OTC 2827 THE DESIGN OF SINGLE POINT MOORINGS by John F. Flory and Peter F. Poranski, Exxon Research and Eneineering © conan 17. oer Tete Coseree ‘soe ns preset te th ona Tn oun, Tn My, 17. Tati ete orn er Pmt iy kei art at mew aN 38 wo. |anSIRAcT Single point moorings (SPMs) are now being design led for deepvater ports off the coasts of the United States, and other SPMs are being designed for deeper Joepths and sore severe envirosnents such.as the North [Sea. The paper addresses the isportant aspects of designing an SPH, including: vhat paraneters aust be considered, how nooring loads vary with key paraneters.| how model tests shoule be conductes ang their results maiyzed to determine soaring Leads, what factors de- teraine Limiting loads aad environnent's, and what. Criteria should be observec in nooring systen design. ‘The SPM cesigner gust consider ali pertinent design peraneters including the eite, environment, tankers uhich will be moored, and operating parameters of the mooring. Coaputer similation and analytical techniques are now used for design studies and to pre= Giet design loads. However, model testing 1: sti11 Weually used to establish final design Loads and to verify designs. The saxiguz aocring loads measured in a single model toat are not sufficient to establish realistic design loads; therefore statistical aetiods fare applied, Tne designer can sow refer to recognized Standards when deaigning the SPM structure. High~ strength SPM comonen:s, such aa chains and synthetic ropes, are nov available. The capacities of mooring ‘equipsent on the vessels to be socred may impose Limitations on loads anc eaviroameats unless the SPH will serve only 9 few specially aodified vessels. NTRODUCTION In the past fifteen yeara the SPM has developed fron = curiosity te a widely applied means of sooring very large tankers and handling their cargos. In that time the design of SPs has become a hignly specialized engineering practice. The SPM designer Must understand nov the aite, eavironment, tanker, and operating procedures, as well as the physical design parameters of the mooring will effect the J scoring’ loads and the perforaance of the SPM syst! Bexon Research and Engineering (ERLE) has becn invest Gating and designing SPH systems for over ten years. This paper discusses sone of the principals of SPM design which have teen learned. ZHMEORTANT DESIGN PARAMETERS The designer of the SPM must consider all per- tanent design peraneters. The aajor site and envircn-| nent parameters ané the aethods by which they should be detersined are discussed in the Aserican Bureas of Shipping Gules Cor Building ané Classine Single Point Moorings. The tankers which will be aoored fang the procedures by which the mooring will operate are also important in establishing tne design loads. ‘The physicel desig parameters of the SPM system havea sajor influence on mooring loads. The Environment, The most inportant design paraneters are the operational and survival environments that the SPM vill be sucject to, The operational enviroment consists of the maximus vave, wind, and current conditions in Woich a veseel will remain moored. The survival environaent rornally consists of the most extreme Wave, wind, and current condticns that the SPM will be subject to. In gost cases the operational enriron-| ent will dictate the design mcoring loada. Waves at typical SPM sites are irregular ané ‘therefore should be defined in terns of significant wave height (the average of tne highest cne-tnira ware heights), type of wave spectrua, ané aean wave period. ‘The significant vave height defines the Felative magnitude of the aves. The wave spectrum Fepresents the frequency distribution of energy in the irregular waves. For a given significant wave height, a narrow wave spectrum, such as a Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum where most of the energy is concentrated in a rela~ tively narrov frequency band, vill influence the Feaponse of & vessel moored to the SPM differently ‘than a wide vave spectrum, such a8 a Roll-Pischer spectrun. Wave heignt and vave period are not sufficient to establish the distribution of wave Perieds. For a fully-cevelcped sea the aean vave Deried of irregular waves oan be derived from know Ledge of the significant wave height and type of wave spectrun. 460“Wie sagnitodes and directions of operational wing tnd outrent. conditions sre txo other taportant cavirensant paraneters that aust te inclused in the fesign analysis of an SMM. he relative airections Se inion wavesy wing, ana’ urreat approach the noor ing Shonot te disregarded. “If wind and Current are wivhin Sbout 15 degrees to the direction of vaves, chey cay td soured bo act co-iinear jth wave direstion aod cay te"conatdered aa auch it tae design analysis with Hietie affect on results. Hoverer, if wind oF current spprocch the sooring at large angioa te the waves, they may substantially altar the ressonse of ‘the boored tanker and therefore their directions aust evtreatad in the design analysis. In cases where the aaxioua waves) wind, and current in which tankers will oseupy the noorine will te in the same direction, it still may ve necessary to consider the effects of lesser environ- nents having vind or curreat at angles to aves. Higher Loads aay be experienced in lower non~ parallel environments than in the higher parallel envirensent.. ‘The Tanker Noraally the largest vessel which will moor to the SIM is chosen as the design-basis vessel. Hoy- ever, Where a large range of tanker sizes is to moor at SPH, consideration aust be given te the influence of “lols tanker sizes on mooring loads. An SPM design ‘aay be optiqua for mooring one class of tanker sizes, ‘but lees than optigua for larger or smaller tankers. ERAE fas found taat very-Large tankers, in the order ‘of 500,000 dwt, may actually exert lover peak sooring Joads than intermediate aize tankers, in the order of 250,000 dwt, on the sage SH in identical environsents, Saall tankers exert over nooriag Loads, but decause aooring fittings of sual tankers are not as atroag aa those on large tankers, special consideration as tave to de given to the mooring loads which smaller tankers can tolerate in establishing operating criteria. In adéition to the range of tanker sizes which will be nocred, the loacing condition in vhich these tankers vill nost provably be in when exposed to the waximum operating environments must be considered in establishing aocriag loads. If tankers are to discharge cargo, they usually moor in the loaded con dition in relatively sild environments. Yovever, when completing the discharge of cargo they nay be subjected to the saxinua operating eaviroament in ballastea or Light condition. Operating provedures may require that the tanker take on ballast while discharging cargo to preclude teing exposed to severe environsents while in a light condition. These operating aspects faust be consicered in establishing the tanker loading conditions which ir turn daflience design loads ‘he Mooring Sistem ‘The physical design paraneters of the SPM syaten have a major influence on mooring loads. For a given tanker and environsent, mooring loads may be auch different at cne type or design of SPM than at another Decause of the different elasticity characteristics of the mooring system. Therefore, parameters shich affect the elasticity characteristics of the scoring system are of prine inpertance. For a fised-tewer type of SPH, the mooring line elasticity is the prinary consideration. The length and size of the mocring line as vell as its saterial and construction determine ite elasticity characterts- thos. For buoy-type SPs, the elasticity of the mooring| Line acting in series with the Load-deflection charac teristics of the buoy anchoring systea deteraines the overall elasticity of the nocring systex. For the SALt (single anchor leg mooring) the net ducyancy of the buoy. (the difference between buey dLsplacenent and buoy weight) and the lengtn of the anchor leg, which 43 a function of the vater depth at the site, influ- ence the over-all elasticity of the sooring. For the CALY (eatenary anchor leg socriag), the number, size, length, and pretension of the anchor chaina influence sticity. The size ané weight of the CALM buoy has a secordary but still Lsportant influence on nooring Loeds. At any type of SPM the length of the mooring Line has another influence ot tanker response besides the influence on mooring system elasticity. If the sooring line is too long tae moored tanker may nave too auch freedor of motion, end may gain exoeasive inertia which results in vary high peak mooring loads. A general rule of thuab is the length of the sooring line should be approximately equal to the bean of the soored vessel. ALL of the above mentioned environment, vessel, and ncoring-systen paraneters have an influence on nooring loads and aust be adequately considered in the design of the SPM syste. If a critical mooring~ 2 not adequately taken into son sideration in determining mooring loads or if it is altered substantially after the mooring loads have been deternined, the mooring system design nay be inadequate. SRHLMODEL TESTING A properly planned and exeouted model test pro- gran for the purpose of establishing SPM design loads faust take into cccount the tapertant design peraneters discussed in the preceeding section. Although advance are being sade in SPM design analysis by means of com computers, and in other analytical methods for SPM design, principal reliance is still placed on the re- sults of model testing to establish the mooring loads and verity the performance of the systen. The Model-Test Facility. a The qualifications of the model test facility lused to conduct the tests are very important. Toe . nodel-test facility aust te sapable of accurately “Hd modeling all important parameters of the environaent, Wodel tests of SPM systems aust generally be &: ducted in irregular vaves with wind and current. eee the operating envirorment at the site is such that vaves, wind, and current vill approach from nearly the sane direction, the motel-test facility tmust te capable of creating vied and current at vari us angles to the direction of wares. Wind and o effects on a vessel scored to an SPM cannot be ad ly modeled by Lines over pulleys to weights.tne cospetenee ana experience or te researcrers nd technicians condusting the aodel tests are also faportant considerations. Skill mist be exercised in fonatructing the models and in setzing up the model ests. Care aust be taken in conducting each test. nstrusencation gust be properly calibrated at the tart of the test program and should be resalibrated eriodicsLly curing the test program. Electronic terference can distort measurements, 28 can inproper rocessing of data. Data analysis and reduction are specially critical. Tne assistance of skilled and xperienced acdel-teat researchers con be of mush value © the SPM designer in interpreting and analyzing odel test results. Sdshing Considerations ‘The model test facility shoulé be large enough to erait the use of large sodels in order to avoit, as lich a8 possible, probleas associates with scale ffects. SPH model teats in waves should ve conducted sing Proude's law scaling in order to properly model ravity effects. Current forces on the moored vessel re a combination of gravity and viscous-drag effects. Dever, at angles other than near Dow-on the gravity Pfects govern and Froude's law scaling of current slooity is adequate. Wind forces on the socred tanker are influenced y viscous drag. Viscous crag effects are accurately Ddeled using Reynold's law scaling but are distorted Sine Froude's law sealing. It 1s impractical to pale wind by Reynold's law in the model basin. To etter model vind effects, the wind velccity should > adjusted to produce forces on the tanker proportion-| L te full-scale wind forces soaled by Froude! aw. als may lead to the use of model vind velocities dif arent than those calculated by Froude's law scaling NoaeL construction is another important factor in stablishing model scale. The accurasy with which any components of the mooring system are nodeled is ruetal to the accuracy of the aodel test results. Eis very difficult to construct accurate models of dae key Components, such aa swivels and hoges, at tall ode! scales, because such ccmponents must be adeled not only with respect to size and weight, Dut iso with respect to friction in the case of swivels 7 to bending rigidity in the case of hoses. Certain tall componente becone very fragile when aodeled at do small a scale and distortion can cause inaceu= reies. Force and wonent easurenents are much nore rourate at larger nodel scales because the measured Mlues are higher. There is 4 practical limit to bw accurate force and soent transducers can be Abricated and calibrated. At saall scales the pre- snce of a relatively large oF neavy transtucer can Yfluence the response of the aodel and in turn produce| ‘rors in the results walusia of Test Results jag Amixttua force measured in a single node! jot will not be sufficient to establish realistic seign loads for a nocring systen. The statistics Euphe measured forces from a nusber of sisilar motel ‘must be analysed to esteblioh realistic design doring forces. fee duration, typseally corresponding to about 30 minutes of orctotype time. The maxim mooring force easured in an individual aedel test is rot necessarily typical of the maxiqun mooring forces that might be expected ai the SPH. Mooring ferses are analogous to wave heights In thet they have stoshastic properties; therefore, nooring fore records should be statistically analyzed in order te properly interoret then. One statistical parameter that is roraally calculated 1s the signifi- cant nooring force; the average of the highest one~ third mooring forsee in the reoord. The significant nooring force is a statistical value which remains constant regardless of the length of the record, prom riding the Fesord is of sufficient lengtn. Although the maxizun mooring forces may vary substantially in cosparigens tetveen identical odel tests oon ducted with the sane tanker at the same mooring systen| in the same environment, the significant aooring for= gee will show close agreement. Statistical correlations of the ratio of saximm nocring force te significant mooring force can be developed through analysis of date from a number of nocel tests conducted in similar, though not neces- Sariiy identical conditions. The ratte of saxiauz fo eignificant scoring forces fro individual tests nay be ranked and plotted as a probability graph to develop probability ratios of saximum socring foree to significant mooring force. If the data representa teste of 30-nirute duration, such a probe-- bility plet can be used to deteraine the prebability of a given ratio of aaximu load to significant load being exceeded curing 3) minutes. Statistical pro cedures can then be applied to determine the prota Dillty of the given ratio Being exceeded during longer] Gurationa. Figure 1 49 an example of nodel tes data plotted on probability paper and extrapolated for longer duraticns. LOAD-PREDICTION TECHNIQUES SPH load-predicticn techniques and SPM dynanic yuter prograns are considered, at least at this tise, secondary te model testing as a neans of estab- Lishing design Loads fer an SPH. EFAE uses these tect niques to conduct general studies and to establish preliminary design loacs. However, ERKE continues to ely primarily on the results of nodel teats to cata ish Final design loads for SPH designs. Dynamic Analysia on the Commuter In recent yeara there has been much effort de- voted to developing conputer programe which simulate the dynamic response of @ vessel moored to an SPH. ERKE 48 developing such a computer program as an Adaptation of © progran recently developed to model tankers meored at conventional piers. The SPM dyneni computer prozran deing developed by ERA ia capable Of aedeling the combined effects of waves, wind, and current. ERLE! oxperience in developing this and other prograas has stown that simple computer programs are rot adequate for modeling a tanker at an SPH. ‘An erample of the complexity of response at an SPH Under the influence of wind or current 4s discussed jeter. Assuaptions and short-outs should be avoided wherever possible in developing dynamic SPH computer RTT mprograas, The principal advantage of the dynamic SPH Computer program will be to analyze a number of SP designs in a mich oforter time than that which 43 ow required te conduct 2 model test program. ‘Ampirical Desien Techniques Several asthods for predicting mooring loads at SP¥s have been developed through EREE's sortinuing SP¥ esearch prograa. These methods are eapirical, based on the analysis of hundreds of model tests. The method| fare capable of preaioting mooring loacs in both shallo¥} ‘and deep water (up to at least 600 fost) ard in various] combinaticns of waves, winds, and current. These enperical techniques are essentially intor- polation and extrapclaticn wetnocs of model test data WWnioh enable the SPH designer to predict scoring loads for an SPM systen shich has not been model tested from the mooring loads measured in the aodel teste of cther generally stailar SPM systens. For SPs which are somewhat different than tose wnion hhave been model tested, and for major SPM projects, ERE uses these aethods only to establish preliminary design loads, and then conducts nodel teste to vali- date or more accurately establish the final SPM design dow ‘The _Guergy Theory A key clement of these emperical loed-prediction techniques is the energy theory. A relationship between the area under the aooring elasticity curve up to the significant mooring force and the environnent. and tanker size parameters has been foune through the analysis of aany sodel tests of tankers scored to SPMs. The area under the meoring elasticity curre represents energy stored in the system ard thus this relationship is known as the energy theory. Through the energy theory, the significant force for an SPM systen can be predicted frou the significan: force ssured ia teata of another SPM aysten having dif- ferent mooring elasticity characteristics. scoring oystens, SOM A and SPH B- tanker {2 toorea inva Elven environnent to SP hy talent leant soorieg forse, #,, would be experienced. If the sane tanker were to%be aoored tn the sane environ- tock to SH By a different significant foros, Fr, would be experienced. The area under the elastPoity Surve fer" SBN A'up to force P. Sa equivalent to the nergy stored in the syaten vnén it 1a elongated by the Manificant force f, and therefore, it is refered to'ta the stgniftoant energy fo. Sigsitioane tarar By sey be deftnnd for shi Bin the team ‘me analysis of many motel-test records has shown that for a given tanker size and a given environment , the energy under the elasticity curve up to the signifi. ant force is essentially equal in different SPMs of fairly similar design. for the exagple given ere, enersy E, would equal energy 6, decause the ‘tanker atze an environsent are the Base even though the aoorings are different. For other tankers or other environments at SPH A lurrerent significant moring forces and thus air~ ‘erent significant energieo would be determined. lovever, the sane corresponding significant energies would be expected at SPH B under the sane conditicns, ‘Thus frow measurenents of significant forces at SFM ‘A with various tankers and enrironnents, predicticns of the corresponding significant forces, at SPH 5 ‘can be made The energy technique as described above can te used with caution to relate the scoring loads at one ‘SPM system to these at another SPM system of generally similar design. Other aspeots of ERUE's osperical Load~prediction techniques account for the effects bow hawser length, water depth, buoy size, wind, and current on aooring Losds. ‘THE INFLUENCES OF DESIGN PARAMETERS Variations in onvironsent, operational, and ncori system design parameters oan have a pronouiced effect fon socring loads at SIMs. The SPM deotgner aust have a general knowledge of these effects in onder to select the nost important design parameters and intel- Ligently analyze their influences on the SPM systen. Contain rales of thumb relating the influence of various caraneters on the aooring loads have been developed from observation and analysis of many SM model tests. These rules are net precise enough for design purposes, but they can be helpful in assessing the effect unish @ change in a parameter will have on mooring load. ‘The Influence of aves Wave heignt is generally the sost important eter in influencing SPM mooring Loads. Bow havser loads nave been rouna to increase roughly in proportio! to the equare of wave height in the absence of wind ani carrent. This holds even in noderate wind ard current nearly incline with waves. However, ag wind and cur- ent effects becene gore prominent the influence of a ‘change in vave heignt on mooring loacs is not as otreng. This rule of thumb assumes that in addition — to the tanker size ané load condition remaining con- stant, the type of wave spectrum remains the sene and the vave period changes commensurate with wave eight. Changes in wave perioe and wave spectrum 2180 Jafluence mooring loads, though in general their in- fluence is not as great as wave height. 4 change of wave period with constant vave height inplies 2 change in the bend of frequeseies in whieh vave energy is coneentreted. For a constant significant ware height, ‘mooring loads generally increase with a decrease in wave period. Of course if the natural period of the buoy or soae ode of response, for example roll, of the meored tanker is very near the dominant wat period, then system response ané thus mooring loads may be higher than if the natural frequency of the system is out of resonance with the periods preseat An the waves. ‘The_Influence of Wind and current Until recently 1t had been aesuned that wind or current acting or & moored at @ SPM produced fan essentially constant force on the vessel, and that ‘the wind or current flowing past the vessel vould ene to stablize the action of the moored vessel. Yaw and eway of the veasel wore believed to be caused 72primarily by wave action. thea the moored vessel would yaw and svay due to wind or current alone in aodel tests, this was attributed to vortex shedding whieh would not occur en the prototype. Now a acre full understanding of the effects of wind and current has been reacked through thecretical analysis, computer simulation, and aodel testing. It has been discovered that sustained combined yaw and sway sotions can be caused by altersating wind or car Pent Lift forces on the vessel hull. This phenonena can be explaine¢ by referring to Figure 3. The vessel say start in position 1 with 4 slack bow hawser and a slignt yaw to the direction of wind. Tn this position the vessel is unsynetrical to the flow of air and the hull acts like an airfoil or wing in the wind field. Tue lift created as air Tlows around the hull causes the null to sway to port. The vessel will continue to sway until the bow hawser becomes taut 4n poastion 2. As the tension in the bow havser increases, st retards the aotion of the bow to port, but the vessel then begins to yaw about the bow due to its inertia of movenent and te aving to position 3. The elastic bov hawser then relaxes as the vessel swings abeut its bow. The rebound of the tow havser pulls Forward toward the sooring buoy and the jgain unrestrained. ‘The angle of the vessel hull te the wind field has now reversed in position 3, and the flow of air around the null now Lifts the null te starpoara.| ‘The vessel will away to starboard through tke center position to the opposite aide of the mooring. Tt vill pass through positions § and 6 and return tc position 1, thus completing the cycle. ‘Sustaining the sotion depends on the veosel yawing far enough vhile the bow hawser is taut te Feverse the angle of the full to the wind, and then on the vessel swaying to the other side of the mooring derore the bow haweer becoaes taut again. The action thus cepencs on proper phasing of the periods of surge,| ‘sway, and yaw of the vessel on the moring. Under the proper combination of wind (or current) veiccity, ves~ sel size, sass, and freeboard, bow hawser leng:h, and Booring systen elasticity, the action vill grov to a certain amplitude and continue incefinitely. ‘The Influences of the Tanker and the Mooring Mooring loads inorease with tanker size, approxi— nately i proportion to the square-root of tanker size, However, very large tankers tend to respond Less than smaller tankers, and tazkers of 500,000 dvt ‘and larger aay experience lover peak scoring leads than tankera of 200,090 dut to 100,000 dur. A range of tanker sizes, not just the largest and smallest tankers, should’be considered in the design of an SPM Which Wil serve a wide range of tanker si3 Variation of scoring systen design paraneters hich affect the elasticity of the acoring system also affect the mooring loads. If the sooring system As very soft, the tanker may respond too freely, building up aomentum as it moves under the influence cf vaves, wind, and current, exerting larce loads om the mooring as it cones to the Linits of nooring Excessive mooring line length especially in tne case of a ballasted or Light - tanker acored in high vinds, resulting in very high peak mooring Loads. A near-optium nooring-system elastiosty may be established through orelinirary design studies and model testing. In the CALM, the length and size of mooring Lines, the number and size of anchor chains land the archer=shain pretension all affect scoring system slastioity. In the SALM, the Length and size of mooring lines, the length of the anchor leg, and the net buoyancy of the mooring buoy affect meoring system elasticity. In either SPH system a substantial change in design water depth after the near-optinus design parameters have been established aay cause an increase in sooring loads. A revised set of near= optiaua design parameters may be established through re-analysis based on a thorough knovledge of how variations in key parameters affect aooring Load: Hovover, ¢ new model teat program aay be necessary to establish revised mooring loads. RESIGNING TL sem The preceeding sections have addressed the narner in whieh mooring loads may be detersined. Hovever, the SPM aust be designed for a defined maxiaua mooring oad. The dow navser, the buoy, and the anonering ‘aystem aust te dosigned by reascrable standards to withstand the aaximm nooring load. The established operational environment and the determined aaxiaun design loed cust be commensurate with tanker end operational limitations. ‘Determination of Haximum Loads Tae design mooring loads for the SPM should be developed using mooring-load probability data in manner similar to that described above. The operating| eriteria must be considered in establishing a reascn- able duration of exposure on the mooring for given tenker sizes in given environnents. A reasonable chance-of-exseedence of design Load must also de established. Statistically, a zero Percent chance-of-exseedence cannot be achieved. A ten percent chance-of-excsedence in a six hour duretiot may be acceptable with the philosophy that the proba~ bility of the full operational environment lasting Tor six hours combined with the probability of the ‘most oritical design veasel Deing sored in its aost ‘oritical loading condition ie extrenely small, and Should this event occur the design safety factors will permit cocasional loads in excess of the design ‘ooring lead. Based on the durations, the ratio of maxima to significant mooring Load is determined fron a probability curve such as Figure i. The significant nooring load from acdel test data for the design tanker in the design stora ia multiplied by the mexiaun-to-sigaificant force ratio to determine the design scoring force. This design nooring load may differ substantially fro (he eaximun coring Load measured in an individual model test. Tue design-load determination exercise ‘aay be perforaed for several different tanker sizes, oading conditions, and environments, especially Af different operating criteria are established for dirrerent tanker size: 173[Wastan_Ceiteria For SPus ‘ne Anerican Sureau of Shioping (45S) RuLea for sign criteria and construction various components of S?Ms. These rule ost comprehensive and complete criteria for SM design available; hovever, other riteria and stendardq ay be used to cupplement ‘then, ‘The structural design rules incorporated into the 48S SM rules cover various types of loading and con Dinations of loading conditions. In general the rules Limit tensile stress in atructural components to less than 60 percent of yielé strength under combined cordi-| tons of gravity, vave, wind, current, ané mooring Toads. The criteria ané methods of analysis given in the rules follow from tke ABS rules for ship hulls. Although generally intended to apply to buoy hulls, the rules are broad erough to apply to nocring bases and to aooring tovers. In addition to covering structural design and welding standards, the rul cover cargo system, mocring line, and anchoring dosign ‘The ABS rules call for cargo piping to confers to ANST 531.3 for manned SIMs and to ANSI 831.4 for unnanned SPMS. The ABS rules are supplenented by the O11 Companies International Marine Forum (OCINF) Hose Standards and Hove Guid ‘Tae ABS rules call for anchor legs of bioy-type SOMa to be designed with a factor of safety of 3 on the breaking load. Ia the case of moorings #mploying piles, the ABS rules recomend that pile foundations be ceatgred in accordance vith the Anericen Petroleus Institute (API) AF2A Recommended Practice for Hlauning. Designing and Construction, Fixed Ortshore Platforms. One or two nocring lines are usually used between ‘the tanker and the SPH. If two mooring lines are used they snould pass through the sase fairiead or fairleads as close together a5 possible at or near the center of the tanker foresastle. If two mcoring lines run to widely separated feirleads first one Line and then the cther will take alnost all the ‘load as the tanker yavs and sways at the ooring The ABS rules recognize this by requiring a higher| factor of safety when two separate mooring lines are lusec waich aay be brought through separate fairleads, The cosbined rated dreaking strength of the two coring lines aust be 2.5 times the maxiaum nooring load. Where a single mooring Line is used there is no concern about shariag of the load, and the breaking strength aust be at least 1.67 times the maximum aoordn| load. These oriterta are based on the philoropny the ‘asxigun sooring load vill seléoe be approached and has only a slignt probability of being exceeded and that mooring Lines should te frequently inspected and periodically replaced. ‘The Strength of Comonen:s ‘The sizes and strengths of synthetic copes, chains, and other aooring systen components for Sis have iroreased substantially in the past ten years. For example, in 1965 the largest chain available vas 4-3/4 snones 4a diaseter and the largest synthetic rope vas 12 inches in cirousference. How 7 Snch diameter chain and 30 inch oireunference synthetic rope are available. ‘The Fasis of published raved leads of synthetic ropes may vary. Sone wanufacturers list ideal Dreak~ ng strengths for ropes in their catalogs. These fare the breaking strengths sich would be achieved 4f the rope were tested without intermediate or eye splices. The rated breaking strengthe should be ‘appropriately reduced if they are net based on tests of typical spliced samples. Sone aanufacturers pub- Lish average breaking strengths witle others publish minimum breaking strengths An endless gromet rope of a given size would appear to de twice as strong as a single rope of the some size with eye oplices at eech end. However, assuming the radius of the thinble provided on the grommet is the sage as that on the eye splices, the strength of the gromet may de only 1.7 times that Of the single rope with eye splice. Limitations cn Losda and fnvirenmenta Designing the load-carrying neabers of the sPH for the mooring leads which can be expected for a range of vessel sizes in certain speoified environ aertal conditions is not sufficiest to insure a safe ‘mooring. SPHs nay be designed for very-severe environ} tents and very-nigh nooriag loads if tankers which are to soor at the facility are specially modified. Hovever, a nuuber of technical and cperational factors ay Limit the mooring loads and eavironsents which can be tolerated at a SPM wiich aust aoor a general tanker fleet. A vide variety of tankers mey be expected to oor and the capabilities of tanker-nouted eccrine equipnent rary frem vessel to veasel The adequacy an¢ strength of the scoring fit~ ‘ings on the tanker are iaportant ccnsideraziens in establishing Liniting SPM mooring loads and environ nents. Since the adequacy and strength of these tanke: fittings is beyond the control of the SPM designer, th only steps he can take are to design a mooring which experiences low leads in a given environaent and to clearly point out to the operator what leads aay be experienced for various vessel sizes in specified operating envirensents. ‘The operator in turn may have Little control over vhich vessels moor at the facility. However, vith reference to aocriag Load data and an assesment of the adequacy and strength of taaker-nounted accring fittings, the operator can Limit the environments in vnich the tanker shall regain moored. Host tankers of the VLCC (very Lange erude ear rier) lass (generally 140,000 dvi and larger) ar equipped with special fittings on their forecastie te fasten aooring lines fron SMS. The Saitte Dracket tthe most comen type of tanker-aeunted SPH fisting, although specially adapted chain steppers are now being fitted on sone VLOCs. These fittings are Limt- ted as to the size of chain which they will accept. In general, the eaxisum chain size vhich oan fit a tanker-nounted SPM Sites bracket or chain stopper is 3 inches in ¢ianeter. Smaller VLCCs generally have one such fitting, although some sualler VLCts and alnost all large VLCCs now have two such fittings. ‘The mooring load levels to waich these Fittings are designed verden. Some smaller ¥LOCs and aany smaller tankers have to special fittings on the forecastie for receiving SPM mooring ines. When suot tankers call at a Set speotal arrangesents must be made to fasten the ent the mooring lines to bollards or other atrong points 174the forecastle. Ususlly a wire line or synthetic rope strop is passed through the end link of the SPM mooring! Line and looped or figure-eighted about bollards. The strengths of the wire line or synthetic rope strop and of the bollards are sometines questionable. Limitations on the maxiaua environsents ie which cargo transfer may take place at an SPM may depend on the stresses induced in the cargo hoses or on the saxiaua environzent in vhich hoses can be safely die connected and lowered. Cargo transfer should be Aiscontinued and the hoses disconnected and Lovered at nooring loads and environnents below the saxigua for wiich the mooring 18 designed in order to pre- clude the possibility of @ vessel break-out causing overstressing the hoses and resulting ins spill ‘The cargo hose when lifted out of the water, over the rail, and attached to the tanker manifold, is subjected to cyclic ioading by vaves. These lcacs tnorease with higher wave height. Although wave induced loads in the tarker-end cargo hoses are not 30 severe as to cause imediate failure, they can Feduce the life of the hose and lead to early failure. Severe wind and vave environment can Limst or impede the functions of the tanker crew on the fore- castle and zain deck and also the operaticns of launches serving the aooring. It is prudent to dis~ continue cargo transfer and lower noses before the environment becones 20 severe that the crew cannot safely work around the tanker manifold. Likewis it 1s prudent to disconnect the sooring Lines froz the forecastie of the vessel before it is unsafe for the cre to york on the forecastle. if launcnes fare required to aid in lowering cargo hoses cr other wige assist the tanker in leaving the mooring, these operations shoulé be carried out before the envircanent| hinders launch operations. CONCLUSTONS Although SPM design has progressed beyond the stage of being ax art, it is still an eserging science ‘The various design parameters which influence the performance of an SPM are now vell understood. Computer] analysis, and theoretical and empirical teohniques are being used to conduct design studies. However, odel testing 1s still usually relied on te establish final design loads. Standards and rules are available to guide the design of the SPM structure and the various SPH coapenents. Communication of ideas among ‘OPM designers has helped to Dring the science of SPM design to the stage it 10 today, and hopefully Will continue to advance the science of SPH deaten. ‘AckioNLEDaRMENTS ‘The authors wish to acknowledge steven P. Woehleke of ER&E, Raymond F. Messer formerly of ERAE, ‘and W. Roger Madox and W. Robert Wolfram of Exxon Produation Researen for their contributions to the energy technique of predicting SPM mooring loa The authors wish to acknowledge Robert M. Schneider of ERE for his contributions to the understanding of wind and current effects on tankers aogred to SPts. RERERENCES. Moorings, Ateriosn Bureau of Shipping, 1975, New York. 2. Flory, J. F., Nascentk, J., and Pedersen, K. T., wme Single Ancror Leg Mooring" Paper No: OFC ié4s, Offehore Technology Cenference, Houston, 1972. 3. Flory, J. P., and Smnedis, S. T.» "Developaent of ‘The Singie Ancnor Leg Mooring” ASME Paper No. ‘5-PET-H4, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Fetroleus Engineering Conferenct Tulsa, 1995. 4. Waring, R. €., Adams, R. B., Beazley, R. As, and Kipp, E. U., “Design of Single Point Mooring Syatems for'tha Open Ocean", Faper Wo. OFC 1022, Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 1969. Langeveld, J. Point Hooring "Design Criteria for Single- minals" ASCE Paper 10931, Journal + Harbors and Coastal Engineerig Division, Vol. 160 Ho. Wil, Anerican Society of Civil Engineers, Nev York, November, 1974. 6. Moarf, R., Offshore Mooring Tersinala (Single Buoy Meorings Ine.), Monaco, 1975 Maar, &. Moorings, "Design Aspects of Single Point ‘Qeean Industry, March, 1975. int: Moorings" Paper No. Otc 1536, Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 1972. Pinkster, J. A. and Renery, G. F.M., "The Role of Model ‘Tests in the Design of Single Point Mooring Terminals", Paper No. CTC 2212, Offshore ‘Technology Conference, Houston, 1975- Wichers, J. £. W., "On the Slow Motions of Tankers! Moored to Single Point Mooring Systems", Paper lo. OTC 2548, Offshore Technology Conference, Housten, 1976. Winbourn, J. P., "SPH Model Testing for Proposed U.S. Superports*, ASCE Preprint 2685, ASCE National Resources and Ocean Engineering Con- ference, San Diego, 1976. 175=e mo (EL : Tew Fy © 228 v0 & 400 : |e Fe = 195 tn & a oh e 5 toeny Ea «Ep 24200 Ton Feet | g 300 Fr ia 2 3 El | 8 ar) a Zr, fn 8 5 Te z g* 5 Buse z 3 100 0 Sere te ao a a0 oone DEFLECTION, aT PROSABLE MuKMUH FORCE SIGNIFICANT FORCE Fic, 2 - SPM ELASTICITY CURVES SHOWING APPLICATION OF ENERGY THEORY, 1 = EXAMPLE MOORING FORE PROM HLITY cuRVE. Fis, 5 - MoTION OF VESSEL DUE TO WIND OR CURRENT AT SPM,