The Effect of Lever Arm Mass, Angle, and Length on Torque of a Torsion Catapult

Nicolas Giallombardo and Joseph Maleszyk

Macomb Mathematics Science Technology Center
Physics 1
11B
Mr. McMillan, Mrs. Cybulski, Mrs. Tallman
29 May 2014

The Effect of Lever Arm Mass, Angle and Length

on Torque of a Torsion Catapult

The objective of this experiment was to find the optimal mass, angle, and
length of a lever arm to create the most torque on a torsion catapult. In order to
conduct the experiment, researchers built a Wyvern torsion catapult which was
powered by the tension of twisted ropes. The weights, 0 kilograms, 0.5 kilograms
and 1 kilogram, were attached to different lengths along the lever arm, 55
centimeters, 65 centimeters, and 75 centimeters, and the lever arm was pulled
up by a Newton scale in order to find the force required to pull the lever arm to
the specified angle, 15 degrees, 30 degrees, and 45 degrees. The force was
then used to calculate the torque.
This experiment could be used to find the optimal torque for machines
such as engines or turbines. It could also be used to find the lowest torque
needed to perform certain tasks in order to increase efficiency of work.
The end result of this experiment was that the only significant effect was
mass. This effect was found to be significant through a 3 factor Design of
Experiment analysis. Three DOEs were conducted and averaged to find the
results. None of the effects seemed to interact strongly with each other, as mass
was the only significant variable that was tested.

Table of Contents

Introduction1
Review of Literature.3
Problem Statement.....................8
Experimental Design9
Data and Observations..11
Data Analysis and Interpretation..15
Conclusion...24
Acknowledgements29
Appendices..30
Appendix A: Wyvern Torsion Catapult Assembly..30
Appendix B: Randomization of Trials......35
Appendix C: Torque Formula and Sample Calculation36
Appendix D: Prediction Equation........36
Appendix E: Parsimonious Prediction Equation....37
Appendix F: Test of Significance for Mass.....37
Works Cited.....38

Giallombardo Maleszyk 1
Introduction
Imagine hopping into a brand-new truck. The horsepower on this
behemoth is ridiculous, and thousands of pounds of payload could be
transported back and forth from place to place all day. However, after only a
couple hours of driving, its back to the gas station to fill up and before the day is
over, hundreds of dollars have been spent on gas. In a world where
transportation by automobile is taking over the way that humans get anywhere
from day to day, the efficiency of these cars engines is just as important as the
power output of their engines. Car designers today are looking to make cars
faster, lighter, and most of all, more fuel-efficient. The one who can maximize
efficiency while creating the most powerful car will bring in the most revenue and
reduce emissions that hurt the ozone.
Studying torsion, the applied torque on twisted rope, and torque, the
tendency for an object to rotate around an axis (Nave), along with the interaction
between the two could ultimately help revamp the blueprints of car engines and
eventually increase the efficiency of them. Although this connection of cars and
torque may seem like a stretch, all complex machinery is comprised of many little
simple machines, like a catapult or lever arms, for instance. The study and
enhancement of torque and catapults is still prominent today, from launch pads
on battleships to little mouse traps (Bahjat).
This experiment was a simplified study of how lever arms, or the distance
between the axis of motion and the point of the application of force, are affected
by several factors in order to create higher torque (Nave). A Wyvern torsion

Giallombardo Maleszyk 2
catapult was built, which is powered by the twisting of ropes, or torsion, to propel
the lever arm. With this catapult, the objective was to study how different levels of
mass, length, and angle at which the lever arm is displaced would affect torque, if
at all. Any effect that torsion may have caused on the resulting torque would be
studied also. The weights would be attached to different points along the lever
arm and then pulled up to a certain angle relative to the ground by a Newton
scale to measure the force required to overcome its own mass and gravity, along
with torsion. Then, using the measured force, length of lever arm, and angle
between the Newton scale and lever arm, torque was calculated using the
formula of T=mg(cos(theta)). Torque is by definition a cross product of the length
of the lever arm, r, and the force applied to it, F. Although it was more challenging
to measure in this experiment, torque is also equal to the product of the moment
of inertia, I, and angular acceleration, (Nave). These results could even be
expanded upon to see the effect of how much torsion should be applied in order
to create the optimum amount of force and torque while still remaining efficient.

Review of Literature

Giallombardo Maleszyk 3
Torque is defined as a measure of how much force acting on an object
causes that object to rotate about an axis or pivot (What is Torque?). The
formula for calculating torque, T, is equal to the force applied to the lever arm, F,
measured in Newtons, multiplied by the length of the lever arm from the axis of
rotation to the point that the force is applied, r, measured in meters, multiplied by
the sine of the angle between the force that is applied and the lever arm, theta
(Nave). Force can also be measured as the product of mass and acceleration, so
if a lever arm has high angular acceleration (since torque deals with rotation) and
has a high mass, torque will increase as a result.
T = F * r * sin( )
Since torque is a vector quantity, it can also be thought of as the cross
product of the force applied and the length of the lever arm. Torque is measured
in Newton * meters (N*m), as per the formula. Torque can even be calculated as
the product of the moment of intertia, I, and the angular acceleration, (Nave).
The concept of torque was originated by Archimedes while he was studying how
levers work. He was one of the first people in mathematics to make simple
machines such as pulleys and levers to study the change in torque with the
different variables that comprise the modern day formula of torque (Brooks).
There are many real life applications of torque. For instance, every time
someone tightens or even loosens a screw with a wrench, they are applying
torque to the wrench (Nave). In this case, the lever arm would be the wrench and
the force would be their hand. The screw, in turn, would act as the axis of
rotation. Torque would be greatest when the force applied by the hand is

Giallombardo Maleszyk 4
perpendicular to the wrench, since the sine of an angle is at its highest value
when at 90 degrees. However, if the person pushes the wrench with such a force
that is parallel to the wrench, the wrench should not rotate at all in theory.
Pushing the wrench at a non-zero angle that is not perpendicular will create
torque, but not the greatest amount possible. This can be seen in Figure 1.

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/torq.html

Figure 1. Application of Torque

Figure 1 demonstrates how a certain force is applied to a wrench and the
corresponding torque. This was expanded upon in the previous paragraph.
In addition, since torque increases directly with the length of the lever arm,
more torque is applied when the hand applies the force at the most outside
possible distance from the wrench to the screw. When the hand pushes the
wrench closer to the nail, more force will be required to create more torque since
the theoretical length of the lever arm is now decreased. At a more advanced
level, torque is used in industrial engineering to measure the power of engines,
motors, turbines, and many more advanced machines. Engineers typically
measure torque most efficiently by using strain gauges that will measure the
change in length of rotating shafts inside machines.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 5
Originating from ancient Greece, catapults were one of the first modified
simple machines in early history. Early mathematicians and philosophers studied
the physics of a catapult at length (Catapult Physics). Catapults are a great
application of torque and projectile motion since their lever arm is the propelling
force of any projectile that they launch (Flueckiger and Roberts). The farther the
projectile is from the axis of rotation, the farther a projectile will travel. In addition,
the more force that is applied to the lever arm, the farther the projectile may
travel (What is Torque?). Creating a perpendicular angle between the lever arm
and the point at which the projectile exits the catapult will also make for a more
effective launcher.
Torsion is defined in solid mechanics as the twisting of an object due to an
applied torque (Case, Ross, and Chilver, 11). Due to the nature of how torsion is
calculated, it is very hard to measure because there are many variables such as
material, amount of rotations, length, stress on the material, and so on and so
forth. However, since torsion is also another way of thinking of torque, it is
measured in Newton*meters (Case, Ross, and Chilver, 11). Net torque will
always be zero throughout experimentation, so the force that is measured is
torsion by applying a torque to the lever arm. It can be thought of as wringing out
a wet towel. One may apply torsion to the towel by twisting it and its potential
energy will increase, and once the towel is released, it will gain kinetic energy
and untwist itself. Torsion ropes are useful in catapults because the ropes may
hold potential energy in the lever arm when it is twisted to its full potential, and
when the lever arm is released, the torsion ropes will slightly unravel, thus forcing

Giallombardo Maleszyk 6
the lever arm of the catapult upwards to launch the projectile (Catapult
Physics). These types of catapults are considered easier since they are self
propelled in nature. This is shown below in Figure 1.

<http://www.real-world-physics-problems.com/catapult-physics.html>.

Figure 2. Example of Torsion Rope

Figure 2 shows how torsion is used in catapults. The rope is twisted
multiple times to create the torsion in which will propel the projectile into the air.
The more times that the rope is twisted will create more torsion on the catapult.
This is the set-up used in the catapult for this experiment.
Since there are a limited amount of experiments that test torsion-propelled
catapults, testing the effect of increased torsion on the torque of a catapults lever
arm would be important for studying their interaction between each other.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 7
Although catapults are not used heavily in the real world anymore, major
industrial companies could possibly use the results of such an experiment to their
advantage by using the idea of torsion on their engines and turbines to increase
the torque, force, and efficiency. The mass and length of the wheel could also
determine how much torque the wheel applies since mass is directly related to
force and force is directly related to torque, along with lever arm length, which
would be the radius of the tire.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 8
Problem Statement
Problem:
What mass, length, and angle of lever arm will create the greatest torque
on a torsion catapult?

Hypothesis:
The high mass, high angle and high length will create the greatest torque
on the catapult.

Data Measured:
The dependent variable that was measured was the force required to pull
the catapult arm up to a required angle. The independent variables were the
lever arm length, mass and angle that the lever arm was pulled up to relative
from the ground. There were three different levels for each of the three factors
and each grouping of factors was ran through three times in order to analyze the
averages of the results with a three factor design of experiment.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 9
Experimental Design
Materials:
Wyvern Torsion catapult

Electronic Protractor Phone App

(2) 0.5 kg Weight

TI-NSpire CX Calculator

(2) 3-kg Books

Newton scale (0-50 N)

Procedure:
1. Construct a Wyvern Torsion Catapult and flip it over like in Figure 3 (Refer to
Appendix A). Place the two books behind it to reinforce it.
2. Use TI-NSpire CX Calculator to randomize the trials (Refer to Appendix B).
3. Attach the given amount of weight to the given screw based on the length and
trial.
4. Place electronic protractor on the lever arm and assure that it is even so that
it reads 0 degrees.
5. Attach Newton scale hook to given screw based on lever arm length and pull
catapult straight up to given angle.
6. Keep lever arm up and read and record force that is read on the scale, then
return lever arm to base of catpult.
7. Calculate torque using the force, length, and angle. (Refer to Appendix C).

Giallombardo Maleszyk 10
Diagram:

Attach weight to given

screw
Place books behind
catapult
Make sure electronic
protractor is even with
ground
Attach Newton scale to screw
and pull up to given angle

Figure 3. Set-Up of Experiment

Figure 3 shows the set-up of the catapult. Attach weight to the hook. Place
books behind catapult. Pull lever arm up with Newton scale, read and record the
force.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 11
Data and Observations
Table 1
Raw Experimental Data Table
Lengt
Trial
Mass
Angle
h
1
S
S
S
3
(+)
(+)
(+)
7
(+)
(+)
(-)
4
(+)
(-)
(+)
10
(+)
(-)
(-)
5
S
S
S
9
(-)
(+)
(+)
2
(-)
(+)
(-)
8
(-)
(-)
(+)
6
(-)
(-)
(-)
11
S
S
S
12
S
S
S
17
(+)
(+)
(+)
21
(+)
(+)
(-)
15
(+)
(-)
(+)
19
(+)
(-)
(-)
16
S
S
S
20
(-)
(+)
(+)
18
(-)
(+)
(-)
13
(-)
(-)
(+)
14
(-)
(-)
(-)
22
S
S
S
23
S
S
S
29
(+)
(+)
(+)
24
(+)
(+)
(-)
27
(+)
(-)
(+)
30
(+)
(-)
(-)
28
S
S
S
32
(-)
(+)
(+)
26
(-)
(+)
(-)
31
(-)
(-)
(+)
25
(-)
(-)
(-)
33
S
S
S

Force
(N)
9.3
11.2
8.7
13.7
10.6
8.8
8.7
5.7
11.2
7.4
9.3
9.2
10.8
8.0
13.9
9.8
8.9
9.3
5.7
10.3
7.5
9.3
8.8
11.4
7.5
12.8
9.2
8.9
8.5
5.3
9.7
7.1
8.8

Torque (N*m)
5.24
5.94
6.30
5.33
5.63
4.95
4.61
4.13
4.36
3.93
5.24
5.18
5.73
5.80
5.41
5.21
5.01
4.93
4.13
4.01
3.98
5.24
4.95
6.05
5.43
4.98
4.89
5.01
4.51
3.84
3.77
3.77
4.95

Table 1 displays all of the raw data that was collected through testing how
the mass, length, and angle of a lever arm affected torque. Each trial was
randomized, as per the non-sequential order in the table. However, each Design

Giallombardo Maleszyk 12
of Experiment was completed before moving on to the next. All torque values
were calculated using the formula and similar sample calculation in Appendix A.
The formula for torque is

F stands for force which is measured in Newtons. L is lever arm length which
is measured in meters and the angle is measured between the electronic
protractor and the lever arm. The angle is measured in degrees.
Table 2
Observations Table
Lengt
Trial
Mass
h
1
S
S
3
(+)
(+)
7
(+)
(+)

Angle
S
(+)
(-)

Date
5/1/2014
5/1/2014
5/1/2014

(+)

(-)

(+)

5/1/2014

10
5
9
2

(+)
S
(-)
(-)

(-)
S
(+)
(+)

(-)
S
(+)
(-)

5/1/2014
5/1/2014
5/1/2014
5/1/2014

(-)

(-)

(+)

5/1/2014

6
11
12
17

(-)
S
S
(+)

(-)
S
S
(+)

(-)
S
S
(+)

5/1/2014
5/1/2014
5/2/2014
5/2/2014

21

(+)

(+)

(-)

5/2/2014

15
19
16
20
18
13
14
22

(+)
(+)
S
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
S

(-)
(-)
S
(+)
(+)
(-)
(-)
S

(+)
(-)
S
(+)
(-)
(+)
(-)
S

5/2/2014
5/2/2014
5/2/2014
5/2/2014
5/2/2014
5/2/2014
5/2/2014
5/2/2014

2333

All

All

All

5/5/2014

Observations
Trial went well for first standard trial
Trial ran as planned
Trial ran as planned
Researcher 1 pulled Newton scale up at
inconsistent rate.
Trial ran as planned
Trial ran as planned
Trial ran as planned
Trial ran as planned
Researcher 1 was again inconsistent in
pulling up Newton scale
Trial ran as planned
Trial ran as planned
Trial ran as planned
Trial ran as planned
Researcher 2 was inconsistent in pulling
the Newton scale.
Trial ran as planned
Researcher 2 pulled scale inconsistently
Trial ran as planned
Trial ran as planned
Trial ran as planned
Trial ran as planned
Trial ran as planned
Trial ran as planned
Researcher 2 conducted trials by himself.
Had to duct tape electronic protractor to
catapult. All trials ran normally.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 13

Table 2 lists all of the observations that the researchers had recorded after
each trial was conducted. The few trials that included pulling the Newton scale up
at an inconsistent rate may have resulted in higher or lower measurements of
force, but these trials were still included because they did not deviate significantly
from other trials.

Electronic Protractor

.5 kg weight hanging from

middle screw
Figure 4. Trial Preparation
Figure 4 depicts researcher 1 placing the electric protractor evenly on the
lever arm with the .5 kg weight attached to the middle screw to prepare for a
standard trial.

Pull the Newton scale

straight up to desired
angle, in this case, 30
degrees. Keep lever arm
up until force is recorded,
then set down.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 14
Figure 5. During Trial
Figure 5 shows researcher 2 with the Newton scale attached to the middle
screw and pulling the lever arm up until researcher 1 informs them that the lever
arm is at 30 degrees. Then, researcher 2 reads and records the force displayed
on the Newton scale.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 15
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Many trials were conducted in this experiment and this helped the data to
be credible. The data is reliable because there are more than 30 trials, 33. This
does not alone make the data reliable, but it helps reduce variability. It is also
reliable since there was a standard value to compare the results to. This reduced
effects of lurking variables in the experiment. Trials were randomized in the
experiment to help reduce bias. Also, 3 trials of each type of trial were conducted
to replicate the data and reduce the variability in the data. The data collected was
averaged out and then a test was conducted on the averages. The test that was
used is a 3-Factor Design of Experiment (DOE). This DOE analyzed which
effects in the experimental process were deemed significant to affecting torque
and how each effect may or may not have interacted with each other.
Table 3
Design of Experiment Values
Mass (kg)
Length (m)
Angle (degrees)

(-)
0
0.55
15

Standard
0.5
0.65
30

(+)
1
0.75
45

Table 3 shows the values used in the experiment. The values for mass
were determined by research. The values for length were based on the size of
the lever arm of the catapult. The angles were chosen in order to see if it would
affect the outcome of the torque.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 16
Table 4
Average Torque Values
Trial
Mass
********
S
(+)
(+)
(+)
(+)
********
S
(-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
********
S

Length
S
(+)
(+)
(-)
(-)
S
(+)
(+)
(-)
(-)
S

Angle
S
(+)
(-)
(+)
(-)
S
(+)
(-)
(+)
(-)
S

Torque (N*m)
5.3
5.9
5.8
5.2
5.2
5.2
4.7
4.0
4.0
3.9
5.2

Grand
Average

4.9

Table 4 shows the values of torque that were used in the 3-Factor DOE.
Each value was found by averaging the 3 calculated torques for each trial type.
Table 5
Effect of Mass
Mass (kg)
(-) 0

(+) 1
4.7
4.0
4.0
3.9

Avg =
4.15

5.9
5.8
5.2
5.2
Avg =
5.53

Figure 6. Effect of Mass

Table 5 shows the effect of mass on torque. This shows when mass is at
its high value and when it is on its low value. From interpreting the table, the
slope of the line will be positive. Figure 6 shows the effect of mass on torque.
When mass is low, the average torque is 4.15 N*m and when mass is high, the
average torque is 5.53 N*m. The effect of mass is 1.375 N*m.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 17
Table 6
Effect of Length
Length (m)
(-) .55
(+) .75
5.2
5.2
3.9
4.0
Avg =
Avg =
4.58
5.1

5.9
5.8
4.7
4.0
Figure 7. Effect of Length

Table 6 shows the effect of length on torque. This shows the average
torque when length is at its high value, .75 centimeters, and at its low value, .55
centimeters. From interpretation, the slope of the line seems to be positive.
Figure 7 shows the effect of length on torque. Torque is higher at the high level of
length. When length is low, the average torque is 4.58 N*m and when length is
high, the average torque is 5.10 N*m. As length increases, torque increases by .
525 N*m.

Table 7
Effect of Angle
Angle (degrees)

(-) 15

(+) 45
5.8

5.9

Giallombardo Maleszyk 18
5.2
4.0
3.9
Avg =
4.73

5.2
4.7
4.0
Avg =
4.95

Figure 8. Effect of Angle

Table 7 shows the effect of angle on torque. This shows the average
torque when the angle is at its low value, 15, and at its high value, 45. From
interpretation, the slope of the line seems to be positive. Figure 8 shows the
effect of angle on torque. Torque is higher at the high value of the angle. When
angle is low, the average torque is 4.73 N*m and when angle is high, the average
torque is 4.95 N*m. As length increases, torque increases by .225 N*m.

Table 8

Giallombardo Maleszyk 19
Effect of Mass and Length

Mass (kg)

Length (m)
(-) .55

(+) .75

Solid
Segment

(+) 1

5.2

5.85

Dotted
Segment

(-) 0

3.95

4.35

Table 8 shows the average torque values of the interaction between mass
and length. The values are found from the original data table.

Figure 9. Effect of Mass and Length

Figure 9 shows the interaction of mass and length on torque. The solid
segment is for high mass and the dotted segment is for low mass. The two lines
have similar slopes and are pretty much parallel. The effect value of mass and
length is .125 N*m. Since the effect is so close to zero, the possibility of an
interaction is very low.
Table 9
Effect of Mass and Angle

Giallombardo Maleszyk 20

Mass (kg)

Angle (degrees)
(-) 15

(+) 45

Solid
Segment

(+) 1

5.5

5.55

Dotted
Segment

(-) 0

3.95

4.35

Table 9 shows the average torque values of the interaction between mass
and angle. The values are found from the original data table.

Figure 10. Effect of Mass and Angle

Figure 10 shows the interaction between mass and angle on the torque of
the catapult. The solid segment is for high mass and the dotted segment is for
low mass. The two lines have different slopes so there may be an intersection
between the two. The effect value of mass and angle is -.175. Since the effect is
so close to zero, the possibility of an interaction is very low.

Table 10
Effect of Length and Angle

Giallombardo Maleszyk 21

Length (m)

Angle (degrees)
(-) 15

(+) 45

Solid
Segment

(+) .75

4.9

5.3

Dotted
Segment

(-) .55

4.55

4.6

Table 10 shows the average torque values of the interaction between

mass and angle. The values are found from the original data table.

Figure 11. Effect of Length and Angle

Figure 11 shows the interaction between length and angle on the torque of
the catapult. The solid segment is for high length and the dotted segment is for
low length. The two lines have different slopes so there may be an intersection
between the two. The effect value of mass and angle is .175. Since the effect is
so close to zero, the possibility of an interaction is very low.

Table 11
Standard Values

Giallombardo Maleszyk 22

5.24

4.95

5.24

Standard Trials
5.18
5.01
5.24

4.95

5.01

4.95

Table 11 shows the torque of all the standard trials. These trials were
conducted at the beginning, middle, and end of the 3 times each run of trials
were conducted.

Figure 12. Graph of Standards

Figure 12 shows the graph of standard trials in the experiment. These
standards have a range of 0.29 N*m. The data seems to be trendless so it can
be concluded that there was no considerable difference in trials. Thus, the
experiment was ran well and the results should be reliable.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 23

Figure 13. Dot Plot of Effects

Figure 13 shows the effects plotted on a number line. M is Mass, L is
Length, and A is Angle. MA is Mass and Angle. ML is Mass and Length. LA is
Length and Angle. All the values are the change in torque (N*m). Mass is
deemed the only significant effect. This may have been because it was the only
factor that was manipulated enough to have a measurable effect on torque.
In order to find out what effects are significant in the experiment, a test of
significance had to be conducted. For an effect to be significant, multiply the
range of standards by 2 and whatever value is calculated, if the absolute value of
that effect is greater than the value, then that effect is considered significant. An
example calculation for mass is included in Appendix F.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 24
Conclusion
The main objective of this experiment was to find which angle, length, and
mass of a lever arm would create the greatest torque on a torsion catapult. A
lever arm is the distance between the axis of motion and the point where force is
applied on a rotating object (Nave). It was hypothesized that the greatest angle,
45 degrees, the greatest length, 0.75 meters, and the greatest mass, 1 kilogram,
would create the greatest torque on the catapult. After conducting the
experiment, the researchers accepted the overall hypothesis. The greatest
average torque result (5.9 N*m) came from the group with high mass, high angle,
and the high length while the lowest average torque result (3.9 N*m) came from
the low mass, low angle, and low mass. With the analysis of the data through a
three factor design of experiment, only mass was deemed to be a significant
factor on the calculated torque. A relationship between force and length or angle
may be seen in the raw data, but it was not great enough to be considered
statistically significant. Although length and angle should be significant according
the formula for torque, these factors may not have been manipulated enough to
cause a major change. Also, as the length of the lever arm shortened, the point
of torque approached the greatest point of torsion, slightly increasing the relative
force needed to manipulate the angle of the lever arm relative to the ground.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 25

Figure 14. Torque Force Diagram

Figure 14 displays a simpler version of how torque was applied to the
catapult. Torque is represented by the light blue arrow as a cross product of r, the
length of the lever arm, and F, the force applied on the lever arm. However,
torsion, represented by L and the light green arrow, may have caused angular
momentum to decrease in the intended direction of torque, thus causing the force
required to overcome gravity and the mass of the lever arm to increase (Nave).
The hypothesis was correct in assuming that as mass would increase, the
Newton scale would require more force to overcome the force of mass and
gravity on the lever arm, since torque is a product of the two along with the sine
of the angle between the lever arm and the direction of where the force is
applied. Since torque is a product of mass, gravity, and the sine of the angle
between the direction of the force and lever arm, the torque would also increase
as the lever would have to overcome the force of mass and gravity, or weight.
The hypothesis was also correct in assuming that creating a greater angle of the
lever to the ground and a greater mass because as both factors increased, the
force required to manipulate the angle would increase, which would cause torque
to also increase. The lever arm was actually not affected by changing the angle

Giallombardo Maleszyk 26
of it relative to the ground. However, since the Newton scale was always pulled
straight up, the angle between force applied and the lever arm would change.
There are many studies on the testing and experimentation of torque and
torsion alone, however, there are not many prominent or current studies on the
interaction between the two and how it may aid the designing of certain
contraptions, such as engines or turbines whose powers work on the concept of
torque. This is mostly due to the fact that torsion is a form of torque, but it is
applied in the form of twisting a material, creating torque. Also, torsion may be
challenging to manipulate heavily with stronger materials (Case, Ross, and
Chilver). The application of torsion causes the force required to manipulate the
angle to increase since the force to lift the lever arm must overcome the force of
torsion, so the variation between the resulting torques differ less. With the results
of this report, engineers may be able to apply the concept of torsion along with
torque at a more advanced level in their blueprints and be able to test how it may
affect overall horsepower in car engines and such.
With the given materials and overall time for experimentation, testing went
smoothly and the results seemed to come out precise. The range of standards
was relatively small and each trial of a given combination of factors had
consistent values, considering the possible range for error given the accuracy of
the measurement tools. For instance, the Newton scale measured to tenths of a
Newton and the scale seemed to jump randomly a bit at times, but the results
remained consistent throughout experimentation so there is not much of a reason
to believe that the scale was inaccurate or gave higher force values. But, it could

Giallombardo Maleszyk 27
be speculated that the lever arm of the catapult was not necessarily sturdy
enough to pull up straight which could misconstrue results in the positive or
negative direction. In future experimentation, it would be beneficial to possibly
use electronic Newton scales and build the catapult more precisely and carefully
so that it may produce cleaner results.
In future experimentation, scientists and engineers could interpolate or
extrapolate upon these three effects. For example, they could add more mass or
masses of smaller increments, increase or decrease lever arm length, and
increase or decrease the angle of the lever arm relative to the ground. Also, the
torsion could be manipulated in order to test its effect on the torque of the
catapult and how it may interact with the other three effects. In addition to just
measuring the torque of the lever arm by pulling it with a Newton scale,
experimentation could be expanded to using the catapult in launching projectiles
of multiple masses, dimensions, and shapes in order to measure how far the
projectiles travel horizontally and vertically along with the force at which the
projectiles launch. Torsion could also be applied with different methods,
materials, and in different areas along the lever arm. A simple motor could also
possibly be built and use torsion to help power the working parts and test its
efficiency.
Expanding upon current research and cleaning up the original
experimental design would all aid in enhancing knowledge of the interactions
between torsion and torque. With this knowledge, engineers will not only be able
to improve the power of their engines and other machinery, but higher efficiency

Giallombardo Maleszyk 28
will also be obtained so that no compromise will have to be made between the
two. Thus, these studies could help to reduce emissions from cars and factories
while decreasing prices of more powerful cars and machines. The Navy would
also benefit from this information as their launch pads are built using the torque
of a catapult like structure (Bahjat).

Giallombardo Maleszyk 29
Acknowledgements
Rose Cybulski and Greg McMillan are thanked for aiding in the
modification of the experimental design. Christine Tallman is also thanked for
checking the analysis values for the Design of Experiment. Also, Joe
Giallombardo, Nate Nunez, and Mark Supal are thanked for helping to construct
different components of the Wyvern torsion catapult. In addition, Zach Hoisington
is thanked for his aid in recording and photographing the experimental process.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 30
Appendix A: Wyvern Torsion Catapult Assembly
Materials:
(2) 36 Wood 2 x 4

0.5 Drill bit

30 Wood 2 x 4

Screws

(4) 15 Wood 2 x 4

Nails

18 Wood 2 x 4

Broomstick

.5-thick 15 x 18 Plywood

Screwdriver

20 ft. Rope

Drill

1 Drill bit

Pencil

Procedure:
1. Layout one 36 2 x 4 and mark 15 from the left edge. Place the 2 x 4 face of
the 15 2 x 4 up against the 36 2 x 4, with the right edge of its base matching
the mark.

http://www.stormthecastle.com/catapult/the-wyvern-catapult-2.htm

Giallombardo Maleszyk 31
2. Cut the .5-thick plywood into two pieces diagonally, creating two congruent
triangular pieces. Place one triangle piece right on top of the 2x4's so that one
base of the triangle is aligned with the bottom of the 36 2 x 4 and the other
base is aligned with the right side of the 15 2 x 4. The 18 side is the vertical
base and the 15 side is the horizontal base. Screw the triangle down
securely to the two 2x4's.

http://www.stormthecastle.com/catapult/the-wyvern-catapult-2.htm

3. Repeat steps 1-3 to make the other base leg of the catapult.

http://www.stormthecastle.com/catapult/the-wyvern-catapult-2.htm

Giallombardo Maleszyk 32
4. Flip one of the legs over so that the plywood is now facing downward. Then,
place the 2x4 base of one 15 2 x 4 so that the left edge meets with the left
edge of the leg and both sides are parallel and congruent. Repeat for the
other side, with the right side of another 15 2 x 4 on the right edge of the leg
and both ends are parallel and congruent. Place the other leg on top with the
plywood facing upward, matching the edges together like the first leg.Screw
the legs tightly together with these other 2 15 2 x 4s using long screws. Set
the catapult down on its square base.

http://www.stormthecastle.com/catapult/the-wyvern-catapult-2.htm

5. Screw the 18 2 x 4 across the top, by placing the top edge even with the
top of the plywood triangles, but on the opposite side of the triangles.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 33

http://www.stormthecastle.com/catapult/the-wyvern-catapult-2.htm

6. Measure 6 from the end of the base of the plywood triangle on the floor and
drill a 1 diameter hole 2.5 from the bottom and repeat for the opposite side.

http://www.stormthecastle.com/catapult/the-wyvern-catapult-2.htm

7. Measure 2.5 from the end of the 30 2 x 4 base and drill a .5 diameter hole
through, like in Figure 7.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 34

http://www.stormthecastle.com/catapult/the-wyvern-catapult-2.htm
8. Saw the broom stick into two pieces.
9. Place the broomsticks at either side and place the swing arm in the middle of
the square base even with the two long sides. Tie one end of the rope to one
of the broomsticks. Feed the other end through the base hole and the 30 2 x
4 hole and then through the opposite base hole. Wrap around other broom
stick and feed rope back through to other side of base and wrap around first
broom stick. Repeat for 3 passes.
10. To tighten rope, wrap over broom stick, through base hole, under swing arm,
through opposite base hole, and over broom stick. Now, wrap under broom
stick, through catapult base, over swing arm, through opposite catapult base,
and under the opposite broom stick. Repeat until the rope cannot fit through
the hole or is too tight to wrap.
11. To finish wrapping, take the end of the rope and wrap it around each end of
the roping and tie it.
12. Drill 3 screws to the end of the catapult swing arm from 1 cm, 11 cm, and 21
cm away.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 35
Appendix B: Randomization of Trials
The randomization of trials is used to assure validity of data.
Materials:
TI-NSpire Calculator
Procedure:
1.

Turn on TI-NSpire and open a document with a calculator page.

2.

Press Menu, 5: Probability, 4:Random, 2:Integer. This will produce a

command randInt().

3.

Inside of the parenthesis type 2, 10, 9. Press enter.

4.

The nine numbers produced are the corresponding order in which the
trials will be ran by matching them to the original order of the DOE in order
of factors. Skip over and do not include repeats or the number 5 because
that will automatically be a standard trial, like trials 1 and 11. Repeat until
each grouping of factors has a trial. Repeat for each DOE and record.

Diagram:

Figure 15. Full Randomization Example

Figure 15 shows what the screen of the calculator should look like once
the entire experiment has been randomized.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 36
Appendix C: Torque Formula and Sample Calculation

Torque = 9.3(0.65)(sin130)
Torque = 5.24 N*m
Figure 16. Sample Calculation of Torque
Figure 16 shows the calculation to find torque of the first standard trial.
Torque was calculated using the force required to pull the Newton scale (F), the
length of the lever arm in meters (r), and the angle between the Newton scale
and the lever arm ( ).

Appendix D: Prediction Equation

Figure 17. Prediction Equation

Figure 17 shows the prediction equation. This includes the grand average
of all trials, all six effects, and noise. Noise is outside factors such as human
error or other effects not accounted for.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 37
Appendix E: Parsimonious Prediction Equation

Figure 18. Parsimonious Prediction Equation

Figure 18 shows the parsimonious prediction equation of what is
significant in the experiment. The only factor that was significant was mass. Also
included in the parsimonious prediction equation is the grand average of all trials
and noise.

Appendix F: Test of Significance for Mass

Figure 19. Test of Significance for Mass

Figure 19 shows the test of significance for the effect of mass. For an
effect to be significant, you have to multiply the range of standards by 2 and
whatever value you get, if the absolute value of that effect is greater than the
value, then that effect is considered significant. Mass is significant.

Giallombardo Maleszyk 38
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http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/MilitaryWeapons
/Catapult.html
Brooks, Geoffery. "Imagining Archimedes: Torque about Cross Products."
Imagining Archimedes. N.p., 9 Mar. 2009. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.
http://imaginingarchimedes.blogspot.com/2009/03/torque-about-crossproducts.html
Case, John, Carl Ross, and A. Chilver. Strength and Materials of Structures.
Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999. Pgs. 45-46. Print.
"Catapult Physics." Real World Physics Problems. Real World Physics, 2009.
Web. 23 Apr. 2014. <http://www.real-world-physicsproblems.com/catapult-physics.html>.
Flueckiger, Patrick, and David Roberts. "Catapult Overview." Physics of A
Catapult. Google Sites, 20 Apr. 2014. Web. 12 Apr. 2014.
<https://sites.google.com/site/physicsofacatapult/project-definition>
Nave, Daniel "Torque and Equilibrium." HyperPhysics. Georgia State University,
n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2014. <http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/torq.html>.
"What Is Torque?" Physics Department | University of Guelph. N.p., n.d. Web. 23
Apr. 2014.
http://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/tutorials/torque/Q.torque.intro.html