1

.

.
.

1.1
1.1.1 R .

R M : ( r , m)

r mM

R- R
(i)

r1 (r2 m) = (r1r2 ) m r1 , r2 R , m M

(ii) (r1 + r2 ) m = r1 m + r2 m r1 , r2 R , m M
(iii) r (m1 + m2 ) = r m1 + r m2 r R , m1 , m2 M
(iv) 1R m = m m M .
rm r m .
, R M M ,
.
1.1.2 (i) F . F -
F -. F - F -
.

(ii) -

m + ... + m (r ), r > 0

rm = 0, r = 0
(r ) m, r < 0,

r m M .
(iii) R R
R I I , ( a, b )

ab ,

R.
(iv) R .
R/ R

r (a + I ) = ra + I ,
r R a + I R / I .
a + I = a + I ,

a a I

r (a a ) I

ra + I = ra + I . 3.1.1

.
(v) : R S . S R

rs = (r ) s

(ii)

(r1 + r2 ) s = (r1 + r2 ) s = ((r1 ) + (r2 )) s = (r1 ) s + (r2 ) s = r1 s + r2 s .

(vi) F , V F - : V V

F [ x] -

f ( x)v = f (a)(v) .
(vii) G R = End (G )
G. R
( f + g )( x) = f ( x) + g ( x)
( fg )( x) = f ( g ( x)) , f , g End (G ) , x G .

1.1.3 R .


(i)

0 R m = 0 M m M

(ii) r 0 M = 0 M r R
(iii) ( r ) m = r ( m) = rm r R , m M
. (i) 0 R + 0 R = 0 R (0 R + 0 R ) m = 0 R m 0 R m + 0 R m = 0 R m

(ii) 3.1.1. 0 R m + 0 R m = 0 R m + 0 M .
0 R m + 0 M .
(ii) : 0 M + 0 M = 0 M r (0 M + 0 M ) = r 0 M r 0 M + r 0 M = r 0 M
(iii) 3.1.1. r 0 m = 0 m .
(iii) r (m + ( m)) = r 0 M = 0 M (ii). rm + r (m) = 0 m
r ( m) = (rm) . (r + ( r ))m = 0 R = 0 M (i).
rm + ( r )m = 0 M . ( r ) m = (rm) .

1.1.3
. R
rm = 0 r 0 R m 0 M . , - n
n[a ] = [na ] = [0] [a ] n .
1.1.4 R . N M R

R
.
N M .
1.1.5 R N M .

(i) a, b N a b N
(ii) a N , r R ra N
. N M .

(i). (ii) 1.1.4. ,

(i), (ii). (i) .

(ii), 1.1.1
.

1.1.6 (i) R . R R
R.
(ii) -
.
(iii) F . F- F
.

(iv) F , V F - :V V
. V F [ x] -

f ( x)v = f (a)(v) .

F [ x] -

V U V
(U ) U ( -
V ).
1.1.5 ( ) R R- R-.
.
1.1.7 X R- .

. X .
1.1.8 X R .

n
X = ri xi | n , ri R, xi X .

i =1
. .

A X .

, . xi X

xi N ri xi N .

ri xi N .
i =1

ri xi

X . X A .

i =1

(
1.1.5) . X .

, X = {x1 ,..., x m } ,

x1 ,..., xn Rx1 + ... + Rx n X x1 ,..., xn .

1.1.9 (i) R-

X M X = M .
(i) R- a M ,
M = a .

F F
(F ) 1 .

.
.
! R-
F-
. o 3,
.

1.2
1.2.1

R-.

: M N R- ( R-) :
(i)

(m + m) = (m) + (m) m, m M ,

(ii) (rm) = r(m) r R, m M .

1
R- : M N

( ) ( 1-1).
R-
1-1. : R- ,
M N . .
1.2.2 (i) R-

M m

0 N

1M : M m

R-.

m M R-.

(ii) V W F (F ), F
V W F- V W .
(iii) G H , -
G H G H .
(iv) R

a R . R x

ax R

R- (;).
: M N R-.
ker = {a M | (a) = 0}

.
R-
a ker (a) = 0 r(a ) = 0 (ra ) = 0 ra ker .
, R- .
1.2.3 : M N R-.

ker = {0} .
. .

R- N M . ,

M / N = {a + N | a M }

(a + N ) + (b + M ) = (a + b) + N . R
r (a + N ) = ra + N .
.

a + N = a + N a a N r ( a a) = ra ra N ra + N = ra N .

1.1.1 .
,
, . R-
, . A + B
A B ( 1.1.7). A + B =

{a + b M | a A, b B} .

1.2.4

1 : : M N R.
:M / N m + N

(m) Im

R-.
2 : A, B R- R . R-

( A + B) / A

B/ A B.

3 : A B C R-.
R-

( A / C ) /( B / C )

A/ B .

.
1) 2.6.6
.
2)
: B ( A + B ) / A, (b) = b + A

R-. ker = {b B | b + A = 0} = A B .
1 B / A B
3)

C B
: A / C A / B, (a + C ) = a + B

( A + B) / A .

R-. ker = {a + C |
a + B = B} = B / C . 1 R-

( A / C ) /( B / C )

A/ B .

( ).

R-. Ann M = {r R | ra = 0 a M }

R. , (i) Ann M 0 Ann M , (ii) r , s AAnn M

(r + s )a = ra + sa = 0 a M r + s Ann M , (iii) x R,
r Ann M ( xr )a = x(ra ) = 0 a M xr Ann M .

Ann M .
Ann V = (0) . - m Ann m = (m) .

1.3
R- M N

M N = {( x, y ) | x M , y N }

( x, y ) + ( x + y ) = ( x + x , y + y )
r ( x, y ) = (rx, ry ) ,

x, x M , y , yx N r R . M N R-.
( M ) R-,
( x )

x M , R-

( x ) + ( x ) = ( x + x ) ,

r ( x ) = (rx ) .
R-

M .

M .

( x ) x = 0 M
.

M .

M .
M =

( N ) R- R- .
N x M
x = y 1 +

+ y t , y i N i , t 1 .

M = N .

: M = N

N ,
N , ().
( N ) R- R- ,

R-

N .

1.3.1 ( N ) R- R- .

M = N

(i)

M=

(ii)
N N = 0

. x M x = y 1 + ... + y t = y 1 + ... + y t y i y i N i

N 1 y 1 y 1 = ( y 2 y 2 ) + ... + ( y t y t ) N .

10

(ii) y 1 = y 1 . ,
, M = N . , x M

x = y 1 + ... + y t , y i N i ,
(i). (ii) , N N 0

y = y 1 + ... + y t y i N i , i ,
y .

.
1.3.2 M , M 1 ,..., M k R-.

1. M = M 1 + ... + M k M i ,
.
2. N M , M / N
.
3. M = M 1 ... M k M ,
M i .
1. M i

X i = {mi1 ,..., mis i } , i = 1,..., k .

k

i =1

2. m1 ,..., ms , M / N
m1 + N ,..., ms + N .
3. 2. i
M i
i.

M
,
M 1 ... 0 ... M k

11

1.

] - ] 2] .
] 2] ;

2.

o R- M 2 ( R )

RRRR,

M 2 ( R ) R- 2 2
R
3.

] - ] ]
o ] - ] ]
.

4.

M R - : M M R -
2 = . M = ker Im .

5.

R / I I R .
6.

R- N M .

M / N L / N , N L M .
7.

I R . M R -, IM
M {am | a I , m M } .
M / IM R / I -,
(r + I ) (m + IM ) = rm + IM .