Cementing Engineering Manual Part 3

CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | Fev A Section 4.A.1 CONVENTIONAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING January 1995 | Page 21 of 21 11.3 Improper Remedial Too! Location If the packer is set too high above the perforations, then the cement slurry becomes contaminated as it ‘channels through the mud or workover fluid and its Properties are adversely modified, altering the sturry- placement resutts. If the packer is set too close and ‘communication behind the casing exists (poor cement | yp bond), then a high bottomhole pressure may cause Unioader casing colapse above the packer. With a good know!- ‘edge of the cement bond, the packer should be set as close as possible to the perforations but high enough to eliminete any possibilty of casing collapse above the packer. Drag Spring ‘Assembly Washi Ports o a, — Nn Se —— Mule Shoe Ball Value Fig. 12.A pertoration washing toot. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING cee poten! MANUAL January 1995 | Page 1 of 25 SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING ‘Contents Page | Contents Page | 1 INTRODUCTION 1 2.6 Tool Selection 14 2 DESIGN 2 3 EXECUTION 2.1 Job Design Data ~ 3 3.1 Execution Precautions 241 Reservott Barameiars 3 S11 Personnel 2.1.2 Wellbore and Completion Geometry 4 3.1.2 Well Security 2.1.3 Logistical Constraints 4 3.13 Equipment levee see hese 2.2 Slurry Design ... 4 3.2 Equipment uirements .... seerravenese 15, 2.2.1 Conventional Cement ‘Systems oe 5 3.2.1 Coiled Tubing Equipment ... coors 15 2.2.2 Latex Cement Systems 5 3.2.2 Pressure Control Equipment 15 223 Thixotropic Cement "6 3.23 Pumping Equipment wcnnnccooe 15 224 roamed Gement 6 324 Momtoring and Recording 7 2.2.5 PERMABLOK System. oe & 3.2.5 Downhole Equipment .............0000 17 2.3 Laboratory Testing 8 | 99 Treatment Execution " 2.3.1 Mixing Energy Pusere 8 3.3.1. Wellbore Preparation ...... see 18 2.32 Thickening Time 9 332 Slurry Mixing and Pumping... 18 2.3.3 Fluid Loss 9 3.3.3 Squeeze ...... seteroreee 1B a4 24, feoloay 19 33.4 Removal of Excess Cement... 23, luny Volume 25 Slumy Placemeni SUIIIEEN! 42. | 4 EVALUATION 24 25.1 Depth Correiation .. 12 | 5 REFERENCES ooecon 25 2.5.2 Protection Against Contamination .. 12 2.5.3 Cement Column Stability 12 2.5.4 Isolation of Adjacent Zones 13, 255 Tubing Movement 14 1 INTRODUCTION ‘Squeeze cementing may be defined as the process of forcing cement slurry, under pressure, through perto- rations or holes in the casing or liner. When the slurry is forced against a permeable formation, some of the fluid enters the formation matrix fitering out the slurry solids on the formation face. In performing a coiled tubing (CT) squeeze, the pressure is gradually increased in predefined increments (hesitation squeeze). With a properly designed slurry and squeeze procedure, a firm filter cake wil fil the open- ings allowing the final squeeze pressure to exceed the formation fracture pressure. The firm fitter cake, in the form of nodes, allows wellbore cleaning by circulation immediately after completing the squeeze procedure. Therefore, subse- uent driling or underreaming operations to clean the wellbore are avoided. With the development of efficient squeeze cementing techniques conducted through CT, significant cost savings can benefit operators performing through- tubing workovers. Conventional methods of cement placement required the use of a workover rig. How- ever, most of the time and expense associated with mobilization of equipment, well killing and completion handling can be avoided when using CT-conveyed services. In addition, the operational features of CT and associated pressure control equipment provide several technical and economic benefits. ‘Squeeze cementing operations conducted through CT. have been developed and improved by evolving operating procedures to suit wellproduction conditions, and by refining the slurry design. For example, a key operational factor is the removal of excess cement slurry from the wellbore. Current techniques can allow rapid and efficient removal of excess slurry, thereby CONFIDENTIALITY This manual section i a confidential document which must not be copied in whole (r in any part or discussed with anyone outside the Schlumberger organization.Section 4.B.1 RevA Page 2of 25 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL. SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING ‘permitting production to be resumed with minimum delay. In addition, extensive laboratory testing and analy- ‘ses have increased the understanding of the cement slurry performance and characteristics as itis mixed in ‘small volumes and pumped through the CT string. ‘Squeeze cementing operations are applied to perma- ently block the intrusion of undesirable fluids to the wellbore. In oil wells, this is frequently required to reduce excessive water or gas production which limits downstream separation or process capacity. The ce- ‘ment providing the block to production must remain effective under the highest anticipated differential Pressure when production is resumed. The following conditions are treated with a high degree of reliability using CT squeeze cementing techniques: * water or gas channeling as a result of an incomplete primary cementing job * injection water or gas breakthrough ‘© gas or water coning caused by production or reservoir characteristics ‘isolation of unwanted or depleted perforated intervals ‘+ losses to a thief zone or inefficient injection profile ‘on an injection well In treating these conditions, CT squeeze cementing techniques offer several advantages over conventional workover rig practices. * The CT pressure control equipment configuration allows the treatment to be performed through the ‘completion tubulars without the need for a rig. In addition, the well can be safely killed with relatively ow fluid volumes. ‘+ Associated operations can be performed as part of a packaged service (e.g., wellbore fill can be removed or artificial lit services may be applied to restore production following the treatment) ‘ Placing the slurries and fluids through CT avoids contamination from wellbore and displacement fluids. The mobile injection point improves the placement efficiency and accuracy. ‘+ Low treatment volumes are required and wellbore leaning of excess slurry is easily performed. ‘+ Experience has shown that significant time, product and cost savings can be realized. Early experiences of CT cementing showed that compared with conventional primary cementing operations, CT cementing requires more stringent design and control considerations. Only by exercising a high degree of control and verification on all aspects of the operation can the desired result be reliably achieved. Because the consequences of an improperly applied squeeze cement ireatment may be severely damaging to the reservoir, wellbore or completion, correct as- sessment of the well and reservoir conditions must be Confirmed before the treatment design is finalized. 2 DESIGN ‘The following general guidelines outline the principal ‘considerations when designing and executing squeeze cementing operations through CT. ‘+ Identity the location and extent of the treatment, Re- View reservoir, formation and production data to Confirm the prognosis, ‘+ Gather and compile the wellbore and completion information required for job design and evaluation of treatment options. ‘+ Identity and design any treatments/operations to be performed before the cementing operation (e.9., wellbore scale or fill removal) + Prepare a slurry design that is compatible with the reservoir conditions * Determine the appropriate laboratory test schedule to be used (e.g,, modified API schedules that reflect the anticipated rate of change for temperature and pressure). ‘+ Perform laboratory tests to determine the thickening time, fiter cake and fiuid-loss properties, rheology and stabilty of the siurry. ‘+ Design approptiate washes and spacers. ‘* Determine the slurry volume using wellbore details, reservoir history and previous arealfield experience. * Determine the maximum squeeze pressure. ‘* Establish a depth correlation base to ensure correct, placement. ‘+ Consider the slurry placement method, including requirements for a cement platform. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | Rev A Section 4.B.1 SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING danuary 1995 | Page 3 of 25 + Determine the technique to remove excess cement 2.1.1 Reservolr Parameters slurry trom the wellbore. Design contaminating andy addition to the usual reservoir parameters, consid- roulating fds where epptcable. eration should be given to the formation characteris- * Prepare a complete pumping schedule which tics. For example, the cement slurry volume required includes anticipated rates and pressures, plus to successfully squeeze off perforations in friable or valve/manifold changes or plug launching unconsolidated sands will be significantly increased requirements, due to the presence of void areas behind the + Perform presqueeze treatments and condition the Pevorations. wellbore. Bullhead fluids or perform an injection An important factor in the selection of an appropriate test cement system is the injectivty, ie., the ease by Comprehensive details of the theory and execution of Should be sssucsedl eters and ster any aid washes squeeze cementing are documented in he references are apd to the zone to be Weated. The dation of listed in Section 5—Rt high or low injectivity will vary by location. However, a 2.4 Job Design Data ‘general guide can be used. (see Table 2.) The initial design steps of an appropriate squeeze cementing technique require a thorough investigation of peer arciae = the following points: INJECTIVITY DEFINITIONS + reservoir parameters Fluid injection Rate Injectivity * wellbore and completion geometry (bbvmin at £1500 ps!) + surface equipmentvogistical constraints. dior Very ow to ‘A summary of the typical required data is shown in 3105 High Table 1. This should be used as a checklist when pre- 38 Very high paring to design the cement slurry, spacer fluids and placement technique. TABLE 1 ‘SQUEEZE CEMENTING DESIGNDATA Driling _] Casing/iner cementing details for zone of interest (e.g., type, density, losses, etc.) Cement evaluation logs, unusual conditions, remedial actions, etc. ‘Completion | Production casinglliner and tubing details (e.9., size, weight, grade, depth, etc.) Deviation, nipples or restrictions, materiavalloy, etc. Perforation details (¢.g., depth, interval, shot density, etc.) Plugback/TD details, confirmed by wireline survey Reservoir | Treatment interval, adjacent producing, Reservoir temperature and pressure, Treatment zone characteristics, porosity and permeabilty Faults, unconsolidated formations and suspected washouts. |Gas/oil contact, water/oil contact. Injectivity test data. Production | Production test results (e.9., skin, effective permeabilly, production rates, etc) Production logs/history. Workover | Details of previous stimulation or remedial treatments. Relevant field or well history. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 4.B.1 RevA Page 4 of 25 January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING Low injectivity applications may require a solids-free (e.g., PERMABLOK‘ system) matrix treatment. ‘Applications with a high injection rate may require thixotropic or foamed cement. 2.1.2 Wellbore and Completion Geometry Tubular Size and Restrictions ‘The tubular or minimum restriction size will determine the maximum CT OD which can be safely used. The required siurry volume is primarily determined by the length of the interval to be treated, injectivity data, field formation experience and casing/iner size. 2.1.3: Logistical Constraints Logistical constraints affecting the design or execution of squeeze cementing operations performed through CT can be summarized as those applied to the equipment, and to the disposal of the excess contaminated slurry removed from the wellbore Equipment In general terms, complex job designs will require ‘more equipment. If space at the wellsite is a constraint (e.g., offshore), then some job-design options may be precluded. Disposal The disposal of any contaminated excess slurry must bbe considered. Node with minimal intrusion into wellbore. 22 Slurry Design IMPORTANT: This discussion on slurry design is to be only used as a design guideline. The investigation of new cement systems for colled tubing applications is an ongoing effort by several tech centers and laboratories. For a particular well application, consutt your laboratory or tech center for their assistance In system selection and on the correct laboratory testing procedures. The objective of most squeeze cementing operations is to build good quality nodes in and around the perforations to be sealed (see Fig. 1). To achieve the desired result, several slurry properties must be carefully designed and monitored. The slurry properties must be tailored to the formation characteristics and wellbore conditions of the candidate well. The following general attributes are desirable in a squeeze slurry: ‘© Appropriate filer-cake properties and fluid-oss contro}—to ensure adequate node buildup under the specific wellbore and reservoir conditions. ‘* Superior slurry stability—to ensure consistent slurry Performance and prevent downhole separation during extended static periods. * Rheology contro!—required to provide low viscosities in tight formations and higher viscosities for high injectiviy applications. Casing Primary Cement Sheath Fig. 1 Cement node buildup. “Mark of Schiumborger DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCOILED TUBING CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH RevA Section 4.B.1 January 1995 | Page 5 of 25 ‘+ No premature slury gelation—to avoid complica- tions during postsqueeze wellbore cleanout, ‘+ Adequate thickening-time control to safely meet the anticipated job time (plus a safety/contingency factor) ‘* Acid resistivity—required if the well is to be acidized after the squeeze treatment. The selection of the most appropriate cement system is dependent on many factors. Adequate well information and field knowledge are critical for this selection, In addition, availablity, local logistics and operator preference will influence the ultimate decision. ‘The following cement systems can be formulated to provide the necessary characteristics for placement through CT. Their suitabilty for a variety of applica: tions is presented in Table 3, ‘© conventional fluid-loss cement systems latex cement systems. thixotropic cement foamed cement. In addition to these cement systems, a number of other products are used in CT squeeze applications. These products are generally designed to penetrate ‘the formation matrix rather than forming a filter cake (.9., PERMABLOK system) 2.2.1 Conventional Cement Systems Polymer and copolymer additives are commonly used to control tiuid loss in primary and remedial cementing operations. They provide excellent fluid loss and fiter- cake characteristics which are easily repeatable. Extensive work has shown that cellulose derivatives: (e.g., FLAC* D59) do not develop a firm filter cake. Modem copolymer additives (e.g., FLAC D156) are frequently used in CT-conveyed cement squeezes. Further details on conventional fluid-loss additives can be found in the CEMENTING MATERIALS MANUAL. 2.2.2 Latex Cement Systems Latex cerrent systems were developed to control gas migration in the cemented annuli of casing or liner strings. During their development, additional applications were realized that used the exceptional characteristics of the slurry and cured cement. Excellent fuid-loss control and bonding properties can be achieved while maintaining the desirable slurry properties for placement through the CT string. In general, latex slurries are extremely stable over a Wide temperature range and compatible with a variety of additives. AA significant feature, in remedial applications which are fo be subsequently exposed to acid, is the acid- resistant properties of latex cements. Cement squeezes performed to shut off water or gas zones are often ‘ollowed by reperforating and a stimulation treatment of adjacent oil zones. In these instances, TABLES SQUEEZE CEMENTING SLURRY SELECTION BY APPLICATION AND INJECTIVITY TEST RESULTS ‘Application | Conventional Latex Thixotropic Foamed | PERMABLOK ‘Cement Cement Cement Cement ‘System Channels High Low to high = = Very low Poor primary cement High Low to high = - Very low ‘Casingliner repair = Low to high - - = /Gas shutott Low to high | Low to high - - Very low ‘Water shutoff Low to high | Low to high - = = Injection modification | _Lowto high | Low to high High Very high = “Mark of Schlumberger DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 4.B.1 | RevA Page 6 of 25 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING ‘many “successful” squeezes have broken down or failed completely after the squeezed perforations have been exposed to the acid. The use of latex-base cement systems provides protection against such failures and imparts excellent slurry characteristics. ‘The high-temperature liquid latex additive GASBLOK* D134 provides better siumy characteristics than GASBLOK 600. The fiter-cake generation and ‘control properties of D134 are superior. Detailed information on latex cement systems is presented in the CEMENTING MATERIALS MANUAL. 2.2.3 Thixotropic Cement In conventional cementing, thixotropic cements are commonly used in lost-circulation or low-fracture- gradient applications. Under certain conditions, and following necessary precautions, the benefits of thixotropic cement can be realized on CT-conveyed squeezes. Typically, these applications are limited to injection wells which can require large volumes of conventional cement slurry to obtain satisfactory isolation. Thixotropic (or foamed) cement may also be the preferred choice in producing wells intersected by a fault, or located in highly fautted reservoirs ‘The concept of pumping a thixotropic slurry through CT is not readily accepted. The characteristic rapid getstrength development requires that a number of Precautions be taken to reduce the risks associated ‘with this type of cement system. Laboratory tests must be run using modified procedures. The slurry composition is also dependent on the characteristics of the ‘cement (e.g., use local plaster or plaster D53 with a ‘cement having a C3A content above 5%, RFC* Agent D111 can be used with a cement having a lower CoA content). 2.2.4 Foamed Cement Foamed cement, ike thixotropic cement, is typically used in lost-circulation or low-fracture-gradient appi- cations. Intensive design and execution efforts are re- Quired to ensure the desired results are obtained. Foamed cement is effective in fractured or fauted reservoirs where its desirable to reduce fluid mobility behind the casingliner. in severe lost-circulation cases, foamed cement may have to be left in the wellbore to *Mark of Schlumberger set. The ease of driling foamed cement (rates of 120, ftMhr have been achieved) renders this a viable option. ‘A foamed cement treatment may involve tailing in with a squeeze siurry. This technique relies on the foamed ‘cement to create adequate resistance to allow the tail slurry to generate a filter cake across the perforations. 22.5 PERMABLOK System The PERMABLOK system is a solisree, temperature-activated matrix blocking agent. It does not form a filter cake on the formation face, but is intended to harcen within the formation matrix. De- tailed information is presented in the CEMENTING ‘MATERIALS MANUAL 2.3 Laboratory Testing A variety of additives is commonly used to control the characteristics of a squeeze slurty. The efficiency of the additives is dependent on their proper use at the ‘correct concentration. Therefore, the proportions used during laboratory testing must be clearly communi- cated to allow the field operations to replicate the slury and its desired characteristics Batch mixing and pumping a cement slurry through a CT string may sgnificantly affect the principal slumy roperties—the fluid loss and thickening time. The thickening time for a slurry mixed according to API mixing procedures (API Specification 10, Section 5) may be reduced up to 75%. The reasons for such significant changes in slurry properties are related to the mixing procedures and energy imparted to the slurry a itis mixed and pumped. ‘As a result of extensive laboratory and yard tests, itis known that the mixing energy and the manner in which it is applied affect the slurry properties. Higher concentrations are required. ‘As a consequence of these effects, slurries designed for use with CT must undergo special laboratory test procedures which more accurately simulate actual ‘conaitions (see Table 4). The principal characteristics of a squeeze cement slurry can be categorized as follows: «© thickening time * fiter-cake properties/tuid loss * theology. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | Rev A Section 4.B.1 SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING January 1995 Page 7 of 25 Fluid toss Excessive fitercake development ‘Shear time 1-in, ree «Ot infree 7 water ‘water +— 15.0 bm/gal <— 156 bm/gal —<+— 166 bmigal <+— 156 bmigal 35 sec at 3minat 12,000 rpm 12,000 rpm Shear effect on slurry stability as demonstrated ona 15.6-Ibmigal latex cement system. Fig. 2. Etfect of shear energy on slurry stability and fluld loss. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 4.3.1 | RevA CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL [———_] SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH Page 8 of 25 January 1995 COILED TUBING TABLE 4 TYPICAL COILED TUBING CEMENT SLURRY TEST SEQUENCES ‘Squeeze Sluries [Mixing ‘Two hours at surface temperature and atmospheric pressure to simulate batch mixing and surtace operations. Placement _| Two times the placement ime (calculated from slurry and displacement volumes using anticipated pump rates for the CT size to be used). Apply a constant gradient increase to the bottomhole pressure (BHP) and [temperature (BHST) Squeeze ‘A.30-min period during which the temperature is constant and the pressure is increased to the bottomhole squeeze pressure. Postsqueeze _| Five hours during which the temperature is kept constant at BHST and the pressure is decreased from the final squeeze pressure to BHP + 500 psi. Plug Sluries | Mixing Two hours at surface temperature and atmospheric pressure to simulate batch mixing and surface operations. Placement _| Two times the placement time (calculated from slurry and displacement ‘volumes using anticipated pump rates for the CT size to be used). Apply a Constant gradient increase to the bottomhole pressure (BHP) and temperature (BHST). Curing Five hours during which the temperature is kept constant at BHST and the pressure is decreased from the final squeeze pressure to BHP. The stability and reproducibility of these characteristics are directly related to the shear energy imparted to the slurry during mixing and pumping through the CT. Only by adequately shearing the slurry are characteristics stabilized. Therefore, the mixing energy im- Parted during laboratory or field mixing must be Sutficient to achieve stable slury characteristics (see Fig. 2). 2.3.1 Mixing Energy Equations The following equations can be used in association with laboratory and field mixing techniques to ensure consistent mixing energy levels. Such procedures are necessary to confirm the desired slurry performance. Further explanation of the equations and their use is presented in paper SPE 26089 (see Subsection 5— REFERENCES). For additional information on mixing energy, see SECTION 7.F.1—MIXING ENERGY. Laboratory Mixing For a 600-mL laboratory sample mixed at 4000 rpm for 15 sec and 12,009 Sec at 12,000 rpm, the energy per mass unit can be calculated by the following ‘equation: E = 0.27 + 0.1605 x 12000 Field Batch Mixing The mixing energy associated with field batch mixing equipment can be calculated by H = 2.35 x FU / kg] ‘The batch mixing time required to match the laboratory test energy levels is calculated by =(£ dxV in Oe (@) ray © WH 25 lin] where power (hp) time (min) slurry density (Ibmvgal) slurry volume (bb)). DOWELL CONFIDENTIAL‘CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | RevA Section 4.B.1 SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING January 1995 Page 9 of 25 2.3.2 Thickening Time API testing schedules have been developed to test the thickening time of squeeze slurries. However, conducting the placement through CT subjects the slurry to significantly different conditions (and rates of change) than is represented by conventional API squeeze schedules. Such API squeeze schedules have been developed for use with drillpipe or tubing placement. To more accurately reflect the actual conditions encountered during a CT cement squeeze, modified versions of the API schedules are used. A typical modified test schedule for CT operations is ‘shown in Table 4. ‘The relatively small flow areas and rates associated with CT permit a rapid temperature increase in circulated fluids. Therefore, bottomhole static temperature (BHST) should be used when conducting test procedures. Conventional API test schedules use bottomhole circulating temperature (BHCT).. Because the mixing energy imparted to the slurry also influences the thickening time, the test procedure should closely simulate the anticipated mixing and Pumping procedure. 23.3 Fluid Loss Fluid-loss additives are required to ensure the creation of a good quailty fiter cake on the permeable surfaces in and around the perforation tunnel. When cured, this filter cake should provide an impermeable cement node with sufficient compressive strength to remain secure at the anticipated differential pressure. Excessive fluid loss can result in bridging of the wellbore tubulars with dehydrated cement (see Fig. 3). Surries with too ite fluid loss can result in an insuttt- cient fiter-cake buildup on the formation surface. To avoid these conditions, the filter cake for CT squeeze slurries should be designed within a range of 0.5 to 41.0 in. (design criteria for operators in Prudhoe Bay, ‘Ataska). This will generally correspond to a fluid loss within the range of 40 to 100 mL/30 min (API). A more ‘exact value should then be determined after considering the characteristics of the formation. A good starting point for the design of gas- or waler-shutoft slurries is 0.75 in. High-pressure, fluid-loss cells are used to study the fiter-cake performance for possible slurry formulations (see Fig. 4). Three tests are commonly run on the re- High fuid loss (800 mL/30 min Low fluid loss 15 mL/30 min sulting filter cake to enable comparison or appraisal of Fig. 4. Fiter-cake/tuiétoss analyses, the slurry filter-cake thickness, quality and temperature sensitivity. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 4.8.1 | RevA CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH Wd Page 10 of 25 | January 1995 COILED TUBING Dowell The thickness of the test sample filter cake is repre- sentative of the amount which will be deposited downhole during a squeeze. Therefore, the minimum required filter cake produced under downhole conditions should be sufficient to fill the anticipated, or ideal, perforation profile. Slurries that develop little fl- ter cake may be considered unsuitable for squeeze applications because most of the slurry in the perforations will be in a slurry form. This increases the likelihood that the cement will be accidentally removed when the excess slurry is removed from the wellbore ‘on completion of the squeeze procedure. Fiter-cake quality is assessed by penetrating the fitter ‘cake with a steel rod that has a one-pound force applied. A firm fiter cake is more resistant to washing or jetting during the removal of excess cement from the wellbore. The condition of the slurry remaining in the test cell is also of interest, because it indicates the likely condition of the excess slurry which will be removed from the wellbore. The slurry above the firm filter cake should be in a liquid state without gelation tendencies. The temperature sensitivity of the slurry influences the production of a good quailty fiter cake. Some slurries exhibit significantly different fiter-cake characteristics when tested over a range of temperatures. Generally, the slurries that perform consistently over a range of temperatures possess the desired characteristics for CT applications. 2.3.4 Rheology Fluid friction is always a concen when pumping through CT strings. However, cement slurries have a her viscosity than most types of workover fluids which significantly reduces the maximum pump rate achievable within the operating pressure limits. Due to the relatively small volumes of slurry to be placed and the design incorporating extended thickening times, placement time is generally not a concern. Typical slurry compositions and characteristics are shown in Table 5. Most cement slurries behave as a Bingham plastic fluid, .e., the apparent visoosity of the fluid is dependent on the yield point (ty) and plastic viscosity (1p) (see Fig. 5) . in simple terms, the plastic viscosity is primarily a function of the amount of solids in the slurry and cannot be significantly influenced by additives. The yield point is a measure of the particle distri- bution in the slurry. The yield point, and therefore the apparent viscosity, of a slury can be altered by add- ing dispersants. However, care must be exercised in the use of dispersants because it is possible to over- disperse a slurry, in which case setting of the cement solids will occur. A prerequisite for CT squeeze slurries is no settled solids and no free water. The optimum theological values for CT squeeze slurries are ‘* minimum possible ty (5 to 10 Ibt/100 ft2) ‘+ minimum possible ip (less than 50 op) Because cementing operations may require the CT to remain inside a column of cement for an extended period, no gel-strength buildup should be evident within two hours at BHST. Rheology and stabilty tests are commonly performed at surface mixing temperatures and at BHST. In general stable sturties provide good rheology characteristics which are are easily reproducible. Further details on cement slurry theology are contained in SECTION 7.G.1—RHEOLOGY AND FLOW CALCULATIONS. 24 Slurry Volume ‘The appropriate volume of slurry prepared for a CT ‘cement squeeze is dependent on several factors. In ‘most cases, previous squeeze experience in the same or similar reservoirs will provide the best guidelines. Although it is desirable to achieve a successful squeeze in one operation, some hazards exist if the slurry volume is excessive. Conversely, the minimum practical slurry volume is that which will ensure correct placement of the necessary volume of uncontami- ated coment, ‘The following factors influence the slurry volume: ‘© The length of the perforated interval and the liner/casing capacity. * The void areas behind the perforations resulting from the erosion of friable and unconsolidated formations or from stimulation treatments. ‘+ The force applied to the tubing (i.e., in deep applications, the additional tension resulting from the slurry inside the CT may exceed the operating limits) ‘+ The configuration of the surface mixing and pumping equipment j.e., reducing the volume of surface lines, especially large-diameter lines, reduces the likelihood of slurry contamination). DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | RevA Section 4.B.1 SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING January 1995 | Page 11 of 25 TABLE 5 TYPICAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING SLURRY COMPOSITIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS Conventional Cement Squeeze Coment Slurry Glass G coment [+ 0.1 galek Da7_— [Antifoam +0.4% BWOC [D156 | Fluid-loss additive +0.5%BWOC |D65 | Dispersant +0.2%BWOC D800 | Retarder +01 gals 10195 | Surfactant (shear bondfiuid-loss enhancer) +0.5%BWoc —|D20_| Slurry stabiizer +5.05 galsk Frosh water Density 18.6 lomigal Yield 1.19 fk Fter cake 8 infirm Fluid loss {67 mL/30 min (170°F BHCT) Thickening time 720 hrmin to teach 70 Be (180°F BHST) Yield point ‘9.5 Io/100 ft (95°F), 9.2 bt/100 fe (170°F) Plastic viscosity 39.2 op (95°F), 37.3 op (170°F) No free water/sedimentation. 020 is prehydrated in water. All additives are mixed in water, and cement is addad in 15 sec at 12,00 rpm for 180 sec. [Latex Cement Squeeze Sturry (Class G coment [+ 0.1 galsk D47_—_[Antifoam + 13 gav'sk D134 | Latex fluid-loss additive +04%BWoo |Dée5 | Dispersant +05%BWOC —|D800 | Retarder + 0.1 gal'sk D135 _| Surfactant (shoar bonditluid-loss enhancer) +1.0%Bwoc |D20 | Slurry stabilizer +3.82 galisk Fresh water Density 156 lbmigal Yield 1.21 fP/sk iter cake 0.7 infirm Fluid loss }58 mL/30 min (170°F BHCT) ‘Thickening time 7:29 h:min to reach 70 Be (180°F BHST) ‘Yield point 17 Iot/100 2 (95°F), 12 bt/100 fe (170°F) Plastic viscosity 34 op (95°F), 4 cp (170°F) ‘No free water/sedimentation. 020 is prehydrated in water. All additives are mixed in water, and coment is added in 15 sec at 12,000 rpm for 180 sec. Shear stress Shear rate Fig. 5. Cement slurry rheology model diagram. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 4.8.1 Page 12 of 25 RevA January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL [—_} SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING ‘* The use of cement plugs, pigs or darts to ensure slurry separation in the CT string reduces the ex- ‘cess slurry volume necessary to account for contamination. in addition, the plugs can provide a positive indication of slurry location, When using CT to place a fluid column in a wellbore, the ultimate position of the fluid column is primarily dictated by the location of the CT nozzle and by the volume of fluid pumped. Consequently, fluid volumes ‘must be carefully designed, measured and confirmed when performing operations requiring critical depth control. 2.5 Slurry Placement ‘The success of any cement squeeze is dependent on the accurate placement of an uncontaminated slurry which has the desired characteristics. The following factors are important during slurry placement: ‘= depth contro! ‘+ contamination protection ‘= cement column stability « isolation of adjacent zones ‘© tubing movement, 2.5.1 Depth Correlation Depth-sensitive applications, such as squeeze cementing, generally require the CT nozzle to be positioned and controlled using a higher degree of accuracy than can be achieved using surface measuring equipment. The effects of stretch, buckling and residual bend can be variable and considerable. For this Feason, a downhole reference point is generally re- ‘quired to achieve the necessary placement accuracy. ‘There are three methods of acquiring a depth reference: log correlation, tagging bottom or tagging ‘completion restrictions. ‘Log correlation tools require an electrical connection, and therefore are limited to applications. conducted with CTL reels. Squeeze cementing operations are not compatible with downhole tools or the CTL reel. ‘Tagging bottom can be significantly inaccurate in wells containing fill. In addition, buckling of the CT occurs in deviated wells or large completions, thereby inducing an error. However, under certain conditions it is a viable method which is often used. Locating restrictions in the completion tubulars using a tubing end (TEL) or tubing nipple locators (TNL) is the most practical method of depth control in critical ‘squeeze cementing operations. 2.5.2 Protection Against Contamination The relatively small volumes associated with squeeze cementing through CT require that care must be taken to avoid contamination. Contamination will result in Unpredictable slury characteristics, a reduction in the compressive strength of the set cement and incorrect placement due to the change inthe slurry volume. ‘Spacer fluids pumped ahead and behind the cement slurry are recommended. The most commonly used and, in most cases, the most appropriate spacer fluid is fresh water. AA likely potential for contamination exists in the surface lines and pumping equipment. However, some simple precautions should be taken to ensure clean fluid interfaces and eliminate contamination. A reel ‘manifold sampling point and flush line can be rigged to allow the surface lines to be flushed each time a new fluid is pumped (see Fig. 6) After isolating the CT reel (close the reel inlet vaive), and opening the flush line, the new fluid is pumped Until uncontaminated fluid is observed at the sample point. Pumping recommences downhole after the manifold valves have been realigned and a fluid volume reference is taken. Mechanical separation of the cement slurry can be achieved using CT plugs (darts or pigs). These plugs operate in the same manner as the casing plugs used in primary cementing operations. They are fitted with rupture disks or land in a plug catcher, thereby providing a positive indication of the plug location. Plug launching equipment fitted to the reel allows sev- ‘eral plugs to be preloaded and then launched in sequence without aifecting the pressure integrity of the reel or manifold. For further details on the multiple plug launcher, see the COILED TUBING OPERATORS MANUAL. 2.5.3 Cement Column Stability The successful placement of a stable cement column off-bottom above a less dense uid is impossible (see Fig. 7). To ensure correct cement placement, a retaining platform must be used. The fluid and mechanical DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | Rev A Section 4.B.1 SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING January 1995 | Page 13 of 25, platforms successfully used to support squeeze or —_The nature and size of an appropriate platform should plugback cement slurries are be determined for each case. Under some conditions . it may be appropriate to place the cement column ere {rom the bottom of the cellar. ae 2.5.4 Isolation of Adjacent Zones ae The isolation of adjacent perforations below the zone + PROTECTOZONE" systems to be squeezed can be achieved by methods similar to oe those for providing a retaining platform. However, itis ‘common for all perforations around the squeeze zone ‘* through-tubing bridge plug. to be cemented. Selective repertoration of the interval [3 To reel core and CT through reel isolation valve. Circulating pressure sensor Flush line to From pump unit ——— ee \ 7 ~<+—— Sample point Rel manifold valves Fig. 6. Ree! manifold sampling point and flush line. Stable coment ‘column placed over the platform. Cement platform consisting of @ high density fluid, sand cr similar particulates, or a ‘through tubing bridge plug. Fig. 7. Cement placement with and without a retaining platform. “Mark of Schlumberger DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 4.3.1 RevA January 1995 Page 14 of 25, CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING has achieved better results with the benefit of less ‘complex job design. 2.5.5 Tubing Movement The placement techniques for fluids or plugs conveyed by CT differ from conventional drilpipe- or tubing-conveyed methods. The relatively small ID tubing restricts the ability of viscous fluids to fal from the tubing while pulling up. Attempting to pull up through a. placed plug wil resutt in cement stringers being pulled uphole. The technique commonly used to place plugs takes advantage of a basic feature of coiled tubing operations, i.e., the ability to pump fluids while moving the tubing. Once the cemenv/spacer interface starts rising in the annulus, the CT nozzle is withdrawn at a rate which maintains the nozzle within the rising slurry cok umn. The CT nozzle should be kept at least 50 to 100 ft below the top interface while the column is being placed. As the last of the cement is pumped from the CT, the nozzle should be withdrawn to above the theoretical top of the cement (TOC). This technique will result in a clean cement interface. Further tubing movement, circulation or reverse circulation will be determined by operational requirements. 26 Tool Selection Tool strings used in conjunction with cement squeezes should generally be kept to a minimum. However, there are a number of functions which may be required depending on the application. ‘+ Connector—Required on all jobs. The simple con- ectors are less sensitive to accidental cement invasion than the Dowell grapple. When using cement plugs, pigs or balls, the con- ectors that deform the internal surface of the CT (e.., dimple/setscrew and. rolkon connectors) should be checked for adequate clearance. ‘+ Check Valves—Cannot be used when procedures call for reverse circulation of excess cement from the wellbore. When fitted, fullbore flapper check valves should only be used. ‘+ Depth Correlation—Tubing end or nipple locators are commonly used to confirm depth; however, many treatments are performed using TD as a reference point. ‘+ Plug Catcher—For use with plugs ahead or behind the cement stury. To catch and retrieve the plugs, some versions provide some indication that the plug has seated by causing a pressure increase visible at the surface. ‘+ Nozzles—A variety of jetting nozzles have been developed to improve the slurry placement. in addition, some more complex designs are intended to ensure satistactory removal of excess cement by reverse circulation. While it is advantageous to perform all aspects of the operation without changing the nozzle or BHA, some functions ideally require different nozzle/jet configurations, For example, to clean and condition ‘the wellbore and to place the cement slurry, a noz- zie with multiple side-facing jets is preferred. How- fever, it excess slumy is to be removed by reverse circulation, a single large-port nozzle (to avoid plug- ging) is preterable. Combination nozzles (see Fig. 8) are designed to provide improved reverse Circulating ane jetting capabilites. 3. EXECUTION In many cementing operations, the cement setting process provokes a sense of urgency which can affect the normal decision-making ability of personnel. The tisk of premature setting and the corresponding operational dificutties can impose a sense of urgency that results in misguided actions which are neither me- thodical or necessary. Principally for this reason, itis essential that clear and precise procedures be prepared for the entire cementing operation. This should include details of normal, contingency and emergency ‘operating procedures. 3.1. Execution Precautions Execution precautions to be observed during squeeze treatments relate to the safe handling of cement and chemicals, the correct placement of a slurry with the desired characteristics and no residual cement depos- its in the CT ot pressure-control equipment on job completion. 3.1.1, Personnel All personnel involved in the design or execution of ‘squeeze cementing or CT services must be familiar with the requirements detailed in the relevant Safety and Loss Prevention (S&LP) Standards. DOWELL CONFIDENTIAL[———_}_ CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL jer SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH EE ‘Dowell COILED TUBING RevA Section 4.B.1 January 1995 | Page 15 of 25 Pins to retain ball within the nozzle. Multiple small-diameter radial ports provide ! >, improved coment, ‘placement and jetting pattem. Large-diameter port ‘open during reverse circulation and closed when jetting or placing Reverse Circulating Nozzle Improved Jetting/Circulation Nozzle Fig. 8. Cementing nozzle features. 3.1.2 Well Security The control of well pressure and fluids must meet the requirements of the relevant S&LP Standards. In addition, the requirements of the operating company and applicable regulatory authorities must be known. 3.1.3. Equipment ‘All Dowell treating and monitoring equipment must be spotted and operated in accordance with the requirements of the relevant S&LP Standards. In addition, the equipment certified for use in hazardous areas must be operated and maintained in accordance with the operating zone requirements, 3.2 Equipment Requirements ‘A schematic diagram of the typical equipment layout is presented in Fig. 9. 3.2.1 Colled Tubing Equipment ‘Some operating companies require that the workstring volume be checked by inserting and displacing a plug ‘or foam pig. Such checks can be combined with the displacement of picking treatments where required. To minimize contamination, a flushing/sampiing ‘manifold should be rigged up on the CT reel. When pumping high-density fluids through the CT workstring, there may be significant changes in the string tenson forces All manifolds and valves should be flushed to ensure that all traces of cement are removed. 3.2.2 Pressure Control Equipment All manitotls and valves should be flushed to ensure that all traces of cement are removed. 3.2.3. Pumping Equipment ‘All mixing, pumping and storage equipment must be clean and configured to avoid contamination or dilution of the cement slurry. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 4.B.1 RevA CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH Page 16 of 25 | January 1995 COILED TUBING 6) Sample J | u I ig } 1? Flush line — ‘Triplex: (Oo a2 == [re | 2 —/ ee aa [ea]eny OO | eee eT Fig. 9. Typical squeeze cementing equipment configuration. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCOILED TUBING CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH RevA Section 4.B.1 Page 17 of 25 January 1995 Colled tubing * Monitor and record pressure, ———t ratelvolume, string weight, depth andtubing OD and tubing cycles. > Pump unit 3 * Monitor and record pressure, density and pump rateWvolume. ‘Annulus ‘* Monitor volume and density of all fluids returned and ‘pumped through annulus. + Record pressure. Fig. 10. Squeeze cementing parameters to be monitored and recorded. Pressure and rate limits (governed by the CT equip- ‘Ment or reservoir conditions) for every stage of the operation must be defined and noted on the pumping schedule, ‘All manifolds and valves should be flushed to ensure that all traces of cement are removed. 3.2.4 Monitoring and Recording ‘Accurate monitoring and recording of the job parameters is essential to allow complete control of the job and preparation of postjob reporting and analyses. The schematic diagram in Fig. 10 identities typical job parameters and their point of measurementrecording, 3.2.5 Downhole Equipment ‘A complete fishing diagram ot all downhole equipment ‘must be prepared. In addition, the operation of all tools must be fully understood. 3.3 Treatment Execution The steps required to successfully complete a cement squeeze will depend on the particular wellbore conditions. In the next four subsections, the key points in each phase of a cementing operation are outlined. When preparing and documenting a treatment procedure, it is recommended that these key points are re- viewed and the applicable points incorporated into the procedure. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 4.B.1 | RevA Page 18 of 25 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH eo COILED TUBING Dowell ‘Cementing operations are frequently conducted in muttiple well campaigns within a field or area. Conse- quently, procedures are often tuned to meet local conditions “by application of the DESIGN-EXECUTE- EVALUATE® cycle. Whenever possible, previous case histories for similar applications should be referenced. The execution of a squeeze cementing operation is ‘accomplished in four basic phases: * wellbore preparation (see Fig. 11) ‘slurry mixing and pumping (see Fig. 12 to 13) squeeze (see Fig. 14 to 15) ‘+ removal of excess cement (see Fig. 1610 19). 3.3.1. Wellbore Preparation In preparing the wellbore for squeeze cementing, several operations are commonly performed. Slickline conveyed tools and methods are normally used when possible; however, in deviated or unusual conditions, CTis capable of completing all preparatory work. Wellbore preparation operations will generally include * slickline work * pressure test the production tubing annulus ‘+ establish a reference depth or TD using slick tine ‘+ confirm and correlate depths with the CT ‘+ remove any fill from the cellar (below the perforated interval) * perform a pretreatment perforation wash with or without acid * place a stable platform for the cement slurry ‘+ ensure that the wellbore is full wth filtered workover fluid 3.3.2 Slurry Mixing and Pumping Before mixing and preparing the slurry, the wellbore should be filled with the workover fluid and a stable ‘and adequate cementing platform should be in place. In addition, the placement depths should be confirmed and the CT flagged at ontical points (e.9., anticipated top and bottom of the cement column). Key points in the slurry mixing and pumping process include “Mark of Schlumberger * Batch mix and shear the slumy ensuring that additive proportions are accurately measured. Contingency plans should be made for the disposal of slury which fails to meet the required ‘specifications. * Conduct job-site quality control tests (filter cake, fluid loss, rheology). * Prepare the contaminant and spacer fluids as re- Quired. The equipment rig-up should be configured to avoid accidental fluid contamination. ‘+ Confirm the CT depth and coordinate the tubing ‘movement with the pumped volumes. The CT noz- ‘zle movement and location must be closely aligned to the fluid type and the volume exiting the nozzle. ‘The pump and CTU operators must have a mutual understanding of the operation to be completed. It is also essential that they have a clear line of ‘communication. * Lay in the cement slurry following the prepared Pumping schedule (see Table 6) . While spotting the slurry, the wellbore must remain full with fluid to Prevent gas migration in the CTiproduction tubing annulus. The following guidelines should be considered to reduce the risks of operational failure when using thixotropic cements + Do not stop pumping while thixotropic slurry isin the work string. * Place the CT rozzle above the thief zone and pump down the production tubing/CT annulus while squeezing the slurry ‘* Overdisplace the thixotropic slurries (out of the wellbore). Once the slurry achieves a high initial gel strength, it may be impossible to clean the wellbore by circulation (or reverse circulation) 333 Squeeze ‘The pressure response during a cement squeeze is often unknown. The squeeze pressure may build quickly as the slurry contacts the formation face, or in formations with fractures or void spaces behind the liner or casing, adequate squeeze pressure may not be achieved. Consequently, the treatment procedures DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | Rev A Section 4.B.1 SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING January 1995 | Page 19 of 25 TABLES EXAMPLE SQUEEZE CEMENTING PUMPING SCHEDULE Pumping Schedule ‘Tubing Movement nana ulus Component ‘oun ‘ction beth | choke Wirksting capaciy 1623 | Treatment zone 1950010 13,4208 (TD 13,580 ft) Bullhead fred seawater 200 | Swab valve dosed Ciosed 3.0 bolmin, <1200 ps 8.7 lbr/gal Fitered seawater while AH with CT, 30 [Ri otag 10 5 hmin) 73580 [Gesed 5 bolmin,<1000 psi, 8.7 tong [Gelsand coment patorn 20 bb) 76 ato 73580 | Open 2.0 bbi/min, <4000 psi, 14.0 lomigal 4 ‘With 16 bbl pumped, start POOH (50 fumin), stop at 13,500 tt 13,500 |Open ‘ow sand to sotto (30min) Tag at 1352011 13520 Freshwater spacar 15 | Nozzle 107 above tagged sand 13510 [Open 20_bbVmin, <4000 psi 8.7 brvgal Tamer’ sury (20) 77 | Wi 17 bot of sary punped, sia Open 2.0 bin, <4000 pi 16.0 omigal 3__ [POOH (60min) Freshwater spacer (6 bb) ‘or 4Bolot Displacement fui (25 6) sisplacoment, Zo boli, <4000 ps, 8.6 bal 4 stoke and gauge W squeeze pressure bul, ty in returns, 1200 ps remaining remaining while gauging max. talus one for one 16 |i 16 bi dapiace, rosie shout be | 19,000 |Build to fina Continue displacement to obtain Jat TOC squeeze pressure squec 10 }of 2000 psi. Contaminant 50 [RI Through excoss ‘Max. rate, <4000 psi, 8.5 Ibmigal. ‘slurry (25 fvmin.) DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 4.8.1 | RevA CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH Page 20 of 25 | January 1995 COILED TUBING Fitered workover fluid ‘at high rate. 1 [Choke open. Packer Welbore clean and packed. Fig. 11. Wellbore preperation. ‘Sluny pumped at _ ‘Slury pumped at ‘maximum rate/ ? maxim rate! proseure allowed. pressure allowed, Choke closed: it the Workover fluid ‘Spacerifresh water Cement slurry Fig. 12. Laying in cement slury. Workover fluid ‘Cement ‘slurry Workover fluid DOWELL CONFIDENTIAL wellbore is not full, then, pump: down annulus to Prevent U-tubing. Nozzle placed ‘above thief zone. Fig. 1. Pacing thxotrople slues.(CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | Rev A Section 4.B.1 SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING January 1995 | Page 21 of 25 Low rate continuous Displacement fuid pumped at maxi- ‘mum rate/pressure Choke back returns, allowed. monitoring pressure ‘and volumes. Nozzle pulled up >50 ft above cement interface. Workover fluid Spacer! fresh water Coment ‘stury Fig. 14. Commencing squeeze. Contaminant Returns choked pumped at maxi- fomaintain Fluid pumped at mum rate/pressure. ‘maximum rate’ [> trom cr. Pressure on Pressure for allowable differential, (1500 psi). Nozzle penetrates contaminated slurry k ata rate which Contaminated sluny at a rate which Workover provides a 50% mix ‘Stuy provides 050% mix "Wid of contaminated of contaminant, slurry and ‘Workover fui. Cement slury ‘Suny Fig. 16. Contaminating excess slurry. Fig. 17, Reverse clroulating excess slury. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 4.B.1 RevA (CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH Page 22 of 25 | January 1995. COILED TUBING Fluid pumped at Open retums Fluid pumped at ‘maximum rate/ from CT. Utell Retums choked pressure for allow- i able differential (1500 psi). Fig. 18. Reverse circulating live slurry. must detail the actions to be taken for a number of ‘events which may or may not occur. The hesitation-squeeze method assists the filter-cake generation (e.g., 10 min at 1000 psi, 15 min at 1500 Psi, 20 min at 2000 psi..). As the fracture pressure is exceeded during this process, the filter cake prevents the formation from fracturing. A firm fiter cake is formed which significantly contributes to the success of the squeeze operation. ‘* To reduce the risk of sticking, the CT nozzle should be constantly or at least frequently moved during the operation. ‘+ When displacing the spacer and slurry, the CT should be at the lower flagged depth when the spacer exits the nozzle. When 50 ft of cement has been placed above the nozzle, the CT should be slowly raised. To minimize the risk of dilution/contamination, the nozzle should be kept at least 50 ft below the cement top. With a flowmeter laced in the annular retum line, the volumes Pumped and retumed can be compared to determine the squeezed slurry volume, ‘© The annularichoke manifold pressure must be closely monitored and controlled during the cement placement and squeeze. A clear line of communica- Fig. 19. Wellbore circulated clean. tion must between the choke manifold ‘operator, pump unit operator and CTU operator. I the squeeze pressure builds before all of the slurry has exited the CT, the slurry should be laid in while such that the fluid return rate equals the pump rate through the CT. The CT nozzle should be at the cement top as the last of the slurry exits the nozzle. ‘+ The nozzle should be located 50 ft above the TOC before the squeeze commences. For safety, as- sume the TOC depth with no slurry being placed behind the periorations. ** If the squeeze pressure does not build when the interval is covered with slurry, use the hesitation technique to attempt pressure buildup in stages. The hesitation periods are dependent on how much slurry is squeezed and the slurry volume available for the squeeze. * If the squeeze pressure drops during a pumping stage, the hesitation sequence should be resumed. This drop is often an indication that perforations previously plugged by debris have broken down and are now accepiing fluid. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCOILED TUBING CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH RevA Section 4.B.1 Page 23 of 25 January 1995 ‘+ Maintain slow circulation through the CT and control the BHP by choking the annular returns. Closely ‘monitor the return volume and rate. ‘+ When the final squeeze pressure is achieved, continue circulating and holding the annular choke pressure for one hour. ‘* On completion of the squeeze sequence, stop circulation, close the choke and monitor the wellhead pressure (WHP). + Slowly bleed off the pressure to approximately 500 to 1000 psi above the BHP and prepare for the cleanout operations. 3.3.4 Removal of Excess Cement ‘An important feature of CT workovers is the ability to ‘complete the operations and restore well production in a relatively short time. For squeeze cementing operations, the efficient removal of excess cement from the wellbore is critical to the timely completion of the job. Efficient removal of the slurry without jeopardizing the integrity of the cement nodes can be achieved by ‘© reverse circulation of live cement ‘+ reverse circulation of contaminated cement. ‘circulation of contaminated cement. The Dowell operational requirements for reverse circulation through CT workstrings, as detailed in S&LP Standard No. 22, must be understood and fully implemented for any operation incorporating reverse circulation. During the removal of the excess cement, it is generally desirable to maintain a positive squeeze pressure over the treated zone. In effect, this is automatically applied in the case of reverse circulation techniques by the friction pressure created when lifting fluid through the CT. Cleanouts performed by conventional Circulation should have the backpressure controlled by a surface choke. Reverse Circulation of Live Cement ‘The reverse circulation of live cement siury (uncon- ‘taminated slurry) can be successfully performed if the following conditions are met: ‘+ The designed thickening time (including safety factor) should allow for the completion of the reverse circulation phase. ‘+ The CT penetration rate is controlled to effectively dilute the slurry as it is removed (maximum density of reversed fluid is 10 brvgal). ‘© The reverse circulation is continued until clean returns are observed at the surface. Typical procedures for the reverse circulation of live ‘cement include the following steps: ‘+ With the CT nozzle positioned above the spacer fluid, establish circulation down the CT production tubing annulus. Maintain a stable pump rate which does not exceed the maximum allowable differential onthe CT at the wellhead (1500 psi) ‘* Penetrate the spacer and cement column with the nozzle at a rate which ensures 50% dilution of the ‘excess slurry. This serves to reduce the hydrostatic pressure acting inside the workstring and aids removal. ‘* The CT should be run to the lower flag mark with Circulation maintained until clean returns are observed at the surface. ‘+ After clean retums are observed, circulate through the CT with the returns choked to maintain positive squeeze pressure. Make a jetting pass through the treated zone. The jetting-fluid pump rate should generally be reduced when passing the treatment zone to avoid damaging the cement nodes. The interval above the treated zone can be jetted at an increased rate. ‘* Commence reverse circulation again at previous pump and penetration rates until clean retums are observed. ‘+ Apply a positive squeeze pressure until the cement develops sufficient compressive strength to allow testing (generally after 24 hr). If required, displace the annulus to nitrogen to achieve the necessary tunderbalance to test and evaluate the squeeze. Reverse Circulation of Contaminated Cement ‘The contamination of the excess cement is often nec- ‘essary to axtend the slurry thickening time, thereby allowing cleanout operations to be safely completed. In addition, it can allow cleanout operations to be delayed until the compressive strength of the cement ‘nodes has increased. In this way, the likelihood of damaging the treated zone is reduced. However, un- less the contaminant is correctly and thoroughly ap- lied, there is some risk of partially obstructing the DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 4.8.1 | RevA Page 24 of 25 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING wellbore with set cement. Typical borax/bentonite and biopolymer contaminant formulations are shown in Table 7. TABLE 7 TYPICAL CEMENT SLURRY CONTAMINANT COMPOSITIONS Type ‘Components | Concentration Borax/Bentorite | Bentonite 10 to 20 Ibm/bbI Borax 20 Ibrrvbbl Cement retarder_|3 gaVbb (case dependent) Biopolymer gel [Biozan gel 1.5 lomibbI ‘Typical procedures for contaminating excess cement include the following steps: * With the CT nozzle positioned above the worst case ‘cement top, establish circulation of the contaminant through the CT while maintaining the desired choke Pressure at the surface. ‘+ Penetrate the slurry at a rate which ensures a 50:50 mixture of contaminant and cement siurry. ‘+ Reduce the pump rate and penetration rates across the treated zone to minimize the risk of damaging the cement nodes. ‘* Continue the contamination run to the lowest slurry depth ‘+ POOH while continuing to pump the contaminant. Maintain pump and withdrawal rates sufficient to ensure a final dilution/contamination ratio of 1.5:1 (1.5 parts contaminant to 1 part slurry). ‘+ When the nozzle is at the top of the contaminated column begin reversing as detailed in Reverse Circulation of Live Cement. Circulation of Contaminated Cement In the event that the operating conditions cannot safely support reverse circulation of the excess slurry, ‘conventional circulation may be used. For example, ‘operations performed through 1¥4-in. workstrings can- ot employ reverse circulation techniques due to the ‘excessive friction pressure encountered. Typical procedures for the circulation/contamination of excess ‘cement slurry include the following steps: ‘+ With the CT nozzle at the top of the spacer fluid, commence pumping contaminant while maintaining the necessary choke pressure to apply a positive squeeze pressure on the treated zone. ‘+ RIH while pumping at the maximum ratepressure at a penetration rate which ensures a 50% dilution/contamiination of the slurry. ‘+ Reduce the pump and penetration rates across the treated zone to minimize the risk of damaging the ‘cement nodes. ‘© Continue the contamination run to the lowest slurry level ‘+ POOH while continuing to pump the contaminant. Maintain pump and withdrawal rates sufficient to ensure that the circulated fluids remain above the nozzle. + On reaching the tubing tailpipe/entry guide, run back down to the lowest cleanout depth, reducing the rates when passing the treated zone. '* POOH to the top of the treated zone. Cement accelerator may be placed over the zone if desired, ‘+ Continue to POOH while circulating workover fluid at the maximum rate. The tubing withdrawal rate must be controlled to ensure that all fluids are ‘circulated above the nozzle. ‘* Ensure that all nipples, mandrels or completion ‘components are thoroughly jetted while POOH. 4 EVALUATION ‘The methods used to evaluate the efficiency of a ce- ‘ment squeeze are primarily dependent on the purpose and objectives of the treatment. For example, water and gas shutoff treatments are generally checked by performing an inflow test; whereas, thief zone ‘squeezes and squeeze treatments performed prior to hydraulic fracturing are commonly checked by pressure testing the wellbore prior to repertorating. ‘The initial step in any evaluation process should be to Confirm the condition of the wellbore in the treatment zone. In the event that the wellbore is obstructed by large cement nodes or buildup, some driling/underreaming may be required. A wireline or CT- ‘conveyed drift of the appropriate size is commonly used to check wellbore condition. In addition, a check should be made to ensure that the cellar is free of debris and cemert. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALchlumberge COILED TUBING CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING THROUGH RevA Section 4.B.1 Page 25 of 25 January 1995 The duration and maximum pressure to which a ‘squeeze treatment is tested will be at the discretion of the Client. However, the evaluation process should be discussed during the job-design phase to ensure the risks of damaging the treated zone are minimized. Inflow differential pressure applied during testing should be equal to or slightly greater than the antici- ated drawdown when production has been restored. ‘An acceptable/unacceptable inflow rate should be determined prior to testing. Injection wells will typically be tested to the injection header maximum pressure. Wells to be reperforated land fractured should be pressure tested to the maximum BHP anticipated during the fracturing treatment 5 REFERENCES The following references are recommended for job- design information or further reading. Internal Technical Manuals (ITM) CEMENTING MATERIALS MANUAL (ITM-1045) Technical Sales Literature (TSL) WELL CEMENTING by Erik B. Nelson (TSL-4135) Technical Papers Krause, RE. and Reem, D.C.: "New Coiled-Tubing Unit Cementing Techniques at Prudhoe Developed to Withstand Higher Differential Pressure," paper SPE 24052, presented at the SPE Western Regional Meeting Bakersfield, CA (April 1992) Vorkkin, P.B. and Sanders, G.S.: “Cement Slury Qualification, Field Mixing and Quality Assurance Procedures for Coiled Tubing Squeeze Operations in Prudhoe Bay, Alaska," paper SPE 26089, presented at the SPE Western Regional Meeting, Anchorage, AK (May 1993). Harrison, T.W. and Blount, C.G.: "Coiled Tubing Cement Squeeze Technique at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska,” paper SPE 15104, presented at the SPE California Regional meeting Oakland, CA (April 1986). Hombrook, P.R. and Mason, C.M.: "Improved Coiled Tubing Squeeze Cementing Techniques at Prudhoe Bay." paper SPE 19543, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference, San Antonio, TX (1989). Vidick B., Nash, F. D. and Hartley, |.: "Cementing ‘Through Coiled Tubing and its Influence on Slurry Properties," paper SPE 20959, presented at Europec "90, The Hague, Netherlands (October 1990) Welch, JL, Mason, C. M. and Pavlich, J.P. “Thixotrogic Cementing With Coiled Tubing at Prudhoe Bay,” paper SPE 20906, presented at Europec ‘90, The Hague, Netherlands (October 1990). Bary, T.S., Beck D.L., Putnam, D.L. and Snow, N. “Otfshore Coiled Tubing Cement Squeezes, Forties Field," paper SPE 23144, presented at SPE Oftshore Europe Conference, Aberdeen, Scotland (October 1991) DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING Reva Section 5.4.1 MANUAL danuary 1995 |Page 1 of 14 GAS MIGRATION 1 SUMMARY .. 2 ANALYZE THE PROBLEM THE FORMATION FACTOR 2.4 CemCADE Design 3. CLEAN THE ANNULAR SPACE ~ THE Mup REMOVAL FACTOR ~3 ‘3.1 CemCADE Design 3 4. DELAY GAS ENTRY ~ THE POST PLACEMENT FACTOR... 4 41 Wall Si 4.2 CemCADE Design 5 CONTROL GAS MIGRATION - THE SLURRY PERFORMANCE FACTOR .... 5,4 Notion of Shinkage and Expansion 52 Gas 83 Gomcabe Desig ‘APPENDIX A—Field Case Study © Nean 1 SUMMARY The Dowell solution to gas migration-control made a major step forward in 1982 with the introduction of GASBLOK* service. This service was essentially based on the D600 latex additive whose role was 10 impart to the cement an impermeabilty towards gas. ‘Already at the time it was felt that special attention should also be given to mud removal, hence ‘GASBLOK slurries were designed with low rheological parameters to be pumped under turbulent-flow re- imme. Hydrostatic considerations were also made because recommendations were given to place at least 600 ft of GASBLOK slurry above the gas zone. Never- theless, GASBLOK technology was mostly oriented towards the slury design In 1989, the GASRULE" technology was introduced to help quantity the risk of gas migration associated with the job design. The GASRULE Gas Migration Design Tool is a slide rule which allows the computation of the risk of gas migration associated with a set of well conditions and design parameters.’ Starting from a set of well and wellbore-fluid data, four parameters are first computed. These parameters are converted into dimensionless factors. They are ‘© Formation Factor © Mud Removal Factor ‘of Schlumberger. + Hydrostatic Factor * Slury Performance Factor. Finally, these factors are combined into a unique index which represents the “chances of controling gas migration”. This final index is either poor’, “moderate”, or “excellent”. ‘The value of the GASRULE tool is probably not in the definition of the various factors but rather in its global approach. This approach divides the job design into four major steps: the analysis of the problem, the proper design of the fluid column, the mud removal, and the slurry. Each one of these steps plays an important role in the job overall success and can be optimized rather independently of each other. In 1990, WELLCLEAN' technology was introduced and it was realized that some cases of gas migration which had not found a solution with the use of GASBLOK slurries alone could be solved when the rules of mud removal, conveyed by WELLCLEAN technology, were correctly applied. tt became possible to replace the empirical Mud Removal Factor of GASRULE by a more complete approach. New mod- ules were introduced in the CemCADE" software to help apply the WELLCLEAN technology. In this manual section we shall expose the current Dowell approach to gas migration. We shall see that Fae, P, Wikins, D. and Free, D.,“A New Approach tothe Prediction of Gas Flow after Cementing,” SPE Paper 18622 (1980), ‘CONFIDENTIALITY This manual section isa confidential document which must not be copied in whole ‘or in any part or discussed with anyone outside the Schumberger organization.Section 5.A.1 Page 2 of 14 RevA January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL I GAS MIGRATION we keep the GASRULE approach with a design meth- ‘odology in four steps. No change is made to the For- mation Factor even if we are aware of its limitations. GASBLOK and WELLCLEAN technologies are kept for slurry design and for mud removal. The main improvement stands in the design of the hydrostatic pressure of the cement column, with the Post Place- ent analysis to replace the Hydrostatic Factor. Each step of the design is described in the following sections. We shall also make reference to the CemCADE Gas Migration module. 2 ANALYZE THE PROBLEM - THE FORMATION FACTOR The more information one gathers about the formation, the better chance one has to achieve a good de- ‘sign. In other words, trying to understand and solve a ‘gas-migration problem is quite difficutt when one has ‘only an average pore gradient for the entire openhole section. This is unfortunately quite often the case. Analysis starts by identifying all possible gas-bearing formations. Each gas zone is characterized by its position, vertical extension, pressure and permeability. ‘An acourate description of the pore pressure versus depth is required to optimize the hydrostatic parameters. The analysis of RFT" (Repeat Formation Tester) logs, when available, helps considerably. ‘Occurrences of gas during driling must be considered 80 possible gas lenses above the main zones can be located. This information should exist in the driling re- port. In case several gas-bearing formations are identified, one might want to evaluate it some are more coitical than others. Besides the gas zones, one also needs to have a ‘good description of the pore pressure of other permeable layers. Depleted zones will make the problem ‘even worse by favoring fluid loss, accelerating pressure decrease in the annulus and causing crosstlow between zones. The presence of impermeable layers also needs to be determined because in front of these zones, the pressure inside the cement might decrease to very low values. For instance, inside the previous ‘casing, the cement pressure can decrease to values as low as the vapor pressure of water. *Mark of Schiumbergor The knowledge of the fracture gradient is also re- ‘quired because one will try to maximize the initial ‘overbalance pressure in the well. A low fracture gradient reduces the amount of overbalance pressure by which gas migration can be controlled. In a joint effort, the operating company engineer and the Dowell engineer pertorm the formation analysis. ‘Obtaining this irformation is very important because it will help the design as well as the evaluation of the ‘cement job. 2.1 CemCADE Design The pore and fracture pressure profiles are stored in the Formation screen. Gas zones are specified by entering a °G" into the "Reservoir Fluid” column. All this information is used in the Post Placement screen to describe the evclution of the annular pressure immedi ately after the cement job has been completed. The formation permeability is entered in the Gas Migration screen to calculate the Formation Factor; a default value of 10 md is provided. WARNING: In the CemCADE program, the description of a zone is made using the bottom of the zone as a reference. When one enters a pressure at a given depth, the program assumes that the pressure profile above this depth is a straight line going to the origin of Pressures at the top of the well. This description can ‘cause problems over a long zone where gas pressure should be constant. In this case, the user might want to enter the gas pressure at different depths through- ut the gas zone to have a more accurate description of the actual pressure profile The Formation Factor is calculated at the top of the {gas zone. It can take the following values: 0 Very critical 1 Cfiticat 2 —— Noderate 3 Low 4 Very low DOWELL CONFIDENTIALGAS MIGRATION CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL RevA Section 5.A.1 January 1995 | Page 3 of 14 3. CLEAN THE ANNULAR SPACE ~ THE MUD REMOVAL FACTOR The prime concern when cementing across a high- Pressure gas zone is to achieve optimum mud re- ‘moval. This is by far the most important aspect of the design. The correct application of WELLCLEAN technology is mandatory for gas migration control. For more information, refer to SECTION 2.B.3—MUD REMOVAL—WELLCLEAN TECHNOLOGY. Because mud partially dehydrates during the cement hydration, mud channels left in the annulus are prefer- ential paths for gas migration. This is also true for mudcakes across permeable layers. Sufficient differential pressure applied across the mud channel can result in the commencement of gas migration. ‘The analysis of openhole and caliper logs provides valuable information: permeable zones usually indicate the presence of mudcakes and impermeable shales can promote the formation of washouts. 3.1 CemCADE Design In the Gas Migration screen, several pieces of information are required to determine the quality of the mud removal. For practical purposes, one should try to achieve good zonal isolation over a 600-ft section above the gas zone. The gas zone and the 600-ft section will now be referred to as the zone of interest. Parameters to consider are: 1. Mud-circulation efficiency. ‘One can make use of the Laminar Flow option in the Eocentered Flow calculator to check the critical rate for effective laminar displacement of the mud by itself. The actual rate during circulation should be compared to the critical rate. At least ‘one hole volume should be circulated. One must exert engineering judgment to estimate if, “Yes” or "No", enough mud has been circulated prior to ‘cement placement. The default value is Yes. 2. Time of turbulence across the zone of interest. ‘The plot “Time of Efficient Displacement” allows ‘one to estimate an average time of turbulence across the zone of interest. If the plot has been viewed, the Time of Efficient Displacement at the top of the gas zone is used as the default value. Ten-minute contact time in turbulent flow is recommended. 3. Effective spacer volume to displace the mud. ‘The plot “Effective Volume of Displacing Fluids in Laminar Flow” allows one to estimate the average effective spacer volume across the zone of interest. If the plot has been viewed, the Effective Volume of Spacer at the top of the gas zone is used as the default value. An effective spacer volume of 60 bb! is recommended. 4. Effective cement volume to displace the spacer. Not only the spacer must displace the mud but the cement must displace the spacer as well. The plot “Effective Volume of Displacing Fluids in Laminar Fiow” allows one to estimate an average effective cement volume across the zone of interest. if the plot has been viewed, the Effective Volume of Cement at the top of the gas zone is used as the defaut value. The recommended volume corresponds to the volume required to cover 600 ft of annular space above the top of the gas zone. 5. Pipe movement. Reciprocation or rotation or both contribute to the mobilization of the mud. "Yes" is the default value. “No” must be entered if none of these techniques. will be applied. 6. Number of bottom plugs. ‘The rumber of bottom plugs is considered to evaluate the degree of contamination which can ‘occur when fluids travel down the casing. Cement Contaminated by mud takes a longer time to set and prematurely reduces the annular pressure. In Particular, if no bottom plug is used, one needs to ‘make sure that contamination, by the cement fin- gering through the lower density mud, does not ‘occur while the cement travels down the casing. 7. Fluids compatibility Fluids compatibility refers to the possible chemical interaction between the various fluids. A value of "Yes" or "No" must be entered depending on what ‘can be expected. ‘These seven described parameters are taken into ac- ‘count to calculate the Mud Removal Factor, which can take the following values: Unacceptable Bad Average Good Excellent DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.A.1 | RevA Page 40f 14 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL GAS MIGRATION 4 DELAY GAS ENTRY - THE POST PLACEMENT FACTOR 4.1 Wall Shear Stress ‘Short-term gas migration is generally due to a loss of well control after placement, which results from the si- ‘multaneous decrease of hydrostatic pressure and the Creation of space inside the slurry column. The main mechanisms responsible for these effects are fluid loss, gelation and shrinkage. Each one of these mechanisms can be described using complex models. However, the analysis of the problem shows that a first level of understanding for hydrostatic-pressure decrease in the annulus can be found by looking at gelation only. To characterize this gelation, we need to introduce the notion of Wall Shear Stress (WSS). ‘As the slurry gels, interactions develop between the cement particles. An estimate of the magnitude of these interactions can be obtained by measuring the gel strength. Classical techniques have been de- soribed. At the same time, as the slurry gel strength increases, interactions also develop between the cement and the casing or the formation. A measure of these interactions ig the Wall Shear Stress, expressed usually in ibt/100 ft? or Pa, too winoon® =47.88Pa 100 Pa = 208.85 Ibt/100 f ‘The pressure drop across a slice of fluid in the annulus is defined by the equation: AP = dfg icosO~ USS 1 where: dt = fluid density 9 =gravity 1 length of the slice of fluid @ — = inclination Dh =hole diameter De — =casing diameter ‘As WSS increases, the annular pressure decreases nti it equals the formation pore pressure. There is a Critical WSS value (CWSS) for which the annular pressure is equal to the pore pressure. Once the WSS is higher than this critical value, gas can enter into the anrulus. The CWSS does not depend on the slurry itself out on the well parameters such as the formation gas pressure, deviation and hole size as well as the density and position of the fluids. It is also very sensitive 1o any additional annular pressure, to the presence of external casing packers (ECP), of to any techniques such as two-stage jobs and Sandwich Squeeze’ which can be used to improve the gas control 42 CemCADE Design ‘A Post Placement module has been implemented in CemCADE software which can perform all these pressure calculatiors for any well geometry and calculate the CWSS. The objective here is to adjust the hydrostatic parameters in order to maximize the CWSS. By doing so, the time at which gas can enter the column is delayed which allows more time for the cement to harden before being vulnerable to invasion. This decreases the rsk of gas migration. There is no “gcod" or “bad” value for CWSS. Typical values range between 0 and 250 Pa. For two designs which have different CWSS values, the highest value is preferred. ‘As a rule of thumb, the risk of gas invasion is. ‘+ very critical below 25 Pa + critical from 25 to 75 Pa moderate from 75 to 150 Pa low from 150 to 250 Pa ‘+ very low above 250 Pa. Values presented here are order of magnitudes, which based on limited experience. Local conditions might lead to adapting these values. In any case, one should try to optimize the hydrostatic design by maximizing the Critical Wall Shear Stress. Everything else being equal, shorter columns of cement are preferred to longer ones. Two-stage designs yield better results than long slumy columns. The CWSS decreases as the annular clearance becomes ‘smaller. External casing packers decrease the CWSS value while additional annular pressure or casing Pressure increases it. " chan, K'., Woolsoy, A., Acker, D. and Pipchuk, P.: “Surface Set Cements and thei Successtu! Applicaton forthe Gas Migration Contain Southeastern Alberta,” GISPE Paper 90114. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALGAS MIGRATION CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL RevA Section 5.A.1 January 1995 | Page Sof 14 The CWSS calculation by the CemCADE Post Placement module does not take into account possible fluid loss, which would accelerate pressure decrease. Good fluid-loss control is required to delay Pressure loss (and gas entry). This requirement is considered in the Slurry Performance Factor. ‘Another use of the Post Placement module, for differ- entiating between gas invasion and gas migration, should not be neglected. Gas migration occurs in front of a gas zone for low CWSS values. Gas migration ‘might occur only if the pressure gradient in the annulus promotes this migration. Gas migrates towards points of lower pressure only. By looking at the post placement plots generated for different WSS values, ‘one can have a good idea of the evolution of the pressure profile in the annulus and the effect of adjacent layers (see the case study in Appendix A), WARNING: The Post Placement Factor calculated by the CemCADE (V2.9) program is the same as the old GASRULE Hydrostatic Factor. in other words, it does ‘not take into account neither the WSS considerations nor the effect of adjacent layers. This module just compares the pore pressure to the hydrostatic pressure of the column calculated by using a density of 1 for the cement slurry. In some situations (presence of extemal packers for instance), large discrepancies might occur between a relatively high CWSS and a very low Post Placement Factor. 5 CONTROL GAS MIGRATION - THE SLURRY PERFORMANCE FACTOR 5.1 Notion of Shrinkage and Expansion ‘Cement shrinkage and expansion originate from the difference in density between the reaction compo- ents and the resulting hydration products. This difference results in changes in * pore volume * pore pressure ‘+ sample dimensions internal stress of the cement. NOTE: For this discussion, intemal shrinkage or expansion refers to the change in the pore volume, and bulk shrinkage or bulk expansion refers to the change in the sample dimensions. The magnitude of these four effects depends on the slurry design (¢.9., density, porosity, amount of ce- mentitious material, additives, curing temperature, curing pressure). The partition between these effects is controlled by + slurry permeability ‘+ mechanical properties of the slurry ‘+ stresses applied to the boundaries. A slurry is impermeable it ‘+ the sample is covered by an impermeable barrier, or «its permeability is sufficiently low or the sample size is sufficiently large to prohibit fluid flow to compensate for volume changes in an appropriate time period. 11 a slury is infinitely permeable, then a net flow of fluid in or out of a sample changes the pore volume; thus, no bulk shrinkage is measured. The intemal shrinkage equals the amount of fluid entering the sample. {ta slurry is impermeable, then a change in the pore volume results in pore-pressure change and subsequently a bulk shrinkage or expansion governed by the mechanical properties of the slurry. lta slurry is contained between fixed boundaries, then no dimensional changes can occur: therefore, slurry shrinkage initially occurs as pore-pressure reduction and then 2s either bond breakage in the walls or the creation of internal tensile stresses. Conversely, slurry expansion between fixed boundaries creates internal compressive stresses. Depending on the mechanical properties of the slurry, these additional stresses (tensile or compressive) can result in failures. Appore-pressure decrease in a cement slurry can have dramatic effects. For a slury immediately above an extemal casing packer (ECP) set in a casing/casing annulus or in front of an impermeable zone, fluid flow cannot take place to compensate for the intemal shrinkage. Therefore, the pore pressure decreases and the interstitial water expands to fil the increasing Porosity. This water expansion continues until the pore Pressure equals the water vapor pressure at the slurry temperature (e.9., 0.5 bar at 20°C, 5.0 bar at 150°C). Regardless of the initial pore pressure, the final pore pressure can be extremely low. This might explain DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.A.1 | RevA Page 6 of 14 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL [Earercrl GAS MIGRATION why some ECPs leak (see the case study in Appendix A). In most cement slurries, internal shrinkage ocours. The addition of specific additives (e.g., plaster, calcium magnesium oxide) superposes expansion {a slurry sample containing an expansive agent has access 10 a fluid, then fluid absorption first compen- sates for the initial shrinkage. Eventually, the sample permeability is sufficiently low to isolate the pores and then further shrinkage reduces the pore pressure. However, this further shrinkage is late in the exother mic hydration process and the solid sample frame has sufficient strength to resist compressive forces. At this stage, no or little bulk shrinkage is observed and the ore pressure is relatively high because the fluid absorption has compensated for the shrinkage. When the products of expansion are deposited in the later stages, the increase in the pore pressure can exceed the applied total stress on the sample and sample expansion occurs. {mn contrast, under impermeable conditions, shrinkage ‘cannot be compensated for by fluid absorption and the pore pressure is reduced immediately. Because the cement has litle compressive strength, the sample collapses and bulk shrinkage is measurable. This process continues until additional shrinkage results in a dramatic reduction in the pore pressure and the ce- ‘ment then has sufficient compressive strength to withstand the applied stress (early in the exothermic hydration process). The deposition of the expansive products in the later stages increases the pore pressure but from a much lower initial value and thus more expansion must occur before the pore pressure in- ‘creases to a value equal to the original applied stress. (overcomes the shrinkage). ‘An expansive agent provides a finite amount of expansion. Therefore, for the same concentration of expansive agent, the net amount of expansion under impermeable conditions is less than the amount under permeable conditions with fluid accessibility, and may be zero. 5.2 Gas Propagation Consider a cement across a gas zone with gas pressure during the gelation phase of the setting process. During this process, volume change inside the slurry (internal shrinkage) only occurs when there is fluid loss to the formation. if there is no internal shrinkage, then gas cannot enter because there is no available space forit to occupy. Golation causes the annular hydrostatic pressure to decrease to the pore pressure. It is not responsible for gas entry and subsequent migration. Gas migration only occurs when shrinkage takes place, creating space inside the slurry. This (Dowell’s) theory is con- trary to Haliburton’s theory because their basis for gas migration is primarily gelation with very little reference to shrinkage. I no gas or fluid enters to fil the additional porosity created by shrirkage (impermeable conditions), then the pressure in the slurry decreases to the vapor pressure of water. Litimately, the slurry cannot withstand the difference between the slury internal pressure and the gas pressure, resulting in bulk shrinkage of the cement Gas entry can occur by two mechanisms: Darcy's flow in the cement microporosity or fracture flow. For un- Compensated shrinkage, internal tensile stress can develop in the slurry. Because cement has a low tensile strength, the internal tensile stress can create fractures to relax this stress, resulting in gas entry and propagation. ‘When the WSS equals the CWSS, the annular pres- ‘sure equals the formation pore pressure and gas can enter the cement column. if the pressure gradient is not flat, gas might migrate towards points of lower pressure. Different slurry compositions will not offer the same resistance to gas flow. Very litte is known about gas propagation and its limit- ing factors. Depending on the state of the slurry, gas propagates by bubbles, micropercolation or fractures. Bubble flow is controlled by the slurry gel strength and CWS values as low as 25 Pa have been claimed to control it. Above these values, experimental evidence thas shown that due to the microporosity and the internal stress induced by shrinkage, gas could still migrate in the microporosity or by opening fractures into the cement matix. For every slurry, there is a Mini- mum Wall Shear Stress (MWSS) above which gas ‘can no longer propagate. The MWSS depends on the ‘chemical composition of the slurry and the BHST. For every design, there is a critical range of wall shear stress and therefore a critical period of time during which gas migrates into the slurry. This period of time {goes from To, the time at which the slurry reaches the CWS, to Tm, the time at which the slurry is imperme- DOWELL CONFIDENTIALGAS MIGRATION CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL RevA Section 5.A.1 Page 7 of 14 vanuary 1995 able to gas. Optimizing a design consists in reducing this time period. This can be done by either increasing the CWSS value, decreasing the MWSS value or decreasing the transition time (right angle set) ‘A special test method has been developed which allows the slurry permeability to gas at different WSS. values to be tested. It was observed that GASBLOK slurries would repeatedly stop gas invasion for WSS. values in excess of 14,000 Pa. At this value, a neat slurry is still permeable to gas. ‘One explanation for the latex to stop gas invasion is that it decreases the porosity (by about 10%) and permeability in a GASBLOK slurry, reducing the likelihood that Darcy's flow occurs. Another explanation is that the latex improves the tensile strength of the cement, decreasing the chance of fracture flow. 5.3 CemCADE Design ‘Two parameters are used in the CemCADE program to calculate the Slurry Performance Factor: the fluid loss and the transition time of the slurry. A correction factor is used when the slurry is designed with D600 or D134. The reason for this correction factor is found in a particular feature of latex slurries. Latex additives D600 and D134 should not be considered as liquid additives. They exist as a suspension of solid latex particles in a liquid phase made of water plus some surfactants to stabilize the suspension. La- tex particles are spherical with an average diameter of 0.1 micron and the same density as water (8.32 lomgal [1.0 SG). These particles ocoupy 50% by volume (hence by weight) of the total suspension. The first effect of latex additives is to reduce the porosity of the cement slurry. This can be seen in the following example. Consider the densities of a cement powder (p, = 3.15 SG) and water (9, = 1.00 SG). In a slury (density 9), the volumetric fractions of the cement (6,) and the water (@,,) are linked by the two equations: Po Pe + By X Py =P oct 0"=1.00 For a classical 1.90 SG slury (py = 15.8 lbmigal), the solition o these equations resuls in ,, = 0.58 (6 is also defined as the sry porosity) and, = 0.42, Because the density of latex particles is approximately one (1.00 SG for our calculations), we see that a 1.90- SG latex slurry will aways contain of 42% cement by volume, the difference being occupied by water and solid latex particles, For example, a 1.90-SG latex slurry with 2.0 gaisk of 10600 will see its slurry porosity or water volume frac- tion drop from 58 to 46%, which corresponds to a 12% Porosity reduction. This value is typical of the porosity reduction we obtain in the latex siurries designed for a gas-migraton control. This reduced porosity decreases the mobility of the water and most probably the gas mebilty as well. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.A.1 RevA Page 8 of 14 January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL GAS MIGRATION THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL GAS MIGRATION Rev A January 1995 Section 5.A.1 Page 9 of 14 The well presented in this field case study is one well in a set of offshore horizontal wells with a liner set in the horizontal section extending from 7,000 to 10,000 ft MD. ‘well is a good candidate for postplacement analysis because an RFT log provides accurate formation data (e.g., fluid samples, pressures), the displacement technique incorporates WELLCLEAN technology and the cement system is an optimized GASBLOK sturry. Figure 1 shows the annular pressure profile at the end of the job. The well parameters and fluid properties were entered in the respective screens of the CemCADE program. The default value for the wall shear stress (WSS) is. the 10-min gel strength, the yield stress or zero if no value has been entered. The density and WSS used to generate the pressure profile are indicated on the left side of the graph. CemCADE PLACEMENT DESIGN POST PLACEMENT ANALYSS 20 get 1.00 1/00 eo feet 20 07 over Pressure of eter esi coveryENGINEERING MANUAL 5 GRATION 11a gas pressure of 3,240 and 3,394 psi, respectively. |"G" in the "Reservoir Fluid’ column of the Formation odule. It shows the evolution of the annular pressure {gel strength or, to be more accurate, the increase of inges the annular pressure. This pressure is also af- vacker set inside the annular space. The amount of tered in the Post Placement screen. Gli + cAGE snoY no + ORSTOED | BORE Hope AT 14:28CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | Rev A Section 5.A.1 GAS MIGRATION January 1995 | Page 11 of 14 Figure 2 shows the new pressure profile when the slurry has reached a WSS of 21.83 Ibt/100 ft?—the critical wall shear stress (CWSS)—at 10,075 fl. This value is the CWSS because the annular pressure equals the pore pressure. This calculation is achieved by entering in the upper left screen an annular pressure lower than pore pressure (e.g., 0 psi) at the 10,075-ft depth. An error message is displayed warning that annular pressure must be greater than the pore pressure. By acknowledging this message (hitiing the key), the program calculates the ‘CWS at this depth. Figure 3 illustrates the pressure profile when the CWSS of 94,79 Ibt/100 ft” is reached in the shallower gas zone (at 7,450 tt). CemCADE PLACEMENT DESIGN eee ‘POST PLACEMENT ANALYSIS. ences: eens vested | Saeoe Nes AT 14:20 WELL SCHEMATIC. Fig. 3.Section 5.A.1 | Rav A CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL Page 12 of 14 | January 1995, GAS MIGRATION Figure 4 presents the pressure profile later in the hydration process when the CWSS equals 500 Ibt/100 ft. CemCADE PLACEMENT DESIGN Sit: oe snr oe» POST PLACEMENT ANALYSS coos ean Ofsted | Scocc~te86 AT 14:53 WELL SCHEMATIC | TA 8.s0 savant 13.00 tron ce it7et 200.00 vor voor Fig. 4. ‘Several observations can be made: * The deeper zone is the more critical gas zone because the (lower) critical wall shear stress is achieved in a shorter period of time. Using the formation factor scale, this zone is considered very critical the highest ranking for the potential to create gas-migration problems. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | Fev A cecens GAS MIGRATION [January 1995 | Page 13 of 14 ‘+ On curve 4, the annular pressure decreases from TD to the middie of the openhole section and then increases, as the depth approaches the upper gas zone. Because gas migrates towards lower pressures, gas migration under these conditions could be expected to stop in the middie of the openhole section. The Post Placement screen can be used to illustrate the effect of several techniques to improve the actual design. These techniques are + A reduction in the yield point of the mud wall shear stress to zera, by circulating mud above the liner hanger increases the CWSS at 10,075 ft from 21.83 to 33.30 Ibt/100 ft*, This increase is insignificant, The same reduction increases the CWSS at 7,450 ft from 94.79 to 137.77 Ibt/100 ft"—a significant increase. ‘* An applied surface annular pressure of 629 psi after slurry placement increases the CWSS to 500 Ibf/100 ft? at the shallower zone and 130 Ibt/100 ft” at the deeper zone. ‘+ Some wells in this set of offshore horizontal wells are completed with the liner hanger containing a packer. The packer has a minimal effect on the critical wall shear stress at both zones, The CWSS decreases from 21.83 to 18.58 Ibf/100 ft” at 10,075 ft (see Fig. 5) and from 94.79 to 43.60 Ibt/100 ft at 7,450 ft (see Fig. 6). oncRoe 2.905 AUTO E/R NERa cuneent case: 4 OESIGH Poet Placement Hodule bee Zone ker [—Depth—pPare Beef, Pre —Beoth—-Pre, Top—rfra, Bot re eet | Sond [or fe pai | psi 750 | seo | senacoa |e auia.ae | 28.89 Tors | Se8s.05 | Sess:ee | 0 est LEER. Grace Deo, for Options f= Fluid none —Denicy—_shest=—sdehue deo ‘oyeet iee/oveca],_oet [-Annulus Top——-—-Open/Closed/Pressurized: 0 Hud 8 [fet starry lEouceen }-Lending (or Stege) Coller DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.A.1 | Rev A CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL Page 14 of 14 | January 1995 GAS MIGRATION CemcADE 2.9C5 AUTO E/R MFA22 CURRENT Cese: 1 DESIGN Post Placement Hodule Gas Zone Ep [—Depth——--Pore Pre—-finn. Pra. p—Depth——7-Prs. Top—-Prs. Bot ft pes PPF ft pai pei 7450) 340 ° 6704 3105.14 | 2907.68 10075 3393.36 0 : oe for Options No p-Fluid Neme— Deneity—-—Shear——y—Valume- 1b/gal Tips/ioofe2 | bei fe [Annulus Top——Open/Closed/Pressurized: 0 1-0 i” | hoa’ jolt 310.268" | 6348.13) 5 |Teit Slurry | 16 112,028 | 10075 [-Botton- [Lending (or Stage) Coller —————} 2.97193 |-g995, 383.72 | [Top Plug: oO [a995 3306.07 1 fine 10.1 13. 21.332 | 9995 "3306.07 Ucasing Top: Open/Closed/Pressurized: 0 Fig.6. DOWELL CONFIDENTIAL— oe CEMENTING ENGINEERING Reva [Section 5. MANUAL u January 1995 | Page 1 of 30 FOAMED CEMENTING [Contents Page [Contents Page | 1 SUMMARY 1 6 Ere Cali (0) (EO) Hal 2 JOB DESIGN... 2 Slt so Eaiinneneea ie 6.2 Foam Slurry Yield (FSY) .. eee 13, 22 Foamed Cement Density "2 | 7 NOMENCLATURE 25 Hand Calculation 14 2.3.1 Case a 4 APPENDIX A—input Screens and Output Plots 4 Design Methodol § | of GomCAbE Foam Module for Case “6 2 2.5 CemCADE Foam Moduie 2'6 Computer-Assisted Design 2.7 Other Design Considerations . 2.7.1 Mud Removal... 2:72 Placement Pressures . a) 3 JOB EXECUTION... 9 3.1 Basic Rules for Foamed Gementing 9 3.2 Cement Pumper/Batch Mixer... 9 33 Nitrogen Addition/ Foam Generator... 10, 3.4 Foamer/Stablizer Addition 10 3.5 Common Considerations ...0.-nsnnnsane 10 3.6 Job Monitoring 1 3.7 Treatment Procedure ag 4 JOB EVALUATION nena 12) 5 REMEDIAL CEMENTING .snnnnnnnn 12 5.1 Foamed Cement System Design 12 5.2 Volume Selection 12 533 Placement Procedure 12 1 SUMMARY ‘The design of a foamed cement job can be divided into two main categories. One category addresses the job design in general, i.e., the fluids to be pumped and their densities. The second category addresses the foamed cement design itself. Although both of these categories are interrelated, they are presented separately. The design guidelines specific to foamed cement slurries are addressed in SECTION 8.J—FOAMED CEMENT of the CEMENTING MATERIALS MANUAL. ‘The following points are covered: * the foaming agent selection and concentrations © the foam-stability testing and required resutts * the slumy and set-cement properties of the foamed cement Example ‘APPENDIX B—Typical BOP Arrangement . APPENDIX C— Setup Diagram for Foamed Cementing enenenses 2 APPENDIX D—Foam Generator .. 5 ‘APPENDIX E—Nitrogen Pressure versus Flow Rate for 16-Hole Generator ..nennnnee 26 APPENDIX F—Engineering Properties of Foamed Cement rss 27 APPENDIX G—Acoustic Impedance versus Foam Density ‘+ the base slurry design + the criteva for thickening-time testing Since the foam density selected for a job application influences the performance properties of foamed cement, it is important to know the performance limitations of foamed cement. These limitations are: ‘+ Foamed cement slurry can be generated, circulated, compressed and extended without affecting its stabilty as long as the foam quality does not exceed 80%. ‘+ Set foamed cement exhibits good cohesion when the quality remains below 70%. ‘* A compressive strength of 500 psi can be reached at qualities lower than 50%. CONFIDENTIALITY This manual section is a confidential document which must not be copied in whole ‘or in any part or discussed with anyone outside the Schlumberger organization.Section 5.B.1 | RevA Page 20f30 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL FOAMED CEMENTING ‘© Above 35% quality, the permeability of foamed cement increases dramatically due to the interconnec- tion between bubbles. In this manual section, foamed cement job design in general will be addressed with the assumption that the design of the foamed cement slurry itself can be achieved to meet the customer and well requirements. Recommendations on job execution and evaluation follow the discussion on job design. 2 JOB DESIGN 2.1. Introduction Foamed cement is commonly used in critical situations where the cement-system requirements are low slurry density and some —compressive-strength development. Design criteria depend on the situation encountered but also on previous experience in similar conditions and on the requirements of the operator. Some operators want to emphasize very good hydrostatic: Pressure control during circulation while others insist ‘on having cement with good properties across critical zones once the column is in place. Therefore, there is no unique solution for the design of a job but several are possible, Designing a foamed cement job requires cumbersome ‘calculations to take into account the influence of pressure and temperature on nitrogen compressibility, These calculations can be done manually if the design is only based on the hydrostatic pressure of the column at the end of the job. If one wants to compare ‘several solutions and to consider the pressure and density profile at various times of circulation as well as at the end of the job, these calculations become tedi- ‘ous and require the use of a computer. A module to design foamed cement jobs is available in the CemCADE® program. This module only considers the hydrostatics in the well under static conditions. In the remaining text, several cases are considered and their solution in the simplest way is explained. ‘The equation, which is the basis for all the calculations performed during a job design, is described first. This equation relates the foamed cement density to the * Mark or Schlumberger base slurry density, amount of nitrogen, pressure and temperature, Two examples illustrate its use. Finally, a complete case study and its solution by hand is presented. The CemCADE module is briefly introduced and is used to improve the design of the case study. 2.2 Foamed Cement Density Since nitrogen is compressible, its density will depend on the ambient pressure and temperature. A state of reference has been arbitrarily chosen at T, = 60°F (155°C) and P, = 14.7 psi (called ‘standard conditions). Considering a given amount of nitrogen which occupies a volume Vat T and P, this same amount will oc- ‘cupy a different volume V, at T, and P, . The ratio (VJ is called the “nitrogen volumhe factor” and is de- noted by BN, . A table of BN, values at various temperatures and pressures is presented in the FIELD DATA HANDBOOK. For instance at T = 200°F (93°C) and P= 1600 psi, BN, = 465 sctibbl. It means that the amount of nitrogen which occupies one barrel of space at T= 200°F and P = 1600 psi would occupy 465 ft° at standard conditions (7, = 60°F and P, = 147 psi) The nitrogen ratio needs to be defined as it can easily be confused with the nitrogen volume factor. It is de- noted by Rand represents the amount of nitrogen injected per volume of slurry. A nitrogen ratio A = 400 sctfbbl means that for each barrel of base slurry Pumped, a volume of nitrogen is injected which would occupy 400 f° if this volume were measured at standard conditions. To calculate the foamed cement density Deg at a Given depth, the following values must be known: * the pressure and temperature at this depth to calculate the nitrogen volume factor BN, * the nitrogen ratio A * the base sluny density Dag ‘The foamed cement density can then be calculated from the equation — 0.00172R+Das a 0) Dre = DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL FOAMED CEMENTING RevA Section 5.B.1 Page 3 of 30 January 1995 This is the only equation required when designing a foamed cement job. Depending on the quantity to be calculated, itis used either in the previous form or — Das D, R Pe (2) Fre coon o Rx, . rc BN, = SOOT =D ee ® De and Ogg are expressed in lomigal, BN, in sct of ritfegen per bbl of nitrogen and Fin sct of ritrogen per bbl of base sluny Metric Calculations In the following examples, the calculations will be performed in oilfield units. To use the metric system, the ‘same equations (1, 2 and 3) wil apply if the coefficient 0.00172 is replaced by 1.18. In that case, Dg, and Dag are expressed in kgim®, BN, in scm of nivogen parm? of nitrogen (see FEL BATA HANDBOOK) and Ain scm of nitrogen per m® of base slurry. Example 1 Complete loss to the formation is encountered at 6000, ft when the pressure at this point exceeds the hydrostatic pressure of water. At this depth, itis desired to set a foamed cement plug with a density slightly above water (e.g., 9.0 bmvgal). What nitrogen ratio should be used? ‘+ Base slurry density (for example) — Dag = 15.8 bmigal '* Foamed cement density — Deg =9.0 omugal ‘Temperature at 6000 tt (for example) — T= 140°F (60°C) Hydrostatic pressure exerted by 6000 ft of water — P,,= 2,600 psi. Nitrogen volume factor from the FIELD DATA HANDBOOK (T= 140°F [60°C], P,, = 2600 psi) — BN, = 813 sctibbl Riis calculated using Eq. 2 — R= 727 sot/bbl To achieve a 9.0-Ibmvgal foam density at 6000 ft with a column of water above the plug exerting a hydrostatic pressure of 2600 psi, it is necessary to inject a 15.8Abmigal base slurry with a nitrogen ratio of 727 sotibbl of base slurry. Example 2 Ina lost-circulation case, if the fluid level in the well is below the surface, the wellhead pressure is atmos- heric. To inject a nitrogen ratio of 727 sct/bbl (for ample) while the pressure at the mixer is close to the atmospheyc pressure (14,7 psi) js equivalent to mixing 727 tt of nitrogen and 5.6 ft° of base slurry. This is not possible because it would result in a 99% foam quality. The maximum foam quality that can be rea- sonably mixed is around 80%. What pressure is needed at the wellhead to obtain this quality ? Eq, 1 is used to calculate the nitrogen volume factor - + Base slurry density — Dg = 158 lor/gal * Foamed density (80% quality) — Deg = 3-16 lmigal ‘+ Nitrogen ratio — R=727 sctfobl BN, is calculated with Eq. 3 — BN, = 165 sctibbl. {f the temperature at the mixer is 40°F (4.5°C), it can be seen from the FIELD DATA HANDBOOK that the pressure required to achieve a nitrogen volume factor ‘of 165 sct/bbl is between 400 and 500 psi To pump foam with a 727-sc/bbl nitrogen ratio in a well with zero wellhead pressure, itis strongly recommended to start mixing at a much lower nitrogen ratio. ‘Since foam does not fallin a U-tube, the pressure at the foam generator will build up after several minutes due to friction. Once the pressure reaches 400 psi, it is possible to pump at the designed nitrogen rate. If this procedure is not followed, foam is not generated and a mist of slurry and nitrogen is injected into the well. This mist does not create enough friction and Pressure at the foam generator, and might remain unacceptably low for a long period. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.8.1 | RevA January 1995 Page 4 of 30 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL FOAMED CEMENTING 2.3 Hand Calculation ‘The objective of this subsection is to explain and considerably simplify the approach which was previously used to design an operation where long intervals in {ragile formations have to be foam cemented. In the Previous Dowell documentation, charts and tables were provided to perform this’ operation. Unfortu- nately, some applications are out of the range of these ccharts. A different approach is adopted in this document because the same objective can be reached with the use of Eq. 1 and Eq, 2 only. ‘The methodology used is based on the following ‘concepts: ‘+ All the calculations are done on the hydrostatic profile of the column once in place. ‘* Only two types of design are proposed—the constant nitrogen ratio. method and the pseudo- constant density method. This last method divides the foam column into stages with a nitrogen ratio which increases from top to bottom. This methodology is applied to a real case study. 2.3.1 Case Study ‘A surface casing is set at 310 ft and the problem is to coment a 164in. casing at a total depth of 5200 ft ina 22:in. (average) hole. The hole was drilled with a 9.0 Ibmigal mud and the fracture pressure equals an equivalent mud weight of 10.0 Ibm/gal throughout the well. The base slury has a density of 16.45 Ibmigal. The operator wants a 600-{t tail slurry below the foam column and a 700+ cap slurry above it. The surface temperature is 80°F (27°C), and the bottomhole temperature is 195°F (57°C). ‘+ Hydrostatic pressure on top of the foam due to 700- ftcap— Prop = 14.7 + (0.052! x 16.45 x 700) = 613 psi. ‘* Maximum allowable hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the well — Pray = 0.052 x 10.0 x 5200 = 2704 psi ‘Hydrostatic pressure due to the tal slurry — Pqy= 0.052 x 16.45 x 600 = 513 psi 22 Conversion Factor: bmvgal psi of dopth. Intorplated om botorhoo tempera. ‘+ Maximum allowable hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the foam column — Poor = Pax Pray = 2191 psi. ‘+ Hydrostatic pressure due to the foam column — Proam = Poot ~ Prop ™ 1878 Psi + Foam column length — FC gq, = 9900 ft ‘+ Average foamed cement density — P, Drcavg = TRC = 7.78 Ibm / gal. ‘* Temperature® at top of foam — Trop = 87°F (31°C). ‘+ Temperature’ at bottom of foan — Thor 129°F (64°C) * Nitrogen volume factor at top of foam (linear approximation) — BN yp = 228 sot/bbl. ‘* Nitrogen volume factor at bottom of foam (linear approximation) — BN poy = 711 Sct/Db1 First Level of Approximation To calculate R, a very crude approximation is used which assumes the foam density is constant along the column. In this case, the pressure in the foamed ce- ‘ment column varies linearly from top to bottom, and at the middle of the column: Dycmia = Prcavg = 7-78 tom / gal PagtP, Prt = Py = 1402 psi DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL FOAMED CEMENTING Section 5.8.1 Page 5 of 30 RevA January 1995 Ris caloulated by making use of Eq. 2— P= 605 sol/bbl. ‘Second Level of Approximation A better approximation of R can be obtained if it is considered that the foam density varies linearly from the top to the bottom of the column. This approximation implies that — Der, = Prove Prete Fave i Using Eq. 1, This is a second-order equation in F which can be written as aP-2bR+c=0, with + a = WDycayg ~ 0.00172(BNoiqp + BNopep) ‘The positive root of this equation is V5 Rav = #YS. Numerical application — Ravg = 496 scf / bbl. Remark: With this data, the real value (calculated on a computer) to obtain P,,, = 2190 psi is R = 530 sctibbl. Therefore, the first level of approximation results in a 14.2% excess nitrogen and the second level in a 6.4% shortage by default. This is not too bad con- ‘sidering that this linear approximation has been done ona 3900+ column. Calculation of the Amount of Base Slurry To calculate the amount of slurry required to fill up this ‘column, the following equation is used — Poa ann 0.052(Dgs+0.00172R) 4 + Vagis the volume of base stury in bbl Phoam “1878 psi. * Cyg is the annular capacity in boUM (see FIELD DATA HANDBOOK). For a 16-in. casing in a 22.in. hole, Cay, = 0.2215 bit Dgg= 16.45 Ibrmvgal. © R= 496 sctibbl. This results in Ves Vgs = 388 bbl. Discussion and Design In Two Stages Using Eq. 1 with this nitrogen ratio, the foam density af the top of the column is equal to Dectop = 5:37 omigal It this density is considered too low, a design with two stages of equal length might be proposed. All the previous calculations should be repeated so the first- stage average density equals the second-stage average density which equals 7.78 lbmgal. These calculations are done in the same manner as above with the resut— « First Stage Ai, = 398 sotfobl Vag4 = 196 bbl Pecrops = 6-15 lomigal '* Second Stage R= 754 sctbbl Vago 189 bbl Drctope = 6:95 lorvgal The caloulation made on a computer resuts in A, = 410 scf/bbl and A, = 763 sci/bbl. An improvement in the calculated values is achieved when the column DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.B.1 | RevA Page 6 of 30 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL FOAMED CEMENTING length is decreased. An increase of the minimum foamed cement density also results. 2.4 Design Methodology Compared to the previous method for designing a foamed cement job, a completely different approach is resented based on a better understanding of foamed ‘cement behavior and on a new software available in the CemCADE program. This new design methodol- ‘ogy relies on the following principles. ‘Two goals should be achieved by the following de-sign: ‘+ Maintain the hydrostatic profile of the column between the pore and fracture pressures during the centre circulation. + Obtain a density profile at the end of the job such that the cement offers enough compressive strength to support the casing and provides zonal isolation. ‘Three main ideas should be kept in mind when designing the treatment: ‘+ Make the operation as easy as possible. ‘* Put as much cement as possible into the well (see above); i.e., use as little nitrogen as possible, Four critical parameters which can be adjusted are # number of stages * nitrogen ratio for each stage ‘+ backpressure to apply on the annulus length of the cap slumy and the method of placement, 2.5 CemCADE Foam Module This module only considers static conditions and does ‘ot provide any optimization, but it is a fast and con- venient calculator which can be used to perform any type of design in any situation. The program can han- dle all types of deviated wells, hole geometries, tern- erature profiles and casing hardware descriptions. The data on formation pressures, casing and hole sizes, and fluid properties are entered in their respective screens. The design itself is done on two screens. in the Foamed Cement option of the Fill Sequence module. The first screen is a scrollable table where ‘each line corresponds to a stage. Each stage is characterized by * depth at the bottom of the stage + base-tiuid number density * nitrogen ratio * fluid density at the top of the stage fluid density at the bottom of the stage hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the stage ‘+ volume of base fluid in the stage. ‘Annular backpressure can also be entered on this screen. Each line in the table provides more information than the minimum amount required to fully characterize the stage. Therelore, it is sufficient to specity only some data for the program to calculate the missing items. ‘At any time, a second soreen can be accessed where the plots of dersity and pressure profiles throughout the column are displayed. This last plot also displays the pore and fracture pressures which have been entered in the Formation screen. 2.6 Computer-Assisted Design ‘As an example, the new design methodology presented in Subsection 2.4 is applied to the case study resented in Subsection 2.3.1 Placement of the Cap and Number of Stages Very early in the design, the injection sequence of the various fluids has to be determined. In fact, two main questions concem the unfoamed cap slurry and the number of stages. For the cap slury, two possibilities exist — either circulate it in front of the foam, or first circulate the foam to the surface and then inject the cap siurry down the annulus on top of the foam. This last operation is often referred to as “bullheading’ the cap slurry. ‘The first cap-slury placement method is easier to perform because the base slurry used for the foam can be the same slurry for the cap. In this case, a certain ‘amount of unfoamed slurry is injected before the nitrogen pumping commences. However, this solution Presents some technical drawbacks. Foamed cement is used in cases where the mud density is low which usually implies that a high-density slurry cap would fall down the casing. The foam which is pumped right after the cap slurry is in a ‘vacuum’ due fo this U-tube effect and can be destabilized. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALENGINEERING MANUAL RevA Section 5.B.1 es vanuary 1995 | Page 7 of 30 from the low Nitrogen Ratio aoe avrns At this step of the design, the main idea isto minimize ee omer! the amount of to nitrogen while maintaining an accept- Sams able. hydrostaticpressure profile during the entire circulated in reulation. would be ex- It the hhycrostatic pressure Is measured at a given Circulated to depth, this pressure should remain constant as long @ cap length as there is mud above that point. When the foam passes that depth, the hydrostatic pressure will d Hoamedce- __©%288e If the foam density is less than the mud den- eat cas sity Ifthe foam density is higher, the hydrostatic pres- wie ie cae sure wil increase, reach maximum and then decrease ° due to gas expansion as the foamed slury ap- a proaches the surface. This maximum hydrostatic pres- sid be made sure occurs when the foam density equals the mud density at the mucsfoam interface. init does not To determine the nitrogen ratio, the most crtical zone is not im- tion between actant and reakdown of 1e lowest ni- one with the * sensitive to ot available, ant stages is, e cannot el y calout Sibie for the {If this hap- of the entire ‘ogen ratios culty will be d oF if lost- d the 1 stant nitro- ome require- itiple stages available for 2 design is and the maximum allowable hydrostatic pressure it ‘can withstand must first be identified. The optimum nitrogen ratio is then the value for which the pressure ‘across this zone is equal to the maximum acceptable hydrostatic pressure when the density at the top of the foam column equals the mud density For this case study, no special ortical depth exists because a 1C-1bmgal equivalent mud weight is not to be exceeded from top to bottom. If the fracture pressure is exceeded, it will first occur at the bottom of the well Therefore, the pressure at the well bottom should never exceed 2704 psi. ‘The optimum nitrogen ratio is determined on the Foamed Cement screen (see Appendix A-3) as follows: 1. Input a 9.00 Ibmigal density for the foamed ce- ‘ment top (same as the mud density). 2. Adjust the measured depth of the mud column until the total hydrostatic pressure is just below the fracture pressure (2704 psi). The results show that an optimum ratio of 354.3 scffobl is achieved when the top of the foam is at 2384 ft. If the top of the foamed cement column is above this depth, then the foam density having the same trogen ratio (354.3 sct/bbl) would be less due to the trogen expansion resulting from the reduced hydrostatic pressure of the mud column, This calculation ensures that the hydrostatic pressure at every depth has reached a maximum and will then decrease. This nitrogen ratio is the minimum value for DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.8.1 | RevA Page 8 of 30 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL FOAMED CEMENTING which the fracture gradient will never be exceeded during circulation. It represents two-thirds of the origi nal 530-sct/bbl estimate which was based on the final hydrostatic profile only. This is a considerable decrease in the amount of nitrogen. Backpressure and Design of the Cap When the foam approaches the surface, the return rate suddenly increases, and the column expands and becomes extremely ight (see Appendix A-4). To avoid this effect, a backpressure is applied on the retum line. Its value is critical because it directly affects the ‘amount of base fluid in the well. For example, with a nitrogen ratio of 354.3 sct/bbl and the geometry of this well, the base-fluid volume varies from 174 to 589 bbl when the backpressure is increased from 14.7 to 300, psi (see Appendices A-4 and A-5). ‘The choice of the optimum backpressure depends on the desired density profile for the foam column after the job is completed. This is illustrated by the two ‘examples in Appendices A-4 and A-5. ‘As the foam approaches the surface, the annular backpressure is applied and then the tail slurry is pumped and displaced with mud. When the 600-f tail slury has been placed, the pumping operation stops and the backpressure is maintained on the return line. ‘The cap slurry is then pumped down the annulus and ‘a decreasing pressure on the retum line can be observed. I more cap slurry is pumped after the backpressure has reached atmospheric pressure, then the cap slurry becomes too heavy and wil fall in the annulus, compressing the foam further. The amount of cap slurry pumped can be designed to provide hydrostatic pressure equal to the backpressure, reducing the ‘chance that it may be necessary to perform a remedial top-up job later to raise the cement top. ‘The optimum pressure-density profile one can expect at the end of the job is presented in Appendix A-6, for ‘a cap-slurry top and bottom at 230 and 700 ft respectively, 354.3 sct/bbl nitrogen ratio for the foam, 600-ft tail slurry and a total hydrostatic pressure equal to 2704 psi. For this profile, a top-up cement job may be required. However, field experience has shown the yield point of static foamed cement to be high enough to prevent the cap slumy from falling in most instances. In this configuration, the amount of base slurry in the foam column is 440 bbl instead of the original 385-bbl estimate which was based on the final hydrostatic Profile only. ‘As was noted above, the backpressure is directly related to the amount of fluid in the well. To have 440 bbl of base siumy in the well when the tail is in place and the foam arrives at the surface, a 203-psi backpressure should be applied (see Appendix A-7). Discussion and Summary of the Operation The operational procedure for this case study is as follows 1. Use a caliper log to design for proper fil-up. Due to the friction during placement and the high yield point of foamed slurries, the actual fl-up might be less than the calculated value under static conditions. Use 25% excess for the first wells in the field, then adjust the excess as necessary based ‘on experience. 2. Prepare the base slurry at 16.45 Ibrvgal (for this example). 3. Mix the foam at a nitrogen ratio of 354.3 scf/bbl. 4, When the return rate starts to increase, slowly increase the backpressure so it equals 203 psi when the foam arrives at surface. Measure the backpressure as close to the well as possible. When the foam arrives at surface, start pumping the tail slury and displace it with the mud. 6. When the plug is bumped, stop pumping and maintain 203 psi on the retum line. 7. Pump 470 ft of cap slurry down the annulus, shut in the well and wait on the cement. 8. A 230-t top-up job may be required. ‘A good average value for a cap slurry is 500 ft. The cap should always contain surfactant to keep the nitrogen from breaking out. This design methodology presents several advantages: ‘+ The operationis kept as simple as possible. ‘+ The pressure profile in the well is controlled during the entire circulation. * The density profile of the column is optimized. ‘After the completion of the initial design, the foam quality during circulation should be checked for each design step to ensure that it does not exceed 80%, DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL FOAMED CEMENTING RevA Section 5.B.1 January 1995 | Page 9 of 30 The final foam density in front of the critical zones must provide acceptable engineering properties (see CEMENTING MATERIALS MANUAL). If it does not, a compromise must be found which is less aggressive ‘on the pressure profile or considers several stages. ‘The design of a foamed cement job is therefore an it- erative process in which the Client and the service ‘company should work in close collaboration. 2.7. Other Design Considerations: 2.7.1 Mud Removal The decision to incorporate foamed cement in a primary cement-job design is normally due to the presence of a formation with a low fracture-pressure Gradient. Associated with this low gradient is a low- density driling mud exhibiting properties favorable for efficient displacement. Mud removal should not be a problem provided the casing is well centralized, and the borehole and driling mud have been property ‘conditioned Foamed cement exhibits a very flat velocity profile promoting excellent fluid displacement. Water or a chemical wash (e.g., CW100) containing the foamer/stabilizer is the preferred wash pumped ahead of the slurry 2.7.2. Placement Pressures Foamed slurries exhibit friction pressures much less. than conventional slurries. The difference between the dynamic and hydrostatic pressures during a foamed ‘cement job is minimal, and therefore only the hydrostatic pressure needs to be considered during the job design, 3 JOB EXECUTION 3.1. Basic Rules for Foamed Cementing * Review Safety and Loss Prevention Standard No. 5, 11 and 18. + During the prejob review, the Client is briefed on the Unique nature of a foamed cement, its procedures, the required safety considerations and the required welthead equipment * Before pumping the job, the proper wellhead equip- ‘ment must be in place. A positive annular seal at surface is necessary so that all returns can be con- “Mark of Schlumborgor trolled through the kill ine. Without a positive seal, the tisk of a foamed cement blowout exists. The preferred configuration would be a BOP stack with ceasing rams and and a Hydril (see Appendix B). An- other good technique is to set the casing in the wellhead slips and flange it up. A pressure gauge between the BOP and the killline manifold will aid in monitoring the annulus backpressure (see ‘Appendix C) ‘= A check valve is required between the cementing unit and the foam generator (the nitrogen unit has a ‘check valve permanently mounted on its discharge). ‘+ The cementing head and landing joint must be in excellent condition. All connections must be tight and have an airtight seal to prevent nitrogen leak- age. Their threads must not be damaged. The ‘cementing-head manifold must be integral. ‘+ The Dowell foam generator is used to create a stable foam. + A.90-durometer urethane cementing plug is recommended because softer plugs sometimes leave a cement sheath inside the casing. ‘+ Mud conditioning is important to prevent foam channeling past the mud. + Radio headsets are ‘communication. necessary for good 3.2 Cement Pumper/Batch Mixer ‘The base slurry density must be consistent to generate a predictable foamed cement density. Use a batch ‘mixer whenever practical; if not available, use a large- capacity recirculating mixer or VIP Mixer* unit. ‘Attempt to keep the base slurry rale as constant as. Possible; this makes it easier to maintain the proper foamer rate and gas ratio. The use of two cement Pumpers, one for mixing and the other for pumping, in Conjunction with a batch mixer or recirculating mixer will achieve this constant slurry rate. (Many ‘cementing-unit operators are accustomed to changing the pump rate to maintain the proper tub level. When ‘only one cement pumper is used for mixing and pumping the slurry, this practice will result in an improper foam density DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.B.1 | RevA Page 10 of 30 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL FOAMED CEMENTING The cementing-unit operator must understand that he/she is the key player in the success of a foamed ‘cement job. Unlike conventional cementing, he/she will have to follow a fixed schedule of rates and vol- ‘umes. The operator must keep the FE/SS informed of any deviation from this schedule so the necessary adjustments can be made. 3.3 Nitrogen Addition/ Foam Generator ‘The foam generator consists of a perforated insert, also termed disperser, which replaces a standard bushing within a fracture cross. Be sure to correctly in- stall the disperser with respect for the flow direction (see Appendix D). The foam-generator cross is positioned in the treating line as shown in Appendix C. When laying the nitro- {gen line, be sure itis clean and take extreme care not to get mud oF dirt into it. Debris could easily lodge in the small holes of the disperser causing excessive pressures or complete nitrogen-flow blockage, Pump nitrogen through the disperser prior to the job to ensure the disperser holes are clear. A 500- to 1000- psi differential pressure across the disperser is desirable for optimum foam generation. Therefore, the disperser is sized to the anticipated maximum and minimum nitrogen rates using the values found in the graph in Appendix E. 3.4 Foamer/Stabilizer Addition Foameristabilizer addition is critical for the foam generation and foamed cement stability. Without it, the slurry is merely nitrified, not foamed. The nitrogen quickly breaks out of the slumy, causing extensive voids and potential job failure. Because the foameristabilizer is so important, every precaution should be taken to ensure the performance of the additive system. When a small amount of foam is required, it is possible to batch mix the base slurry prior to the job. In that case, it is easier to add the surfactant to the batch- mixed slurry. The only precaution is to mix it very gen- tly with the paddles to avoid possible foaming in the tank. When large foam amounts are required, the foamer/stabilizer mixture is injected into the slurry upstream of the foam generator, allowing it to be adequately mixed into the slurry. Two methods are commonly used: + high-pressure injection into the main treating ne « injection into the suction manifold of the downhole ‘pump on the cementing unit Both methods work equally well ‘A recommended practice is to _include foamer/stabilizer, at the recommended concentrations {or the foamed slurry, in the fluid or slurry preceding the foam. Should any free nitrogen be generated when foam mixing begins, this will help to contain it. Foamer Injection into Main Treating Line The foamer/stabiizer is pumped into the main treating line with a small, high-pressure pump such as that on a fracturing support unit. This method is best suited for large treatments where an extra purper is justifiable. The mixture is injected into the main treating line as far upstream of the foam generator as possible. Foamer Injection into Suction Manifold The foamer/stabilizer can also be injected into the suction manifold of the cementer. Any pump capable of the required rate at 60 to 100 psi will work. Some locations have used air-operated. diaphragm pumps with good success; when using them, be sure the air supply is reliable and has the required capacity and pressure rating. Several jobs have encountered dif- culties because the air pressure diminished or failed as the job progressed. (Truck air is not reliable and should not be used. A separate air supply is recommended.) A short, large-diameter air hose is used to ‘minimize the pressure drop, Cold Weather Considerations When the temperature of Stabilizer 0139 is reduced, lis viscosity increases. At 40°F (4.5°C), D139 has twice the viscosity as at 60°F (16°C). In some cases, this may present the problem of establishing and maintaining a sufficient addition rate. 0139 may be di- luted with methanol (5% by volume D139) to solve this problem. When methanol is added, the addition rate should also be increased to maintain the same level of active ingredient; .¢., with 5% methanol, the addition rate should be 0.105 galisk D139. There are no substitutions for methanol 3.5 Common Considerations + Ensure the additive pump is rated for the required rate and pressure (suction manifold - 100 psi; treating line - 500 to 1500 psi). DOWELL CONFIDENTIAL(CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL FOAMED CEMENTING — RevA Section 5.B.1 January 1995 | Page 11 of 30 ‘+ The additive-pump suction hose must be vacuum tight. Use a short 1.5- to 2.0-in. hose, minimize the umber of unions, and use heavy grease on the unions. ‘© The additive-pump discharge line must have a check valve, isolation valve and bleed valve. * Ensure the additive pump and discharge line are primed up to the isolation valve. ‘+ Leave the isolation valve closed until needed. ‘+ Start pumping the foamer/stabilizer before starting the nitrogen. ‘© It available, use a flowmeter to measure the foameristabilizer rate. © Back up the flowmeter with frequent physical measurements. ‘+ Elevate the foamer/stabilizer tank to maintain a Positive suction head. 3.6 Job Monitoring The nitrogen ratio has a most pronounced effect on the final density of the foamed cement. Therefore, rate ‘control of the nitrogen pumper is critical. The nitrogen- unit operator must have excellent communication with the cementing-unit operator to be able to quickly re- spond in the event of a cement-rate change. It is best to instruct the nitrogen-unit operator to maintain a particular nitrogen ratio rather than a rate for each stage. \With the help of a simple chart like shown below it will be easy for him/her to adjust the nitrogen rate to ‘maintain the required ratio. Stage No. 1 — Nitrogen Ratio = 125 sct/bbl Slurry. Comentfatw 1 2 3 4 8 6 7 BPM Np Rate 125 250 S75 500 625 750 976 sctiin Stage No. 2 — Nitrogen Ratio = 200 sct/bbl Slurry ComentRat 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 BPM Np Rate 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 sctimin ete.. ‘Another method for controlling the nitrogen ratio is by ‘monitoring the downstream density and pressure just downstream from the foam generator. To do so, con- struct a set of curves showing foamed cement density versus treating pressure for each nitrogen stage. Us- ing Eq. 1 (see Subsection 2.2), these curves can be ‘generated as foliows: 1. For each stage, the nitrogen ratio is fixed. 2. At the expected surface foam temperature, the ritrogen volume factors for treating pressures ranging from 100 to 2000 psi are calculated. 3. The foamed cement densities for each nitrogen volume factor are calculated. 4, The foamed cement density versus treating pressure is plotted. 5. This procedure is repeated for all stages. For lost-irculation jobs, the wellhead pressure might be the atmospheric pressure at the beginning of the job. If the foam is pumped down drilpipe, the ex- ected pressure will be around 500 psi. For most conventional jobs, the pressure after the foam generator will oscilate between 1000 and 1500 psi. These pressure values indicate the pressure range that the foamed cement density versus treating pressure plots should be based on. The job is executed by monitoring the downstream density and pressure using the prepared curves. Be- ‘cause the surface pressure while pumping is constantly change, so is the foamed slumy density ‘measured at surface. During the job, the actual pressure and density are plotted on the respective graph. The point should be located on the curve corresponding to the desired nitrogen ratio. If not, the nitrogen rate is incorrect and must be adjusted accordingly. 3.7 Treatment Procedure 1. Rig up to the cementing head and annulus. 2. Close the casing rams and Hydril; open the kill line to the pit. 3. Start pumping to condition the mud and circulate the hole. 4, Pump the chemical wash and spacer. 5. Drop the bottom rubber plug, 6. Pump the cap slurry (if applicable). 7. Start pumping the base foamer/stabilzer. 8. Start pumping the nitrogen — adjust the nitrogen and foamer/stabilizer rate to achieve the design ratio. 9. Stop pumping nitrogen. 10, Stop pumping the foamer/stabilizer. slury and DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.B.1 | RevA Page 12 of 30 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL FOAMED CEMENTING =a 11, Pump the tail slurry (it applicable). 12, Flush out the treating lines. 13. Drop the top plug, start pumping the displacement ‘volume and monitor the annular retums. (Some treatments require backpressure on the annulus during the displacement. If so, when foam returns begin at surface, adjust the choke on the flowline to maintain the ‘desired backpressure. Continue monitoring the returns and backpressure until the top plug is bumped.) 14, Shut in the annulus. 15. Pump the cap slury down the annulus (it applicable) 16. Pump water behind the cap slurry. Overdisplace by at least one barrel to prevent cement contamination at the BOP stack 17. The job is completed. 4 JOB EVALUATION ‘Temperature surveys should be performed 8 to 24 hr after the treatment. Because of the cement dilution and the insulating properties of the gas, the magnitude ‘of the thermal change may be less than that observed with conventionally extended cements. The thermal Non Nitrified Fluid have a N2 Ratio = 0.0 Frac Pore 712.7706 14.7067 psi Ese 5200 4500 Ft stage] oO Base Fluid | N2 Ratio| Density |Hydrost. |Base Fluid No. ft No. Density | scr/pb1 | b/gal | psi Yolume ib/gal vr 8 1 19 ° 4500 9 ziie.se | 978,947 16.45 2 5 16.45 ° 5200 16.45 [2716.77 | 155.04 ‘CemCADE PLACEMENT DESIGN nap new FOAMED CEMENT DESIGN: DENSITY - DOWNHOLE PRESSURE =— ac FLUDDENSITYSection 5.8.1 | RevA CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL Page 16 of 30 | January 1995 FOAMED CEMENTING CemcADE 2.90 Back Pressure : BoP Depth Caving shoe frac n143.966 14,7068 pat TE zo dee re Stege] 0 | Gave Fiuia | NZ Ratio] ceneity |iyarost. [once Fiuia Noe | fe | Nor Denoity | scr/obi'| tovgat | pst voaune Ab/gal- bbl 4 > 1 is 0 2000 . sas.767_ | 425.496 145 2 sisas fo teas fiseres | ass.04 v7 2 5 teas [soe zee teens feerezs | sts.c0 CemCADE PLACEMENT DESIGN yee oyms FOAMED CEMENT DESIGN: DENSITY -DOWNHOLE PRESSURE ie Okan ?NNULAR PRESSURE etree 7p DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL |_Fev A seen E FOAMED CEMENTING January 1995 | Page 17 of 30 TTS SEI So oR ECC CemcADE 2.90 AUTO E/R Back Presaure : 44.70 To:al Stage Nunber BOP Depth: 8 Casing Shoe; S200 =-> Non Nitrified Fluid have a NZ Ratio = 0.0 Frac Pore psi Se ft stage] m0 | base Fiuid | N2 Ratio| Density |Hydrost. [Base Fluid No. | Ft No. Density | scr/obi | ib/gai | psi volume Ab/gal- bbl 4 ° 1 19 . 2304 ® 1120.3. | ste.te4 ° z 6 164s [asa.o sz00 tz.esaz [2702.75 | a01.a78 CemCADE PLACEMENT DESIGN woe om FOAMED CEMENT DESIGN: DENSITY . DOWNHOLE PRESSURE Po ee FLUID DENSITYSection 5.B.1_ | Rev A CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL Page 18 of 30 | January 1995 FOAMED CEMENTING -APPENDIXAG cemcave 2.90 AUTO E/R Back Pressure : 14.7068 psi Total Stage Number BOP Depth 0 ft Casing Shoe soo FE --> Non Nitrified Fluid have a N2 Ratio = 0.0 Frac Pore 441.731 -1712. 64 psi 310 szoo Ft. Stage] Base Fluid | N2 Ratio] Density |4ydrost. |Base Fluid No. ft No. Density | Scr/bb1 | ib/gal | psi Volume Ab/gal- bbl 0. 257475 1 5 1645 [354.3 5200 s.a7zes |7is.s17 | 173.79 CemCADE PLACEMENT DESIGN woe owas FORMED CEMENT DESIGN: DENSITY . DOWNHOLE PRESSURE = Soe ry FLUO DENSITY "AINULAR PRESSURE DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL |_RevA peciencel FOAMED CEMENTING January 1995 | Page 19 of 30 CemcabE 2.90 AUTO E/R Back Pressure : 3 BOP Depth 0 Casing Shoe =: S200 ft =-> Non Nitrified Fluid have a NZ Ratio = 0.0 Frac Pore ma 619 6.22212 psi Tee 2432.48 Ft Stage| mo Base Fluid | N2 Ratio} censity |Hydrost. |Base Fluid No. ft No. Density | scF/bb | ib/gal | psi Volume ibfgal bb 4.06275 1 5 16.45 [354.3 S200 12,0406 2692.4 589. 085 CemCADE PLACEMENT DESIGN em FOAMED CEMENT DESIGN: DENSITY - DOWNHOLE PRESSURE Samo “Sram ease cd FLUD DENSITY TRANULAR PRESSURE 7 7 efSection 5.8.1 | RevA Page 20 of 30 | January 1995 FOAMED CEMENTING CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL _Prates at ine End of tho eo A CemcADeE 2.90 Back Pressure AUTO E/R 14.7068 psi Total Stage Number 0 BOP Depth ft Casing Shoe =: 5200 Ft --> Non Nitrified Fluid have a N2 Ratio = 0.0 Frac Pore 4532 -95.1275 psi TENET 2652.78 ft 0 Base Fluid | N2 Ratio] Density |iydrost. |Base Fluid No. Density | scr/bbi | ib/gai | psi Volume Ab/gat bb. 0, 00936 1 70 354.3 230 o.009389 |i4.ais9 | 0. s696e 16.45 2 5 16.45 ° 700 16.45 [416.453 | 99.4952 5.11368 3 6 16.45 [354.3 4600 14 2isi.ss | 440.243 CencAde 2.90 Back Pressure AUTO E/R 14.7068 psi Total Stage Number BOP Depth o fe Casing Shoe; 5201 ft --> Non Nitrified Fluid have a N2 Ratio = 0.0 Frac Pore 752.4532 -95.1275 psi [Press Don to cet = Plot} 2652.78 Ft Stage] MO Base Fluid | N2 Ratio| Density |4ydrost. |Base Fluid No. ft No. Density | scr/bi | 1b/gal | psi Volume 2b/gat- bl 16.45 2 5 16.45 ° 700 16.45 [416.453 | 99.4952 5.11368 3 6 16.45 |354.3 4600 ery zist.s3 | 440.243 16.45 4 5s 1645 [o S200 16.45 |eves.26 | 132.091 DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | FevA Section 5.8. 1 | FOAMED CEMENTING January 1995 | Page 21 of 30 | ‘CemCADE PLACEMENT DESIGN -FOAMED CEMENT DESIGN: DENSITY - DOWNHOLE PRESSURE DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.8.1 |RevA Page 22 of 30 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL FOAMED CEMENTING - es ep renm mrt » 440 bb of Ba esl [cemcave 2.90 AUTO E/R Back Pressure : 203 psi Total Stage Nurber BOP Depth =: O ft casing Shoe =; S200 ft. =-> Non Nitrified Fluid have a N2 Ratio = 0.0 Frac Pore 794.4976 -251. 239 psi TEESE 3 3006.42 Ft Stage] 0 Base Fluid | N2 Ratio] Density |Hydrost, |Base Fluid No. ft No. Density | ScF/bb1 | 1b/gat | psi Volume Ab/gal bb 2.97846 1 6 16.45 [354.3 4600 11,0616 [1993.67 | 440.377 16.45 2 5 1645 |o 16.45 [2506.39 | 132.891 CemCADE PLACEMENT DESIGN FOAMED CEMENT DESIGN: DENSITY - DOWNHOLE PRESSURE e FLUD DENSITY [ANNULAR PRESSURE[ecpreres] CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL |_RevA [section 584 Fe "OAMED CEMENTING January 1995 | Page 23 of 30 A From Foam Generator a“ Rig Up For Pumping ‘Cement Cap on Foam When Required To Choke ManifoldSection 5.B.1 | RevA CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL Page 24 of 30 | January 1995 FOAMED CEMENTING Pacey Bulk Truck = ¥ Cement Pump Density Truck To Pits Batch Mixer { @ ssa cote ‘Cement Pump vey Truck = ate Foamer/Stabilizer Co Bypass Injection Pump Cheek} [ ~€)) Wettoas ato Pressure DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | Fev A Section 5.B.1 FOAMED CEMENTING January 1995 Page 25 of 30 nn Burst Disc. on Inlet Side Cross 41620-2 1/2-in. Bore Bushing 519131 16-3/64-Holes 10,000-psi Disc _8,000-psi WP 519132 16-3/64-Holes 15,000-psi Disc 12,000-psi WP Cross 49498 2-7/8-in. Bore Bushing 519133 16-/32-Holes 10,000-psi Disc _8,000-psi WP 519134 16-3/32-Holes 15,000-psi Disc 12,000-psi WP DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.8.1 | RevA CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL Page 26 of 30 | January 1995 OAMED CEMENTING) Pressure (psi) guaran 7000 2-1/2-In, Bore 6000 16 x 3/64-In. Holes. 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 ° 1000 2000 ©3000» 4000» $000 = 6000 N, Rate (ft°/min at 100°F [38°C] DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL |_RevA jeection, 55.1 FOAMED CEMENTING January 1995 | Page 27 of 30 80°F (27°Cyatmosphere ‘80°F (27°CV/1000 pst Foam | Compressive] z Permeability | Foam ressive| Zz | Permeability Density | Strength | (wRayt) || (md) | Density | Strength | (May!) (md) (iomiga)| (pst) (iomigal) | (psi) 212 1.16 | 58,884 52 230 0.99 6457 684 2.02 89 74 469 1.65 - 1073 2.65 0.054 88 827 218 25.7 10.20 1987 3.05 oo17 | 103 984 282 57 12.40 2029 4.08 0.007 | 120 1339 3.47 13 14.80 3014 5.37 0050 | 148 2775 553 1o flow DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.B.1 | RevA CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL Page 28 of 30 | January 1995 RO RMED CEMENTING, ( ‘80°F (27°C)/1000 pst Permeability (md) DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL |_Fev A eecionS. OAMED COMEN TING January 1995 Page 29 of 30 150°F (66°C)/atmosphere 302°F (150°C)/1000 pst Foam | Compressive | Z | Permeability| Foam | Compressive] — Z Permeability Density Strength (May!) (md) Density | Strength (MRay!) (ma) (ibm/gal) (psi) (lom/gal) (ps!) 49 ant 077 | 17,378 48 253 0.78 12,725 79 670 1.82 89 82 994 1.92 112 10.2 1546 2.73 166 103 1870 2.87 0.0175 126 2231 3.95 14 124 3768 3.94 0.0060 DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.B.1 Page 30 of 30 RevA danuary 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL FOAMED CEMENTING eer BMG 0 Foam Denety 8 10 12 14 16 Foamed Coment Density (Ib/gal) DOWELL CONFIDENTIALMANUAL CEMENTING ENGINEERING RevA Section 5.C.1 Page 1 of 22 January 1995 HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING | Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 2 HORIZONTAL WELL CLASSIFICATIONS. 2.2 Medium Radius 23 Short Radius ..... . 2'4 Ultrashort-Radius System 3 HORIZONTAL WELL APPLICATIONS 3.1 Gas and Water Coning, Tight Reservoirs and He Fractured Reservoirs.. Edge-Water or Gas-Driv Inaccessible Reservoirs .. Enhanced Oil Recovery Other Applications 4 COMPLETION PROCEDURES 4.1 Noncemented Completion: 42 Cemented Completions... 5 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO A SUCCESSFUL OPERATION... : 5.1 Borehole Geometry 52. Diiling-Fluid Selection 5.2.1 - Drilling-Fluid Properties... 5.3 Controlled Driling Parameters Season: wowaa' 1 INTRODUCTION Horizontal boreholes have been drilled since the late 1920s. As late as the mid-1960s, although technically feasible, such wells were not considered economically viable. in the late 1970s, horizontal dling technology began to make a comeback, when several wells were drilled in Canada. To date, thousands of horizontal wells have been drilled, and their commercial viability is no longer in doubt. The equivalent production from vertical wells would require almost six times as many wells 2 HORIZONTAL WELL CLASSIFICATIONS Horizontal wells are those in which part of the wellbore is incined 90 degrees with respect to vertical, although less-than-horizontal, high-angle wells often [Contents 6 MUD REMOVAL. ; Displacement Efficiency 82 Pipe Moverend G21 Torque and Brag nnn HY 63 Centralization... "1 63.1 Centralzers : 6.4 Displacement Techi 65 Washes and Spacers 7 SLURRY DESIGN . 7 ties 7-4. Temperature Calculations 8 CASING HARDWARE, 9 REMEDIAL CEMENTING APPENDIX A—Case Histories .. receive this designation. A horizontal producing well is ‘generally considered to be a well having a producing section at an angle over 85 degrees with respect 10 vertical and a producing length of at least ten times. the reservoir thickness (Conoco). The horizontal Portion of he wells often called a “drainhole*. Horizontal wells can be subdivided into four catego- ties, based on the angle build rate (see Fig. 1). These categories are + long radus © medium radius «short radius * ultrashort radius. ‘A comparison of the long-, medium- and short-radius horizontal wells is presented in Table 1. (CONFIDENTIALITY This manual section is a confidential document which must not be copied in whole ‘rin any part or discussed with anyone outside the Schlumberger organization.joection S.C 1m noua CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL Page 20f22 | January 1995 HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING Short Radius Medium Radius Long Radius. 31087100 18°10 30°10 8° to 20/100 t Beween Aceon 100072000 ft 1000 #, > 10,000 ft Fig. 1. Horizontal well classification. TABLE 1 COMPARISON BETWEEN HORIZONTAL WELL TYPES. Well Topic. ‘Short Radius Medium Radius ‘Long Radius [Curvature (710 tt) 151030 081020 031008 Maximum Drainhole Length [900 ft 33000 >4000 ft ‘Normal Drainhole Diameter [4.510 65in [4.010 85in. e5in. Vertical Precision Ba 20tt 20tt ‘Azimuth Direction Accuracy _|20 1 1 (degrees) Coring Difficult, short lengths only [Possible Yes Logging Possible Yes: Yes ‘Completion Method ‘Open hole; slotted ner [Slotted liner; cemented | Slotted liner; cemented liner; prepacked screen _| liner; prepacked soreen Multiple Pay Zones Yes, Yes, Yes: Artificial Lift Vertical rod pumps Alltypes Alltypes Workover Yes Yes, Yes: Cost (times vertical well cost) |=1.4t03 =2 12104 DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING Section 5.C.1 Page 3 of 22 RevA January 1995 24 Long Radius Long-radius driling uses standard oilfield directional driling technology. The build angle ranges from 0.3 to 0.87/10 ft and, depending on the reach, requires the to be performed in two or three sections. The horizontal drainhole of long-radius wells can be relatively long, with a maximum length in excess of 4000 feet. Highly deviated wells drilled conventionally May or may not be “extended reach’ wells. 2.1.1 Extended Reach Extended reach wells generally have an initial build after the “kickott point (KOP)" to 40 to 60° deviation, fol lowed by a long ramp displacement section. A horizontal displacement in excess of 10,000 ft is not uncommon (the maximum horizontal displacement is ‘currently over 15,000 ft). Extended reach wells enable a formation to be penetrated at multiple locations trom a central point or a formation to be penetrated which, due to surface conditions, would not be possible for a vertical well (e.9., beneath the center of a lake). For extended reach horizontal wells, the end of the long ramp displacement section builds to horizontal in the reservoir (see Fig. 2) 2.2 Medium Radius Medium-radius drilling employs modified conventional driling equipment, and produces build rates ranging from 0.8 to 2.09/10 ft, although build rates as high as 50°/100 ft are theoretically possible. The horizontal ‘section can be 3000 ft or more in length, and have the same diameter as long radius wells. 2.3 Short Radius ‘The short-radius lateral drilling method produces build rates between 15 and 30°/10 ft, allowing the well to deviate from vertical to horizontal in less than 100 tt. Lateral penetrations up to 900 ft are typical. Speci ized equipment is required, combining hydraulic mo- tors with nonrotating pipe, an intemal drive shaft and a ‘drill bit. Mutiple drainholes are often drilled from the same vertical hole with this technique. 24° Ultrashort-Radius System ‘A fourth category, referred to as the ultrashort-radius method, uilizes computer controlled high-pressure (10,000 psi) water jots to control the direction of a 2-in. driling assambly. Angle build rates as high as 90°%t are possibe. However, the length and diameter of such holes are generally limited from 100 to 200 ft and. 2 in,, respectively. More than 10 small drainholes, re- [Extended Reach Profle Fig. 2. Extended reach horizontal well.Section 5.C.1_ | RevA Page 4 of 22 | January 1995, CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL. HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING ferred to as “star-jet holes", can be dried in the same plane at right angles from the vertical hole. No cementing is involved with these small drainholes. 3 HORIZONTAL WELL APPLICATIONS In general, long-radius wells are used when an e» tended reach from an existing surface location is required. Medium-radius wells are used to develop reservoirs whose depth and thickness require accurate well placement. The limited hole size of short- radius wells makes them applicable mainly to low Permeability, naturally fractured reservoirs. The usual objective of a horizontal well is to provide improved production relative to that obtained with a less deviated well. Horizontal wells produce, on aver- ‘age, approximately six times more than vertical wells, primarily because of the greater productive formation surface area exposed to the wellbore; thus, not only the productivity but also the total production is increased. As shown in Fig. 3, vertical wells have a radialfiow geometry and a concentrated pressure drop, while horizontal wells have a parallel-‘tiow geometry and a uniform pressure drop. Vertical AIDS Fig. 2. Comparison of low geometries of vertical and ‘horlzontal wells. Many applications exist where horizontal wells can achieve producton more economically than vertical wells. These applications include + gas and water coning * tight reservoirs and heavy oil * fractured reservoirs + edge-water orgas-drive reservoirs + inaccessible reservoirs + enhanced oil recovery. 3.1 Gas and Water Coning Gas and water coning is a major application for hor'- zontal wells. The longer horizontal drainhole increases the exposure of the pay zone and allows a higher production rate at a lower drawdown pressure. In addition, the water “cresting” or “oylindering’ of a horizontal well as opposed to the “coning” of a vertical well (see Fig. 4) ensures increased total oil recovery prior to breakthrough. Horizontal wells drilled to address coning problems have realized production increases of 4 to 8 fold over adjacent vertical welts, 32 Tight Reservoirs and Heavy Oil In tight and heavy oil reservoirs, the increased exposure trom driling the drainhole horizontally significantly increases production. in tight reservoirs, further production increases can be attained by inducing multiple vertical fractures at right angles to the wellbore, knowing that the orientation of the horizontal section is, parallel to the least (horizontal) principal stress of the rock. 3.3 Fractured Reservoirs Compared to a horizontal well, a vertical well has less chance of intersecting sparsely distributed vertical {fractures in a formation, where very significant production increases can be achieved. Vertical wells making a few barrels of oil per day (BOPD) in the Austin chalk (Texas) are being plugged, horizontally sidetracked, and converted to horizontal producers of 300 BOPD. 3.4 Edge-Water or Gas-Drive Reservoirs Depleted vertical wells are converted to horizontal, wells to produce oil from the edge of the reservoir. Similarly, this technique of horizontal wells on the DOWELL CONFIDENTIAL‘CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING Rev A Section 5.C.1 January 1995 | Page 5 of 22 Vertical Well Production To Surtace Impervious Geological Formation Horizontal Welt Production To Surtace Water Fig. 4. Comparison of water coning in vertical and horizontal wells. reservoir edge could easily be applied in the initial development to exploit reservoirs more effectively. 3.5 inaccessible Reservoirs Horizontal wells can be used to develop inaccessible oil and gas reservoirs (@.g., under cities, water and rugged terrain). Environmental considerations are also fan issue that horizontal drilling could address (e.9., remote access to an environmentally protected area). 3.6 Enhanced Oll Recovery Horizontal wells can improve the injectivity and the areal sweep efficiency of oilfields intially produced by vertical wells. The horizontal line drives can be more efficient than the conventional five-spot vertical pat- tems. Combining horizontal and vertical well production in existing vertical well fields can also be used to further enhance production and ultimate recovery. 3.7 Other Applications Other possible applications include + reducing the number of offshore platforms and wells needed to develop a field * infil diting trom existing platforms to provide better coverage of the reservoir ‘* evaluation wells, after initial discovery, to provide better information conceming the reservoir before the final development decision is made. 4 COMPLETION PROCEDURES ‘At present, most horizontal wells are completed with- ‘out cementing. The formation rock must have suffi- Gient integrity to prevent collapse or sloughing, Particularly when approaching well depletion. To pro- Vide the required integrity, the drainhole is often lined with a slotted liner, preperforated liner or, in some cases, wite-wrapped sand-control liner or prepacked soreen. Horizontal wells can seldomly be completed 8 an openhole without some method of fining. For openhole completions, the previous interm casing, which is frequently highly deviated, must be ‘well cemented to protect it from produced fluids and provide isolation between the upper cased off zones and the lower producing intervals. Horizontal well completion and production circumstances oten dictate that casing must be run, and some form of isolation initiated. Some of these circumstances are ‘* when subsequent —_multt-interval treatments of the reservoir are planned ‘* when "gas-coning” or ‘water-coning” control problems are foreseen due to the borehole penetrating ‘or being too close to the gas cap or water table; this may result from the loss of directional control causing the borehole to drift, the penetration of the gas stimulationSection 5.C.1 Page 6 of 22 RevA January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING cap prior to entering the oil producing zone or the variations in permeability along the borehole length ‘* when the borehole traverses out of the targeted reservoir due to the loss of directional control or insuffi cient knowledge of the boundary planes within the reservoir ‘© when the current producing intervals may require remedial cementing to prevent unwanted water or gas breakthrough ‘* when the borehole traverses several different formations or zones. 4.1. Noncemented Completions Besides an openhole with no lining, a drainhole lined with a slotted liner, prepertorated liner or wire- ‘wrapped sand-control liner is the simplest well completion when well workovers in the future are not anticipated. Slotted or prepertorated liners _ by themselves do not allow desired portions of the horizontal section to be stimulated. Slotted liners should ot be used in situations where sand production may ‘occur, because sand may plug the slots or produce through them. Slotted (or preperforated) liners equipped with blank pipe, external casing packers (ECP) or inflatable formation packers, and full-opening valves can provide some control over production from different portions of the drainhole. However, with these liner systems, remedial treatments may not be possible and stimulation treatments will be problematic, especially with respect to the correct placement of the stimulation fluids. 4.2 Cemented Completions ‘Some typical cementing techniques for completing horizontal wells are + completely cemented ‘= cemented off-bottom * partially cemented. ‘The liner should be completely cemented in the drainhole and up to a point above the previous casing (see Fig. 5) if ‘+ the formation is very unstable ‘+ a gravel-pack or sand-control treatment is planned ‘* a stimulation treatment is anticipated ‘© remedial work will be required to control water or {gas breakthrough. ‘A liner cemented off-bottom serves the same purpose as an intermediate casing, It protects and isolates the formations and possibly the gas cap above the drainhole (see Fig. 6). This allows a larger diameter drainhole to be driled and completed openhole (with no lining) if conditions permit. This cementing method requires the lower portion of the drainhole to be isolated from the section being cemented (e.g., the placement of a crosslinked polymer plug). Because the overall length of the liner to be cemented, reciprocated and rotated is minimized, this technique offers advantages Under difficult hole conditions, When cementing a liner off-bottom, a port collar (or stage collar) anc an extemal casing packer can be used in place of a crosslinked polymer to isolate the lower portion of the drainhole, but casing reciprocation is then not possible. ‘Once the cement has cured and the polymer plug has been cleaned out of the openhole, a partially slotted liner can be run through the liner cemented off-bottom (see Fig. 7) A partially sloted liner can be used as an alternative to the off-bottom completion (see Fig. 8). By using an external casing packer and a swivel with a port collar (or stage collar), the blank portion of the liner is isolated and cemented. This technique allows the stimulation and production of the far end of the drainhole. If desired, the near end can be perforated, isolated from the far end and stimulated at any time during the life of the well. 5 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO A SUCCESSFUL. OPERATION Dowell can make every effort to design and execute a successful cement job on a horizontal well, but there are factors, beyond direct control by Dowell, that ‘contribute to the job's success. These include * borehole geometry ‘* driling-fluid selection * controlled driling parameters. 5.1 Borehole Geometry ‘The borehole geometry has a significant effect on the ‘cementing operation. The openhole diameter of the deviated and horizontal sections should be as close to DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | Fev A Section 5.0.1 HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING January 1995 | Page 7 of 22 Sen. Casing Liner Hanger 7-in. Liner Fig. 5. Cemented and perforated liner. ¥en. Casing Crosslinked Polymer Plug Liner Hanget Cement 8'/2In. Horizontal Hole 7-in. Liner Fig. 6. Liner cemented off-bottom to isolate gas cap. ‘Casing Fig. 7. Partially slotted liner placed Inside a liner cemented off-bottom. . DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.C.1 RevA Page 8 of 22 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING Liner Hanger Casing Liner Cement ‘Swivel with Port Collar External Casing Packer Liner (Slotted Portion) Fig. 8. Unsiotted portion of a partially slotted liner cemented. gauge as possible because solids and gases can easily collect in washouts. Doglegs, keyseats (keyseat: a groove created at the bottom of the horizontal openhole where immobile mud can accumulate), spiraling and zigzagging should be minimized. A spiraling or zigzagging borehole has an effect similar to washouts in a vertical well, namely: ‘* Ifthe annular velocity is insutficient, then the trans: port of cuttings and hole cleaning will be poor, resulting in a bed of cuttings forming on the lower side of the borehole. ‘= The critical flow rate increases as the deviation angle increases (e.g., the critical flow rate for 5:in. pipe in 8%-in. openhole may increase by 50% when the deviation angle is increased from 20 to 90°). ‘+ Eocentered casing will almost invariably resutt, even when centralizers are used. As the casing standoff decreases, annular mud removal becomes more sitio * The failure of external casing packers may result because they require a hole section as close to ‘gauge as possible to correctly set and then maintain an effective seal ‘* Log interpretation may be dificult when production logging in a slotted liner. Improvements in the borehole geometry can be achieved by using oilbase muds, avoiding corrections for small deviations from the driling program, optiriz- ing diiling-fluid properties and controling the dling parameters. 5.2 Diilling-Fluld Selection Drilling-fuid properties play a significant role in deter- mining the condtion of the borehole and the drilling fluid itself. Those properties required for effective driling and high pump rates must be optimized with respect to the requirements of well control and solids transport ‘The choice of diiling fluid is primarily a compromise between the cost per foot/meter drilled, the compatibility with the formation rocks and fluids, experience and environmental considerations. In all cases, the pro- 20 85 >28 90 230 ‘+ For a given flow rate, the ability of a mud to prevent solids settling is related to its yield point and gel strength. To enable turbulent flow at low rates, the yield point and gel strength should be low. How- ever, they should also be high enough to prevent solids setting during static periods and to ensure ‘cuttings transport if turbulent flow cannot be achieved. Gel strength should be controlled to prevent the formation of immobile fluid layers on the low side of the hole or in washouts. It is reduced by good solids ‘control (<10%) and, most importantly, by maintaining the ratio of the 10-sec and 10-min gel strengths as close as possible to 1. + Turbulent flow is promoted by drilling with a low- theology, thin mud while maintaining a high circulation rate of up to 500 gal/min (8/in. hole) and a ratio of yield point to plastic viscosity greater than 1 Citbase muds, which exhibit plastic viscosities, ranging from 12 to 16 op and yield points ranging from 14 to 18 Ibt/100 ft, are generally preferred. During mud conditioning, the yield point is lowered to about 12 to 15 Ibt/100 ft? to facilitate turbulent flow at a lower rate. It turbulent flow is not possible, then the yield point ‘and gel strength should be raised sutficiently to Prevent solids setting. ‘+ The flow regime for optimum hole cleaning depends ‘on the borehole inciination (see Table 3). Laminar flow cleans the hole better for deviation angles less than 45° and turbulent flow is more efficient when the deviation angle exceeds 55°. Between 45 and 55°, turbulent and laminar flow appear to be equally effective. TABLE 3 FLOW REGIME FOR DIFFERENT DEVIATION ANGLES | Threshold Angle Flow Regime (degrees) <45 Laminar flow: 45 to 55. ‘Laminar or turbulent flow >55 ‘Turbulent flow (with pipe movernent) 5.3 Controlled Drilling Parameters ‘The efficiency of cuttings removal during driling can bbe improved by * increasing rotary speed DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.C.1 RevA Page 10 of 22 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING frequent wiper trips and reciprocation viscous pills drilling gauge hole controlling the flow regime and rheology of the mud. To provide adequate hole cleaning in highly deviated ‘and horizontal wells, the use of a top-drive drilling system (TDS) is almost mandatory. This system provides several advantages over a conventional rotary- tablerkelly-drive system. These advantages are ‘+ the ability to reciprocate and rotate the drillpipe during circulation to improve hole cleaning when conditioning prior to pulling out of the hole (backreaming) ‘= the ability, when making connections, to backream each stand with the top drive at least once in gauge hole and at least three times over washed out sections, ‘+ the ability to make frequent wiper trips back to the casing shoe with circulation for at least the first 10 drillpipe stands off bottom. Rotation, reciprocation and frequent wiper trips will as- sist the hole cleaning by mechanically agitating the settled cuttings. The advantages of moving the pipe inorease as the mud viscosity increases or the flow rate decreases. 6 MUD REMOVAL Like in conventional cementing, mud displacement is absolutely essential to obtain a good primary cement job. The normal (vertical well) principles of effective mud removal (see SECTION 2.B.3-MUD REMOVAL—WELLCLEAN TECHNOLOGY) apply to horizontal wellbores; however, there are some additional important factors. 6.1 Displacement Efficiency Mud circulation prior to cementing is as important in horizontal wellbores as itis in conventional wells. Mud circulation at the highest appropriate rate to establish flow is necessary to break the gel strength of the mud and facilitate its removal by the displacing uid. Circu- lation should be at least one full hole volume, and should be continued until a minimum of 95% of the cir- culatable mud is moving. Subsection 2.4.2 in *Mark of Schlumberger SECTION 2.8.3—MUD REMOVAL—WELLCLEAN TECHNOLOGY describes the procedure for determin- ing mud-circulation efficiency. ‘Turbulent flow is essential for cuttings removal from highly deviated welbores. In turbulent flow, the mud's ability to transport cuttings only depends on the fluid momentum and the density differential between the fluid and cuttings, and is independent of the mud rheological properties. Turbulent flow should be maintained provided formation breakdown pressures are not exceeded (this can verified with the CemCADE* rogram), ‘Additional wiper trips may be required if setting, evident by a cuttings bed being built up, is a problem. ‘Annular velocities greater than 100 ftimin will remove {gas accumulations in high spots (gas pockets). At 90 to 92° deviation, the gas moves with the fluid in the wellbore. At 100° deviation, the gas moves at 10% of the fluid velocity, making long circulation times necessary. 6.2 Pipe Movement Pipe movement helps break the mud gel strength and allows the displacing fluids to sweep away the mud. It also disturbs cuttings which have settled, improving the chances of their removal during hole conditioning, Rotation is the preferred pipe movement because the rotational forces exerted on the fluid will cause ito be completely swept around the annulus. Pipe reciprocation is an acceptable alternative. Pipe rotation should be at 10 to 20 rpm, and reciprocation should be in 10- to 20-tt strokes, with one stroke every 1 to 2 minutes. Pipe movement should begin with the initial mud circulation and continue until the plug is bumped. Combina- tions of rotation and reciprocation have been used in horizontal wells and can be used with either casing strings or liners. Pipe movement is much easier with an oil-base mud than with a water-base mud, because the wall friction is about one-half. Pipe reciprocation must be carefully executed to avoid fracturing or surging the formation. Acceptable rates are determined by the Casing Reciprocation calculator in the CemCADE program. Cable wipers can be an aid in breaking the gel strength of the mud. They will not be effective in DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING RevA Section §.C.1 January 1995 Page 11 of 22 removing hard fitter cake or settled solids which have compacted. 6.2.1 Torque and Drag The additional torque experienced while rotating a liner in a horizontal or highly deviated hole section is a result of the pipe dragging on the low side of the hole. The amount of drag is affected by the buoyancy of the pipe. The drag increases when the denser cement is inside the pipe and, in some cases, may become so high that pipe movement has to be stopped. The drag decreases as the slurry is displaced into the annulus. Torque and drag computer models—LORAG and DDRAG—have been developed to monitor the dilstring torque and drag in high-angle wells. DDRAG is commonly used to monitor the drilstring perform- lance. It can also be used to calculate and monitor the drag forces while running casing and to compute the load on the drillpipe while running a liner to determine it it will buckle. LDRAG is used to determine the torque and axial loads on the liner while itis being rotated or reciprocated or both during the cementing operation. These programs are nun on an IBM-PC and a copy of the programs can be obtained from SDT in Montrouge. The Running Force calculator in the CemCADE program can be used to calculate the drag forces and hook loads while running a casing or liner string ‘complete with centralizers, 6.3 Centralization Centralization is essential for providing an annulus with open flow paths. If the casing is not centralized, then the pipe will trap mud against the low side of the borehole wall and no tlow regime or practical flow rate ‘can remove it. ‘The degree of pipe standoff affects the flow regime, ‘sometimes causing turbulence to occur in one part of the annulus and laminar flow in the other. In some cases, the frictional forces of the displacing fluid are not adequate to overcome the yield point of the mud, leaving static mud in the narrow part of the annulus. ‘The CemCADE program calculates the minimum required flow rate for complete flow in the annulus for a set of standoff conditions. ‘As the deviation angle increases, casing centralization becomes more difficult because of the increasing load cn the centralizers. The optimum number and spacing of centraizers must be determined using the CemCADE program. Buoyancy effects and density differentials should also be considered. The placement of a high-density ce- ‘ment when a low-density mud is in the wellbore can result in poor centralization, because the heavier can cause the pipe to collapse the 8. Because of the importance of centralization, a minimum annular clearance of 0.75 to 1.00 in. is recommended and larger clearances are preferred to achieve proper mud removal and proper cement placement. For an 8%in. openhole, 5%in. casing is preferred ftom a cementing standpoint, but often this is not practical because production considerations ‘may dictate the larger 6-5/8- or 7-in. casing size. 6.3.1 Contralizers Rigid centralizers should be used across sections of near-gauge hole and previous casing. They ensure Positive standoff, can be allowed to float on the casing because they cannot be damaged, and cannot trap ‘cuttings under them. Rigid centralizers provide no ‘centering force in out-of-gauge hole sections, are hard to run through under-gauge sections, and are only designed for specific casing and hole sizes. Bow-spring centralizers are used in out-of-gauge hole sections. They are normally placed over casing or stop collars to prevent them from floating and to ensure that that they will be pulled into the hole rather than pushed. If bow-spring centralizers are allowed to float between collars then they can easily be damaged. To minimize the annular restrictions with bow- spring certralizers or to centralize pipe in close- tolerance holes, sim hole centralizers should be used: when fully collapsed, their bow springs are flush with the end colar of the centralzer. Positive standoff with bow-spring centralizers cannot be achieved if lateral forces exceed the bow strength. They also tend to increase drag and may not be very effective if buoyancy effects are significant. 6.4 Displacement Techniques For optimum mud-removal efficiency, all fluids should be in turbulent flow completely around the pipe, including the mud. However, the high flow rates which may be required to achieve turbulent flow can induce placement pressures that exceed the formation fracture pressure. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.C.1 RevA January 1995 Page 12 of 22 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING Effective mud removal using the turbulent-tiow technique requires that ‘ the mud system exhibits low rheology and density without compromising well control and solids transport ‘+ the cement system has low rheology with good fluid-loss control to maintain its siurry properties ‘during placement. For low-rheology fluids (turbulent flow), stoppages or rate reductions during the cement job will aggravate the solids-settiing problems, {f turbulent flow is not possible, then mud removal using the effective laminar-tlow technique (see Sub- section 3.3 in SECTION 2.8.3—MUD REMOVAL— WELLCLEAN TECHNOLOGY) is the next best alter- Native. For the four criteria of the effective laminar-tlow technique, the density hierarchy has little effect except in the build and vertical sections of the well, while the other hierarchies achieve the same objectives as in vertical wells. The method for the effective displacement of the dill ing mud from the wellbore can only be correctly determined using the CemCADE program. 6.5 Washes and Spacers Chemical washes and spacers (preferably turbulent- flow spacers) should always be recommended ahead of the cement slury. If the cement slurry cannot be displaced in turbulent flow, then it must be preceded by a turbulent-flow spacer (¢.g., MUDPUSH" XT); oth- erwise, a chemical wash should be recommended whenever acceptable pore pressure conditions exist. If a spacer is to be pumped but a turbulent-low spacer ‘cannot be used (e.g., MUDPUSH XL instead), then a chemical wash should aways be pumped ahead of the spacer to dilute and thin the mud first. For the volume of spacers and chemical washes, the recommendations for vertical wells applies to highly deviated and horizontal wells. 7 ‘SLURRY DESIGN For all cement-job types, several cement slurry properties need to be considered for successful cementing to be achieved. Some of these properties are more *Mark of Schlumberger critical for horizontal wells than less deviated wells. For horizontal wells, slurry stability and fluid loss are the two most critcal properties. 7A Stability Slurry stability is determined by two slurry properties— {ree water and sedimentation. Free water should be zero because it can migrate to the high side of the hole and create an open channel through which fluids ‘can flow. Sedimentation can resutt in a low-strength, highly porous cement in the upper part of the wellbore, which may result in minimal pipe protection and loss of zonal isolation. ‘Atthough free water and sedimentation can ocour together, they are not necessary connected; one can easily exist without the other. Laboratory testing should be performed at the anticipated maximum deviation angle and the BHCT to ensure that neither oo- curs. To overcome slurry instability problems, Antisetting Agert D153 can be used for BHCTs up to 300°F (149°C). 7.2 Fluld-Loss Control Fiuid-loss contro! is particularly important in horizontal wells because the slurry exposure to long, permeable sections is more extensive than in vertical wells. Low fluid-loss rates are necessary to preserve the slurry Properties (primarily rheology) and therefore should always be less than 50 mL/30 min. 7.3. Other Slurry Properties Slurry-density contro! and uniform additive concentrations are particularly important. They ensure that the ‘cement properties will be consistent throughout the ‘cemented interval. Whenever possible, the slurry should be batch mixed or, as a second best alternative, continuously mixed using a VIP Mixer* unit. 1 low density siurties are required, then the use of foamed cement or hollow microspheres can be used without severely sacrificing the set-cement properties. ‘The cement system must be compatible with the formation (e.g., salt or gas zones). For turbulent flow, the yield point should be as low as. Possible while maintaining slurry stability. For effective-laminar flow, the friction-pressure gradient of, the displacing fluid should be 20% greater than the DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL i HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING RevA Section 5.0.1 Page 13 of 22 January 1995 friction-pressure gradient of the displaced fluid. To enable an optimum spacer to be designed, it is recommended that the Fann 35 reading at 100 rpm (at BHCT) of the slurry be 50% greater than the same reading for the diling mud. To ensure that the hydrostatic pressure of the vertical ‘cement column is continuously transmitted to the ce- ‘ment in the horizontal section during the setting process, the gel-strength development must be minimized and the slurry should exhibit a short transition time from 30 to 100 Bc consistency (right-angle set characteristic) 7.4 Temperature Calculations ‘The BHCT of a deviated well will be higher than the BHCT of a vertical well having the same TVD. Further- more, the difference between the BHCT of these two wells increases as the magnitude of inciination for the deviated well increases. In the extreme case of deviated wells with very long horizontal sections, the esti- mated BHCT using the API methods could be considerably in error because the BHCT actually approaches the BHST. The Temperature simulator in the CemCADE program is capable of simulating such wells, resulting in a more accurate BHCT prediction, 8 CASING HARDWARE ‘Typical casing hardware specific to horizontal well ‘cementing are ‘+ hydraulically set liner hangers which can be rotated ‘or reciprocated, or both in some cases ‘* float equipment with poppet valves ‘* extemal casing packers * packer shoes * inflate stage collars (work on same principle as a packer shoe but allow a slotted liner or prepacked ‘screen to be run below it) + casing string rotation tools (allow only the rotation of a selected length of casing at the bottom of the string) * downhole activated centralizers ‘* centralizers with low running force and high restoring force, Further information on these and other related casing hardware can be found in SECTION 2.C.3— EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS and the WELL CEMENTING textbook, or obtained from the downhole tool service companies who distribute specialized casing hardware. 9 REMEDIAL CEMENTING In highly deviated or horizontal wellbores, three vari- ables are critical to the success of a squeeze cementing operation. They are ‘© pressure isolation of the target interval ‘= cement placement ‘© squeeze pressures. Positive pressure isolation of the target interval is re- uired to accurately place cement into the desired interval. Straddle packers with cup-type sealing elements, drilable cement retainers and bridge plugs, ‘or combinations of retrievable packers and bridge plugs may be used to isolate the interval. Chemical plugs (e.g., crosslinked polymers, viscous pills) may be used ‘or coiled-tubing squeeze operations (see SECTION 4.8.1—SQUEEZE —_ CEMENTING THROUGH COILED TUBING tor procedure details). ‘When combinations of conventional packers/retainers and bridge plugs are used, the slurry is spotted across. the entire terval before squeezing to prevent cement channeling during the squeeze (this is probably not possible with straddle packers). Using coiled tubing or tailpipe below a retrievable packer, the slurry is spotted starting at the bottom (end) and moving upward until the entire interval is covered with cement. Before the squeeze commences, the colled tubing or tailpipe is pulled well out of the slurry and any residual cement ‘onitis circulated out. The slurry is squeezed using the low-pressure squeeze technique (below formation fracture pressure). DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.C.1 RevA Page 14 of 22 January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | Rev A Section 5.0.1 HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING [12527 955 [Page 16 of 22 ae sc ay mn) ee eee a 2 Ee - 7-In. Liner with a 660-ft Horizontal Hole Section Well Data To e275 tt MD: s200ft KOP: 1500 Liner length: 4200 ft Openhole size: arin Mud type: Salt saturated @ 12.5 lbmigal Formation: Cedesse massive salt dome Welt Problems ‘ complete mud losses (to Muschekkalk claystone formation) + massive plastic salt zones Cementing Details Centralzation: 1 centralizer per joint Pipe movement: None Preflush: 38 bbl brine 31.5 bbl viscous spacer @ 15.8 Ibmigal Lead slurry: 88 bbl of SALTBOND” slury @ 15.8 lbmigal Tail slurry: 50 bbl of high-sulfate-resistant slurry @ 15.0 lbmv/gal Displacement Rate: 8 bbl/min (turbulent flow) Results: CBL-VDLICET logs showed good bonding over centralized sections and poor bonding with channels over noncentralized sections. Comments Centralizers were placed on the casing where the deviations were 75° or less. The bond logs correlated quite well with the centralization. Where there was good centralization, the bond log indicated good cement quality. Where there was no centralization, cement quality was poor with obvious mud channels. ‘Cement slurries should be designed not only to optimize those properties which are required to ensure good cement placement in highly deviated or horizontal holes, but also to conform with the formation characteristics in which they are to be placed. For this case, a SALTBOND system was used to cope with the saft environment. *Mark of Schlumberger DOWELL CONFIDENTIALpecion |e. C:am| Bez CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING Page 16 of 22 | January 1995 es ne ‘5% In. Liner with an 1830-ft Horizontal Hole Section (82 to 90°) Well Data To: 9295 ft Mo: 5135 ft KOP: 390 ft (at 25° deviation) Liner length: 1827 tt ‘Openhole size: 8 in Mud type: KCI polymer @ 9.6 tbmigal Formation: Eagle sandstone (49-ft thickness) Cementing Details Centralization: 3 centralizers per 2 joints Preflush: 60 bbl Chemical Wash Cement siurry: 111 bbl of Class G + 0.4 gal/sk of D603 @ 16.4 Ibmigal (batch mixed) Laboratory data: Thickening time: hr Free water: ri Fluid loss: 27 m/30 min Plastic viscosity: 168 cp Yield Point: 3.0 tbt/100 2 Compressive strength: 2390 psi (24 hr) Displacement Rate: 3.0, 0.8, 0.4 bbi/min (1.0 bbVmin average) Results: CBL very good. CET excellent. 'No evidence of channeling, Comments ‘The liner was run on heavyweight drillpipe to push it through the horizontal section. The liner hanger was a Brown Hughes Hydraulic Set MC. Centralization was 3 spiral bow-spring centralizers per 2 joints in the openhole section and 1 positive-type centralizer per joint inside the 9-5/8-in. casing up to the liner hanger. ‘A chemical wash was pumped ahead of the D603 batch-mixed slurry. Displacement started at 3.0 bbl/min but was reduced to 0.8 and then 0.5 bbUmin for the last 27 minutes, with an average displacement rate of 1.0 bblimin. (A low displacement rate was chosen to accurately control small displacement volumes and to observe pressure changes). Displacement was briefly stopped when the wiper dart became stuck in the drillpipe and 4000 psi was required to release it. This was thought to be due to pipe scale. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | Rev A Section 5.C.1 HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING January 1995 Page 17 of 22 ae ae ee oo EB oe ‘5¥%-In. Liner with a 2300-ft Horizontal Hole Section Well Data To: 70158 Mp: 11,050 KOP: 2012 tt Liner length: of Openhole size: Bin, Mud type: Oil base, lp = 34 op, ty = 13 Ibt/100 ft? ‘Cementing Detalis Centralization: 2 centralizers per joint Pipe movement: Rotation @ 10 to 20 rpm Pretlush: 20 bbl of oil spacer @ 7.0 Ibrvgal 20 bbl of wash @ 8.32 lonvgal 50 bbl of scavenger slurry @ 13.5 lbm/gal Cement sturry 192 bbl of GASBLOK* slurry @ 15.8 lbmugal Laboratory data: Thickening time: 3:22 hr:min Free water: rit Fluid loss: 18 mL/30 min Plastic viscosity: 34op Yield Point: 4.0 tbt/100 2 Displacement Rate: 16 to 12 bbl/min (slowing to 4 bbUmin to observe wiper plug shear and plug bump) Results: CBL excellent (<2.5 mV over 80%) Comments ‘The GASBLOK slurry was batch mixed and pumped downhole through a shear manifold. A 45-minute shutdown ‘occurred (HALCO pump valve failure) while pumping the slurry. Using oi-base mud, the rig pumps displaced the slurry. The displacement rate was 16 bb/min until the mud caught up to the slurry and then reduced to 12 bblmin. Itwas slowed to 4 bol/min to observe the liner wiper plug shearing and plug bumping. Two centralizers (Weatherford ST-II Sip-On Type Bow Spring) per joint with stop collars 10 ft apart were used. ‘The maximum torque observed during liner rotation was 16,000 to 17,000 ft-lbt at 20 rpm. *Mark of Schlumberger DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.C.1 | RevA CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL Paorecraae | amen ases HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING ec araererre Sl reve ia ‘ ee Ce lt 7-5i6-In. Liner with a 125-ft Horizontal Hole Section Well Data Wo: 1600 ft MD: 1872 tt KOP: 1300 ft Radius: 290 tt Curvature: 19.6° (smooth) {in Mississippi Lime) Openhole size: 9-718 in. Driting: 120 to 150 ftmin annular velocity Mechanical agitation to remove cuttings Formation: ‘Woodford shale Cementing Details 30-1 spacing below 1540 ft Rotation (and circulation) while running casing in hole Reciprocation @ 10- to 15-ft strokes (cementing) Could not move pipe after plug bumped Preflush: Fresh water ‘SAPP water Scavenger slury Laboratory data: Thickening time: 3:16 hemin Free water (45°): 1.9 mL/250 mL. (45°) Free water (vertical): 0.5 mL/250 mL. Fluid loss: 57 mL/30 min Compressive strength: 1120 psi (24 hr) Displacement Rate: 5 bovmin (water) ‘Comments Mechanical agitation (short trips) aided cuttings removal when driling the inclined and horizontal sections. Rigid centralizers were run at a 90-ft spacing. Rotation and circulation were necessary to get the pipe to bottom, ‘The pipe was reciprocated during mud conditioning and cementing. It could not be moved once the plug was bumped. 5. Problems were encountered getting the tools past the curvature. hepa DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | Fev A Secon ec HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING — 7-27 ta55 [Page 10 of 22 one ‘Two Wells: 5% in. Liners with 1500-ft Horizontal Hole Sections. Well Data To: 9,050 tt Mp: 12,360 & 10,000 ft ‘Openhole size: 99 in, Mud type: Oil base @ 9.0 lbrm/gal Circulation: 2 hr (1.5 x bottoms up) Formation: ‘Sadlerochit (~450-tt thickness) Cementing Details Centralization: free-tlating rigid centralizers Pipe movement: 1st job: rotation and reciprocation 2nd job: reciprocation only Preflush: 60 bbl of diesel oil 100 bbl of Chemical Wash 40 bbl of turbulent-flow spacer @ 12.5 lbmigal Cement slurry: 1st job: Class G + 1.1% D60 + 5% KCI 2nd job: Class G + 1.75 galsk D600 + 0.25% D65 Laboratory data: ‘Thickening time: 3:16 hemi Free water (45°) 4.3 mL/250 mL Free water (vertical): 0.5 mL/250 mL. Fluid loss: 57 mU30 min Rheology (Fann rdgs.): 46, 41, 35, 29, 27 Compressive strength: 1120 psi (24 hr) Displacement Rate: 5 bbvmin (water) Comments Both wells (see SPE 16682) were drilled in the Prudhoe Bay field, which produces from the Sadlerochit sandstone reservoir. This formation is about 450 ft thick and is bounded by an expanding gas cap and a water leg. After ‘cementing ten to twenty horizontal wells, the following procedure was adopted to effectively displace the mud. 1. Free-loating centralizers with near-gauge bodies (resembles a driling stabilizer sleeve). Minimum 2-hr mud circulation while reciprocating and rotating liner. ‘Mud-thinning preflushes. ‘Simultaneous rotation and reciprocation while cementing, Preflush volumes for 10-min contact time and displacement rates of 8 to 10 bblmin. Cement slurries are designed to contain zero free water and to have an AP! fluid loss less than 40 mL/30 min. ‘Simultaneous rotation and reciprocation is favored by Standard Oil, rotation because it mechanically ensures that cement is placed under the low side of the pipe, and reciprocation because it provides the fluid with velocity and Pressure surges necessary to break up gelled mud in washouts. open DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.C.1 | RevA CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL Page 20 of 22 | January 1995 HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING <= gpa aan at ta ggg TCSII TENE: Le ee —s—sr—e ss a a rt—™s oe rrr SBE HINER ae ee Pee Ho ‘1st Well: 5¥ 679%) Pipe Movement: Rotation @ 20 rpm Preftush: 10 bbl of oil 40 bbl of water Cement slurry: GASBLOK sturry @ 16.0 lbrm/gal Laboratory data: Thickening time: +4:20 hr-min Free water: nil Fluid loss: 30 mL/30 min Plastic viscosity 28 0p Yield Point 8.0 1/100 ft2 Compressive strength: 5200 psi at 170°F (24 hr) Displacement Rate: 1010 11 bbvmin Results: CBLICET average. Pressure response during acid fracture treatment of 5 separate intervals indicated good isolation. Comments ‘The driling and completion details of this horizontal well drilled by Maersk in the Dan Field in Denmark are presented in SPE 18349. ‘The displacement was intended to be in turbulent flow but the rate was not achieved due to friction pressures. Due to poor sonde centralization, the CEL appeared poor. Nevertheless, the well was acid fractured in five separate stages and the pressure behavior indicated good isolation between intervals. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALCEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL | Rev A Section 5.C.1 HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING |= s555 Ipage 1 of 20 seteetstanepeenerreteegeaeteant -cpopaipeeeteeeaaetpnianieatanietint 2nd & 3rd Wells: 7-in, & 6-5/8-In. Liners In 8Y%-In. Openhole Well Data ‘Similar to well data presented in Appendix A-6. For 2nd & 3rd wells, liner size increased to 7 and 6-5/8 in., respectively. Cementing Detalis Centralization 2 centralizers per joint (standoff > 67%) Pipe Movement: Rotation @ 20 rpm 2nd well: rotation stopped near end of job due to drag 3rd well: rotation stopped due to mechanical problems while pumping cement Preftush: 10 bbl of clean oil 30 bbl of Chemical Wash CWS 45 bbl of turbulent-flow spacer Cement slurry: 160 bbl of GASBLOK slurry @ 15.8 lbmigal Laboratory data: ‘Thickening time: 44:20 hemin, Free water: ri Fluid loss: 30 mL/30 min Plastic viscosity: 28.0p Yield Point: 8.0 Ibt/100 ft2 Compressive strength: 5200 psi at 170°F (24 hr) Displacement Rate: 11.5 bbimin (turbulent flow) Results: CBLs poor. Pressure response during acid fracture treatment of 7 separate intervals indicated no zonal isolation problems. Comments The drilling and completion details of these two horizontal wells drilled by Maersk in the Dan Field in Denmark are presented in SPE 18349. The cementing of these two wells involved a few changes in comparison to the first well (see Appendix A-6). To help achieve turbulent tlow, the liner size was increased to 7 in. for the second well, but reduced to 6-5/8 in. for the third well ‘The CBLs for both wells were poor. However, they were acid fractured in seven stages with good results and no zonal isolation problems being observed. DOWELL CONFIDENTIALSection 5.0.1 |RevA CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL Page 22 of 22 | January 1995 HORIZONTAL WELL CEMENTING [in iSieeS i ee 1000 torent Galaga Ge HS ES Se Ea een cee eee eens 4yeIn, Intermediate Casing in Curvature of Horizontal Well Welt Data ‘To: 6340 ft MD: 6560 ft KOP: 15400 ft Radius: 14°/100 ft (10 to 15°/100 ft actual) Openhole size: Bin. average (6-1/8-n. bit size) BHST: 140°F (60°C) : 115°F (46°0) Oilbase @ 6.7 omiga, yp = 18 op, ty = 12 bi/100 ‘Comenting Detaits Contralization: 40 STIS centralizers two per casing pint in openhole 6-718 in, maximum outside diameter 1270 Ibf restoring force at 6-1/8-n, diameter 213 bf starting force, 134 bf moving force Preflush: 50 bbl CW100 ‘Coment stury: SELFSTRESS" | with 10% D44 (BWOW) + 1.5% D112+ 0.5% DES +3%CaCl2@ 14.2 lbmigal Laboratory data: Thickening time: 8:23 hrrmin (short transition time) Free water: nil Fluid loss: 31 mL/30 min ‘Compressive strength: 825 psi (12 hr) 1225 psi (24 hr) Displacement Rate: Turbulent flow Results: Alter 26 hours, CBL amplitude matched prediction. Comments ‘Atthough not cemented through the horizontal section, this case history presents a critical cementing environment which has the ‘same characteristics as a horizontal section. ‘The intermediate casing had to be cemented in such a way that the storage reservoir was isolated. The ond ofthe intermediate casing was close to horizontal section with the additional constraint that the casing was stil in the curved section. With the c ing penetrating the storage reservoir, the cement-job design had to maintain continuous control of the gas and effectively r ‘mova the mud to achieve a hydraulic seal. An additional constraint was the desire by the Client to evaluate the cement job using a CBL, botore drilng the horizontal section. Because of the cost of directional driling personnel and equipment on location, the BL had to be run shortly after comenting. ‘A dispersed, lowsluid-loss slury with a short transition time to control annular gas flow was selected. In order to be able to run the CBL, strength development had to be rapid. ‘The centralizer density necessary to provide adequate standoff to achieve tfectve mud removal in turbulent flow was caloulated. Forty bow-spring centralizes (two per joint) and 50 bbl CW100 enabled effective mud removal to be realized, The CBL Adviser calculator determined the expected CBL amplitude. After 26-hr WOC time, the CBL was run and the ‘measured amplitude matched the predicted amplitude (3.5 to 4.0 mV versus 25 10 45 nV), ‘The Client driled and completed the horizontal section with excellant resus. *Mark of SchlumborgorCEMENTING ENGINEERING pe eocion ee EE January 1995 | Page 1 of 5 GROUTING [Contents Page | Contents — Fae] 1 INTRODUCTION a 4 PLATFORM GROUTING.......... 3 2 GROUTS..... seve wd 5 CONSTRUCTION/MINING GROUTING a 3 OILWELL GROUTING....... 1 3.1 "Top-Up" Cementing 2 3.2 Large-Hole Cemeniting ... 2 1. INTRODUCTION Grouting can be defined as the filing of a void space with a substance that hardens (grout). It is performed to prevent the passage of fluids and gases, to cement materials together and to prevent the compaction of materials by replacing the air or water that occupies a void space with a solid ‘The three basic types of grouting are «+ filling the partial or complete casing/openhole annulus from the bottom up with cement by pumping directly down the annulus or down tubulars positioned in the annulus (termed oilwell grouting for this discussion) + platform grouting + filling a void or unformed space (construction/mining grouting). Citwell grouting is the most common grouting method in Dowell 2 GROUTS The two basic types of grouts are chemical (or solution) grouts and suspension grouts. In general, chemical grouts are * organic monomers + resinous materials (¢.9., Synthetic Cement D824) « slicate gels (¢.9., PERMABLOK" system) Chemical grouts are advantageous because they exhibit controlled gelation time, viscosity and strength. They can often outperform suspension grouts be- ‘cause of their penetration into permeable strata. How- ever, chemical routs may require specialized mixing ‘and pumping equipment, and stringent placement procedures. Suspension grouts are composed of cement and re- uired cement additives. The cement system to be used must be compatible with the formation (2.9, a ‘SALTBOND" slurry is used across a large salt section 80 as not to leach additional salt from the borehole). Extenders (e.g., bentonite or fly ash) are often incor- orated to reduce the cost per unit volume. For certain applications, special cement systems (@.9., SELFSTRESS* or RFC* cements) may be used to take advartage of their unique properties. The thickening time of the cement system must be sufficient to allow the slurry to be mixed and placed, and the grout strings to be removed from the slurry and cleaned out. 3. OILWELL GROUTING Citwell grouting is generally classified as ‘* polymers with low molecular weights (e.g, » top-up cementing ‘Chemical Seal Ring 300 M801) i «+ large-hole cementing “Mark of Schlumberger ‘CONFIDENTIALITY This manual section is a confidential document which must not be copied in whole €or in any par or discussed with anyone outside the Schlumberger organization.Section 5.D.1 | RevA Page20f5 | January 1995 CEMENTING ENGINEERING MANUAL GROUTING Both oilwell grouting methods fil the casing/openhole annulus with cement from the bottom up by normally ‘pumping the slurry down small tubulars positioned in the annulus. Top-up cementing is usually performed immediately after a surface cement job to raise the cement top to the desired depth (usually surface) which was not achieved earlier. Large-hole cementing is used on large casing and openhole diameters to replace the driling mud in the annulus with competent cement (same objective as a surface cement job), ‘when conventional placement techniques become impractical 3.1, "Top-Up" Cementing When lost circulation occurs during the slury displacement on a surface cement job, the immediate solution is to recement down the annulus. It the losses are total, then the annular space may be empty to a certain depth and can be directly filled with ‘cement. In this case, a very low density cement is rec- ‘ommended because if the cement column is too heavy, it might also be lost to the weak zone. It losses are partial, then the fluid evel in the annulus might be at surface, making it necessary to run a small-diameter tubing string (1- to 1-7/6:n. tubing sizes are common)—termed spaghetti string—down the annulus between the casing and the openhole to enable siurry placement. Several tubing joints are sorewed together and pushed down the annulus as far as possible (see Fig. 1). ‘The tubing string is connected to the cementing unit by a high-pressure treating line, and circulation with driling mud or water is established. Caution must be exercised because the friction pressures will be high due to the small tubing ID. The cement slury is then mixed and pumped until cement retums are seen at surface. The treating line and tubing are initially cleaned out by displacing the remaining slurry with water to the caloulated cement top (underdisplaced slightly to ensure that the tubing string pulls dry) or, if the cement top is close to surface, then only the treating line is flushed ‘out with water at the end of the job. In either cast ‘each joint of the tubing string is cleaned out after its removal from the annulus by pumping water through it The cement siumry can also be mixed and pumped directly into the annulus (no prior circulation with water ‘or mud) once the tubing string is in place. In extreme ‘cases, such cementations may have to be repeated several times. 1 SMALL DIAMETER. TUBING Top OF FIRST STAGE CEMENTING TOP PLUG eee WEAK ZONE BAFFLE COLLAR FLOAT SHOE ‘lg. 1. Top-up comenting. 3.2 Large-Hole Cementing The large-hole cementing technique is used on large casing and openhole configurations to replace the driling mud in the annulus with competent cement (same objective as a surface cement job). This technique is used instead of the conventional primary ‘cementing technique when «the required casing hardware and accessories (e.9., float collar, cementing plugs) are too costly or not available * swages or cementing heads for the large casing size are not available or impractical to use DOWELL CONFIDENTIAL

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