Kimberly Hughes

May 6, 2014
TSL 612
Dr. Burnett
Teaching Grammar: A Student-Focused Position
When deciding what position to take on teaching grammar, a future instructor has several
methodologies and approaches to consider. The Grammar-Translation method, the AudioLingual method, the Communicative approach, and the various others have many tools to offer.
However, in trying to select a method or approach to use, the students needs can often get lost in
the process. Students need to how to use grammar effectively, and an approach that focuses both
on grammar rules and communication and writing competence would best meet those needs.
In ESL instruction, students often come from various language and cultural backgrounds
with varying degrees of English competence. While each individual may have his or her own
goals in second language learning, none of their communication or academic goals can be met
without learning grammar. However, which grammars should be taught? Different forms are
correct under different circumstances. As Yule states, In language use, the concept of better
[English] really depends on values unrelated to an understanding of grammatical structures (p.
3-4). In other words, a student may learn English grammar, but what is considered better or
acceptable use changes according to the situation. Casual speech, after all, is very different from
academic writing. With this in mind, an ESL teacher should first learn what the students need
from learning English and then determine what grammar(s) to teach. For most students in an
ESL context, both spoken and Academic English should be taught so that they can understand
both school-related assignments and also casual conversations with native speakers.

How should instructors go about teaching these concepts, then? Many methods exist to
learn grammar, such as drills, writing exercises, and explicit instruction. Drills, for instance, can
be used for priming, fluency, pronunciation, and practice using grammatical functions (Birch,
2014, p. 67). However, focusing completely on grammar rules has more recently been found to
be inadequate in meeting the communicative needs of L2 learners (Nassaji & Fotos, 2011, p.
4-5). Students fail to develop effective communication skills with only strict attention to
grammar rules. Drills themselves, for instance, can be, pure practice for priming; no meaning is
necessary (Birch, p. 67).
However, instructors can shift the focus from grammar-intensive instruction to the needs
of the students while still teaching these essential skills. A focus on form (FonF) approach is
learner-centered, represents the learners internal syllabus, and happens when the learner is
attending to meaning and has a communication problem (Nassaji & Fotos, p. 10). While this
approach does place quite a bit of emphasis on meaning and communication, it does not leave
grammar instruction out. Even older techniques from grammar-based approaches can be
modified and used with this student-focused approach. For example, Birch states that in
meaningful drilling, learners pay attention to grammar and meaning, so it is more directed to
notice and uptake (p. 67). Switching between choral, substitution, transformation, and chain
drills can help not only with basic grammar structures but also with communication competence
by improving priming and spontaneous language use. They can help students conjugate quickly
and automatically use native-like colligations and phrases.
While some focus, then, is on communication competence, grammatical knowledge
should not be neglected. In order to teach this knowledge, an instructor needs metalinguistic
awareness and the ability to teach it. Birch asserts that the lack of explicit grammar

terminology impedes the development of language awareness. When people dont have the
terms needed for language analysis and reasoning, it is harder for them to accomplish those
tasks (p. 44). It is not enough, then, for teachers to focus completely on communicative
activities and hope students implicitly learn grammar, though these activities can help build
procedural knowledge of a second language (p. 44). Instructors must also spend some time
giving direct instruction as it plays an important part in explicit language awareness (p. 44).
This form of instruction can help learners talk about grammar in the same way that knowing
cooking terms helps someone learn to cook or knowing how to read music helps someone play a
new song (p. 45). With such benefits for second language acquisition, explicit instruction
should be incorporated into the classroom, but as stated earlier, it should not be the entire focus
of grammar instruction.
Making sure communication competence remains a part of grammar instruction helps
students actually learn the target language and how to use it. After all, Birch states that few
learners acquire language if they sit silently in rows doing worksheets (p. 47). While explicit
grammar instruction is necessary, instructors need to bring communication into the picture.
Using meaningful and motivating activities with a focus on form (p. 47) will strike a balance
between the two. Activities to accomplish this include discourse analysis, dictogloss,
reconstruction cloze tasks, and text-editing tasks. Each of these tasks asks students to analyze
grammar according to meaning and have students collaborate to build communication skills.
Grammar, then, becomes more than just rules written on a board. Grammar becomes a tool used
to transform thoughts to words and words into meaning.
While these methods help increase metalinguistic awareness and the communicative
ability of students, learners will make mistakes along the way to proficiency. How are teachers

to respond to them? Interactional feedback has been studied and found to be generally beneficial
for second language acquisition (Nassaji & Fotos, p. 82). However, which form of interactional
feedback should be used? Studies on recasts are divided. Nassaji and Fotos report on several of
these. Lyster and Ranta (1997) found that recasts offered the least uptake compared to elicitation
requests, elicitations, and metalinguistic feedback. However, R. Ellis et al. (2001) found that
recasts led to a great amount of uptake. Doughty and Varela (1998) discovered that students who
received recasts outperformed those who did not. Lyster (2004) found that groups who received
elicitation strategies as feedback did better than those who received recasts. Loewen and Nabei
(2007) found that learners who received recasts, clarification requests, and metalinguistic
feedback outperformed those who received no feedback, but no significant difference was found
among the types of feedback used. Using these results as a guideline, recasts should be utilized
as they help students more than no feedback, but other forms of feedback should also be utilized
and perhaps emphasized since they have generally been found to help students even more.
Nassaji and Fotos suggest when providing feedback, it might be advisable to begin with an
elicitation. But if the strategy fails to lead to self-correction, recasts can then be provided (p.
82). More important than the type of feedback, though, is how well the learner notices it. If
instructors want effective uptake, they should make sure that the feedback is salient enough to
be noticed (p. 82).
However, feedback may not be effective regardless of the type or strategy used in giving
it. Birch states that there seems to be a natural order in the developmental stages that learners
undergo as they are acquiring advanced grammatical structures (p. 47). Sjolie (2006) lists
several studies that found that corrective feedback failed to help students improve at all. He
asserts that while this may seem impossible, four reasons listed by Ronald Gray may be the

cause. These reasons include: corrective feedback only tries to change the appearance of the
mistake and not the reasoning that caused the mistake, language acquisition occurs in a certain
hierarchical order and feedback addressing a higher rank of grammar cannot be received,
instructors and students misunderstand one another during the feedback process, and students
only mentally note the feedback and do not apply it. In giving feedback, then, it is important for
instructors to listen to learners to discover what developmental stage they are in (Birch, p. 47).
Once the stage is determined, instructors then need to make sure that they understand what the
student was trying to convey through the mistake and then that the feedback is both understood
and received by the student. The instructor should also see to it that the feedback does not
simply fix the error but also addresses the reasoning that caused the mistake. If these points are
kept in mind, then the feedback should be on a level that the learner can understand and help him
or her to improve with future language use.
Teaching grammar in the second language classroom is still a heavily debated topic.
What methods to use, which grammar to teach, what form of feedback to utilize, and even
whether or not to give any explicit attention to grammar have all come under scrutiny in the
teaching community. However, in considering all the research and arguments, it is imperative
that the needs of the student remain the ultimate focus. A focus of form approach keeps the
student first in instruction. This approach helps build communicative and written competence
while still giving necessary attention to grammar as metalinguistic awareness leads to better
language production and a greater ability to analyze and use a second language. In catering to
these needs, several tools from various methods should be utilized to help foster priming,
spontaneity, and grammatical knowledge. The feedback an instructor gives should be salient and
applicable to the developmental level of the student. With these in mind, a second language

instructor can build curriculum that focuses on the needs of the students and gives them the
grammatical knowledge and communicative competence they need to learn and use the target
language.
References
Birch, B. M. (2014). English grammar pedagogy. New York: Routledge.
Nassaji, H. & Fotos, S. (2011). Teaching grammar in second language classrooms: Integrating
form-focused instruction in communicative context. New York: Routledge.
Yule, G. (2009). Explaining English grammar. New York: Oxford University Press.
Sjolie, D. (2006). Phrase and clause grammar tactics for the ESL/ELL writing classroom. The
English Journal 95(5), 35-40. doi: 10.2307/30046586

Activity 1
Becoming an Editor
Target language: English
Grade level: Junior high to high school
Proficiency level: intermediate to advanced learners
Goals: The student will become more aware of the grammar and form of sentence combinations
through collaboratively editing text to reflect the story the teacher reads. This applies to Standard
2 of the TESOL Pre-K-12 English Language Proficiency Standards Framework, English
language learners communicate information, ideas, and concepts necessary for academic success
in the area of language arts. This activity utilizes speaking, listening, reading, and writing
skills.
Learning objectives: The student will become more aware of sentence combining techniques.
Materials:
Copies of the activity worksheet for the class
Previous learning: During a unit on sentence combination techniques, phrases, and clauses, the
teacher will introduce adverbial clauses, adjective clauses, appositives, participial phrases,
elliptical adjective clauses, and absolute phrases.
Teacher instructions:
Divide the class into pairs. Pass out the worksheets. Explain the instructions to the students.
Read the passage labeled Bosss Passage. Allow the students to work together to reconstruct
the story using sentence combination techniques as you read the passage a second time. Walk
among the students and answer any questions they might have and offer guidance where
necessary.
Assessment: Assessment will be done according to the completeness and correctness of the
worksheet.
Methodology: This activity reflects collaborative output tasks that bring attention to form and
help build communication competence. This comes from output options for teaching grammar.
Based on text-editing tasks from Nassaji and Fotos (2011) on p. 110.

Nassaji, H. & Fotos, S. (2011). Teaching grammar in second language classrooms: Integrating
form-focused instruction in communicative context. New York: Routledge.

Name: ___________________
Date: ___________________
Class: ___________________

Becoming an Editor
Congratulations! You and your partner have become editors! However, the piece youve been
given to edit needs some work. Listen to your boss read out loud how the piece should sound.
Then, work with your partner to combine the simple sentences in your piece to make it sound the
same as your bosss piece.
Text that needs editing
Cloe works at the school as a kindergarten teacher. Cloe seemed very tired after class.
She covered her face as she yawned. She walked into the teachers lounge to have some coffee.
She poured herself a cup. She noticed it smelled odd. She had poured herself coffee. It had
been made the day before! She poured the cup out. She left the room. She saw a man. The man
was taking a sip of coffee from his cup. He immediately spit it back out. Cloe laughed at the
face he made. Cloe headed to a drink machine. Cloe decided to buy a soft drink.
Edited text
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Bosss Passage
Cloe, who works at the school as a kindergarten teacher, seemed very tired after class.
Covering her face as she yawned, she walked into the teachers lounge to have some coffee.
When she poured herself a cup, she noticed it smelled odd. She had poured herself coffee that
had been made the day before! She poured the cup out. When she left the room, she saw a man
taking a sip of coffee from his cup. He immediately spit it back out, and Cloe laughed at the face
he made. Heading to a drink machine, Cloe decided to buy a soft drink.

Activity 2
Combining Simple Sentences
Target language: English
Grade level: Junior high to high school
Proficiency level: intermediate to advanced learners
Goals: The student will practice using various clause and phrase types to combine sentences to
improve his or her overall writing. This applies to Standard 2 of the TESOL Pre-K-12 English
Language Proficiency Standards Framework, English language learners communicate
information, ideas, and concepts necessary for academic success in the area of language arts.
This activity utilizes reading and writing skills.
Learning objectives: The student will learn how to use various clauses and phrases to combine
sentences.
Materials:
Copies of the activity worksheet for the class
Previous learning: During a unit on sentence combination techniques, phrases, and clauses, the
teacher will introduce adverbial clauses, adjective clauses, appositives, participial phrases,
elliptical adjective clauses, and absolute phrases.
Teacher instructions:
Pass out the worksheets. Explain the instructions to the students. Allow the students to complete
the worksheets. Discuss the answers with the class.
Assessment: Assessment will be done according to the completeness and correctness of the
worksheet.
Methodology: This activity reflects structured grammar-focused tasks which stem from an
output-based option that focuses on grammar.
Based on the exercise presented in the article, Phrase and clause grammar tactics for the
ESL/ELL writing classroom, by Sjolie.
Sjolie, D. (2006). Phrase and clause grammar tactics for the ESL/ELL writing classroom. The
English Journal 95(5), 35-40. doi: 10.2307/30046586

Name: ___________________
Date: ___________________
Class: ___________________

Combining Simple Sentences

Directions: Combine the two sentences using the type of phrase or clause stated.
1. Her mouth was watering. The dog waited patiently for the food.
Absolute clause
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2. The entire movie theater was annoyed by the man. The man was eating his popcorn loudly.
Participial phrase
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3. I like the painting. She made the painting.
Elliptical adjective clause
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4. Mr. Green owns the house with all the cars in the front yard. Mr. Green is a mechanic.
Appositive
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5. Olivia made pork chops for supper. Olivia likes to make pork chops.
Adverb clause
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6. Chocolate with almonds is very tasty. The chocolate with almonds was not eaten by the
people at the party.

Adjective clause
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7. Cynthia likes cats. Cynthia owns a pet daycare.
Appositive
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8. Stacy was impressed by the man. The man was working hard into the night.
Participial phrase
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9. Regina broke up with her boyfriend. She heard he lied to her.
Adverb clause
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10. Christopher went to the gallery. Alisa owned the gallery.
Elliptical adjective clause
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11. His heart was thrumming. Daniel asked Chelsea to marry him.
Absolute clause
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12. The dogs were chasing the ball. The ball bounced across the living room floor.
Adjective clause
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Activity 3
About Mr. Hershel
Target language: English
Grade level: Junior high to high school
Proficiency level: intermediate to advanced learners
Goals: The student will practice using appositives and utilize creativity with English by
collaborating with others and creating unique answers. This applies to Standard 2 of the TESOL
Pre-K-12 English Language Proficiency Standards Framework, English language learners
communicate information, ideas, and concepts necessary for academic success in the area of
language arts. This activity utilizes speaking, reading, and writing skills.
Learning objectives: The student will learn how to use create and insert appositives into
narratives.
Materials:
Copies of the activity worksheet for the class
Previous learning: During a unit on sentence combination techniques, phrases, and clauses, the
teacher will introduce the concept of appositives, emphasizing that they highlight extra but not
necessary information. The teacher will give reasons why appositives are used, such as adding
flavor to a text.
Teacher instructions:
Split the class into pairs. Pass out the worksheets and explain the instructions to the students.
Read through the narrative with the students once and make sure the students understand the text.
Let the students work together in their pairs to come up with appositives to add to the story. (2030 min.)
When the class has finished, compare how the students utilized appositives. Let the class decide
which appositive is the most interesting in each sentence and make a new story with the selected
appositives. Read the story out loud to the class. (15 min.)
Assessment: Assessment will be done according to the completeness of the worksheet and
participation in the discussion.
Methodology: This activity utilizes a Focus on Form approach with attention to grammar
through context and meaning while still emphasizing collaborative communicative attributes.
Based on exercise 4 in Explaining English Grammar.
Yule, G. (2009). Explaining English Grammar (p. 265). New York: Oxford University Press.

Name: ___________________
Date: ___________________
Class: ___________________
About Mr. Hershel
Directions: Read the story. Work with a partner to add an appositive to each sentence that gives
a little more detail to the story. Example: Mr. Hershel lives in a house. -> Mr. Hershel, who is
quite handsome, lives in a house.
(1) Mr. Hershel lives in Florida. (2) He likes to go fishing on the weekends. (3)
Sometimes, he catches very large fish. (4) He eats them with his friends. (5) Mr. Hershel works
at the university. (6) He teaches history to many students. (7) He likes his job, but he wishes he
had more time to fish.

Sentence 1:
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Sentence 2:
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Sentence 3:
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Sentence 4:
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Sentence 5:
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Sentence 6:
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Sentence 7:
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