.
Any person working in the tank must wear an air supplied respirator.
Personnel must stand by outside the tank.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(iii)
(c)
Storage
(a)
Bituminous Material
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Materials in drums
Storing and stacking
Drums containing the same materials should be grouped in the same area.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Protection
Bituminous materials stored in drums should be stacked under cover to
protect them from weather and to avoid contamination. It is particularly
important to exclude moisture from bituminous materials (except emulsion)
and precoat which require heating before use to minimize the risk of foaming
(b)
Bitumen Emulsion
Bitumen emulsion only remains stable and usable while the fine particles of
bitumen are uniformly suspended in the water phase. Storage procedures
should ensure that bitumen droplets do not settle or coagulate during storage.
When an emulsion is stored it has a finite lifetime which is determined by the
formulation, method of handling and how it is stored.
(i)
Bulk storage
The precautions to be taken when storing bitumen emulsion in bulk are:
Do not store bitumen emulsion for longer than 90 days.
Circulate bitumen emulsion at regular intervals.
Circulation should be slow and for limited periods.
The frequency of circulation depends on the weather and the length of
time the emulsion has been in storage but generally once every 7 days is
adopted.
(ii)
Storage in drums
The precautions to be taken when storing bitumen emulsion in drums are:
Store drums above ground in an upright position.
Store drums under cover.
Use bitumen emulsion in order of receipt.
Do not store bitumen emulsion in drums for longer than 90 days.
Gently agitate drums by turning each drum over every 2 weeks.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Cutter Oil
Containers of cutter oil should not be stored on the job for long periods unless
they are protected from rain and condensation. If containers are stored in the
open for short periods, they are to be placed in such positions as to minimise
the possibility of water gaining entry. This may be achieved by storing the
drums on their sides.
Cutter oil storage tankers should be separated from other products at the
tanker site (eg. Gas cylinders, petrol, oil, etc) by a minimum of 10 metres. If
stored in sheds they should be adequately ventilated.
7.3
PREPARATION
SURFACE
OF
PAVEMENT
General
It is most important that pavements are properly prepared prior to applying any
sprayed treatment as sprayed treatments will not overcome pavement deficiencies.
Drying
If the voids near the pavement surface are filled with water, allow the surface
to dry out by evaporation to a slightly damp condition.
(b)
Sweeping
Sweep the pavement surface to remove dust, slurry and other foreign matter
using:
a rotary road broom.
The broom should be adjusted so that it removes the dust without
damaging the pavement surface.
hand brooms, if necessary, in confined areas not swept by the rotary
broom.
Sweeping should extend to at least 300 mm beyond each edge of the area to
be sprayed.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(c)
Watering
At the time of priming or primersealing, the pavement should be slightly damp
to the required depth of penetration of the primer.
Where the moisture has evaporated from the top 15 mm of the pavement
material, the surface should be dampened by a light application of water.
This is done by running a water bowser over the surface at a higher speed
than normal.
The purpose of watering is to:
kill the dust
improve penetration of primer or primerbinder into the pavement.
Watering should not reduce either the hardness of the pavement surface or
the surface penetration of the primer.
If over watered, allow the surface to dry before priming.
Drying
A damp surface should be allowed to dry. Sweeping with a rotary road broom
may assist.
When using a bitumen emulsion binder the surface may be left damp.
(ii)
Sweeping
Sweep the pavement surface to remove dust, slurry and other foreign matter
using a rotary road broom
Supplement with hand brooms, where necessary.
Sweeping should extend to at least 300 mm beyond each edge of the area to
be sprayed.
7.4
SPRAYING OPERATIONS
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Setting Out
Set out the area to be sprayed with markings on the pavement (300 mm outside the
longitudinal edge).
The guide arm chain of the distributor is then adjusted to the position of the
markings.
Spray Width
Full width spraying should be carried out so that there will be no longitudinal joins in
the seal. Single lane spraying may be carried out :
Where the maximum length of spray bar is less than the full width for
spraying.
Where the design calls for different binder application rates in adjacent lanes.
On a rough pavement, where the spray bar height will vary as the distributor
moves forward causing variations in the binder application rate.
On winding roads with small radius curves, where full width spraying would
cause varying binder application rates.
(ii)
Convert the designed application rate to the application rate of hot cutback
binder using the conversion tables in Section 2.
(iii)
Multiply the application rate of hot binder by the area to be sprayed to give the
volume of hot binder.
These calculations are carried out on the Daily Spray Record Sheet in Section 6.12 .
Loading the Distributor
Transfer to the distributor, the calculated volume of hot binder plus an allowance of
10% to ensure the distributor pump does not pump air before the end of the run.
The cutter oil and /or adhesion agent is included as part of the distributor loading
operation as described above.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Spraying
Spraying the binder should be undertaken with a calibrated distributor, as described
in Section 7. Determine from the spraying table ( refer to Figure 7.3), the forward
speed of the distributor and required pump shaft speed for the selected bar width
(constant volume distributors only).
Spray Nozzles
The spray nozzles should be of the make and type endorsed on the Distributor
Certificate.
The end nozzles may be either intermediate nozzles set with a jig or else purpose
made end nozzles.
Measurement of Binder Quantity
Before commencing spraying, park the distributor on level ground, dip the distributor
tank and record the quantity of binder on the Daily Spray Record Sheet.
In addition place binder collection trays for checking of spray rate in the wheelpaths
on surface to be sprayed
Binder Temperature
At the time of spraying, measure the temperature of the binder. It should be within
the allowable temperature range for spraying the binder being used. Refer to Table
6.1.
Traffic Control
Stop or detour all traffic in accordance with traffic management plan before
commencing spraying.
Cut Off Paper
Lay a strip of craft paper, 1.2m wide transversely across the pavement at the start
and finish of the distributor run. Weigh the paper down with chippings, gravel or
other suitable material.
Positioning the Distributor and Chipping Trucks
Position the distributor a minimum of 20 meters behind the start of the run.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Position the loaded chipping trucks behind the distributor before commencing the
distributor run.
Lower the spray bar so that the nozzles are 250 300 mm above the pavement.
Commence Spraying
Drive the distributor forward and commence spraying when the spray bar is over the
cut off paper. Check that all nozzles are producing a uniform spray pattern.
Stop spraying immediately if any of the nozzles are not operating correctly or any
defect develops in the spraying equipment.
Maintain a constant distributor speed to ensure a uniform application rate of binder.
Remove Cut Off Paper
Before the chipping spreading starts, remove the paper and dispose of it correctly.
Determine Binder Application Rate
At the end of the run, park the distributor on level ground, dip the distributor and
calculate the actual rate of application of binder on the Daily Spray Record Sheet.
In addition weigh the bitumen collection trays and calculate the actual rate of
application of binder on the Spray Check Sheet shown in Section 6.
The actual application rates should be within a tolerance of 5% of the ordered
application rate. If necessary, adjust the application rate of binder to ensure the
ordered application rate is achieved in subsequent runs.
It is more difficult to obtain accuracy on short runs than it is when spraying full loads
due to the accuracy of dipping the load and its influence on the overall accuracy
when spraying only small quantities.
Always check the rates of application for each run or load sprayed. If in error check
the calculations first. Minor corrections to the forward speed of the distributor may
be necessary to obtain the desired rate of application.
It may not be possible to obtain the desired rates of application due to the following:
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
the dip stick suspension point has been altered or the dip stick has been
damaged.
CHIPPING OPERATIONS
Loading
The loading operation is usually carried out with a front end loader. To avoid
contamination of the chippings:
A thin layer of chippings should be left behind in the stockpile under the
loader bucket.
Spreading
(a)
General
The aim in spreading chippings is :
To produce a uniform mat of chippings
To spread at the ordered rate
Excess chippings on the surface may crush under the action of rolling and/or
traffic.
A deficiency of chippings will not give a tight mat and may result in some
stripping. This is because the depth of binder around the chippings is not
sufficient to hold them in place.
To ensure a good seal, the spread rate must be controlled.
(b)
Spreading Equipment
Self propelled spreaders with rate of chipping discharge linked to road
speed produce the best results.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(c)
(d)
Spreading Procedure
The binder must be covered with chippings as quickly as possible and in.
any case within 10 minutes when using grade AC-10 bitumen.
A check should be made on the rate of application using the Daily Spray
Record sheet.
The appearance of the spread mat before rolling should be uniform, with
some binder visible between the stones (except for emulsion sealing).
When working half widths or lane widths the overlap width of the binder
should be left uncovered.
The spreaders must always be cleaned out when changing from one size
of chipping to another.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(e)
Handspreading
Handspreading may be carried out in small or odd shaped areas by shaking
chippings off a shovel. Do not throw or broadcast the chippings because this
will result in a non uniform cover.
Rolling Chippings
(a)
General
Rolling of chippings is undertaken for the following reasons:
(b)
Equipment
Number of Rollers
Whilst only one roller may be required for small patching work, it is good
practice to have two rollers on site to allow for mechanical breakdown and
to assist with backrolling. However, as a guide, at least one roller is
required for every 1500 m2 of pavement sprayed.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(c)
(d)
Procedure
Rolling should continue until the chippings have been well embedded in
the binder and a uniformly textured surface is obtained.
Rolling should be continuous during the day and should continue for at
least one hour after the last chipping has been spread.
Backrolling
Backrolling is used to reorientate the stones and reduce the voids between
the chipping particles.
Sweeping
(a)
Hand Sweeping
This may be used to correct minor irregularities in the spread rate with or
without additional chippings.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Chippings must not be swept in from outside the sprayed area, as this may
bring in dust.
(b)
Drag Brooming
Drag brooming is undertaken after initial rolling to provide an even cover of
chippings. Drag brooming should not be used if the chippings are larger than
Size 10 mm as they tend to be dislodged by the broomimg.
Drag brooms should operate at between 5 and 10 km/h.
(c)
(i)
Timing
To ensure that the seal is not damaged, sweeping should be delayed until the
chippings have sufficiently adhered to the binder. Generally, when hot applied
bitumen AC-10 binder has been used, a light sweeping is carried out the next
day. However, for bitumen emulsion binder, sweeping is generally undertaken
after the second day.
(ii)
7.6
TRAFFIC CONTROL
General
Control of traffic is an important part of sealing work. Traffic must be controlled to
ensure that road workers are protected from hazards and that road users can travel
safely through or around the work site. Control of traffic is also important to protect
the seal from damage when first opened to traffic.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Spraying Operation
During spraying operations it is essential that traffic be detoured or stopped for short
periods. The work should be organized so that any delay to traffic is limited to less
than 15 minutes. In order to control vehicle speeds, a temporary 60 km/h speed
zone should be established. This zone should extend at least 100 m beyond the
limits of the work and should be left in force until after excess aggregate has been
removed from the seal.
Figures 9.1 and 9.2 show typical traffic control arrangements for sprayed sealing
work.
Restrict the lane width available to traffic by the use of cones, signs, barriers
or other traffic control devices.
7.7
PRIMING
Spraying Temperature
The temperature of the primer at the time of spraying should be within the
range shown in Table 6.2.
Primer should not be held at the spraying temperature for longer than one
hour. If it is held at that temperature for longer, a repeat dose of adhesion
agent should be added.
Primer Set Up
Priming is a matter of experience and no definite rules can be applied regarding the
grade (viscosity) of primer and rate of application to use.
A reasonable balance has been achieved between grade and rate of application if
the pavement is uniformly well covered with primer, and if all the primer is absorbed
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
and dry within the following time limits for the weather conditions shown:
Hot weather
6 to 12 hours
Cool weather
12 to 24 hours
Damp weather
24 to 48 hours
Covering Primes
When primer has been sprayed, the surface must not be immediately covered with
dust or sand to mop up the wet primer in order to shorten the drying time. This is a
wasteful practice and generally results in a non-uniform poor standard surface.
It is preferable to adjust the grade or rate of application so that the primer is dry
within the times given. Minimum time to allow absorption before covering with
dust/sand should be about 4-6 hours.
After Care
After spraying primer, the following action should be taken:
Type of Primer
Cutback Bitumen
Bitumen Emulsion
Grade
AMC00
10 20
AMC0
35 55
AMC1
60 - 80
Manufacturers recommendation
7.8
PRIMERSEALING
Spraying Primerbinder
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7.9
Spraying Binder
The temperature of the binder at the time of spraying should be within the range
shown in Table 6.4.
Extending the period of traffic control until chippings are held securely.
After Care
The seal should be regularly inspected, particularly during the early part of its life.
Defects and failures should be repaired immediately after their appearance.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Table 6.3
Primerbinder Temperatures for Spraying
Type of
Primerbinder
Cutback bitumen
Grade
Temperature Range
for Spraying (C)
AMC4
Bitumen emulsion
(70% Bitumen)
110 135
Primersealing
75 85
Table 6.4.
Type of Binder
Grade or
Class
Temperature. Range
for spraying (C)
Bitumen
AC -10
170 190
Bitumen Emulsion
(70% bitumen)
Sealing
75 85
7.10 EMULSION
RESEALING
SEALING
AND
General
The procedure used in carrying out an emulsion seal differs from those used in
conventional sprayed sealing.
Type of Emulsion
The technique described in this section is the general practice used for sealing and
resealing using high bitumen content (70%+ bitumen) emulsions. Whilst
conventional (60% bitumen) emulsions may be used, the maximum application rates
achievable without significant runoff restricts the size of chippings which may be
used.
Emulsions used in sealing and resealing are sprayed undiluted.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Precoating Chippings
Chippings should be precoated approximately 1 week in advance of the work.
Freshly precoated chippings with an excess of precoat should not be used, as
it may delay the breaking of the emulsion. Chippings which have previously been
precoated and are damp at the time of sealing present fewer problems in achieving
initial adhesion with the binder than would be the case with conventional sealing.
Pavement Preparation
The pavement should be cleaned by sweeping as described in Section 6.3.
Heating Emulsion
Emulsion should be heated slowly (maximum rate 15C per hour) to between 75C
and 85C for spraying.
Spraying
The emulsion is sprayed at the designed rate determined from Section 5. While it is
possible to spray at hot application rates up to 2.5 L/m2 , run off may be a problem at
higher application rates or on steep grades.
Chip Spreading
The chippings are spread at a rate to give a uniform single stone thickness with the
particles in shoulder to shoulder contact.
If a scatter coat is to be spread it is essential that the first chipping is spread
uniformly at the designed rate. The scatter coat is spread after the first chipping and
before rolling.
Scatter Coat
When carrying out emulsion sealing using chippings of Size 10 mm or greater, a
second chipping applied as a scatter coat, may be used to lock in the chippings.
The function of the scatter coat is to prevent the first chipping from rolling and being
dislodged as the seal gains strength during the first days of its life.
Rolling
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Immediately after the scatter coat is spread, rolling should be carried out.
Traffic on the Fresh Seal
After 2 or 3 roller passes, traffic may be allowed to use the new seal. The speed of
traffic must be restricted to a maximum of 40 km/hour until the seal has gained
sufficient strength to be trafficked at higher speeds without chippings being
dislodged. The speed restriction is normally required for 4-6 hours.
Sweeping
Because of the slow strength development of emulsion seals when compared with
hot applied bitumen seals, sweeping may have to be delayed for longer until
sufficient strength has developed. Sweeping with a rotary road broom may be
carried out 48 hours after sealing.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7.11
Contractor:-
Contract No:-
Phone No:
Mobile No:
Fax No:....
Superintendents Representative:-
Contractor's Site Representative:-
Expected Date of Seal:-
Duration of Work:-
Seal Design by :-
JOB DETAILS
Site Location
Length of work :.(meters)
Width of work ..(meters)
Total area:(square meters)
SURFACE TREATMENT
Surface Dressing
(Single / Double)
Quarry Source
Type of Chippings
Chipping Shape (Angular/ Cubic/ Round)
Chipping Test Results Available
(Yes / No)
Supplied at Stockpile Site by:(Quarry / Contractor)
Haulage Dist - Quarry to Stockpile (Km)
Haulage Dist- Stockpile to Worksite ( kms)
Stockpile Site Constructed by:Stockpile Site clean,dry and accessible (Yes / No)
Chipping Covered by:Precoating of Aggregate
Precoating Location
Precoat Brand or Mixture
Precoat Rate (litres/cubic metre)
Chippings Size
(mm)
Chipping ALD (Average Least Dimension)
(mm)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Contractor
Road Agency
Pavement condition
ready for surface treatment
CONTRACTOR'S EQUIPMENT
Available
Yes
No
Number of
Items / Men
Capacity
Signed By:
CONTRACTOR REPRESENTATIVE
Signed By:
ROAD AGENCY SUPERINTENDENT'S REPRESENTATIVE
Date:
Date:
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Job / Order
No:....
Road No. /
Name:
Location:
Roadloc:..
To:
Length .mtr.
Width ...mtr.
Area sq.mtr. No. of
lanes..
Type of Treatment
Single Application Seal
Seal (S) or Reseal (RS)
Double Application Seal
Existing Surface Conditions
Bituminous Surfaced Pavement:
Primed (P), Primersealed (PS), Sealed
Existing Chipping
Mm
(S),
Size (nominal)
Asphaltic Concrete (AC) or Cement Concrete (CC)
Unit Shoulder Lane
Lane
Lane
Lane Shoulder
1
2
3
4
Lane Direction or Description
Surface Texture
Mm
Yrs.
mm
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7.12
ROAD AGENCY
DAILY SPRAY RECORD
Date :Contractor :Location
Type Treatment :Grade of Bitumen Sprayed :Quarry
Supplier:-
Refer
Unit
Area
Length
Width
Area
Size of Load
8
9
2x3
Run 1
Run 2
Run 3
m2
l/m2
Table
2.4
6x7
l/m2
8x4
lites
9 +10%
litres
10
11
Spraying
12
litres
13
litres
14
15
Temperature Sprayed
12 13
litres
0
16
Table
2.4
17
14 x16
litres
18
17div 4
l/m2
19
186
l/m2
20
Tolerance ( 5%)
6x0.05
l/m2
21
2019
l/m2
22
Chippings
23
Chipping Size
24
25 div 4
m2/m3
25
Design Quantity
4 div 24
M3
26
Ordered Quantity
25 +5%
M3
27
Chippings Spread
28
mm
M3
2725
M3
29 Actual Rate
4 div 27
m2/m3
Note :
For Primerseals and Emulsions, the Design Application Rate is the total rate of the mixture
7.13
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
TOTAL
Type of Material:
Test Location:
Date:
from CH.
To CH.
Test No
BINDER
1
Wt. of Tray + Bitumen
W1
Kg
Wt. of Tray
W2
Kg
W3
Kg
SG
Vol. of Bitumen V = W3
SG
Area covered
Rate of Spread R = V
A
1.03
gm/ml
Litres
(L)
m
L/m
__________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
8.
8.1
GENERAL
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Plant items must be kept well maintained and in good repair, particularly regarding
engine and hydraulic oil leaks which will soften the binder and may cause fatty spots
or stripping of the aggregate.
For safety, the operators should all be properly instructed in the safe use of the
plant, in particular the items involved in handling and heating hot bituminous
materials.
8.2
BITUMEN STORAGES AND ROAD
TANKERS
Storages are purpose built items to store, heat or maintain bitumen at the correct
temperature. They may be oil or gas fired or electrically heated, depending on
whether they are mobile or fixed units.
Road Tankers as shown in Figure 7.1 are also purpose built to safely transport and
handle bituminous materials. They are generally equipped with gas heating and
pumping equipment to enable them to be self contained units that can load, heat and
transfer bituminous materials on the job sites, and are used to supply materials from
refineries/manufacturers to sealing gangs in the field.
8.3
BITUMEN DISTRIBUTOR
The bitumen distributor (also known as bitumen sprayer) as shown in Figure 7.2 is
one of the key plant items and its standard of operation will affect the standard of
work achieved. They are self contained units fitted with pumping and heating
equipment that can load, mix, heat and spray bituminous materials.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Calibration
The Ministry of Road Transport requires bitumen distributors to be inspected and
calibrated to ensure that the bitumen pump speed, and spray bar pressure, is
satisfactory to achieve the constant spray bar output required.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The forward speed and distance recording accuracy are also checked by timing the
distributor over a measured set distance, generally a kilometre.
The distributor must be inspected and calibrated every year, or whenever the
distributor has been overhauled or the bitumen pump replaced.
(b)
The pump shaft speed versus number of jets for the width of spray required
(Constant volume distributors).
(c)
It should be noted that the spraying table is different for each distributor because the
pump speed, pump output, and spraybar pressure varies with the spraybar width on
each distributor. An example of a spray table is shown in Figure 7.3.
Spraying Jets
The spraybars are generally fitted with:
(a)
These jets are spaced at 100 mm centres and the spray bar is set 300 mm above
the pavement. The spray from each jet overlaps that of adjacent jets which ensures
a uniform transverse distribution as shown in Figure 7.4
For standard work, A4 jets, which have a rated output of 18 litres per minute, are
used. As there is no overlap at the ends of the spray bar, there is a small loss in the
transverse distribution at this location. This is partially compensated for by the use of
special end jets, which have non-uniform slots and direct more material towards the
outside. They are designated EA4 and have an output of 36 litres per minute. The
standard A4 jet and EA4 end jets are shown in Figure 7.5.
The transverse distribution of a well maintained calibrated distributor is uniform
except for about 50mm on the outer edges. It is therefore important to use end jets
at all times and overlap adjacent distributor runs by about 50mm. (Alternatively,
when end jets are not available, it is common practice to turn the standard A4 to
an angle of 45 to the bar to increase the spray r ate at the end of the bar, and
overlap by about 100mm.).
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Smaller and larger jet sizes are available for particular products or conditions, such
as large jets to spray viscous bitumen scrap rubber blends.
Jets are made from brass and are machined accurately to ensure a correct spray
pattern. They must be carefully handled and maintained to ensure a uniform spray
pattern. Only jets of the same size must be fitted in the bar - do not mix different
sizes to try and achieve varying application rates across the pavement. Testing has
shown this to be poor practice as the rates achieved cannot be checked and the
variations are not accurately predictable.
(b)
Whirling jets give a conical overlap and the spray-bar is set at 450 - 480mm above
the pavement. They generally have an output of 11 litres per minute depending on
the type of distributor and are suitable for spraying in the range of 0.5 2.0 litres/sq
m before the speed of the distributor starts to affect the spray pattern.
Care needs to be taken with PMBs as these jets are susceptible to blocking with
higher viscosity material. A Whirling jet is shown in Figure 7.6.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Width
of
Sprayer
Run
(metres
)
Number
of
Nozzles
Pump
Drive
Gear
7.8
7.2
6.6
6.0
5.4
4.8
4.2
3.6
3.0
2.4
1.8
1.2
0.6
78
72
66
60
54
48
42
36
30
24
18
12
6
0.6
1.2
6
12
Pump Speed
Spraying
Pressure
(kPa)
Pump
Output
(l/min)
(rpm)
Spraybar
Circulate
(rpm)
Spraying
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
580
540
495
450
405
360
315
270
230
185
140
95
50
580
540
495
450
405
360
315
270
230
185
140
95
50
180
75
1404
1296
1188
1080
972
864
756
648
540
432
324
216
108
N/A
N/A
Bar Circ.
Bar Circ.
340
400
180
200
108
216
150
130
110
95
85
Application
Rate
(l/min)
Road
Speed
indicator
(m/min)
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
1.20
1.25
1.30
1.35
1.40
1.45
1.50
1.55
1.60
1.65
1.70
1.75
1.80
1.85
1.90
1.95
2.00
2.05
2.10
2.20
2.30
2.40
2.50
2.60
2.70
458
407
366
33
305
282
261
244
229
215
203
193
183
174
166
159
152
146
141
135
131
123
122
118
114
111
108
104
102
99
96
94
91
89
87
83
79
76
73
70
68
(a)
Figure 7.5
(b)
8.4
CHIPPING LOADER
Chippings that have not been precoated prior to delivery to stockpile require to be
precoated on site. Specialised loaders are available which load the chippings from
the stockpile site into a revolving screen to remove dust and undersize chippings
prior to precoating.
8.5
CHIPPING SPREADERS
The most common type of chipping spreader is a cockerell or box spreader which
consists of a hopper mounted on the truck tail gate as shown in Figure 7.7. Spread
rate is controlled by both gate opening and truck spreading speed. This gives
reasonable control for most applications, with experienced operators and truck
drivers, but recent investigations have shown that the chipping spread rate has a
greater influence than originally thought on the mosaic, texture and performance of a
seal coat.
8.6
ROLLERS
Rolling is usually carried out by pneumatic tyred self propelled multi-wheel rollers as
shown in Figure 7.8. The aim is not so much compaction, but orienting the chippings
particles with their ALD vertical and packed together as closely as possible.
Steel rollers tend to roll only the high spots and crush the chipping and are not
recommended. Slow moving traffic also provides very good rolling.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
8.7
BROOM
Dust affects the adhesion of the bituminous materials to the pavement and it is most
important to clean the pavement by sweeping with a mechanical broom as shown in
Figure 7.9. This may be a tractor mounted or drawn rotary broom. The broom is
generally made up of plastic or steel wire segments fitted to a steel core, which may
be driven hydraulically or mechanically. Care must be taken with the broom core
during storage and use to avoid flat spots in the broom core as this will result in non
uniform sweeping, i.e. leaving dusty areas on the pavement surface.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
9.
9.1
GENERAL
The aim is to achieve high quality work without a single failure. As a guide to help
reduce failures, some of the common causes are listed below:
Cold binder
9.2
DEFECTS IN TREATMENTS
Initial Treatments
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
123
Retreatments
9.3
REMEDIES
The quicker a problem is identified and treated, the lower the cost and generally the
more successful the result. The following provides a guide on how to deal with the
most common failures/problems that occur.
Priming
Excess primer is most easily dealt with by covering with clean grit, sand or
quarry dust while still wet.
Primersealing
Excess primerbinder .
If the primerbinder is soft enough, roll in more chippings.If that does not
succeed, apply a second primerseal at a reduced rate of application.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
124
If the primerbinder is not picking up and the condition is not a hazard, wait for
the next hot day and try and roll in more chippings. The wetting power of the
primerbinder may be improved by a light application of kerosene just before
applying the chippings. Chippings may be size 7 or 10mm, depending on the
amount of free binder.
Deficient primerbinder
If there is a minor loss of chippings, the life expectancy will be reduced but no
other action may be required.
If there is a significant loss of chippings, a second primerseal should be
applied using size 7 chippings. It is preferable to use a bitumen emulsion to
minimise potential flushing or bleeding problems.
Picking up
Primerseals that are placed in cool weather should be watched carefully
during the first hot spell as the primerbinder may bleed for the first few days.
If bleeding, roll in size 7 chippings. If chippings are not available, cool the
surface by watering lightly.
Pick up may also occur if it rains shortly after application and the primerbinder
is emulsified.
Chippings should be spread on the surface in sufficient quantity to keep
vehicle tyres from the binder. Up to size 10mm chippings may be used,
depending on the primerseal and depth required.
Sealing
Excess binder
If the binder is soft enough, roll in more chippings. However, if the binder is
not picking up and the situation is not dangerous, roll in more chippings on a
hot day.
If the seal is older and the binder no longer fluid enough, on the next hot day
spray about 0.2 litre/sq m of a high grade cutter to temporarily soften the
binder, and cover with a clean, good quality, precoated size 7mm chippings.
There are proprietary brands of a hard grade of cutback binder, such as
Gilsabind, which may be also used.
If the above does not work, a reseal with a hard grade of PMB, or an
emulsion, may be applied using size 10 chippings
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
125
Deficient binder
The seal coat will have a shorter life than normal. If stripping, some remedial
treatment will be required.
Stripping of chippings
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
126
10.
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
10.1
GENERAL
Consideration must be given to the management of traffic at the work site to ensure
safety for both the road users and workers, no matter how short the duration of the
work.
The most important aspects to be addressed include how traffic is to be controlled,
selection of the signs and devices to be used, where they are located, and that a
consistent credible approach is taken by all who carry out work on or near roads.
Basic Requirements
Signs and devices are used to warn traffic of a change in road surface or driving
conditions, and that men and plant are engaged in work on the road.
The signs and devices to be used must be appropriate and provide a message that
instructs, advises or guides traffic through or past the wok site or hazard.
To ensure a consistent approach signs and devices must be :
Removed from the work site when they are no longer applicable. However,
appropriate signs shall remain in place until all work including any bituminous
surfacing, removal of loose stones and line-marking has been completed.
10.2
Planning
Design
Installation
Operation
Removal
Planning
Planning for signing of the worksite should consider the type and nature of the works
being undertaken, location, likely duration of the work, the speed and volume of
traffic involved, and any staging of the work.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
127
Design
Signs and devices should be placed such that sufficient advance warning is
provided for correct driver response under the worst conditions.
When left in place at night signs must have appropriate reflective surfaces.
Notwithstanding the above the number of signs must be such that if one is
knocked over there should be sufficient other signs and devices in place to
guide the traffic past the hazard.
Existing (permanent) signs or devices which are unrelated to the work should
be covered or removed while works are in progress.
Installation
Signs and devices must only be left in place while the work or hazard exists
and must not in themselves cause a hazard or restrict drivers line of sight and
are generally placed 1m clear of the traveled path.
Advance warning
Other warning
Driving instructions
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
128
Persons erecting signs should wear appropriate safety vests and signs should
be in place warning of the presence of these people.
Account should be taken as to whether the signs can be seen against the sun
or other distracting background or headlights.
After erection, supervisory personnel should drive through the site at the
normal traffic speed to assess the effectiveness of the signage.
Operation
Regular inspections shall be carried out to verify erected signs are still in
place.
Signs and devices for which the need either temporarily or permanently no
longer exists shall be covered or removed.
All personnel working adjacent to traffic must wear fluorescent safety vests
and light clothes. Appropriate reflective apparel shall be worn at night.
For inadvertent delays longer than 15min because of an unexpected event the
supervisor will inform the traffic controllers who in turn will ensure the public is
similarly informed.
In the case where accidents occur the position of all signs and names of
witnesses and details of the accident including actual traveled path and
weather conditions, shall be recorded and the sign layout photographed and
filed for further reference.
Removal
Signs and devices should be removed or concealed from view in the opposite
order to erection, as soon as the activity or hazard ceases to exist.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
129
10.3
TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS
One lane of a two lane single carriageway road is closed only leaving one
lane open to traffic
On long sections where vehicles may have to pull over onto the shoulder to
allow oncoming vehicles to pass.
Supervisors and their workers shall conduct themselves with restraint and
courtesy at all times; even at times of abuse and unreasonable antagonistic
behavior on the part of any member of the public.
This will strengthen their position at the time and also in any future action
which may occur.
Equipment
Traffic safety vests should be worn at all times.
Traffic control signs shall be circular with STOP on one side and SLOW on the
other and shall be in good condition.
Advance warning signs should indicate that a traffic controller is ahead.
Instructions
Traffic controllers must stand where they can be seen from 150 metres away
by both the traffic and other traffic controllers. If traffic controllers cannot see
each other then additional controllers shall be employed or radio contact
implemented.
They must also stand in such a position that there is a clear escape route in
the event of an emergency.
As a mark of importance wear a clean traffic safety vest fastened at all times.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
130
To stop a vehicle turn bat to STOP and raise the free arm into the stop signal
position (with the elbow bent a right angles and the palm of the hand vertical
and facing the traffic).
After stopping the vehicle inform the driver of the reason and possible length
of the delay.
When traffic is to proceed turn the bat to SLOW and with the other hand give
the to go signal.
Not leave the post unless directed by the supervisor or replaced by another
traffic controller.
Approach Tapers
Table 9.1
Approach Tapers to Lane Closures
Typical Approach
(Speed
km/h)
40
40-60
60-80
80-100
100-120
Taper
(meters)
20
30
40
50
60
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
131
Figure 9.1
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
132
Figure 9.2
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
133
11.
SAFETY
11.1
GENERAL
Remove items people are likely to trip over and clean up spills
The layout of a typical site for blending bitumen with cutter and adhesion agents is
shown in Figure 10.1. Note that there are separate heating and blending areas.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
134
11.2
PERSONNEL
Potential hazards
Manual Handling
Falls
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
135
Protective gear
Wear a hat
Distributor operators should wear a face mask while
spraying
Wear long sleeve shirts and long cotton trousers over
boots
Elastic sided safety boots or gumboots inside trousers
and socks (preferably woolen)
Use heat protective long gloves when handling pipes
or hoses
Eye and face shields when in vicinity of pumping or
transfers
Have eye wash equipment available
Ensure a fully stocked first aid kit is close at hand at all
sites
Wear ear muffs in noisy zones ( above 85 dBA)
Shock
Fumes
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
136
Because of the higher handling temperatures there can be higher fuming from
polymer modified binders
Stand upwind of vapours
Dont enter tanks where vapours may be a hazard. Test prior to entering to
ensure it is gas free.
When entering tanks always have a trained rescue person nearby with
respiratory apparatus available in case of emergencies.
Hydrogen Sulphide
Skin Exposure
Studies have shown that there is no direct evidence to associate bitumen with
skin disorders in man. But cutback bitumens do contain polycyclic aromatic
compounds and therefore it is prudent to avoid prolonged skin contact.
Protective clothing should be worn to prevent splash contact
Wash hands with soap and water prior to eating or drinking or going to the
toilet
Monitor all parts of the skin subject to contamination to ensure no skin
abnormalities are occurring.
Public Safety
Contractors / Subcontractors
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
137
11.3
ROAD TANKERS
Transfer
Blending
Check all valves are correctly set and free from plugs
Manhole covers are unlatched but closed to allow additional venting.
Check that the materials in the tanks are compatible. If the receiving tank has
been used to hold emulsion flush tank with precoat then add cutter and
bitumen slowly (up to say 25% of tank volume) to allow for possible foaming.
Only continue to add more bitumen when foaming has subsided
The greatest risks are from fire, explosion and boilovers
The Flash point of power kerosene (cutter) can be less than 50C. Exercise
caution.
No ignition sources within 15m of blending operations
It is preferable to add cutter prior to bitumen since if the cutter is contaminated
with water there is more likely to be sufficient room in the tank to
accommodate foaming and time for the foaming to dissipate as the bitumen is
slowly added
The use of a small quantity of solvent to flush lines at the conclusion of the
blending is permissible
Liquid adhesion agents may be sucked into the distributor through purpose
built connections
Avoid breathing fumes
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
138
Heating
Using LPG
LPG is denser than air and will collect in low lying areas in enclosed spaces
Use LPG in well ventilated areas
If an LPG cylinder develops a leak ensure there are no ignition sources in the
vicinity and allow to vent to atmosphere.
If an LPG cylinder catches provided the flame is directed away from the
cylinder. The safest procedure is to keep the cylinder cool by dowsing with
water and allow the flame to extinguish itself by burning out.
If the cylinder is being directly heated by the flame then the LPG inside the
cylinder is likely to boil and the cylinder is likely to explode. LPG is not
flammable until it is in a vapour phase which could be a considerable distance
from the cylinder
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
139
If at all possible keep the cylinder dowsed with running water to keep it as
cool as possible to prevent the LPG inside from reaching boiling point
Vacate the area and prevent others from approaching the cylinder
Blockages
Distributors
Brooms
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
140
Trucks
Roller Operators
Stack empty drums horizontally with the bottom end ones chocked with
wedges (not rocks).
If stacked mechanically can be 6 high but if manual, 3 high is easier to handle
Full drums should be handled mechanically on pallets where possible and
stacked vertically no more than 4 high with pallets or wood spacers between.
Where handled manually appropriate purpose built wood or metal skids
should be used
Use mechanical means where possible and store vertically on the vehicle.
When loading or unloading manually use wood or metal skids.
When unloading empty drums use skids and matting on the ground to absorb
impact.
Unloading empty or full drums by free fall onto tyres, although practical, can
result in damage to the drums and hazard to personnel at ground level and it
should be discouraged.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
141
Standard bitumen drums may have the closure lid removed by leverage
without damage to the drum.
Hot method: both ends may be removed and the whole length of the drum
preheated to form an escape channel before heating the whole of the drum to
remove the bitumen
Cold method : during the removal of the bitumen by breaking personal
protection including eye shields should be worn to prevent injury from fling
splinters and hard bitumen.
For large scale handling the drums should be inverted in an oven and
decanted into a tank.
Fire
Testing
- Sampling
Office
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
142
Supervisor instructions
Remember:
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
143
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
BITUMEN BURNS
NO ATTEMPT SHOULD BE MADE TO REMOVE THE BITUMEN
***
***
***
***
CIRCUMFERENTIAL BURNS
***
***
***
These notes are taken from the HEALTH COMMITTEE of the AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF PETROLEUM compiled in August 1992.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
***
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
145
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ghana Ministry of Roads and Highways - Specification for Road and Bridge Works
1991
Roads and Traffic Authority NSW Australia - Sprayed Sealing Guide
VicRoads of Victoria, Australia - Bituminous Sprayed Surfacing Manual 2005
Australian Asphalt Pavement Association - Sprayed Sealing Course Notes
National Association of Australian State Road Authorities - Bitumen Distributors 1989
Australian Institute of Petroleum - Safe Handling of Bitumen Products 1993
Boral Limited of Australia - Safety Handbook, Road Surfacing Division
CSR Limited of Australia - Emoleum Road Services Personal Safety Handbook
New Zealand Contractors Federation - A Guide to Safe Practices for the Handling
Transport and Storage of Bitumen
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________