9.

3
If you have been to a beach on a hot summer day, you have
likely cooled off by going for a dip in the water. The water,
which is cooler than you are, removes thermal energy from
your body, making you feel cooler. This shows the remarkable
ability of water to absorb and store thermal energy.

Storing Thermal Energy

Air, land, and water have different capacities for storing thermal
energy. Large bodies of water, such as oceans, and the atmosphere
absorb and store thermal energy, so they are heat sinks. Water is a
more effective heat sink than air because it has a greater capacity
to store thermal energy.
When the air is warmer than the ocean surface, the ocean
absorbs thermal energy from the air. When the air is cooler than the
ocean surface, the ocean releases thermal energy back into the air.
As a result, the climates of regions close to oceans and large bodies
of water tend to be milder in winter and cooler in summer than
inland regions.

conduction
convection
radiation
Figure 1 Thermal energy
moves by conduction
from the flame to the pot,
and then to the handle.
It moves by convection
through the water. Thermal
energy also moves
from the burner to the
atmosphere by radiation.

Transferring Thermal Energy

When thermal energy is transferred, it always moves from an object
or region that is warmer to one that is cooler (Figure 1). Thermal
energy can be transferred in three different ways:
radiation in the form of electromagnetic waves
conduction through direct contact
convection within fluids (liquids or gases)
The stored energy in both air and water is transferred by winds and
ocean currents. This thermal energy transfer is an important cause
of Earths climate zones.

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Convection Currents
Most of Earths thermal energy circulates throughout the atmosphere and
the hydrosphere. When a fluid, such as air or water, is unevenly heated,
a current forms. The cooler, denser fluid falls and pushes the warmer,
less dense fluid up. This roughly circular pattern of movement is
called a convection current (Figure 2). Convection currents in the air
and in the oceans move thermal energy around the globe.

Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere

In the atmosphere, the amount of thermal energy absorbed by the
air is unevenly distributed. At low latitudes, such as at the equator,
the Suns energy is more intense. The air gets much warmer than
the air at higher latitudes.
Air at the equator heats up rapidly and becomes less dense.
Colder, denser air above it drops, pushing the warm air up into the
atmosphere. This creates an area of low pressure. The warm air
spreads out toward the poles and cools down. This cooler air then
sinks back to Earths surface. This creates an area of high pressure.
This movement of warm and cool air creates convection currents in
Earths atmosphere.

convection current: the

circular movement of
matter within a fluid caused
by the rising of warm fluid
as cool fluid sinks
rising
current of
warm air

warm air
cools
and sinks

warmer air is displaced

upward by falling cooler air
Figure 2 The circulation
of warm and cold fluid
creates a convection
current.

Convection currents are one of the main ways that energy is

transported in the atmosphere. They move thermal energy from
the equator toward the poles (Figure 3).

60

30

equator

30

60

Figure 3 A complex set of convection cells forms around Earth,

creating bands of prevailing winds (the yellow arrows), and moving
thermal energy from the equator toward the poles.
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9.3 Energy Transfer in Air and in Water 335

Prevailing Winds and Climate Zones

The surface winds that result from convection currents are called
global winds, or prevailing winds (Figure 4). Prevailing winds, such
as the westerlies or trade winds, move in the same direction almost
all the time. These winds can influence climate zones.
A prevailing wind that passes over the ocean picks up water
vapour. When this wind reaches land, the water condenses, bringing
rain. These regions have high amounts of precipitation (for example,
Vancouver, British Columbia). A prevailing wind that comes from the
Arctic will be cold and dry. The region this wind passes over may
have cold, dry winters (for example, Kenora, Ontario).

Figure 4 Wind farms, like this one near Shelbourne, Ontario, take advantage of
strong winds to generate power.

TRY This Examine Air Currents

Skills: Observing, Evaluating, Communicating

In this activity, you will make air currents and observe

their effects.
Equipment and Materials: heavy cardstock; ruler;
pencil; scissors; thread; lamp with incandescent bulb
Caution

Do not touch the bulb, even after it is turned off;

it may still be hot. To unplug the lamp, pull on the
plug, not the cord.

1.B., 3.B.

5. Hold the spiral by the thread just above the light

bulb (Figure 5). Do not allow the card to touch the
bulb. Record your observations.
A. Explain your observations.

T/I

B. H
 ow does this model demonstrate how air
currents in the atmosphere form? A

1. From cardstock, cut out a circle with a diameter of

15 cm.
2. Starting at the outside edge of the circle, cut a
continuous strip 1.5 cm wide toward the centre of
the circle, forming a spiral.
3. Tie a piece of thread to the centre of the spiral.
4. Remove the shade from the lamp. Plug in the lamp
and turn it on. Let it warm for several minutes.

336 Chapter 9 Causes of Climate Change

Figure 5 Suspend the spiral just above the bulb.

NEL

Energy Transfer in the Oceans

Similar to air currents, large ocean currents transfer thermal energy
around Earth and affect the climate of different regions. Ocean
currents are driven by three factors:
prevailing winds
convection
uneven concentration of salts in ocean water
Prevailing winds create surface ocean currents that move warm
water. Convection and the uneven concentration of salts in the
ocean create deep ocean currents. These currents move cold,
salty water from deep in the ocean to the warmer, less salty ocean
surface. Together these currents result in the mixing of water
throughout the worlds oceans.

Thermohaline Circulation
The continuous movement of water based on a difference in
temperature and salinity is called the thermohaline circulation
(Figure 6). Thermohaline circulation acts like a giant conveyer belt,
moving water and thermal energy from the equator to the poles.
As warm surface water moves toward the poles it gets colder. It
also becomes saltier as surface water evaporates and sea ice forms.
This cold, salty water is denser and sinks to the ocean floor. Warmer
surface water from the equator then flows toward the poles to take
its place.

thermohaline
circulation: the
continuous flow of water
within oceans because
of differences in water
temperature and salinity

dig deeper

Learning Tip
Root Words
The term thermohaline
is derived from two Greek
words. Thermo means
hot, while hals means
of salt.

thermal energy release

to atmosphere

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

warm
water
INDIAN
OCEAN

PACIFIC
OCEAN

cold,
salty
water

thermal energy release

to atmosphere

Figure 6 The complex pattern of ocean currents is caused by a combination of

convection currents, prevailing winds, differences in salinity, and the positions of
land masses.
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9.3 Energy Transfer in Air and in Water 337

dig deeper

Reading Tip
Supporting Details
Details such as facts,
reasons, and examples
are used to support the
main idea. They help
the reader understand
the main idea by saying
something specific that
the reader can relate
to. An example of a
supporting detail is For
example, the Galapagos
Islands .... When
summarizing a text, it
is better not to include
supporting details.

dig deeper

Career Link
Avionics maintenance
technicians test and repair
specialized equipment
on aircraft, such as
navigation equipment that
help pilots fly in fog. To
learn more about being
an avionics maintenance
technician,

Ocean Currents and Climate Zones

Ocean currents transfer large amounts of thermal energy around
the world. Ocean currents have a strong influence on climate zones.
Cold ocean currents cool the air above them. They do not release
as much moisture into the air as warm currents. When this cool air
reaches land, it has a cooling effect. For example, the Galapagos
Islands are situated on the equator and surrounded by the ocean.
However, the islands have a relatively cool and very dry climate
because of a cold ocean current.
Warm ocean currents heat the air above them. When this warm,
moist air reaches land, it warms the land and brings rain. The Gulf
Stream is a warm ocean current that runs up the east coast of
North America and across the North Atlantic ocean toward Europe
(Figure 7). When the Gulf Stream encounters the cold prevailing winds
blowing from the Arctic and Greenland, some of the thermal energy
from the warm surface current gets transferred to the air. This gives
cities on the northwest coast of Europe a warmer, damper climate
than other cities, such as Montral, that are at the same latitude.
The Grand Banks off Newfoundland and Labrador are influenced
by the meeting of two ocean currents. When the cool, dry air over
the cold Labrador Current meets the warm, moist air over the much
warmer Gulf Stream, the result is some of the foggiest conditions in
the world.

go to Nelson Science

Figure 7 This satellite image shows the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic, which
moves warm surface water northward from the equator. Red tones are warmer
currents and blue tones are cooler currents. The east coast of North America is
the dark grey area in the upper left.

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TRY ThisIce Cold Action

Skills: Observing, Evaluating, Communicating

3.B.

In this activity, you will make and observe water

currents.

5. Repeat Steps 1 to 4 using a solution of 3 % salt

water. This represents the ocean.

Equipment and Materials: 2 clear glass containers

(e.g., drinking glasses); tap water; 2 ice cubes dyed
with food colouring; 250 mL salt water (3 %)

A. What happened to the melting ice water in the

fresh water? Explain. T/I C

1. Fill a clear glass container with tap water. This

represents a freshwater lake. Allow the water to
settle for 2 min.

B. What happened to the melting ice water in the salt

water? Explain. T/I C
C. What does this suggest happens when large icebergs
or floating ice sheets melt in the Arctic Ocean? A

2. Carefully lower a coloured ice cube into the water.

Make sure that you do this with minimal disturbance
of the water. This represents a sheet of ice.

D. What would happen to the density of the surface

water if very large amounts of ice melted and
flowed into the ocean near Greenland? T/ I

3. Observe carefully as the ice melts.

E. What effect could this have on the thermohaline

circulation? T/I

4. Record your observations in a diagram.

9.3 Wrap Up
Earths oceans and lakes absorb and store more thermal energy than the
atmosphere does.
Convection currents in the atmosphere and hydrosphere distribute thermal
energy over Earths surface.
Air currents and ocean currents transfer thermal energy from the equator
to the poles.
Thermohaline circulation acts like a giant conveyor belt in the ocean, slowly
transferring thermal energy from the equator to the poles and mixing the
water in the worlds oceans in the process.

Check Your Learning

1. List and define the three types of thermal energy
transfer. K/U

5. What are the three factors that cause ocean

currents? K/U

2. How do convection currents form? Use a diagram

in your answer. K /U C

6. Explain what happens to warm surface water as it

moves north. What type of circulation does this
cause? K/U

3. How is thermal energy distributed from low

(warmer) latitudes to high (cooler) latitudes? K/U
4. What is a prevailing wind? K /U

NEL

7. How does the Gulf Stream affect the climate of the

northwest coast of Europe? K/U

9.3 Energy Transfer in Air and in Water 339