University of Ontario Institute of Technology

Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science

MECE 2420U Solid Mechanics
Laboratory Manual

Lab 5: The Thin Cylinder

Winter 2014

Page 1 of 16

Lab Objectives
The TQ Thin Cylinder apparatus allows you to set up and perform several experiments
related to the stress systems in a thin cylinder. It clearly demonstrates the principles
involved and gives practical support to class studies.
The use of the Thin Cylinder apparatus gives an appreciation of:
A biaxial stress system
the use of strain gauges
Youngs Modulus
Poissons ratio
Constructing and using Mohrs Circles of strain.
Background
In relation to stress analysis, cylinders are divided into two groups: thick and thin. The
distinction between the two relates to the ratio of internal diameter to wall thickness of a
particular cylinder. A cylinder with a diameter to thickness ratio of more than 20 is
considered to be thin. A ratio of less than 20 is considered to be thick. This distinction is
made as the analysis of a cylinder can be simplified by assuming it is thin. The SM1007
cylinder has a ratio of approximately 27, which is well above the ratio for being
considered thin.
Thin cylinders or shells are commonplace in engineering. Examples of thin walled
cylinders are:
pressure pipes,
aircraft fuselages and
compressed gas containers.
Thick walled cylinders are less common, an example being a gun barrel.
For a closed cylinder with an internal pressure there can be three direct stresses acting
upon it.
Longitudinal stress the cylinders resistance to stretching along its length (axis).
Hoop or Circumferential stress - the cylinders resistance to grow in diameter.
Radial stress gas or fluid compressing the walls of the cylinder. It is equal to the
pressure on the inside and zero on the outside
The longitudinal stress and hoop stresses are directly proportional to the pressure and the
ratio of diameter to thickness of the cylinder. However the radial stress is related to the
pressure alone. Because of their relationship to the geometry, the Longitudinal and Hoop
stresses are far greater and more significant than the radial stress in a thin cylinder. It is
reasonable and recognized to assume that the radial stress is small enough for it to be
ignored for basic calculations.

Winter 2014

Page 2 of 16

Figure 1: Stresses in a thin walled cylinder.

The individual direct stresses are given by:

H= pd/2t and,
L= pd/4t
where:
H= Hoop Stress (Nm-2)
L= Longitudinal Stress (Nm-2)
P= Pressure in the cylinder (Nm-2)
d= Diameter of the cylinder (m)
t= Thickness of cylinder walls (m)
Nearly all applications of the thin cylinder will have closed ends with the biaxial stress
system described previously. However as outlined in the introduction, the equipment
allows us to examine the stresses in the cylinder with open ends i.e. with no direct
longitudinal stress. Although there is no practical application for a cylinder in this
condition, the experiment yields several useful relationships. We can use these
relationships in the more complex closed ends condition.
Equipment
Figure 2 shows the SM1007 Thin Cylinder apparatus. It consists of a thin walled
aluminum cylinder of 80 mm inside diameter and 3 mm wall. Operating the hydraulic
pump pressurizes the cylinder with oil.
The cylinder has six sensors on its surface that measure strain. A mechanical gauge and
electronic sensor measure the hydraulic pressure in the cylinder. The cylinder is held in a
sturdy frame in which it is free to move along its axis. The strains (and thus the stress)
can be measured with the cylinder in two configurations:
1. Open ends where the axial loads are taken by the frame (not the cylinder),
therefore there is no direct axial stress

Winter 2014

Page 3 of 16

2. Closed ends where the axial loads are taken by the cylinder, therefore there
must be direct axial stress

Figure 2: Experiment setup

The two configurations are achieved using the large hand wheel at the end of the frame.
In the Open ends condition the hand wheel is screwed fully in. This pushes the two
pistons away from the cylinder end caps so that there is no contact between them.
Therefore, the axial force is transmitted from the pressurized oil into the frame rather
than the cylinder. See Figure 3.
In the Closed ends condition the hand wheel is wound out. This allows the pistons to
move outward against the cylinder end caps so that there is no contact with the frame.
Therefore the axial force is transmitted from the pressurized oil into the cylinder itself.
See Figure 4.

Figure 3: Open Ends Condition

Winter 2014

Page 4 of 16

Figure 4: Closed Ends Condition

Computer Connection
To take and record readings and plot graphs, the SM1007 must be connected to a PC.
Dedicated software and the connecting lead is supplied with the SM1007.
Strain Sensors
The sensor used to measure the strains in the walls of the thin cylinder is called a Strain
Gauge.
Strain gauges are sensors that experience a change in electrical resistance when they are
stretched or compressed, this change in resistance can be shown in terms of displacement
(strain). Strain gauges are made from a metal foil cut in a zigzag pattern, they are only a
few microns thick so they are mounted on a backing sheet, and this allows them to be
handled and electrically insulates the zigzag element. Gauges are bonded to the structural
part under examination, thus the strain gauge stretches and compresses the same amount
as the surface of the part. To give an direct reading of strain we use a constant called the
gauge factor, this is to compensate for the slight differences in manufacture between each
batch of gauges, it usually varies between 1.8 and 2.2. It is usual to set this in the strain
gauge readout.
There are six strain gauges on the cylinder, arranged at various angles to allow the study
of how the strain varies at different angles to the axis. Strains are shown on the P.C.
screen, directly in micro-strain on a schematic of the thin cylinder. Note that a negative
reading is a compressive strain and a positive reading is a tensile strain the technique of
strain gauging is of great importance to structural engineers. This equipment gives you
the opportunity to understand their use.

Winter 2014

Page 5 of 16

How to set up the equipment

Figure 5: Layout of the SM1007

Before using the equipment, always:

Visually inspect all parts, including electrical leads, for damage or wear.
Check that all electrical connections and other parts are secured correctly and
fastenings are sufficiently tight.
Position the equipment safely on a solid, level surface, so that it is steady, easily
accessible.
Never apply excessive loads to any part of the equipment.
1. The main switch is at the rear of the unit. Move it to the on position, the green
LED on the front should illuminate.
2. Start the SM1007 software on the PC.
3. Leave the SM1007 for 5 minutes to allow the gauges to warm up and reach a
steady state.
4. To check that the Hydraulic circuit is functioning, and familiarize yourself with the
controls:
a).
Open the release valve on the pump (turn anticlockwise)
b).
Wind the hand wheel fully in
c).
Fully close the release valve on the pump
d).
Operate the pump steadily observing the pressure on the gauge. Stop at a
pressure of 3 MN/m2.
e).
Leave the unit for 1 minute, observing the pressure gauge, the pressure
should not vary in this time
f).
Open the release valve on the pump, the pressure should fall to zero
Finally, to set up the unit with the computer, select Options from the menu bar and set
the Gauge factor to that given on the SM1007 front panel. Press Test SM1007 to
ensure that the SM1007 is communicating with the PC. The PC should give the message:
Communications with SM1007 OK.

Winter 2014

Page 6 of 16

Safety Instructions
There is a risk of electric shock. Always unplug first.
During test do not touch any parts of the test stand.
Do not exceed a cylinder pressure of 3.5 MNm-2
Follow lab dress codes
Use assistance and follow the correct handling procedures when moving this
apparatus.
Always disconnect after each experiment.
IMPORTANT! Never attempt any form of machine maintenance.
Should anyone have any Safety Concerns or Questions, Please Ask!
Experimentation
Experiment 1 - Thin Cylinder with Open Ends
In this experiment we will pressurize the cylinder in the open ends condition taking
readings from all six strain gauges, we will then analyze the results in various ways to
establish some important relationships. Examine the cylinder and the diagram on the
front panel to understand the notation and placement of the strain gauges in relation to the
axis of the cylinder. The experimental method utilizes the SM1007 software to display
and take readings.

1. Familiarize yourself with the equipment by following the instructions in section

1.3. Open the pump release valve and screw in the hand wheel to set up the open
ends condition.
2. In the SM1007 software choose Open Ends Condition from the Experiments
menu option. Then connect to the SM1007 unit by selecting Connect to
SM1007 from the same menu. The virtual meters on the screen should now
display values of pressure and strain.

Winter 2007

Page 7 of 16

3. Close the pump release valve and zero the readings by selecting Zero All
Gauges from the Experiments menu option. All the virtual strain meters

-2

should now read 00.3 , and the pressure meter should read 00.01 MNm .
4. Take the first set of readings (at zero) into the data table by selecting Record
Gauge Readings from the Experiments menu option. Display the data table
by selecting Data Table in the Results menu.
-2

5. Pump the handle slowly until a pressure of around 0.5 MNm and record the
readings into the data table again by selecting Record Gauge Readings from
the Experiments menu option. Wait a few seconds between pumps for the
gauges to stabilize.
-2

6. Carefully increase the pressure in 0.5 MNm increments, recording the readings
-2

into the data table until you have reached a value of 3 MNm . Try to get as close
-2

as possible to 3 MNm as it will allow you to make direct comparisons with

established theoretical values at this pressure. Do not exceed a cylinder pressure
-2

of 3.5 MNm
7. You may print the data table if desired by pressing the printer button in the top
left corner of the table.
8. Disconnect the communications between the PC and the apparatus by selecting
Disconnect the SM1007 from the Experiments menu option.
Experiment 2 - Thin Cylinder with Closed Ends
For experiment 2 we will now test the cylinder taking the same readings as in experiment
1 but with the cylinder in the closed ends condition to show the effect of the biaxial stress
system.
1. Open the pump release valve and carefully unscrew the hand wheel enough to set
up the closed ends condition. To check that the frame is not transmitting any load,
close the pump release valve and pump the handle and observe the pressure
gauge, you may need to pump a number of times as the oil pushes the pistons
outward.
2. Once a pressure of around 3 MNm-2 has been achieved, gently push and pull the
cylinder along its axis, the cylinder should move in the frame indicating that the
frame is not transmitting any load. If it doesnt move, wind the hand wheel out
-2

some more and try again. Do not exceed a cylinder pressure of 3.5 MNm
3. In the SM1007 software choose Closed Ends Condition from the Experiments
menu option. Then connect to the SM1007 unit by selecting Connect to SM1007
from the same menu. The virtual meters on the screen should now display values
of pressure and strain.
4. Close the pump release valve and zero the readings by selecting Zero All
Gauges from the Experiments menu option. All the virtual strain meters should
-2

now read 00.3 , and the pressure meter should read 00.01 MNm .

Winter 2007

Page 8 of 16

5. Take the first set of readings (at zero) into the data table by selecting Record
Gauge Readings from the Experiments menu option. Display the data table by
selecting Data Table in the Results menu.
-2

6. Pump the handle slowly until a pressure of around 0.5 MNm and record the
readings into the data table again by selecting Record Gauge Readings from the
Experiments menu option. Wait a few seconds between pumps for the gauges to
stabilize.
-2

7. Carefully increase the pressure in 0.5 MNm increments, recording the readings
-2

into the data table until you have reached a value of 3 MNm . Do not exceed a
-2

-2

cylinder pressure of 3.5 MNm . Try to get as close as possible to 3 MNm as it

will allow you to make direct comparisons with established theoretical values at
this pressure.
8. You may print the data table if desired by pressing the printer button in the top
left corner of the table.
9. Disconnect the communications between the PC and the apparatus by selecting
Disconnect the SM1007 from the Experiments menu option.
Analysis
For Experiment 1

The Stress Strain Relationship

The data table calculates the hoop stress for each pressure reading. Select one pressure
reading (other than zero) and check the calculation of stress using the equations given in
the previous section and the data on the front panel of the SM1007.
From your examination of the positioning of the strain gauges you will have noticed that
gauges 1 and 6 have been placed so that they are measuring the hoop strain in the
cylinder. Examine the results for gauges 1 and 6, what can you say about the magnitude
of the hoop strain as you move along the axis of the cylinder?
You should conclude that the hoop strain remains constant along the length of the
cylinder.
Plot a graph of Average Hoop Stress versus Hoop Strain either by hand (from the data
table), or by using the graphing facility in the SM1007.
To plot the graph using the SM1007 software, select Hoop Stress v Hoop Strain from
the Results menu option. A chart will appear with crosses marking the results.
What is the relationship between stress and strain? Your graph should reveal a linear
relationship between stress and strain, the gradient of which is a measure of stiffness
called the Youngs Modulus. i.e

Winter 2007

Page 9 of 16

E = /
Where:
E = Youngs Modulus (Nm-2)
= Stress (Nm-2)
= Strain ()
Find a value of the Youngs Modulus for the cylinder material from your graph.
To find the value of the gradient and therefore the Youngs Modulus from the graph
plotted by the software, a line needs to be drawn through the results. The slope of the line
is indicated when you release the mouse button.
The Youngs Modulus varies from material to material, but is a constant for each
material, so long as it has uniform properties (homogenous and isotropic). For the
aluminum alloy used for the SM1007 cylinder the Youngs modulus is nominally 70
-2

GNm Does the value of Youngs modulus from your graph agree with the theoretical
value stated? If there is a discrepancy between the values then name any sources of error
that may be present.
Steel is approximately three times stiffer than aluminum having a Youngs Modulus of
210 GNm-2. If the cylinder had been made of steel would the measured strain be higher or
lower for the same stress?
Conclusion
The use of the apparatus has established the stress strain relationship and experimental
value of Youngs Modulus. Note that since the Youngs Modulus remains constant for
any given homogenous isotropic material, strain gauges are a reliable means of
measuring stress on the surface of a structural part.
The Ratio of Hoop Strain to Longitudinal Strain in an Open Cylinder
In the introduction to the experiments it was stated that there is no Direct longitudinal
strain in the open ends conditions. With reference to the small diagram on the front of the
SM1007, identify the gauge which measures the longitudinal strain. Does this gauge
register zero?
You will find that the gauge does not register zero, in fact a significant compressive strain
is measured. This is because there is an Indirect Longitudinal strain which is a result of
the hoop stress. This indirect strain is generated by the fact that as the cylinder increases
diameter the length decreases (the opposite can be seen to occur if you stretch elastic
band).
To explore this relationship, plot a graph of the Longitudinal Strain Versus Average
Hoop Strain, either by hand (from the data table), or by using the graphing facility in the

Winter 2007

Page 10 of 16

SM1007. To plot the graph using the SM1007 software, select longitudinal v Hoop Strain
from the Results menu. A chart will appear with crosses marking the results.
Find the gradient of your plot. To find the value of the gradient from the graph plotted by
the software, a line needs to be drawn through the results. The slope of the line (gradient)
is indicated when you release the mouse button. The magnitude of the gradient of your
plot is a called Poissons ratio it can be defined as the ratio of indirect strain to direct
strain. In mathematical terms it is given as:
v = -Lo/Ho
Where:
v = Poissons Ratio
Lo = Longitudinal Strain (in the open ends condition)
Ho = Hoop Strain (in the open ends condition)
The Poissons ratio changes from material to material but is constant for any given
homogenous isotropic material. Most metals have a value of Poissons ratio of around
0.3, although the range of values is 0.1 to 0.5 the extremes being concrete and rubber
respectively.
The cylinder is manufactured from an aluminum alloy which has a Poissons ratio of
0.33. Compare this to the gradient of your graph.
Principle Strains and the Mohrs Circle
In the case of a cylinder the maximum and minimum strains are always at right angles to
each other. These strains are called the principle strains. As discovered previously, in the
open ends condition, the thin cylinder has principle strains of:
Lo = Longitudinal Strain (in the open ends condition)
Ho = Hoop Strain (in the open ends condition)

Winter 2007

Page 11 of 16

v= -Lo/ Ho
where:
v= Poissions Ratio
Lo= Longitudinal Strain (in the open ends condition)
Ho= Hoop Strain (in the open condition)
The Poissons ratio changes from material to material but is constant for any given
homogenous isotropic material. Most metals have a value of Poissons ratio of around
0.3, although the range of values is 0.1 to 0.5 the extremes being concrete and rubber
respectively.
The cylinder is manufactured from an aluminum alloy which has a Poissons ratio of
0.33. Compare this to the gradient of your graph.
Principle Strains and the Mohrs Circle
In the case of a cylinder the maximum and minimum strains are always at right angles to
each other. These strains are called the principle strains. As discovered previously, in the
open ends condition, the thin cylinder has principle strains of
Ho= Ho/E (direct from the hoop stress)
Lo= -vHo/E (indirectly due to the Poisson effect)
But how to we quantify strains at other than right angles to the axis of the cylinder? The
answer lies in a simple yet effective graphical method known as a Mohrs Circle. Mohrs
circles can be used to solve a variety of strain, stress and deflection problems.
First, construct a Mohrs Circle by hand so that you understand how the method works.
The SM1007 software will also construct a Mohrs circle from your results. You can use
this facility to check your work. We have already established that the strain gauges give a
very linear response to pressure so we will use only the values for the maximum test
pressure (3 MNm-2).
1. On graph paper construct an axis which allows for the minimum principle strain
(gauge 2) and the maximum principle strain (the average of gauges 1 and 6) on
the x axis and a strain of around 400 to +400 on the y axis. The x and y axes
must be to the same scale.
2. As can be seen from the equations in the theory section, on a Mohrs Circle the
strains are related to 2 where = the angle from the axis. This is an
important thing to remember.

Winter 2007

Page 12 of 16

Since gauge 2 is on the axis of the cylinder, then the angle is 0 on the Mohrs circle
Since gauges 1 and 6 are 90 from the axis, then the angle is 180 on the Mohrs circle
3. Plot these 2 points on the axis as shown in sketch 1.

Sketch 1
4. The two points are the extremes of the Mohrs circle. On this basis find the centre
either by calculation or by construction, then draw a circle as shown in sketch 2.
This is the Mohrs circle based on your results for the principle strains. You can
now use this to find the direct strain at any angle from the axis.
5. To find the direct strain at 60 from the axis, draw a line from the centre of the
circle at 120 clockwise from 0 (remember, twice the angle!) until it intersects
the circle, then draw a line vertically down to the x axis.
6. Read off the value of strain and compare this to the reading for the strain gauge
which is placed at 60 from the axis (gauge 5) you should find that the two
readings are in close agreement.
7. Repeat the process for 30 and 45 and compare the readings from your Mohrs
Circle to those measured on the equipment. Does the Mohrs circle accurately
predict the direct strain at any angle?
As you know, the x axis on the Mohrs circle plot is the direct strain, but what is the y
axis?
The answer is the shear strain, from which we can quantify the shear stress.

Winter 2007

Page 13 of 16

Sketch 2

Sketch 3
To plot the Mohrs circle using the SM1007 software, select Plot Mohrs Circle from
the Results menu. A chart will appear with crosses marking the results. Readings of
strain may be taken from the graph by moving the mouse cursor around the circle.
Find the values of shear strain for each of the angles on the cylinder in the same way you
found the direct strain. At what angle is the maximum shear strain? Will it always be this
angle for a thin cylinder?
Calculate theoretical principle strains (using the equations given in the theory section)
-2

with a pressure of 3 MNm , a Poissons ratio of 0.33 and a Youngs Modulus of 69

-2

MNm . Construct a Mohrs circle using these values and compare it to your experimental
one. Do the theoretical and experimental Mohrs circles agree? What are the sources of
error?
For Experiment 2

Having completed the analysis of the open ends condition we will now analyze the
cylinder in the closed ends condition to show the effect of the biaxial stress system.
Examine the data table. With reference to the stress equations, confirm that longitudinal
stress is half the value of the hoop stress. Check, using a method of differences, or by

Winter 2007

Page 14 of 16

sketching graphs, that the readings from the gauges are still linear in the closed ends
condition.
Using the Method of Superposition to Find the Principle Strains
In the previous experiment, we established that for the direct hoop stress we created and
indirect longitudinal strain, due to the Poisson effect. It follows therefore, that if we
created a purely longitudinal stress that we would have an indirect hoop strain. If the
cylinder were stretched it will have a tendency to reduce in diameter (which is exactly
what happens if you stretch an elastic band.) To find the principle strains we can use the
idea of superposition. This means that we can simply work out the principle strains for
each stress case (hoop and longitudinal) in isolation and then sum them to give the
principle strains for the biaxial system. i.e.:
The principle strain in the longitudinal direction is the sum of the direct
longitudinal strain and the indirect longitudinal strain
and
The principle strain in the circumferential direction is the sum of the direct hoop
strain and the indirect hoop strain.
In mathematical terms, the hoop stress will cause strains of:
H= H / E
L=-v H/E (due to the Poisson effect)
Conversely, the longitudinal stress will cause strains of:
L= L / E
H=-v L / E (due to the Poisson effect)
The algebric sum of these strains is
H=( H - v L )/E
L=( L - v H )/E
Construct a Mohrs circle from your results at 3 MNm-2 either by hand or by using the
SM1007 Software using the same method as used in experiment 1. Read off values for
the direct strains and compare them to values obtained from the equipment. Your
predicted and experimental value should be in close agreement. What do you notice about

Winter 2007

Page 15 of 16

the overall diameter of the Mohrs circle compared to the open ends condition? How
does this affect the shear strain?
Calculate theoretical principle strains using the equations given in the theory section with
a pressure of 3 MNm-2, a Poissons ratio of 0.33 and a Youngs Modulus of 70 MNm-2.
Construct a Mohrs circle using these values and compare it to your experimental one. Do
the theoretical and experimental Mohrs circles agree?
References:

th

Callister, William D. Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction (4 Ed.). John

Wiley & Sons, Inc.: New York, 1997.

TQ Education and Training Ltd 2000 SM1007 Thin Cylinder STUDENTS GUIDE

Winter 2007

Page 16 of 16