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Sixth Edition
February 2014

Satellite
Platform
Design
Peter Berlin

Department of Computer Science


Electrical and Space Engineering
Lule University of Technology
Kiruna, Sweden

Satellite Platform Design

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Sixth Edition

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Peter Berlin

Lule University of Technology


Department of Computer Science
Electrical and Space Engineering
Kiruna, Sweden

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Satellite Platform Design
Sixth Edition

The author would like to thank all those who granted permission to reproduce their work.
Every effort has been made to seek permission to reproduce copyright material in this
book. The author would like to hear from any copyright holder not here acknowledged,
and will be happy to correct any errors or omissions in future editions.

ISBN 978-91-637-5330-5

Copyright 2014, by Lule University of Technology. All rights reserved. Printed in the
United Kingdom. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any
form or by any means, or stored in a data base retrieval system, without prior written
permission of Lule University of Technology, Department of Computer Science,
Electrical and Space Engineering, P.O. Box 812, SE-98128 Kiruna, Sweden.

To order additional copies, email the author on berlinspace@aol.com.

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Contents

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Table of Contents

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Foreword .............................................................................................................................. 1
Foreword to the 6th edition .................................................................................................. 3
Acknowledgments................................................................................................................ 5
1. Design Drivers ............................................................................................................. 7
2. Orbital Dynamics ....................................................................................................... 11
2.1.
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 11
2.2.
Planetary Orbits ................................................................................................. 11
2.3.
Satellite Orbits ................................................................................................... 13
2.3.1.
Classic Orbital Elements ............................................................................ 13
2.3.2.
True Anomaly vs. Elapsed Time ............................................................... 20
2.3.3.
Orbital Elements Summary ........................................................................ 23
2.3.4.
Derived Orbital Parameters........................................................................ 25
2.3.5.
Orbital Perturbations .................................................................................. 29
2.4.
Mission Analysis ................................................................................................ 32
2.4.1.
Coordinate Systems ................................................................................... 32
2.4.2.
Subsatellite Track....................................................................................... 33
2.4.3.
Ground Station Coverage ........................................................................... 40
2.4.4.
Eclipse ........................................................................................................ 43
2.4.5.
Sun Angle................................................................................................... 50
2.4.6.
Launch Windows ....................................................................................... 53
2.4.7.
Launch Date and Launch Time .................................................................. 56
2.5.
Specialized Orbits .............................................................................................. 60
2.5.1.
The Geostationary Orbit (GEO)................................................................. 60
2.5.2.
Sun-Synchronous Orbits (SSO) ................................................................. 70
2.5.3.
Highly Eccentric Orbits (HEO) ................................................................. 72
2.5.4.
Low Earth Orbits (LEO) ............................................................................ 73
2.6.
Solved Problems ................................................................................................ 76
3. Power Management ................................................................................................... 77
3.1.
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 77
3.2.
Primary Power Supply ....................................................................................... 78
3.2.1.
Solar Cell Design ....................................................................................... 78
3.2.2.
Solar Cell Performance .............................................................................. 80
3.2.3.
Solar Arrays ............................................................................................... 86
3.3.
Energy Storage ................................................................................................... 89
3.4.
Power Conditioning and Distribution ................................................................ 92
3.4.1.
Voltage Conversion ................................................................................... 92
3.4.2.
Voltage Stabilization.................................................................................. 93
3.5.
Fuel Cells ........................................................................................................... 97
3.6.
Solved Problems ................................................................................................ 98
4. Attitude Management................................................................................................. 99
4.1.
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 99
4.2.
Attitude Stabilization ....................................................................................... 100
4.2.1.
Gyroscopic Stabilization .......................................................................... 102
4.2.2.
Gravity Gradient Stabilization ................................................................. 114
4.2.3.
Geomagnetic Stabilization ....................................................................... 119

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4.3.
Attitude Measurement ...................................................................................... 120
4.3.1.
Definition of Axes.................................................................................... 121
4.3.2.
Attitude Measurement Hardware ............................................................. 122
4.3.3.
Sun Sensors .............................................................................................. 123
4.3.4.
Earth Sensors ........................................................................................... 128
4.3.5.
Star Trackers ............................................................................................ 134
4.3.6.
Magnetometers ......................................................................................... 135
4.3.7.
Gyroscopes ............................................................................................... 136
4.3.8.
GPS .......................................................................................................... 141
4.3.9.
Attitude Sensor Summary ........................................................................ 142
4.4.
Attitude Determination .................................................................................... 143
4.4.1.
Measurement Data Filtering .................................................................... 143
4.4.2.
Resolving Attitude Ambiguities .............................................................. 144
4.4.3.
The Attitude Matrix ................................................................................. 144
4.5.
Attitude Control ............................................................................................... 148
4.5.1.
Spin-Stabilized Satellites ......................................................................... 153
4.5.2.
Body-Stabilized Satellites ........................................................................ 158
4.5.3.
Alternatives to Thruster Control .............................................................. 163
4.6.
Solved Problems .............................................................................................. 168
5. Orbit Management ................................................................................................... 169
5.1.
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 169
5.2.
Orbit Measurement .......................................................................................... 170
5.2.1.
Angle Tracking ........................................................................................ 170
5.2.2.
Slant Ranging ........................................................................................... 171
5.2.3.
Laser Ranging .......................................................................................... 176
5.2.4.
Range Rate ............................................................................................... 178
5.2.5.
Using the Global Positioning System ...................................................... 181
5.3.
Orbit Determination ......................................................................................... 184
5.3.1.
State Vectors ............................................................................................ 184
5.3.2.
Computing COE from Topocentric Data ................................................. 187
5.3.3.
Refining the Orbit Determination Accuracy ............................................ 192
5.4.
Orbit Control .................................................................................................... 193
5.4.1.
Control Principles .................................................................................... 193
5.4.2.
Choice of Intersecting Points ................................................................... 196
5.4.3.
Determination of Velocity Vectors .......................................................... 198
5.4.4.
Propellant Consumption........................................................................... 201
5.4.5.
Orbit Control Strategies ........................................................................... 203
5.4.6.
Sample Propellant Budget........................................................................ 218
5.5.
Solved Problems .............................................................................................. 221
6. Propulsion ................................................................................................................ 223
6.1.
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 223
6.2.
Thermodynamic Propulsion ............................................................................. 224
6.2.1.
Propellant Characteristics ........................................................................ 224
6.2.2.
Subsystem Architecture ........................................................................... 227
6.2.3.
Propellant Storage .................................................................................... 228
6.2.4.
Propellant Distribution ............................................................................. 230
6.2.5.
Thrusters .................................................................................................. 232
6.3.
Electrodynamic Propulsion (EP)...................................................................... 234
6.3.1.
Electrothermal Thrusters .......................................................................... 235
6.3.2.
Electrostatic Thrusters ............................................................................. 236

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6.3.3.
Electromagnetic Thrusters ....................................................................... 238
6.4.
Thruster Layout ................................................................................................ 239
6.5.
Performance Summary..................................................................................... 243
6.6.
Solved Problems .............................................................................................. 244
7. Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C) .......................................................... 244
7.1.
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 245
7.2.
Telemetry and Telecommand Structuring ....................................................... 247
7.2.1.
Telemetry ................................................................................................. 247
7.2.2.
Telecommand ........................................................................................... 253
7.2.3.
Bit Rates and Error Coding ...................................................................... 255
7.3.
RF Portion ........................................................................................................ 260
7.3.1.
Tracking and Ranging .............................................................................. 260
7.3.2.
Choice of Radio Frequency ..................................................................... 261
7.3.3.
Signal Quality Requirements ................................................................... 262
7.3.4.
Satisfying the Quality Requirements ....................................................... 272
7.3.5.
Noise and Attenuation.............................................................................. 285
7.4.
Solved Problems .............................................................................................. 296
8. Onboard Data Handling (OBDH) ............................................................................ 297
8.1.
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 297
8.2.
Onboard Computer........................................................................................... 298
8.3.
Data Storage ..................................................................................................... 300
8.4.
Data Distribution.............................................................................................. 301
8.5.
Remote Terminal Unit ..................................................................................... 304
8.6.
OBDH Design Aspects .................................................................................... 305
9. Structures and Mechanisms ..................................................................................... 307
9.1.
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 307
9.2.
Structures ......................................................................................................... 308
9.2.1.
Mechanical Configuration ....................................................................... 308
9.2.2.
Shapes and Materials ............................................................................... 310
9.2.3.
Quasi-Static and Dynamic Loads............................................................. 313
9.2.4.
Mathematical Modelling .......................................................................... 318
9.3.
Mechanisms ..................................................................................................... 320
9.4.
Solved Problems .............................................................................................. 323
10.
Thermal Management .......................................................................................... 325
10.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 325
10.2. Thermodynamic Principles .............................................................................. 326
10.3. Radiation .......................................................................................................... 327
10.3.1. Thermal Equilibrium ................................................................................ 327
10.3.2. Thermal Gradients ................................................................................... 331
10.3.3. Thermal Interaction .................................................................................. 336
10.3.4. Local Spacecraft Thermal Modelling ...................................................... 338
10.4. Conduction ....................................................................................................... 347
10.5. Hardware Implementation ............................................................................... 351
10.5.1. Passive Thermal Control .......................................................................... 351
10.5.2. Active Thermal Control ........................................................................... 355
10.5.3. Layout Summary...................................................................................... 356
10.6. Solved Problems .............................................................................................. 357
11.
Launch Vehicle Selection .................................................................................... 359
11.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 359
11.2. Rocket Engine Architecture ............................................................................. 361

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11.3. Ascent and Injection ........................................................................................ 362


11.4. Choice of Launch Sites .................................................................................... 364
11.5. Launch Vehicle Profiles ................................................................................... 366
11.5.1. Small Vehicles ......................................................................................... 366
11.5.2. Medium Vehicles ..................................................................................... 367
11.5.3. Heavy Vehicles ........................................................................................ 368
11.6. Launch Vehicle Performance ........................................................................... 371
11.6.1. Overview .................................................................................................. 371
11.6.2. GTO or Direct Injection into GEO .......................................................... 373
11.6.3. Computation of Performance ................................................................... 374
11.7. Designing a Launch Vehicle ............................................................................ 380
11.7.1. Vehicles Without Strap-On Boosters ....................................................... 380
11.7.2. Vehicles With Strap-On Boosters ............................................................ 383
11.8. Launch Vehicle Reliability .............................................................................. 385
11.9. Launch Vehicle Availabilisty .......................................................................... 388
11.10.
Launch Costs ................................................................................................ 389
11.11.
Making the Final Selection .......................................................................... 389
11.12.
Solved Problems .......................................................................................... 391
12.
Launch and Space Environment .......................................................................... 393
12.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 393
12.2. Launch Environment ........................................................................................ 393
12.2.1. Static Loads .............................................................................................. 393
12.2.2. Dynamic Loads ........................................................................................ 395
12.3. Space Environment .......................................................................................... 399
12.3.1. Weightlessness ......................................................................................... 399
12.3.2. Vacuum .................................................................................................... 399
12.3.3. Aerodynamic Drag ................................................................................... 401
12.3.4. Atomic Oxygen ........................................................................................ 404
12.3.5. Van Allen Belts ........................................................................................ 404
12.3.6. Meteorids and Man-Made Debris ............................................................ 406
12.3.7. Galactic Cosmic Radiation ...................................................................... 408
12.3.8. Solar Wind and Particle Showers ............................................................ 408
12.3.9. Solar Pressure........................................................................................... 408
12.3.10.
Ultraviolet Radiation............................................................................ 411
12.4. Internal Environment ....................................................................................... 411
12.5. Solved Problems .............................................................................................. 413
13.
Product Assurance ............................................................................................... 415
13.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 415
13.2. Parts Engineering ............................................................................................. 415
13.3. Materials and Processes ................................................................................... 416
13.4. Reliability......................................................................................................... 417
13.4.1. Mathematical Modelling .......................................................................... 417
13.4.2. Component Derating ................................................................................ 419
13.4.3. Redundancy.............................................................................................. 419
13.5. Quality Assurance ............................................................................................ 431
13.6. Configuration Management ............................................................................. 431
13.7. Safety and Risk ................................................................................................ 432
13.8. Solved Problems .............................................................................................. 433
14.
Development and Test ......................................................................................... 435
14.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 435

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14.2. Satellite Development ...................................................................................... 436


14.3. Qualification and Acceptance .......................................................................... 437
14.4. Assembly, Integration and Test ....................................................................... 437
14.5. AIT Facilities ................................................................................................... 437
14.5.1. Static Loads .............................................................................................. 438
14.5.2. Dynamic Loads ........................................................................................ 439
14.5.3. Temperature and Vacuum ........................................................................ 440
14.5.4. Weightlessness ......................................................................................... 442
14.5.5. Antenna Pattern Tests .............................................................................. 443
14.6. AIT at the Launch Site ..................................................................................... 444
14.7. In-Orbit Testing ............................................................................................... 444
14.8. Overall AIT Sequence...................................................................................... 445
14.9. Solved Problems .............................................................................................. 447
Appendix A: Spherical Trigonometry ............................................................................ 451
Appendix B: Matrix Algebra .......................................................................................... 453
Appendix C: Solved Problems ........................................................................................ 465
Appendix D: Equation Summary .................................................................................... 484
Appendix E: Spacecraft Hardware Internet Links .......................................................... 503
Appendix F: Launch Vehicle User Manual Internet Links ............................................. 509
Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... 511
List of Symbols ................................................................................................................ 513
References ........................................................................................................................ 515
Index ................................................................................................................................ 517

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Foreword

Foreword

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This is a book about designing unmanned, earth-orbiting satellites. More specifically, it is


about the satellite platform rather than the payload. The idea is to provide scientists,
engineers and students with the knowledge and the basic mathematical tools to develop
an overall satellite and mission design based on a predefined payload.

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Why yet another book on the subject of spacecraft design? The aim has been to combine
completeness, accessibility and editorial consistency with utmost affordability. Readily
solvable equations and over 350 original illustrations facilitate the readers
comprehension of the theories involved. The price is kept low by minimizing the
production, marketing and distribution costs.

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As for the level of required mathematical proficiency, the reader will manage with basic
algebra (including vectors), trigonometry (including spherical triangles), second-order
differential equations, Laplace transforms, simple integration, and 3 x 3 matrix
manipulation.

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The book covers the following traditional subsystems, listed along with their analogies in
the human physiology:

Structures and Mechanisms


Thermal Management
Power Management
Attitude Management
Orbit Management
Propulsion
Tracking, Telemetry and Control
Onboard Data Handling and Storage

Skeleton
Skin
Digestive system
Eyes and balance
Sense of place
Legs and feet
Speech and hearing
Brain and nervous system

In support of the above, the book includes the following programmatic subjects:

Primary Design Drivers


Launch Vehicle Overview
Launch and Space Environment
Orbital Dynamics
Mission Analysis
Product Assurance, including Reliability
Development and Test

Where appropriate, the chapters conclude with suggestions for exam problems. The
Appendices contain basic mathematical tools, a quick reference to all the equations used
in the book, solutions to the exam problems, and linksto the websites of equipment
manufacturers and launch servicee providers.

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Foreword to the 6th Edition

Foreword to the 6th edition

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Since its initial publication in 2004, Satellite Platform Design has found its way to
universities and corporations in Europe, America, Australia, Africa and Asia. Judging by
reader comments, the book has achieved its goal of conveying an intuitive understanding
of the physics and engineering involved in spacecraft design.

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In addition to some technical updates and editorial improvements, the 6th Edition
includes enhanced descriptions of launch windows, triple junction solar cells,
magnetometers, reaction wheels, attitude feedback control, GPS, Hamming code, onboard
computers, onboard data storage, heat pipes, launch vehicle reliability, and launch vehicle
selection strategy. The Internet links to manufacturers data sheets in Appendix E have
been updated, and a new Appendix F has been added containing links to launch vehicle
user manuals that may be downloaded from the Internet.
The Index has been completely reworked for improved relevance.

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As before, illustrations are used extensively to supplement the descriptive narrative.


Many of these have been developed further, and several illustrations and diagrams have
been added. For clarity, outline drawings are preferred over photographs in most cases.
Buckfastleigh, UK, March 2014
Peter Berlin

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Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments

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Satellite Platform Design is the standard textbook for courses in spacecraft engineering at
the Department of Space Science of Lule University. A respectable number of copies
have also found their way to universities and corporations around the world. I am
indebted to my readers who have offered suggestions for improvement of the earlier
editions.

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I would like to thank Dr Uwe Feucht of ESA, MM Torbjrn Hult and Lars Ljunge of
Ruag Sweden, Mr Baard Eilertsen of Kongsberg, and MM Priya Fernando and Martin
Bohm of the Department of Space Science, for taking the time to review the original
manuscript and offer valuable advice.

About the Author:

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Last but not least, I would like to thank Cambridge University Press for allowing me to
reproduce illustrations from my book The Geostationary Applications Satellite; and John
Wiley & Sons for giving me permission to adapt a drawing from Principles of
Communications Satellites by Gary D. Gordon and Walter L. Morgan.

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Peter Berlin holds a Masters Degree in Aeronautical


Engineering from the Royal Institute of Technology in
Stockholm, Sweden. After 25 years in engineering and
project management at ESA and Inmarsat, he took early
retirement in 1993 to engage in consulting, teaching and
writing. He continues to advise spacecraft manufacturers
in matters of systems engineering.
His writing credentials include four books and some 100
newspaper and magazine articles on subjects ranging
from spacecraft engineering to project management and
cross-cultural awareness. He is also the translator of
Roads to Space, a collection of memoirs by 35 Soviet
space pioneers published by McGraw-Hill (ISBN 0-07607095-6).

Copies of Satellite Platform Design may be ordered directly from the


author on berlinspace@aol.com.

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1 / Design Drivers

1. Design Drivers

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Designing a spacecraft is an iterative process. The mission definition is the obvious


starting point, and the design of the spacecrafts payload is the logical next step. Beyond
that, the project team has to go through several design cycles before it is ready to start
cutting metal. The point of entry into the design cycle could be the structure, the power
supply, the stabilization method, or almost any other subsystem onboard the spacecraft. A
better approach is to structure the work along a logical path, as suggested in Figure 1-1
for a typical satellite, and we have followed this logic in the table of contents of the
present book.
.
Mission design

14

Choice of
orbit

Design
drivers

Development &
test philosophy

Product assurance

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Power management

Orbit management

Propulsion

TT&C

Space & launch


environment

12

Choice of
launch vehicle

11

Iteration loop

Attitude management

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Payload definition

Chapter

Onboard data
handling &
storage

Thermal management

Structure &
mechanisms

10

Figure 1-1 Iterative methodology for designing a satellite.


The circled numbers refer to Chapters.

The logic in the above diagram is based on the thought that the payload has a direct
influence on the primary design drivers (1) and on the choice of orbit (2), all of which
determine the sizing of the power supply (3). The mission design and the approach to
electric energy supply through sunlight conversion is a major factor in the choice of
attitude stabilization method (4). Propulsion is needed for both attitude and orbit control
(5)(6). Control from the ground is exercised remotely via the tracking, telemetry and
command subsystem (7). The avionics side of the satellite is crowned by a brain in the
guise of an onboard data handling system (8).
We now have a clear outline of the satellite and are therefore in a position to draw a
structure (9). The next question is how to keep the onboard equipment within acceptable
temperatures; the answer is found in our chosen means of thermal control (10). Knowing
the mass and volume of the spacecraft, we may suggest a suitable launch vehicle (11).
The launch environment is severe, as is the cosmic environment, and both need to be
taken into account (12). With the satellite defined at least in outline, the time is ripe to
7

1 / Design Drivers
scope the quality and reliability provisions (13), and to establish a test philosophy for the
overall spacecraft (14).

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The most common type of earth-orbiting spacecraft is the geostationary communications


satellite, and we will use here it to illustrate the above logic on a practical level. The
underlying requirements come in two parts:

Functional specifications, by which the satellite owner informs the manufacturer


what his primary expectations are. In response to the functional specifications, the
manufacturer issues

Implementation specifications, in which the manufacturer tells the owner in


considerable detail how the satellite will look and perform.

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Notice the difference between telling someone what to build and how to build it. The
theory is that the customer knows best what is needed by the future users of the satellite,
while the manufacturer has many years of experience in how to design, develop,
manufacture and test satellites. In order to produce a cost-effective mission, the two sides
are well advised to keep their respective roles separate. However, in practice this role
division is not always respected, especially when the owner is already operating multiple
spacecraft procured from different manufactuers. Such an owner will have developed
strong views on how satellites should be built and is not afraid to say so in his
"functional" specifications.
In the following illustration, the text in bold is representative of a functional specification,
while the Consequence is a telegraphic version of the implementation specifications.
a) Mission definition: The satellite is to relay radio signals between at least two
points on the ground, day and night, without interruption. Consequence: The
orbit must be geostationary, travelling around the earth at the same speed and in
the same direction as the earth rotates around its North-South axis. The geocentric
altitude of a geostationary orbit is 42,164 km; the height above the equator is
35,786 km.
b) Mission lifetime: The satellite is required to function in orbit during X years
with a probability of Y percent (typically, X = 15 years and Y = 70%).
Consequence 1: The specified lifetime is to be met by adopting a rigorous quality
and reliability programme, including the duplication of critical components and
units. Consequence 2: The satellites consumables (notably the propellant, the
batteries and the solar cells) are depleted over time and must therefore be oversized to last the mission lifetime. As we shall see in the following, the lifetime
requirement has a major impact on the satellites launch mass.

c) Signal quality: For the received signal to be intelligible on the ground


(whether voice or data), the received power has to be greater than the
received noise by a factor of at least 10. Consequence: This puts requirements
on various satellite design parameters, notably the power consumption of the
transmitter and the size of the antennas.

1 / Design Drivers

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d) Power supply: The functional units onboard the satellite and the highpower transmitter in particular shall be supplied with electric energy 24
hours a day, 365 days a year. Consequence 1: Sunlight is the most common
energy source (average power density near the earth is 1367 W/m2), and
photovoltaic cells are used to convert sunlight to electric current. The size of the
solar panels is proportional to the expected peak power consumption at the
mission end-of-life. Consequence 2: During two 6-week periods each year, the
satellite will spend up to 72 minutes in the earths shadow, during which the solar
cells produce no electric current. This energy deficit must be filled by onboard
rechargeable batteries.

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e) Satellite orientation: The satellites attitude in space shall be such that the
antennas are pointed at the earth and the solar cells receive continuous
illumination. Consequence: For the satellite to track both celestial bodies
accurately, it must be hinged in some way, and the hinge axis (the dash-dot line in
the figure) should be perpendicular to the sun-earth-satellite plane (Figure 1-2).

Figure 1-2 Orientation of GEO satellites.

f) Physical volume: The satellite shall fit inside the


heatshield of the launch vehicle (typically 10 m x 4 m
for the heaviest launch vehicles, but constrained by
the useable volume inside the dotted contour).
Consequence: Because the heatshield is bullet-shaped,
the satellite should have a similar shape if it is to make
efficient use of the available volume. Appendages like
solar panels and antennas must be stowed, necessitating
the inclusion of deployment mechanisms. The
spacecrafts main body must be large enough for the
appendages to be folded up against it.

10 m

4m

g) Physical mass: The satellite shall be light enough for the chosen launch
vehicle to carry it to the intended orbit (max 6 tons). It shall also carry
enough propellant to make the necessary orbit and attitude adjustments
during the satellites mission lifetime. Consequence: If a chemical propellant is
chosen, the satellites wet mass (i.e. launch mass) is almost twice its dry
mass, and is a severe challenge to the first requirement (of lightness). To reduce
the wet mass, it is possible to switch from chemical to electric propulsion;

1 / Design Drivers
however, electric thrusters consume large amounts of electric energy, forcing the
size and weight of the solar panels and the batteries to be augmented.

hn

olo
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.

Let us stand back now and see how far we have come in defining the satellite. Knowing
the mission definition and the signal quality requirements, we may estimate the power
consumption of the communications payload and of the supporting platform subsystems.
We are therefore in a position to calculate the size of the solar panels and the mass of the
batteries. The peculiarities of the geostationary orbit and of candidate launch vehicles tell
us how much propellant we must take onboard to last the mission lifetime. The size of the
solar panels and of the propellant tanks give us a fairly accurate estimate of the satellites
shape and volume, and the calculated mass of the propellant says a great deal about the
likely weight of the overall satellite.

ec

After this brief back-of-the-envelope analysis, we may begin the iterative process of
designing the satellite in detail, as per the diagram in Figure 1-1. We may also search
more systematically for a suitable launch vehicle which, after all, is going to add between
30% and 50% to the cost of having the satellite designed and built.

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fT

The example we chose was a geostationary communications satellite with a mission


lifetime of 15 years. Obviously the shape, volume, mass and functionality of the satellite
would have turned out quite differently if we had chosen another payload (e.g. in support
of science, remote sensing, meteorology, navigation, or military intelligence gathering)
the more so if the satellite were to be deployed in a low-altitude orbit with only a 5-year
lifetime. However, the methodology of identifying the design drivers would have been
similar.
As we make the first round through the cycle in Figure 1-1, we will discover a number of
conceptual incompatibilities. The designers of the orbit management subsystem may
favour electric propulsion, and the propulsion engineers may have identified a suitable
thruster technology, but the power management people have not yet factored in the
attendant high power consumption and its consequences on the size of the solar panels
and the batteries. Doubling the size of of these items is easy on paper, but now the
structures people are faced with having to increase the size of the satellites main body so
that the panels can be stowed during launch. Those responsible for choosing a launch
vehicle complain that the satellite is becoming too large for their preferred vehicle ... and
so forth. An intensive dialogue takes place within the project team. In the process of
resolving the incompatibilities, the team is in fact going around the iterative cycle one
more time, and will keep doing so until the mission and the satellite design are a perfect
match.
The iterative process is complicated further by colleagues in procurement, contracts,
finance and marketing getting into the fray. For example, for a commercial mission to
make sense, the satellite along with its launcher and ground stations must be affordable in
relation to the expected revenue. It is therefore natural that non-technical staff should
have a big influence on the overall technical solution.

10

2 / Orbital Dynamics

2.1.

olo
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2. Orbital Dynamics
Introduction

The orbit is the harness that makes a satellite perform useful tasks, rather than hurtle
aimlessly into deep space. The laws of Newton and Kepler allow us to tailor the size,
shape and orientation of the orbit to suit our needs. The mathematical modelling is
straightforward, at least in the first approximation.

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Some common orbit types are illustrated in Figure 2-1.

ec

hn

In common space parlance, an orbit is a closed contour, in contrast to trajectories which


are open-ended. Thus, a satellite travels in an orbit, whereas a rocket or a deep-space
probe flies along a trajectory.

Low orbits

High orbits

Equatorial orbits

Elliptic orbits

Polar orbits

Inclined orbits

Figure 2-1 Basic orbit terminology.

2.2.

Planetary Orbits

Mediaeval astronomers (notably Copernicus) assumed that the orbits of planets in the
solar system were circular, and that the planets themselves moved around the sun at
constant speed. On closer examination the astronomers discovered that the observed
speed actually varied, however slightly. Ensconced in their belief that orbits were by
necessity circular, and that therefore the speeds had to be constant, they deduced that the
orbits themselves might not be concentric, i.e. that their centre points were offset from the
sun. This would explain why planetary speeds appeared to vary when observed from the
sun and, by extension, from the earth (Figure 2-2). But despite elaborate mathematical
offset modelling, they never succeeded in fully explaining these variations in planetary
velocity.

11

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2/ Orbital Dynamics

ec

Figure 2-2 In an eccentric system, the angular velocity 1/


1/t is lower than 2/t,
2/
creating the illusion that the orbital velocity of the planet varies.

fT

Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630) was the first to suggest that the orbits of planets might not
be truly circular, but were in fact slightly elliptical. He proceeded to formulate three laws
that offered a satisfactory explanation to the irregularities in planetary motion

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Keplers First Law states that the generic orbit is an ellipse with two focal points, one of
which is occupied by the sun (Figure 2-3).
Planet

Focal points

Aphelion

Sun

Perihelion

Figure 2-3 Keplers First Law

The point of the orbit closest to the sun is called the perihelion. The point furthest away
from the sun is known as the aphelion. For example, the earth passes through the
perihelion around 3 January each year.
Keplers Second Law states that the radius vector r sweeps across equal areas of the
ellipse at equal times (Figure 2-4).

12

2 / Orbital Dynamics

Aphelion t

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.

t Perihelion

Figure 2-4 Keplers Second Law

ec

hn

One fundamental consequence of the Second Law is that a planet moves more slowly
through the aphelion than through the perihelion. Worded differently, a planet decelerates
as it moves away from the sun, and accelerates as it moves closer.

fT

Keplers Third Law says that the orbital period squared is proportional to the
semimajor axis a cubed, i.e.
2 = const. * a 3

(2.1)

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The orbital period is defined as the time it takes the planet to travel a complete turn
around the sun.

2.3.

Satellite Orbits

The above discussion concerning planetary motion around the sun is equally valid for the
motion of artificial satellites around the earth. The equivalent term for aphelion is apogee,
and perihelion becomes perigee.

2.3.1. Classic Orbital Elements

Orbital analysts tailor the shape, size and position of orbits to suit the mission of
individual satellites. For example, the optimum position for most telecommun-ications
satellites is in the geostationary orbit (GEO) above the equator, where they travel around
the earth with the same angular velocity that the earth spins around its axis. Seen from a
terrestrial observer, these GEO satellites appear stationary over a fixed point in the sky,
which makes them eminently suitable for relaying radio signals between points on earth,
day and night.
Satellites that take pictures of the earth may require global coverage, including the Arctic
regions, and therefore the orbits are inclined to cover the poles.
Mathematically speaking, all orbits are elliptic to a higher or lesser degree. A circular
orbit is simply an elliptic orbit whose two focal points coincide.
Traditionally, orbits are defined by five orbital elements denoted a, e, i, and . The
first two elements determine the shape of the orbital ellipse, while the remaining three
establish the position of the orbit in space. A sixth element, denoted , gives the position

13

2/ Orbital Dynamics
of the satellite along the orbit. The definition of each of these elements will be described
in the following.

olo
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.

Semimajor axis a: The ellipse is formed by its major axis = 2a and its minor axis = 2b
(Figure 2-5).

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hn

Figure 2-5 Axes of the orbital ellipse.

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fT

With a being half the distance of the major axis, it is referred to as the semimajor axis.
Similarly b is called the semiminor axis. The satellite moves around the earth at a variable
distance r, known as the radial distance, or altitude. The corresponding vector r is called
the radius vector.
The choice of semimajor axis a determines the height above the earth where the satellite
will operate (e.g. to achieve optimum radio signal strength or camera resolution). Often
the choice is a compromise between mission priorities and the need to protect the satellite
from harmful influences, such as atmospheric drag or radiation in the Van Allen belts.

Note that the orbital height of a satellite is its altitude minus the earths radius R. For
example, the height of the apogee Ap = ra R, where R = 6371 km on average and 6378
km at the equator.

Eccentricity e: The eccentricity is a measure of the flatness of the ellipse. One such
measure could have been the ratio b/a or, alternatively, 1-b/a. However, in order to
simplify orbital calculations in a wider context, we introduce the distance 2c between the
focal points, and define the eccentricity as e = c/a (Figure 2-6).

Figure 2-6 Definition of eccentricity e.

14

2 / Orbital Dynamics
The position of the focal points is defined by c as shown in Figure 2-6. With c2 = a2 b2,
we have:

c
b2
e = = 1 2
a
a

(2.2)

olo
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.

It follows that 0 e 1. In the case of a circular orbit, the two focal points coincide, such
that c = e = 0. At the other extreme (e = 1), the orbit is flattened to a straight line between
the two focal points.

hn

An orbital analyst may choose a value for the eccentricity e 0 to create variations in
orbital height and velocity. For example, a scientific experiment may be designed to
sample the earths atmosphere at different heights during each orbital revolution, so as to
establish the physical or chemical composition of the atmosphere. But most satellites
have no such requirement and therefore travel in circular orbits (e = 0).

fT

ec

Inclination i: Since a satellite orbit is anchored to the centre of the earth, the question
arises whether the satellite travels in an east-west direction along the equator, or in a
north-south direction from Pole to Pole, or somewhere in between. The angle i that
defines the slope of the orbital plane in relation to the equator is called the inclination
angle (Figure 2-7).

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Figure 2-7 shows the projection of a typical orbit onto the earths surface the so-called
subsatellite track. The circular arrow around the North Pole indicates the sense of the
earths rotation from west to east. The point where the satellite crosses the equator
travelling northward is known as the ascending node. The opposite crossing is therefore
called the descending node.
N

Ascending
node

Ascending
node

Figure 2-7 Definition of the inclination angle i.


The spacecraft movement in the left figure is prograde
(i.e. in the same direction as the earths spin),
while the movement in the right figure is retrograde
(i.e. in the opposite direction).

Note that the inclination i is the angle to the right of the ascending node. The inclination
is an angle of rotation around the line between the nodes. It follows that i = 0 denotes an
equatorial orbit, and i = 90 is a polar orbit. When i < 90, the satellites motion is said to
be prograde, with an eastward component in the same direction as the earths own
rotation. With i > 90, the satellites movement becomes retrograde, with a westward
component running counter to the earths rotation.

15

2/ Orbital Dynamics

olo
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.

The inclination allows the orbital analyst to formulate the degree of global coverage. An
equatorial satellite (i = 0) only covers the equatorial zone, whose width is determined by
the orbital height (i.e. by a). A polar satellite (i = 90) covers the entire globe, over time,
as the earth rotates underneath the subsatellite track. For example, during the 90 minutes
it takes a low-flying satellite to complete an orbital revolution, the earth will turn 22.5
around its axis (90 / [24 60] 360 = 22.5). Intermediate values offer coverages which
are better than equatorial but less than global.

hn

Why, then, dont all satellites travel in polar orbits? Is global coverage not always
preferable to a more limited coverage? No, not necessarily. For example, if the
geostationary orbit were polar instead of equatorial, the satellite would no longer stay
fixed in the sky.

fT

ec

Right ascension of the ascending node (abbreviated RAAN): Recall that the
inclination is an angle around the line between the nodes. Similarly, the RAAN is an
angle of rotation around the Poles, i.e. it defines the position of the nodes in space. For
this definition to be meaningful, we need a spatial reference, such as the line formed by
the intersection between the equatorial plane and the ecliptic (Figure 2-8). The ecliptic is
the orbital plane of the earth around the sun. The earths equator is inclined at an angle
= 23.45 relative to the ecliptic.

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Equatorial
plane

Ecliptic plane

Vector to
First Point
of Aries

Figure 2-8 Definition of reference vector in inertial space


seen from the side of the ecliptic plane.

The desired reference vector passes along the line of intersection between the ecliptic and
equatorial planes and points towards the first point in the star constellation Aries,
traditionally represented by a rams horns (
). Looking at the sun and the earth from the
ecliptic north (Figure 2-9), the reference vector is the line from the sun to the first point of
Aries, as seen from the earth during the vernal (spring) equinox.

16

2 / Orbital Dynamics

olo
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.

21 March
Vernal equinox

21 December
Winter solstice

21 June
Summer solstice

hn

21 September
Autumn equinox

ec

Figure 2-9 Inertial reference vector seen from the north.

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fT

Using the nodal vector as reference, the RAAN is defined as the geocentric angle of the
ascending node in the prograde direction (Figure 2-10).

Figure 2-10 Definition of RAAN.

The choice of the RAAN () determines the orientation of the orbital plane with respect
to the sun, and hence the solar illumination of the satellite. For example, a judicious
choice of might allow the satellite to avoid passing through the earths shadow, such
that the solar panels remain illuminated at all times.
An orbits initial RAAN is determined by the time of launch on any given day. The
orbital analyst can therefore achieve the desired value of by prescribing the allowable
dates and times of the day when the launch may take place (the so-called launch window
see Section 2.4.7).
Argument of perigee: The inclination and the RAAN imply rotations of the orbit
outside of its own plane. Stated differently, i and represent rotation angles for the
orbital plane around two degrees of freedom, namely the nodal line and the polar axis,
respectively. It now remains to define the rotation angle of the orbital ellipse within its
own plane (Figure 2-11). The angle between the line of apsides (pronounced
17

2/ Orbital Dynamics

Perigee
Nodal line

hn

Line of
apsides

olo
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.

psidees) and the nodal line (i.e. the equator) is called the argument of perigee. It is
equivalent to a rotation around the orbit plane normal, and is measured positive in the
direction of satellite motion.

ec

Apogee

Figure 2-11 Definition of the argument of perigee .

fT

The argument of perigee , in combination with the inclination i, establishes the latitude
of the apogee and the perigee, which may be of interest e.g. in certain scientific missions
where the nature of samples is latitude dependent.

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True anomaly : Let us return to Figure 2-3 and introduce the true anomaly , i.e. the
angle of the radius vector r with respect to the perigee (Figure 2-12).

Apogee

Perigee

Figure 2-12 Definition of true anomaly .

Intuitively, one would expect the radial distance r to be a function of a, b and or,
alternatively, of a, e and . It can indeed be shown that
a (1 e 2 )
r=
1 + e cos

(2.3)

r = 0 , where m is the mass of the


r3
satellite, r is the radius vector, r is the radial distance (= |r|), and is the earths
gravitational parameter = 398,601 km3/s2. This differential equation is of fundamental
importance, in that it neatly describes the balance between the inertial, Newtonian force

by solving the differential vector equation mr + m

18

2 / Orbital Dynamics

of a speeding satellite ( mr ) and the harnessing gravitational pull from the earth ( m

r ).
r3

A derivation of Eq 2.3 may be found in Appendix C.3 of Sellers [9].

Ap

hn

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.

To illustrate Eq 2.3, take an orbit with a perigee located at a height Pe = 200 km and an
apogee at Ap = 1000 km above the earth. The earths average radius R = 6371 km. Let ra
= Ap + R be the geocentric altitude of the apogee, and rp = Pe + R the geocentric altitude
of the perigee. From Figure 2-13:

Pe

Apogee

Perigee

rp

fT

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ra

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Figure 2-13 Calculation of the semimajor axis a.

a = (ra + rp )

(2.4)

Inserting the chosen values for Pe and Ap yields a = (6571 + 7371) = 6971 km. The
eccentricity e is obtained from Eq 2.2:
e=

rp r
c
= 1 = a 1
a
a
a

(2.5)

In our example: e = 1 6571/6971 = 7371/6971 1 = 0.057

Having calculated the values of a and e, we are now in a position to plot the radial
distance r as a function of the true anomaly see Figure 2-14. The satellite height h = r
R above the earths surface is shown in Figure 2-15.
Note that, according to Eq 2.3 above, r = a for a circular orbit (e = 0).

19

2/ Orbital Dynamics

7400
7200

6400
6200

300

280

260

240

220

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

6000

hn

True anomaly (deg)

360

6600

340

6800

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.

7000

320

Radial distance r (km)

7600

Figure 2-14 Example of radial distance r as a function of true anomaly .

ec

1000

fT

800
600
400

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Satellite height h (km)

1200

200

360

340

320

300

280

260

240

220

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

True anomaly (deg)

Figure 2-15 Example of orbital height h as a function of true anomaly .

Having defined the size, shape and position of the orbit through a, e, i, , , it remains to
calculate the true anomaly (or angular position) of the satellite along the orbit at any
given time. We must know where the satellite is if we are trying to point our ground
station antennas to communicate with it. The true anomaly also determines the relative
phasing of multiple satellites in similar orbits.

2.3.2. True Anomaly vs. Elapsed Time

From the definition of true anomaly (Figure 2-12) and from Keplers Second Law
(Figure 2-4), it is evident that, for an elliptic orbit, does not grow linearly with time.
Figure 2-16 shows the relationship between and the elapsed time t from perigee for a
typical Ariane 5 geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), whereby Ap = 35,790 km and Pe =
200 km.

20

2 / Orbital Dynamics

10
8
6

olo
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.

Elapse time t (hrs)

12

4
2
0

hn

True anomaly (deg)

Figure 2-16 Relationship between and t for an Ariane 5 GTO.

fT

ec

As one would expect from Keplers Second Law, the satellite can be seen to cover a lot of
ground during the first two hours from perigee ( 155). It then slows down around
apogee ( = 180), before accelerating again after the apogee passage. The orbital period
= 10.5 hours.

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In order to establish analytically where the satellite is to be found at any given time i.e.
to correlate and t it is necessary to introduce two additional anomaly concepts,
namely the eccentric anomaly E and the mean anomaly M. The definition of E is shown
in Figure 2-17.

Apogee

Perigee

Figure 2-17 Definition of eccentric anomaly E.

The mean anomaly M is defined as:


t
M = 2 (radians)

M
or, conversely,
t=
2

(2.6)
(2.7)

where is the orbital period, i.e. the time it takes for the satellite to complete an orbital
turn (see Section 2.3.4.1 below). In other words, M is the angle-equivalent of time, and
cannot be illustrated geometrically for an elliptic orbit.
The eccentric anomaly E is obtained from:

21

2/ Orbital Dynamics
e + cos
1 + e cos
1 e

E = 2 tan 1
tan( / 2)
1+ e

cos E =

(2.8b)

olo
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.

or

(2.8a)

Eq 2.8b lends itself to finding E in the correct quadrant using the ATAN2 function in
Excel or Matlab.
Note also the following relationship between M and E:
M = E e sin E

(radians)

(2.9)

ec

hn

With the help of these equations, establishing t = f() is straightforward, taking the route t
= f(M), M = f(E), and E = f(), as per Eq 2.7, 2.9 and 2.8. The relationship is exemplified
in Figure 2-16 above.

cos E e
1 e cos E

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cos =

fT

However, it is usually more interesting to know = f(t), i.e. the position of the satellite as
a function of elapsed time. To establish this relationship it is necessary to take the route
= f(E), E = f(M), and M = f(t). From Eq 2.8:
(2.10)

Unfortunately, the next step is less straightforward, due to the irreversible nature of Eq
2.9. Given this complication, we may try a series expansion to obtain an explicit
expression for E = f(M), and better still for = f(M). With some sleight of hand, we find
that for small values of e (all angles in radians):
1
5
11
= M + (2e e 3 ) sin M + ( e 2 e 4 ) sin 2 M + ...
(2.11a)
4
4
24
The following closed-form, curve-fit approximation is adequate for e < 0.5 and is easier
to use:
sin M
= M + 2 .2 e
(2.11b)
1.5 cos M

The last step, i.e. M = f(t), is covered by Eq 2.6. above. Figure 2-18 shows , E and M as
a function of for the sample transfer orbit. The elapsed time is also shown.

22

2 / Orbital Dynamics
Elapsed Time from Perigee (hours)
0

2345678 9

10

10.5

360

olo
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.

Anomaly (deg)

300
240

M (deg)
E (deg)

180

n(deg)

120

0
0

60

120

180

240

300

360

ec

True anomaly (deg)

hn

60

fT

Figure 2-18 Relationship between various anomalies and time


for a typical Ariane 5 geostationary transfer orbit.

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Note that, for circular orbits, the eccentricity e = 0, and therefore M = E = .


Historical note: It may seem strange that the term anomaly (which means deviation) is
used to label the angles , E and M. The reason is that early astronomers found the motion
of the planets to be irregular, i.e. they deviated from linear motion; hence the argument of
their radius vectors became known as anomalies.

2.3.3. Orbital Elements Summary

The semimajor axis a defines the size of the orbit:

while the eccentricity e describes the flatness of the orbit:

23

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2/ Orbital Dynamics

hn

The inclination i determines the slope of the orbital plane with respect to the equator:

fT

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The right ascension of the ascending node is a measure of how the orbit is turned in
the east-west direction:
N

while the argument of perigee measures how far the perigee is from the equator:

24

2 / Orbital Dynamics
Lastly, the true anomaly indicates the position of the satellite along the orbit:

hn

olo
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.

Alternatively, E or M is sometimes shown instead of as the sixth orbital element.

ec

Q: Why are these seemingly arbitrary elements used to describe orbits, rather than a
more traditional xyz system?

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fT

A: r and represent polar coordinates, as opposed to xyz which are Cartesian


coordinates. Polar coordinates offer more convenient mathematical modelling of physical
phenomena involving circular motion, such as orbits. Given that the nodes and the
argument of perigee drift fairly rapidly over time, a satellites orbit is actually a complex
elliptic spiral, as observed in a geocentric Cartesian coordinate system. Using the elements
a, e, i, and has the benefit of treating the orbit as a solid disc at any moment in time,
i.e. the disc can be re-shaped and rotated at will within the coordinate system. Because of
this, the parameters a, e, i, , and are sometimes referred to as osculating elements
(osculating = having points in common).

2.3.4. Derived Orbital Parameters

Using the six classic orbital elements a, e, i, , , , we are now in a position to calculate
a set of parameters of critical importance in mission planning.
2.3.4.1.

Orbital Period

Keplers Third Law states that the square of the orbital period is equal to a constant
multiplied by the cube of the semimajor axis a (Eq 2.1). The precise equation is:

2 =

or:

4 2 3
a

= 2a a /

(2.12)

where is the earths gravitational parameter = 398,601 km3/s2. ( = GM, where the
universal constant of gravitation G = 6.6742 x 10-11 m3/kg2/s2 and the earths mass M =
5,9736 x 1024 kg.) Given the dimension of , it follows that a needs to be entered in km,
and that is measured in seconds. Note that the orbital period is only a function of the
semimajor axis a, regardless of the eccentricity or the inclination of the orbit.
25

2/ Orbital Dynamics

30

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.

Orbital period (hours)

Figure 2-19 shows for a range of a-values, while Figure 2-20 gives for various
combinations of apogee and perigee heights.

25
20
15
10
5

hn

ec

Semimajor axis a (km)

fT

Figure 2-19 Orbital period as a function of circular orbit height h.


25

Perigee
height (km)

Oribtal period (hours)

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20
15
10
5
0

10000

20000

30000

500
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000

40000

Apogee height (km)

Figure 2-20 Orbital period as a function of Ap and Pe.

The orbital period allows the mission planner to predict the cyclical nature of mission
operations, e.g. the need for battery recharging in preparation for eclipse, the temperature
variations of satellite equipment, or the time of satellite passages over a certain ground
station.
2.3.4.2.

Orbital Velocity

Recall from Keplers Second Law that the satellites velocity V along the orbit varies as it
travels from the perigee to the apogee and back.

26

2 / Orbital Dynamics

2 1

r a

V=

(2.13)

Vcirc =

olo
gy
.

Evidently the velocity depends on both a and r, whereby r in itself is also a function of a,
e and , according to Eq 2.3. In the case of a circular orbit, r = constant = a, and Eq 2.13
is simplified as follows:

(2.14)

hn

The orbital velocity of a satellite in the Ariane 5 sample transfer orbit is shown in Figure
2-21 as a function of the true anomaly .

ec

10

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8
6
4

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Orbital velocity V (km/s)

12

360

340

320

300

280

260

240

220

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

True anomaly (deg)

Figure 2-21 Orbital velocity V as a function of true anomaly .

Knowing the speed of a satellite along its orbit is important for a variety of reasons, such
as tracking it, predicting the Doppler effect in its radio transmissions, or planning an
orbital change manoeuvre.
Historical note: The early astronomers derived Eq 2.14 by studying the balance between
the gravitational and centrifugal forces (Fg and Fc, respectively) acting on a planet. Given
the radius a of the planets orbit (obtained from Keplers Third Law) and the suns
gravitational parameter s, they knew from Newtons theories that

Fg = s

m
a2

and

Fc =

mVcirc
a

Eq 2.14 results from setting Fg = Fc.

2.3.4.3.

Flight Path Angle

The flight path angle is the angle between a satellites velocity vector V and its radius
vector r see Figure 2-22.
27

2/ Orbital Dynamics

olo
gy
.

hn

Figure 2-22 Definition of the flight path angle .

1 + e cos
e sin

(2.15)

fT

tan =

ec

The flight path angle is obtained from the following identity:

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Figure 2-23 shows as a function of for the Ariane 5 sample orbit.

Flight path angle (deg)

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20

360

340

320

300

280

260

240

220

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

True anomaly (deg)

Figure 2-23 Flight path angle as a function of for an Ariane 5 GTO.

Knowing the flight path angle is of interest e.g. when planning orbital manoeuvres or
taking pictures from space.

2.3.4.4.

Orbital Energy

The total energy of a satellite in orbit is the sum of its kinetic and potential energy:

E = E kin + E pot =

28

1
m
mV 2
2
r

(2.16)

2 / Orbital Dynamics

olo
gy
.

It may come as a surprise that the potential energy is a negative quantity. This convention
has come about because, even though Epot increases with the radial distance r, it reaches
zero at r = . For this to work, Epot must start out at the earths centre as an infinitely
large negative quantity.
Another useful expression for the total energy is:

E=

m
2a

(2.17)

Together, Eq 2.16 and 2.17 yield Eq 2.13.

hn

2.3.5. Orbital Perturbations

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ec

Because the satellite moves around the orbit like a mass element, the orbital plane
manifests gyroscopic properties, i.e. it remains fixed in inertial space unless it is perturbed
by external torques. If perturbed, its nodes will begin to drift in such a way that the orbit
plane normal undergoes a conical motion. Compare this with a spinning top whose axis
starts coning when slowing down, because the force of gravity is no longer parallel
with the spin axis see Figure 2-24.

Perturbing force
of gravitation

Figure 2-24 The coning motion of a spinning top.

In the case of orbits, the perturbing forces acting on a satellite consist of gravitational pull
from the sun, the moon and the earths oblateness, as well as solar pressure.

2.3.5.1.

Nodal Drift

Node rotation is primarily the result of the earths oblateness, i.e. the fact that the earth is
an ellipsoid rather than a sphere. The phenomenon is visualized in Figure 2-25. As the
satellite approaches the equatorial bulge from the south, the gravitational pull grows and
draws the spacecraft upward, resulting in an increase of the inclination angle. When the
satellite is past the equator, the bulge pulls the satellite the other way, such that the
inclination resumes its original value, but at that stage the node will already have drifted
an amount degrees. The process is repeated as the satellite passes the descending
node.

29

2/ Orbital Dynamics
N

Arrows show vertical


component of
gravitational pull

olo
gy
.

hn

Figure 2-25 Nodal drift, as seen from the ascending node (left) and the descending node (right).

(deg/day)

(2.18)

fT

d
10 cos i

dt
(a / R ) 7 / 2 (1 e 2 ) 2

ec

The nodal drift is approximately:

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As before, we count as positive in the direction of the earths rotation. Note that the
nodal precession is retrograde (i.e. d/dt is negative, such that decreases) for i < 90,
and is prograde for i > 90.
Figure 2-26 shows d/dt for various values of a and i in a circular orbit (e = 0). The nodal
drift rate is quite significant at low inclinations and altitudes. Only the polar orbit has no
nodal drift at all. The diagram is symmetrical for i > 90 deg, except that the nodal drift
now turns positive.

Nodal drift dW/dt (deg/day)

-1

-2

15

-3

30

-4

45

-5

60

-6

75

-7

-8
7,000

9,000

11,000

13,000

15,000

Semimajor axis a (km)

Figure 2-26 Nodal drift as a function of a and i.


For i > 90 the drift is prograde (i.e. the values along the y-axis become positive).

2.3.5.2.

Perigee Drift

Another consequence of external perturbations is that the line of apsides i.e. the line
between the apogee and the perigee experiences a significant in-plane drift over time.
Eq 2.19 approximates the drift rate:

30

2 / Orbital Dynamics

d
5(5 cos 2 i 1)

dt (a / R ) 7 / 2 (1 e 2 ) 2

(deg/day)

(2.19)

olo
gy
.

This equation is only meaningful for an elliptic orbit, since there is no apogee or perigee
in a circular orbit. To illustrate the order of magnitude of perigee drift, d/dt = 0.821
deg/day for a typical transfer orbit with Pe = 200 km and Ap = 35,793 km an important
consideration e.g. when planning the time available between launch and the firing of a
satellites apogee engine.

hn

ec

Inclination
(deg)

fT

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
7,000

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Perigee drift d
/dt (deg/day)

Figure 2-27 illustrates the magnitude of perigee drift as a function of a and i for an orbit
with moderate eccentricity (e = 0.1). Note that the horizontal axis shows semimajor axis
rather than orbital height, since the orbit is elliptic.

12,000

17,000

0
15
30
45
60
75

22,000

Semimajor axis a (km)

Figure 2-27 Perigee drift d


/dt as a function of a and i
for an elliptic orbit with e = 0.1.

As can be seen in Figure 2-27, the rate of perigee drift is quite dramatic for low values of
a. (Note, however, that e = 0.1 and a < 7000 km puts the perigee below ground!)
Inspection of Eq 2.19 leads to the conclusion that increasing the eccentricity e has the
effect of increasing the drift rate further.
From Eq 2.19 it is clear that the perigee drift rate is 0 when 5 cos2i 1 = 0, i.e. when i =
63.4. This phenomenon is exploited in some space missions see Section 2.5.3.
2.3.5.3.

Drift of Other Orbital Elements

In addition to and , the other orbital elements (a, e and i) are also subject to
perturbations, but their magnitude is much smaller. Their effect is most noticeable in the
geostationary orbit see Section 2.5.1.

31

2/ Orbital Dynamics

2.4.

Mission Analysis

olo
gy
.

Mission analysis examines the operational consequences of the choice of orbit. Here are
some typical questions which need to be answered through mission analysis:
Over what points of the earth will the satellite pass, and when?
When, and for how long, will the satellite be visible over a given ground station?
When will the satellite pass through eclipse (the earths shadow), and for how
long?
How will the satellite be illuminated, i.e. what will the solar incidence angle be?
What is the launch window for the satellite?

hn

The following sections provide the mathematical tools for working out the answers to
these questions.

ec

2.4.1. Coordinate Systems

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As we have already noticed, some orbital parameters (for example r, i and ) are defined
in relation to an earth-centered coordinate system with the N/S axis and the equator as the
references. Other orbital parameters (notably and ) belong in an inertial coordinate
system linked to the stars and the inertially fixed reference . In the following we will be
moving back and forth between these basic systems and their variants, so this is a good
place to define them and give them names.
z

x=

Heliocentric inertial

Heliocentric rotating

z=N

x=

Geocentric-equatorial inertial

z=N

x = zenith

z =N

z=i

y =east

x=Greenwich meridian

Geocentric-equatorial rotating

Topocentric

x=ascending node
Geocentric orbital

Figure 2-28 Nomenclature of coordinate systems.

32

y=perigee

2 / Orbital Dynamics

2.4.2. Subsatellite Track

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ec

hn

olo
gy
.

The subsatellite track is the projection of the satellites orbital journey onto the earths
surface. Stated differently, it is the track that the radius vector traces on the earth as it cuts
through the earths surface (Figure 2-29).

Figure 2-29 Subsatellite track

Recall from Figure 2-12 that the radius vector r is defined in a geocentric coordinate
system fixed to the orbital ellipse (geocentric orbital). The orbit, in turn, is anchored to
an inertial coordinate system centered in the earth (geocentric-equatorial intertial). The
earth, finally, is rotating with respect to the inertial system (geocentric-equatorial
rotating see Figure 2-30). To generate the subsatellite track mathematically, it is
necessary to find the position of the radius vector over time in a coordinate system that is
fixed to the rotating earth. This involves a series of coordinate transformations through
, , i, and .

33

2/ Orbital Dynamics

rs

olo
gy
.

N
N

r
i

hn

Greenwich
meridian

fT

ec

Figure 2-30 Successive steps of transferring the radius vector r from the orbital ellipse coordinate
system to a rotating earth system.

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Now let xs be the unit vector of the satellites radius vector rs, such that xs is the x-axis in
a geocentric orbital coordinate system. The satellite is shown travelling anti-clockwise.
According to the right-hand rule, the z-axis must be pointing out of the paper towards the
reader, and the y-axis completes the orthogonal, right-handed system. Hence rs = 1 xs + 0
ys + 0 zs = (1, 0, 0). (It makes no difference for the geometry of the problem whether we
use full-length vectors or unit vectors; think of the earth as having the radius 1.)

ys

xs= rs

zs

Figure 2-31 Coordinate system anchored to the range vector.

As the next step, examine xs, ys, zs and rs in the context of a system x, y, z where the
x-axis coincides with the line of apsides. In this scenario the radius vector coordinate

34

2 / Orbital Dynamics
system is rotated back to the perigee-fixed coordinate system. Note that the direction of
rotation is left-handed see the arrow around the zs-axis.
y

xs= rs

hn

olo
gy
.

ys

ec

zs=z

fT

Figure 2-32 Rotation of the range vector system to the apsides-based system.

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In this new coordinate system, rs would seem to become r through the following
transformation:

r1
x s  x

r = r2 = y s  x
r3 z s  x

xs  y

y s  y
z s  y

xs  z 1 cos sin 0 1
y s  z  0 = sin cos 0  0
z s  z 0 0
0
1 0 s

However, because the rotation is left-handed in what is a right-handed coordinate system,


the argument must be viewed as negative. Therefore:

r1
cos( ) sin ( ) 0 1 cos sin 0 1 cos

r = r2 = sin ( ) cos( ) 0  0 = sin cos 0  0 = sin


r3
0
0
1 0 0
0
1 0 0
The [] system is rotated back to the line of nodes in the same manner, yielding r as
follows:

35

hn

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.

2/ Orbital Dynamics

fT

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r1
cos sin 0 r1

r = r2 = sin cos 0  r2
r3 0
0
1 r3

ec

Figure 2-33 Rotation of the apsides-based system to the nodal system.

The range vector is now brought into the geocentric equatorial inertial coordinate system
by rotating the -system through i, i.e. by aligning the orbit plane normal with the earths
North Pole vector.

zi = north

yi

xi=x

Figure 2-34 Alignment of the orbit plane normal to the earth's spin axis.

0
0 r1
r1 1

ri = r2 = 0 cos i sin i  r2
r3 i 0 sin i cos i r3

The RAAN is similarly accounted for:

36

2 / Orbital Dynamics

olo
gy
.

z =zi

yi

hn

ec

xi

x =

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r1
cos sin 0 r1
r = r2 = sin cos 0  r2
r3 0
0
1 r3 i

fT

Figure 2-35 Rotation of the pole-aligned system to the geocentric inertial system.

Lastly, we bring the r vector into the geocentric-equatorial rotating coordinate system by
making the earth is made to spin through an angle around the z axis. Note that the
rotation is clockwise, which leads to a sign change in the sinus term.

z=z

Figure 2-36 Transformation of the earth's rotating system to the geocentric inertial system.

r1
cos sin 0 r1

r = r2 = sin cos 0  r2
r3 0
0
1 r3

37

2/ Orbital Dynamics

Using shorthand, the full matrix transformation therefore becomes:


r1

r = r2 = [] [] [i] [] [] rs

olo
gy
.

(2.20)

r3

Recalling that the components (r1, r2, r3) represent direction cosines of r to the three
coordinate axes, we obtain the latitude and longitude of the range vector from Figure
2-37:

cos-1r3 r

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cos-1r2

fT

cos-1r1

ec

hn

x =

Figure 2-37 Derivation of latitude and longitude from direction cosines.

r3 = cos(90-) = sin

According to the laws of spherical triangles (see Appendix A):

r1 = cos cos

Therefore:

= sin-1(r3)

(2.21)

= cos-1(r1/cos) = tan-1(r2/r1)

(2.22)

In Eq 2.22 it is better to use the tan-1 function rather than cos-1, because it allows us to
track the angle through 360 deg using the ATAN2 function in Excel or Matlab.

Using equations 2.21 and 2.22, the subsatellite track of an Ariane-type transfer orbit is
shown in Figure 2-38. The curious backward sweep of the track around the equator, as
observed in the S-curve, arises because the satellites angular velocity at the apogee is
slower than that of the earth.

38

2 / Orbital Dynamics
Apogee

Apogee

Perigee

hn

Latitude (deg)

50

ec

Launch site

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 Perigee
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
0

olo
gy
.

Perigee

100

150

200

250

fT

East Longitude (deg)

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Figure 2-38 Ariane-type transfer orbit subsatellite track immediately following launch.
(Ap = 35,793 km, Pe = 250 km, i = 6, = 180)

Figure 2-39 illustrates the subsatellite track of a geosynchronous satellite at i = 10, an


undesirable inclination value for this type of satellite, but one that is sometimes found
where a GEO satellite approaches the end of its service life.
15

Latitude (deg)

10

5
0

-5

-10

-15
179.4

179.6

179.8

180.0

180.2

180.4

East longitude (deg)

Figure 2-39 Subsatellite track of a geosynchronous satellite (i = 10).

39

2/ Orbital Dynamics

Q: Is it important in which order one makes the coordinate transformations? Could the
above sequence s i just as well be reversed?

olo
gy
.

A: The sequence as a whole may be reversed, but not individual groups of matrices within
the sequence. Remember that matrices are not generally commutative, i.e. [A][B] [B][A].
Think of it this way: If we rotate an aircraft first along the roll axis 90 and then along the
pitch axis 45, we get a different attitude than if we first pitch the aircraft 45 and then roll it
90 (see Figure B-2 in Appendix B).

ec

hn

In calculating the subsatellite track, we recognize that all the above arguments refer directly
(, ) or indirectly (, i, ) to the geocentric-equatorial inertial coordinate system x , y , z,
i.e. the frame where the x-axis coincides with the -vector. We must therefore rotate our
local coordinate systems backwards one by one, until they arrive home to the reference
frame. Equally important is to keep track of the sense of rotation (left-hand or right-hand),
since it affects the sign of the argument (negative or positive, respectively) and hence the
sign of the sinus terms.

fT

2.4.3. Ground Station Coverage

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One of the main uses of computing the subsatellite track is to establish when, and for how
long, the satellite will pass over a given ground station. Here again, the use of vectors and
coordinate transformations is necessary.
The geometry of the problem is as shown in Figure 2-40. Let the geographical
coordinates of the ground station be represented by the geocentric unit vector a, and the
edge of coverage by the geocentric unit vector b. Vector a thus points from the earths
centre to the ground stations geographical location at deg latitude and deg longitude.

Figure 2-40 Ground station coverage zone.

To plot the coverage contour on the earths surface, we need to find a way of rotating
vector b to form a cone around a, all the while keeping track of the b-vectors coordinates
in terms of latitude and longitude . The simplest way is to form a normal vector n that

40

2 / Orbital Dynamics
is perpendicular to both a and b, and to let it make the 360 round. This normal vector is
obtained from the cross product of a and b, i.e. n sin = a x b. The coverage angle is a
function of the orbital height h (Figure 2-41):
R
R+h

olo
gy
.

(2.23)

ec

Figure 2-41 Satellite coverage.

hn

= cos 1

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The earths average radius R = 6371 km. Let us begin by defining a geocentric-equatorial
rotating coordinate system anchored to the earths centre. Here a forms the z-axis, while
the x-axis cuts through the ground station meridian , and the y-axis completes the righthanded system see Figure 2-42.
z =a

Figure 2-42 Motion of vectors n and b around the a-vector.

As the n-vector begins to rotate around the a-vector through an angle , it drags the bvector with it. Inspection of Figure 2-42 yields b = (sin cos, sin sin, cos).
The time is ripe to bring the x, y, z-system back to the geocentric-equatorial rotating
system x, y, z, i.e. to establish b in terms of , , with as the variable. To do so, we go
through the steps shown in Figure 2-43.

41

2/ Orbital Dynamics

Greenwich z
meridian
( = 0)

Greenwich
meridian
( = 0)

z
y

x
Equator

x
Equator

Greenwich
meridian
( = 0)

x
Equator

z
y

olo
gy
.

hn

Figure 2-43 Coordinate transformations for ground station coverage.

The corresponding transformations are as follows:

ec

z
z = a

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fT

90 -

y =y

90 -

Figure 2-44 Latitude rotation.

b1
sin 0 cos sin cos

b = b2 = 0
1
0  sin sin
b3 cos 0 sin cos
z=z

Figure 2-45 Longitude rotation.

42

2 / Orbital Dynamics

olo
gy
.

b1
cos sin 0 b1

b = b2 = sin cos 0  b2
b3
0
0
1 b3

hn

Figure 2-46 shows the coverage contour generated by having the b-vector sweep through
0< <360. The coverage area in this example refers to the satellite ground station at
Redu, Belgium (lat. 50N, long. 5E) for a satellite with h = 200 km and i = 50. The first
five cycles of the corresponding subsatellite track have been overlaid to illustrate the
relationship. Note how tracks 0 and 1 pass almost straight overhead for maximum pass
duration, whereas track 2 is lower on the horizon and offers a correspondingly shorter
pass duration. Tracks 3 and 4 cannot be seen at all from the ground station.

fT

ec

One can also deduce from the figure that five passes per day occur over Redu for this
particular satellite at this particular altitude and inclination (tracks 2, -1, 0, 1, 2). In any
24-hour period there are 16 orbital revolutions (24h/ = 1440/88 16), so the visibility
efficiency is 5/16 = 0.31 = 31%.

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Track No.
0
1
2

3
4

Figure 2-46 Ground station coverage and subsatellite tracks.

2.4.4. Eclipse

The eclipse is space parlance for the earths shadow, through which most satellites pass
sooner or later. These eclipse passages have a significant impact on the satellites design.
It is often the driving design parameter for the thermal control subsystem which has to
protect onboard equipment against the drastic temperature variations between sunlight
and shadow. The eclipse also necessitates the installation of onboard rechargeable
batteries in order to maintain equipment operation in the absence of energy from the solar
panels.

The shadow behind the earth consists of two conical contours. The outer, divergent, cone
is known as the penumbra (half-shadow), while the inner, convergent cone is called the
umbra (full shadow) see Figure 2-47. The lower portion of the figure shows how the
sun and the earth appear as seen from a satellite at eight different points within the
eclipse.
43

2/ Orbital Dynamics

4
1
5

Sun

6
3 Umbra 7

Earth

Penumbra

ec

hn

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.

Figure 2-47 Geometry of the eclipse (not to scale).

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The phenomena of umbra and penumbra are readily observed in the case of a lunar
eclipse, when the moon darkens and brightens only gradually as the earths penumbra and
umbra sweep across the lunar disc. Similarly, when the International Space Station passes
overhead after dusk, it changes from brilliant white to shades of penumbra gold before
vanishing altogether in the umbra. Because of the long distance between the sun and the
earth, the penumbra layer is in practice very thin in low earth orbits. In preliminary
calculations it is therefore often acceptable to regard the earths shadow as a purely
cylindrical umbra.
Predicting the eclipse duration requires a series of coordinate transformations, since a
satellite orbit is anchored to the earth, while the eclipse cylinder moves in the ecliptic
plane (the earths orbit around the sun). The task is therefore to bring the satellite radius
vector from the geocentric orbital coordinate system to a heliocentric rotating system that
follows the earths annual movement around the sun (Figure 2-48).
N

June

March

Ecliptic
plane

December

Shadow

September

Figure 2-48 The earth in the ecliptic plane.

44

2 / Orbital Dynamics
Note how the earths equatorial plane is inclined to the ecliptic plane by an angle =
23.45. This angle is known as the obliquity. The inertial reference vector is the
intersection between the ecliptic and equatorial planes (Figure 2-49).

olo
gy
.

Ecliptic plane

hn

ec

Figure 2-49 Intersection between the ecliptic and the equatorial planes.

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The criteria for penumbra and umbra transits can be deduced from Figure 2-50. The
satellite is inside the penumbra when the radius vector r is inside the penumbra cone. If r
is also inside the umbra cone, then the satellite is in total eclipse.

xe

rp

ru

Figure 2-50 Criteria for satellite eclipse transits.

45

2/ Orbital Dynamics

S + R
= sin 1
= 0.2688
D
S R
= sin 1
= 0.2640
D

olo
gy
.

In this figure we have introduced the mean distance between the sun and the earth D =
149,597,871 km, as well as the suns radius S = 695,893 km. As before, the earths mean
radius R = 6371 km. It follows that
and

hn

r
R
R
; rp =
; and cos = x e = r x e
ru =
r
sin( + )
sin( )

Moreover:

The conditions for penumbra are:


ru < r < r p
< 90

ec

(2.24)

and for umbra:


< 90

(2.25)

fT

r < ru

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where r = | r | is the radial distance, i.e. the magnitude of the radius vector r from the
earths centre to the satellite. The challenge is therefore to translate the radius vector from
the geocentric orbital coordinate system to the heliocentric rotating system (Figure 2-51).
This is necessary for the calculation of = cos-1(re xe) as the satellite travels along its
orbit.

ye

re

xe

ze

Figure 2-51 Coordinate transformation of the radius vector to the heliocentric rotating system.

Referring to the shorthand notation for matrix transformations in Eq 2.20, the radius unit
vector r = (1, 0, 0) in the orbital system translates to re in the heliocentric rotating
coordinate system xe, ye, ze as follows:

r1
re = r2 = [] [] [] [i] [] [] r
r3 e

46

(2.26)

2 / Orbital Dynamics

hn

olo
gy
.

0
0
1

Here [] is the matrix 0 cos sin which serves to straighten up the inclined

0 sin cos
[]-system to the heliocentric inertial system (Figure 2-49). Similarly, [] is the matrix
cos sin 0
sin cos 0 that makes the []-system track the earths motion around the sun in

0
0
1
the heliocentric rotating system (Figure 2-48). In both matrices the signs before the sinus
terms are inverted to account for the clockwise alignment of the respective coordinate
systems.

365.25
101 days from January 1
360

1
360
tan
180 + sin 1
( DD + 101)

15
365.25
tan i

(2.27)

(2.28)

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HH GMT =

fT

DD =

ec

These axes can be translated to launch date DD and launch time HH (GMT) using the
following equations pertaining to a launch towards the south-east from a site in the
northern hemisphere:

Here, and are the latitude and longitude of the launch site; is the right ascension of
the ascending node; and i is the orbital inclination. All angles are measured in degrees. Eq
2.27 and 2.28 are derived in Section 2.4.7.
The DD/HH combination is called the launch epoch.

Figure 2-52 shows the umbra durations (in minutes) for the standard Ariane 5 transfer
orbit as a function of HH and DD of the first descending node (i.e. not of the launch site
itself).
In the following we will use the terms GMT (Greenwich Mean Time) and UTC
(Coordinated Universal Time) interchangeably. For the purposes of this book there is no
significant difference, but UTC is preferred in the space business because of its more
scientific definition.

47

2/ Orbital Dynamics
360

60

20

40

240

20

210

80
60
10 0
12
0
0
10
42080
6
0 0

180
150

60

60

30

20

120
1000
4

00
402 6
80

20

ec

40

80

40

90

60

120

hn

20

Days from 1 January

40

40
40

270

olo
gy
.

300

20

330

9
12
15
UTC of decending node

18

fT

21

24

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Figure 2-52 Eclipse duration for a standard Ariane 5 GTO


(Pe = 250 km, Ap = 35,786 km, i = 6, = 180, contour figures in minutes)

Here we see that maximum eclipse durations for this particular orbit are encountered
when the UTC of the descending node is around noon at spring and autumn equinox. This
makes sense, because maximum eclipse durations occur when the apogee is in the shadow
at local midnight and the satellite travels at its slowest speed. For this to happen, the
satellite must be launched around noon local time, which also happens to be noon UTC,
since the descending node of the first Ariane orbit crosses the Greenwich meridian
according to Figure 2-38.
Knowing the eclipse duration is important e.g. when dimensioning the onboard battery
and tailoring the thermal control subsystem. The prediction is particularly simple in the
case of a circular orbit, since maximum eclipse occurs whenever the orbital nodes are
positioned at local noon and midnight (Figure 2-53). This statement is true regardless of
the orbital inclination if we assume a perfectly spherical earth. The following equations
apply for a circular orbit.
The orbital period is found from Eq 2.12: = 2a(a/). The eclipse duration is obtained
from Figure 2-53as
tecl = (2/2),

with

Therefore:

48

= sin-1[R/(R+h)] = sin-1(R/a) in radians.


(t ecl )max = 2a a sin 1 R

(2.29)

2 / Orbital Dynamics

h
R

olo
gy
.

Figure 2-53 Circular orbit geometry for maximum eclipse duration.

hn

ec

80
70

fT

60
50
40
30

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Max eclipse time tecl (min)

Eq 2.29 is plotted in Figure 2-54. Note that the eclipse duration reaches a minimum of
34.8 minutes around h = 1350 km.

20
10
0

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

Orbital height h (km)

Figure 2-54 Maximum eclipse time for circular orbits.

Numerical Example: Let us practice finding the minimum value of (tecl)max by determining
analytically the orbital height h for which the minimum value applies. We start by rewriting
Eq 2.29 as follows:

(t ecl )max

=2

R
sin 1
a

Then:

d (t ecl )max
da

= 2

a
a
R
sin 1 2 a

3
2

R
1
a

=0

Simplified:

R
3 sin 1 =
a

2R

a R2

Through trial and error we find that a = 7721 km, h = a R = 1350 km, and (tecl)max = 34.76
minutes, which matches Figure 2-54.

49

2/ Orbital Dynamics
2.4.5. Sun Angle

olo
gy
.

The sun angle is the angle at which the sunlight illuminates the satellite, relative to some
defined body axis. Knowledge about the sun angle is essential for predicting the energy
output from the solar array, as well as the thermal regime inside the spacecraft.

ec

hn

Clearly the sun angle s is a function not only of the position of the orbit in the ecliptic,
but also of the satellites attitude within the orbit. In the case of a 3-axis stabilized
satellite it is customary to place the body-fixed coordinate system x, y, z along the pitch
roll yaw axes as shown in Figure 2-55 (see also Section 4.3.1). The task is to find the
sun illumination unit vector s = (s1, s2, s3)T inside this coordinate system.1 However, the
natural home of s is the same heliocentric rotating coordinate system xe, ye, ze which we
employed to predict eclipse durations. A series of coordinate transformations will align
the two systems with each other. The three sun angles then become x = cos-1(s1), y =
cos-1(s2), z = cos-1(s3).

ye

fT

ze

xe = s

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z
y

Figure 2-55 Sun vector s impinging on a body-stabilized satellite.

For the sake of geometric simplicity, we will assume a spin-stabilized rather than a bodystabilized spacecraft (Figure 2-56). In this case we can eliminate the x, y-axes and focus
on the z-axis, which we will call a in the following. The sun angle becomes s = cos-1(a
s).

s1

Traditionally, vectors are written in the form s = s 2 . To make the text fit on a line, it is preferable to
s
3

write s = (s1, s2, s3)T, where T stands for transposed, and we will adopt this convention forthwith.

50

2 / Orbital Dynamics
ze
a

ye

olo
gy
.

xe = s

hn

Figure 2-56 Sun vector s impinging on a spin- stabilized satellite.

fT

ec

Before undertaking the necessary coordinate system transformations, we must define the
attitude angles. Let us therefore define the attitude elevation angle as a measure of the
out-of-plane tilt of the a-vector, and the azimuth angle as the angle between the radius
vector r and the projection of the a-vector onto the orbit plane (Figure 2-57).

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x = r

Orbit plane

Figure 2-57 Definition of the attitude angles and .

Examination of Figure 2-57 yields the attitude vector in the geocentric orbital x, y, z
system as

cos cos
a = cos sin .
sin

Translating the a-vector to the heliocentric rotating xe, ye, ze -system is now
straightforward if we follow the same procedure as in Eq. 2.26. Thus:

a1
ae = a 2 = [] [] [] [i] [] [] a
a3 e

(2.30)

The sun angle s = cos-1(ae s), whereby s = (1, 0, 0)T.

51

2/ Orbital Dynamics

olo
gy
.

Note that we have opted to define the attitude angles and in relation to the unit radius
vector r. Since the attitude is in fact fixed in inertial space at least in the short term
these angles will change as the satellite travels around the orbit; hence the inclusion of the
[]-matrix in Eq 2.30. A more common approach is to define the attitude in an inertial
coordinate system, thereby eliminating at least and from the calculations. As long as
the methodology is understood, Eq 2.30 can be easily modified to account for alternative
definitions of attitude. The equation can also be expanded to compute x, y, z in the case
of a body-stabilized satellite.

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fT

ec

hn

Of particular interest is the sun angle relative to the thrust axis of a satellite's liquid
apogee engine (LAE) in GTO. The functioning of the LAE is described in Section
5.4.5.1; suffice it to say that it is the thruster that is fired at the apogee in order to raise the
perigee to GEO altitude. For this to happen, the thrust axis of the LAE must be aligned
with the orbit tangent (i.e. the velocity vector) at the apogee, while for the rest of the time
the satellite should be orientated such that the (partially deployed) solar panels are aligned
with the sun vector. The sequence is illustrated in Figure 2-58.

Velocity vector

Figure 2-58 Attitude angles before, during and after LAE firing.

For the sake of simplicity, let us assume that no inclination change is intended when
firing the LAE. In that case the thrust vector is perpendicular to the range vector r and lies
in the orbit plane - i.e. = 90 and = 0.

Figure 2-59 shows the sun angle with respect to the velocity vector during LAE firing for
various values of DD and HH, in analogy with Figure 2-52 above.

52

300

12 0

10 0

hn

ec
16 0

18

21

24

fT

9
12
15
UTC of descending node

100

16 0

80

60
40

14 0

140

12 0

100

30

20

40

60

10 0

14 0

80

60
40

20

60

90

80

80

20

120

12 0

60

150

16 0

12 0

80

180

100

40

210

14 0

240

olo
gy
.

20

270
Days from 1 January

12 0

160

12 0
14 0

40

80

60

60

80

330

10 0

40

360

14 0

2 / Orbital Dynamics

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Figure 2-59 Sun angles during LAE firing for a standard Ariane 5 GTO
(Pe = 250 km, Ap = 35,786 km, i = 6, = 180, contour figures in degrees)

2.4.6. Launch Windows

A launch window is the window of opportunity to launch a satellite in order to meet


predetermined criteria on eclipse duration, sun angle and various other operational
parameters. If the launch occurs within the window, these parameters will attain
acceptable values. If not, the satellite may be put in danger. The window is specified in
terms of date and time.

For example, let us say that a GEO satellite launched into GTO will want to fire its liquid
apogee engine at the apogee. As discussed earlier, the thrust vector must be parallel with
the velocity vector, but pointing in the opposite direction. According to Figure 2-52 and
Figure 2-59, both the eclipse duration and the sun angle will be dependent on and
(Figure 2-60), and therefore (according to Eq 2.27 and 2.28) on launch date DD and
launch time HH.

53

2/ Orbital Dynamics
N

olo
gy
.

V
AKM

hn

Figure 2-60 Illustration of the dependence of eclipse and sun angle on and .
The thick orbital contour outlines the eclipse phase.

fT

ec

Assume a requirement that the eclipse duration during the first orbit must not exceed 100
minutes, so as to prevent the propellants from freezing and to give the solar array enough
time to recharge the batteries. Returning to Figure 2-52, the "forbidden areas" within the
100-minute contours are shaded, as in Figure 2-61.
360

60

20

40

40

240

20

210

80
60
10 0
12
0
0
10
42080
060

180
150

20

90

40

80

60

60

30

20

120
1000
4

00
402 6

80

40

120

60

Days from 1 January

270

40
40

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300

20

330

20

9
12
15
UTC of decending node

18

21

24

Figure 2-61 Hypothetical launch wondow "forbidden areas" in the eclipse diagram.

Now assume a parallel requirement that the sun vector must not fall within 40 degrees of
the LAE thrust vector, in order to avoid pre-heating the engine valves and propellant feed
pipes before firing. This constraint is equivalent to > 180 - 40 = 140 degrees measured
from the velocity vector. Here again, the "forbidden area" in Figure 2-59 has been
shadowed, as shown in Figure 2-62.

54

12 0

10 0

hn

ec
16 0

18

21

fT

9
12
15
UTC of descending node

100

16 0

80

60
40

14 0

140

12 0

100

30

20

40

60

10 0

14 0

80

60

40

20

60

90

80

80

20

120

12 0

60

150

16 0

12 0

80

180

100

40

210

14 0

240

olo
gy
.

20

270
Days from 1 January

12 0

160
14 0

80

40

300

12 0

60

60

80

330

10 0

40

360

14 0

2 / Orbital Dynamics

24

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Figure 2-62 Hypothetical launch wondow "forbidden areas" in the SAA diagram.

10 0

12 0

16 0

14 0

10 0

12 0

14 0

80

16 0
40

14 0

60

40

40

80

20

9
12
15
18
UTC of descending node (hours)

100

12 0

60

14 0

120

40

100

0 00
12 18
0

20

60

60

40

80

30

60
4200

16 0

60

60

80

80

20

90

12 0

60

40

20

40

80

120

60

16 0

14 0

20
20

150

60

12 0 0 0
402180
0 60

40

60

80

12 0

180

20

Days from 1 January

20

100

210

140

240

40

40

20
40

270

80

300

20

60

40

80

330

160

360

10 0

By combining the two partial launch windows, Figure 2-63 results. In other words, launch
must take place such that the combination of dates and UTC of the descending node
remains outside of the shaded areas.

21

24

Figure 2-63 Combined eclipse and sun angle diagrams.

55

2/ Orbital Dynamics

olo
gy
.

Thus, in this example, it is possible to launch any day of the year, but not at any time
during each day. Unfortunately, when it comes to two different satellites sharing a single
rocket (such as Ariane 5), the launch service provider has to avoid the prospect of a
conflict between the two satellites' preferred launch windows, and therefore imposes his
own very tight launch window constraints on the satellite builders. The Ariane 5
"standard launch window" is shown as a white band in Figure 2-64. But, once again, this
added constraint only applies to shared launches.
360
330
300

hn

270

ec

210
180
150

fT

Days from 1 Jan

240

120

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90
60
30
0

9
12
15
18
UTC of descending node (hours)

21

24

Figure 2-64 Launch window showing DD and HH.

2.4.7. Launch Date and Launch Time

Eq 2.27 and 2.28 are derived in the following. An orbit will pass over the site from which
the satellite was launched. This rather obvious fact allows us to calculate the launch
epoch in terms of date DD and time HH to achieve a given i and (Figure 2-65). The
launch time is usually given in UTC. To obtain the local time at the launch site, we
simply add the number of eastward time zones, or subtract the number of westward time
zones, from the Greenwich meridian (0 longitude).

56

2 / Orbital Dynamics

Launch
site

+15HH

olo
gy
.

Greenwich
meridian

hn

Figure 2-65 Launch geometry seen from the equator.

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fT

ec

Let us examine the various angles in Figure 2-65. At midnight GMT, the Greenwich
meridian will find itself at an angle from the inertial reference vector , whereby
marks the earths position in the ecliptic as per Figure 2-60. At any other time HHGMT, the
angle is + 15HH, since an hour corresponds to 15 along the equator. The longitude
of the launch site forms a geocentric longitude angle with the Greenwich meridian (per
definition). The latitude is the geocentric elevation of the launch site above the equator.
The inclination i and the right ascension of the ascending node are the orbital
parameters we want to achieve with our choice of DD and HH. Lastly, the angle is the
displacement of the ascending node from the longitude of the launch site. This angle may
be expressed in the known quantities i and .
The picture becomes clearer if we look at the equatorial plane from the north (Figure
2-66).

HH

21 September

Figure 2-66 Launch geometry seen from the north.

Evidently:

+ 15HH + = +

(2.31)

According to Napiers rule for spherical triangles (see Appendix A):


57

2/ Orbital Dynamics

= sin-1(tan/tani)

(2.32)

olo
gy
.

We may choose the launch date DD arbitrarily within the constraints of the launch
window. As we shall see, the choice of DD determines the launch time HH for a given
target i and . The launch date DD from 1 January is directly proportional to the angle :
365.25
101
360
360
(DD + 101)
or, conversely: =
365.25
DD =

hn

(2.33)

Substituting Eq 2.32 and 2.33 into 2.31 gives us:

fT

1
360
tan
+ sin 1
(2.34)
( DD + 101)

15
365.25
tan i

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HH GMT =

ec

Here 365.25 is the number of days in an average year, and 360 is the range of during
that year. The quantity 101 is the number of calendar days from 21 September ( = 0) to
1 January. Consequently DD is the number of days from 1 January.

Numerical example: A satellite is to be launched from Cape Canaveral ( = 28.4N,


=279.4E) on November 21 in a north-easterly direction, so as to achieve an orbit with i =
30 and = 60. What is the required launch time HH in GMT?
DD = 31+28.25+ 31+30+31+30+31+31+30+31+21 = 325.25 days from January 1.

1
60  279.4  + 69.5  (325.25 + 101) 0.9856  = -38.0 hours = (15
h
m
38.0 + 48.0) hours = 10.0 hours = 10 00 GMT.
Eq 2.34:

HHGMT =

With Cape Canaveral located 5 time zones west of Greenwich, the local launch time HHlocal
= 10 5 = 5.00 a.m.

There is an important limitation in the above example, and indeed in Eq 2.34: It only
applies to launches from the northern hemisphere into a north-eastward (NE) direction.
Figure 2-67 shows four scenarios in which the launch occurs into four different
quandrants denoted NE, SE, SW and NW.

58

NW

NE

SW

SE

olo
gy
.

2 / Orbital Dynamics

hn

Figure 2-67 Definition of launch quadrants.

ec

The choice of quandrant influences the angle , i.e. the position of the node, and
whether the node is ascending or descending (Figure 2-68). It also affects the value of i
which is traditionally defined as the inclination angle to the right of the ascending node.
Greenwich
meridian

NE

fT

Greenwich
meridian

NW

Launch site

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+15HH

+15HH

Launch site

Greenwich
meridian

Greenwich
meridian

SE

Launch site

Launch site

SW

+15HH

+15HH

Figure 2-68 Four different launch quadrants.

From Figure 2-68 we realize that Eq 2.31 takes a different form with each quadrant:

NE:

+ 15HH + = + ;

NW:

+ 15HH + = ||;

i = 180 - i

SE:

+ 15HH + = ||;

= 180 +

SW: + 15HH + = + ;
i = 180 - i

(2.35)

(2.36)

= 180 +

with the result that Eq 2.34 takes the following forms:


59

2/ Orbital Dynamics

NE & NW
1
360
tan
+ sin 1
( DD + 101)

15
365.25
tan i

(2.37)

SE & SW:
HH GMT =

1
360
tan
180 + sin 1
( DD + 101)

15
365.25
tan i

olo
gy
.

HH GMT =

(2.38)

Specialized Orbits

2.5.1.1.

fT

2.5.1. The Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

ec

2.5.

hn

Equations may be developed in a similar manner for the case that the launch site is
located in the Southern Hemisphere (although there are not many of those see Figure
11-6).

Unperturbed GEO

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In a 1945 article, the British science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke outlined the
possibilities of providing telecommunication services via satellites travelling in
geostationary orbits (GEO). He is often credited with being the father of the GEO.

A GEO satellite moves around the earth at the same rate that the earth turns around its
own axis. As long as the orbit is equatorial (i = 0), the satellite remains stationary at a
fixed point above the earth, day and night. This characteristic is clearly beneficial for
telecommunications, i.e. for relaying signals between two points on the earth. Other
services, such as meteorological imaging and TV distribution, also benefit from the GEO
position.
N

Equator

Figure 2-69 The geostationary orbit.

Less than half of the earths total surface is visible from a GEO satellite (Figure 2-70). An
observer standing at the edge of coverage would see the satellite on the horizon, i.e. at an
elevation of = 0. In practice, an elevation of = 10 is adopted to account for
60

2 / Orbital Dynamics

R
R

olo
gy
.

obstructing hills, forests and buildings on land, and signal multipath (reflexion)
disturbances over water. Consequently, the effective visibility area is further reduced, as
indicated by the dotted contour in Figure 2-70. Figure 2-71 shows that at least three GEO
satellites are needed to achieve near-global coverage. The poles remain uncovered by
geometrical necessity.

d
d
h

ec

hn

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fT

Figure 2-70 The earth as seen from a GEO satellite.

Figure 2-71 Near global coverage of three GEO satellites


deployed to provide trans-oceanic telecommunications.
Solid contours refer to = 0, dotted contours to = 10.

By setting the orbital period = 86,164 seconds in Eq 2.12 (equal to the sidereal period of
the earths rotation see the end of this Section), we obtain a = R + h = 42,164 km. With
R = 6,378 km at the equator, the height h = 35,786 km. Moreover, from Figure 2-70:

R
= sin 1

R+ h

From the sine rule:

(2.39)

R
R+h
=
sin ' sin( + 90)

' = sin 1
cos
R+h

(2.40)

61

2/ Orbital Dynamics

(2.41)

' = cos 1
cos
R+h

(2.42)

d = ( R + h) cos

(2.43)

olo
gy
.

R
= cos 1

R+h

From the cosine rule: (R+h)2 = d2 + R2 2Rd cos(+90)

hn

R + h 2

2
d ' = R
cos sin
R

ec

(2.44)

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fT

By inclining the GEO, it is possible to achieve Arctic coverage at least a few hours a day
as the subsatellite track describes a diurnal figure-eight motion (Figure 2-72). An inclined
GEO is often referred to as a geosynchronous orbit (GSO), since it is not truly stationary.
The visibility over the Arctic is limited to a few hours per day, and at low elevation.
Another limitation of GSO is that the Arctic ground station has to have a steerable
antenna in order to track the satellite. For all these reasons, it is usually more convenient
to cover the Arctic regions with satellites in polar orbits.
max

max

Equator

Figure 2-72 GSO subsatellite track.


max 4.3610-3 i2
max 0.8 i, with i in degrees.

The figure-eight track can be modelled using Eq 2.21 and 2.22. A more straightforward
analysis is possible by examining Figure 2-73 below.

62

2 / Orbital Dynamics
Orbit

i
Equator

Figure 2-73 Simplified analysis of the figure-8 track.

olo
gy
.

Satellite

ec

hn

Recall that, in GSO, the satellite and the earth are moving around their respective axes
with the same angular velocity. With the orbit being circular, =M = t/ 360, where t is
the elapsed time from the ascending node. As the satellite ascends, it begins to fall back in
longitude by the distance . The corresponding latitude is . Using spherical
trigonometry, we obtain the following two equations:
= tan-1(tan cos i).

fT

(2.45)

= sin-1(sin sin i)

(2.46)

Latitude

(deg)

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By solving these equations as moves from 0 to 360 during one day, we may plot the
subsatellite track as in Figure 2-74.

-0.60

-0.40

-0.20

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-20.00
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12

0.20

0.40

0.60

Longitude lead/lag (deg)

Figure 2-74 GSO figure 8 for i = 2, 4, 6, 8, 10.

Although earth orbits are anchored to the earths centre, their movements obey the laws
of inertial space, i.e. they are essentially unaffected by the earths rotation around the sun
and around its own axis. Specifically, the orbital period is measured in sidereal time (=
stellar time) rather than in earth time. When we say that a day on earth lasts exactly 24
hours (or 1440 minutes and 0 seconds), we mean the time it takes the earth to make a
complete turn with respect to the sun vector. But in the course of a day, the earth has
moved almost 1 degree in its orbit around the sun or, conversely, the sun appears to have
moved 1 degree with respect to the earth. This moving target causes confusion in
orbital analyses, and a fixed target in the form of a star is preferred. Often the inertial vector in Figure 2-8 is chosen as the reference. In inertial terms, the earth turns almost
361 degrees (360.9856 to be precise, where 360/365.25 days = 0.9856/day) in each 2463

2/ Orbital Dynamics

Star

Sun

olo
gy
.

hour period, while it only takes 23h 56m for the earth to revolve 360 (Figure 2-75). This
is the value to be used for the orbital period of a GEO satellite, e.g. in order to derive
the distance to the satellite from Eq 2.12.

Earth
360

2.5.1.2.

ec

Figure 2-75 Earth day and sidereal day.

hn

361

Perturbed GEO

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fT

Like any orbit, the GEO is subject to gravitational perturbations by the sun, the moon and
the oblateness of the earth. The drift tendencies of and have no meaning, since the
GEO is assumed to be perfectly circular and equatorial (i.e. the nodes and the perigee are
undefined). However, the variations of a, e and i have a highly visible effect.
2.5.1.2.1.

East-West Drift

Eq 2.12 states that the orbital period will change if a experiences a change. As soon as
deviates from 23h56m, the satellite begins to drift eastward or westward along the
equator, depending on whether a is higher or lower than the true GEO radius of 42,164
km. Solar pressure will also induce a certain eccentricity, which makes the satellites drift
motion seem sinusoidal in the longitudinal sense.
The main cause of changes in a is the uneven magnitude of the gravitational forces along
the equator. In simplistic terms, the magnitude of gravitation manifests two highs and
two lows (Figure 2-76).

Stable

Unstable

Unstable

Stable

Figure 2-76 Location of the high (stable) and low (unstable) gravitational points.

64

2 / Orbital Dynamics

olo
gy
.

If a satellite is parked spot on the low point, it will remain there; hence this point is
called a stable point. Similarly, a satellite stationed at an unstable point will stay there
until some external force (e.g. luni-solar gravitation) makes it fall off the peg. If the
satellite is located at some intermediate point, it begins to accelerate towards the nearest
stable point. In the absence of any friction, the spacecraft overshoots the stable point and
continues on the other side, all the while slowing down until it turns around and heads
back towards the stable point and so forth, like a pendulum. Figure 2-77 gives the
longitudinal drift rate as a function of the satellites original distance from the stable
point. Figure 2-78 shows the longitudinal acceleration.

0.4

1000 days
900 days
830 days
800 days

0.2

fT

hn

Period:

ec

0.6

-0.2
-0.4

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Longitude drift rate (deg/day)

0.8

-0.6
-0.8

-90

-60

-30

30

60

90

Longitude distance from stable point (deg)

Figure 2-77 GEO satellite E/W drift rate and period.

In Figure 2-77, the satellite is seen to travel along one of the ellipses around a stable
point. For example, let the stable point be the one just south of India at long. 74E. If the
satellite were initially positioned at lat 17E, then = 17 - 74 = -57. The satellite
would begin to drift eastward (positive direction), reaching a maximum angular velocity
d/dt = 0.38 deg/day at the moment of crossing over the stable point. After 500 days it
would come to a stop before starting the return journey, requiring another 500 days to
complete the pendulum cycle.

65

2/ Orbital Dynamics

15
10
5

Stable

Unstable

Stable

Unstable

olo
gy
.

E/W drift acceleration x 10


(deg/day 2)

-4

20

0
-5 0

30

60

90

120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

-10
-15
-20
East longitude (deg)

Figure 2-78 GEO satellite E/W acceleration.

hn

-25

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fT

ec

As in the case of orbital velocity, orbital acceleration is counted positive in the eastward
direction. It is evident in Figure 2-78 that a satellite positioned to the west of a stable
point will experience a positive (eastward) acceleration and vice versa for a satellite east
of the stable point. For example, a satellite parked at long. 210 will move eastward with
an initial acceleration of 17 x 10-4 deg/day2. Note that this acceleration is not constant but
diminishes as the satellite approaches the stable point, reaching zero (= constant speed) at
the moment of crossing.
The following equation is an approximate fit of the curve in Figure 2-78.
d 2
= C sin(150 - 2)
dt 2

deg/day2

(2.47)

C = {16.9 + 2.9 sin( 35)} x 10-4

where

East-west drift is usually undesirable, and GEO satellites are therefore equipped with an
onboard propulsion system to maintain the satellite within a certain longitude window
(typically 0.1). This maintenance technique is called east-west station keeping.

2.5.1.2.2.

North-South Drift

N/S drift results from a gradual increase in the GEO inclination, such that the subsatellite
track describes the figure eight shown in Figure 2-72. This movement gives the
impression of a diurnal N/S drift (with a minor E/W component as well). Luni-solar
gravitation is the main cause of inclination drift. The effect of the gravitational pull varies
depending on the orientation of the orbit, i.e. on . When we talk about inclination drift,
we are therefore also interested in how it relates to the precession of the nodes.

Figure 2-79 illustrates the relationship between i and for some drift cases. Two
interesting phenomena are in evidence:

66

The inclination decreases initially if 180 < < 360 at the start of the mission,
and increases for other initial values of .

2 / Orbital Dynamics

The inclination does not necessarily go through zero.


=180
150

120

i = 1

270

60

330

30

fT

= 0

ec

300

3
90

hn

240

olo
gy
.

210

Figure 2-79 Inclination vector traces on the i - diagram.

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The slight periodic wobble on each trace in the polar diagram is caused by the
gravitational pull of the sun. The amplitude of the wobble is 0.02 deg. Since the wobble
period is about 6 months, it provides a convenient method of measuring time along the
trace.
As in the case of E/W drift, N/S drift is undesirable in GEO missions. The oscillating
motion causes loss of signal as well as Doppler effects, and also requires participating
ground station antennas to be steerable. Consequently the satellites are subject to northsouth station-keeping, i.e. they must draw on their onboard propellants to maintain the
inclination at zero.
That said, many GEO satellite missions can tolerate inclinations up to a certain threshold
imax (typically 3). By deliberately injecting the GEO satellite at i = imax in combination
with a suitable value for , the inclination will, over time, remain within the tolerable
window without the need for station keeping.
The drift tendencies of i and are best illustrated by introducing the concept of
inclination unit vector i. This vector is simply the orbit plane normal, as defined in an
geocentric-equatorial inertial coordinate system whose x-axis coincides with the -vector,
whose z-axis points north, and whose y-axis completes the right-hand orthogonal
coordinate system (Figure 2-80). Inspection of the figure gives us:

i = (sin i sin , -sin i cos , cos i)T

(2.48)

67

2/ Orbital Dynamics
z=N
i

olo
gy
.

Figure 2-80 Definition of the inclination vector.

hn

x=

fT

ec

To better understand the physics of inclination drift, imagine concentric circles of


constant i drawn around the north pole of a celestial sphere surrounding the earth. The
spokes correspond to longitudes on the sphere, counting eastward from . The inclination
vector i then draws traces on the sphere as i and begin to drift (Figure 2-81).

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= 180

i
270

90

Figure 2-81 Inclination vector trace on the celestial sphere.

A reasonably accurate algorithm for computing the drift of i and over time may be
developed from the knowledge that the i-vector describes a cone around a vector tilted
7.4 away from the earths spin axis towards the ecliptic pole, and that it takes 54 years
for the vector to complete a cycle (Figure 2-83). Assume that i0 and 0 are initial values
at the beginning of mission life. Taking all angles in radians, we find that:

i sin 0
0 = tan 1 0
i0 cos 0

68

= 7.4

2 / Orbital Dynamics
d  2 1
= 3.1856 10-4 (rad/day);
==
dt
54 365.25
(t in days)

olo
gy
.

= 0 +  t

= cos 1 (cos i0 cos + sin i0 sin cos 0 )

(2.49)

sin
= tan 1

cos
sin
i=
sin

(2.50)

Tip of the inclination vector

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ec

hn

(2.51)

= 7.4

= trace radius

Figure 2-82 Computation of the inclination vector trace on the celestial sphere.

To study the inclination drift near i = 0, we choose i0 = 3 and 0 = 282 from Figure
2-79, so as to generate the trace that goes through zero. By solving Eq 2.50 and 2.51 over
time, we find that the drift rate di/dt = 0.85 per year. This is the average drift rate,
knowing that the inclination vector goes around once every 54 years. In actual fact, the
rate of inclination drift near i = 0 varies from year to year due to luni-solar perturbations:
di
= u2 + v2
dt

where

(deg/year)

u = -0.1314 sin m
v = 0.8541 + 0.09855 cos m
m = 125.08 0.052954 t
t = time from 1 January 2000

(2.52)

(deg/year)
(deg/year)
(deg)
(days)

69

2/ Orbital Dynamics
m is the right ascension of the moons ascending node (period = 18.6 years). Eq 2.52
puts di/dt in the interval from 0.756 (Feb 2006) to 0.953 (Jun 2015) per year.

Sun

5
10
15

Earths centre

hn

= 7.4
= 23.44

ec

olo
gy
.

Trace (period 54 years)

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2.5.2. Sun-Synchronous Orbits (SSO)

fT

Figure 2-83 Long-term movement of the inclination vector.

Nodal precession is often a nuisance for mission planners, but it can be put to good use
e.g. for designing so-called sun-synchronous orbits (SSO). An SSO is a near-polar orbit
whose prograde nodal drift rate is the same as that of the terminator (the boundary
between day and night on the earths surface) Figure 2-84.
21 March
Vernal equinox

Terminator

06.00

09.00

21.00
18.00

Line of nodes

21 June
Summer solstice

21 December
Winter solstice

21 September
Autumn equinox

Figure 2-84 The ecliptic seen from the north.


In the SSO, the orbital nodes track the movement of the terminator.

In Figure 2-84 it is evident that the satellite passes over the earth at the same local time
throughout the year in our case around 09.00 and 21.00. This means that the
70

2 / Orbital Dynamics

olo
gy
.

illumination conditions on the earth will be the same, which is beneficial when taking
satellite pictures in certain remote sensing applications. If instead the line of nodes were
aligned with the terminator, and if the semimajor axis a is sufficiently large, it is possible
for the satellite to avoid the earths shadow altogether, thereby obviating the need for
onboard batteries.
Returning to Eq 2.18, the condition for SSO is that d/dt = 360/365.25 = 0.9856
deg/day, i.e. the nodes drift 360 in one calendar year (365.25 days on average). If one
assumes that the orbit is circular (e = 0), the equation is simplified as follows:

hn

7/2
1
a
i = cos 0.09856

or

(deg/day)

(2.53)

ec

d 10 cos i
=
= 0.9856
dt
(a / R)7 / 2

Inclination i (deg)

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180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

fT

Figure 2-85 shows i as a function of orbital height h for a circular SSO satellite, whereby
h = a - R.

Orbital height h (km)

Figure 2-85 SSO inclination as a function of circular orbital height to achieve SSO.

All inclinations are greater than 90, which means that the satellite must be launched with
an azimuth having a retrograde (westbound) component, with the attendant loss of launch
vehicle performance. Another interesting observation is that i moves rapidly towards 180
as h increases. It follows that a satellite in SSO is not meaningful for h greater than, say,
3000 km, and is impossible at h > 6000 km.
As stated earlier, the local time on the earth overflown by a satellite in SSO always stays
the same, give or take 12 hours. Therefore, the illumination conditions on the ground also
remain the same, which is the primary advantage of the SSO. Note, however, that the
geographical areas themselves will vary from one day to the next unless the orbital period
is a submultiple of a sidereal day of 1436 minutes. For example, if there are exactly 14
revolutions in a day, then t = 1436/14 = 102.6 minutes, corresponding to a = 884 km
according to Eq 2.12.

71

2/ Orbital Dynamics

2.5.3. Highly Eccentric Orbits (HEO)

olo
gy
.

Eccentric orbits are of interest e.g. in scientific space missions where sampling of
physical data is to take place across a range of different altitudes. Another field of interest
is space telecommunications.

fT

ec

hn

Note in Eq 2.19 that the perigee drift rate is zero when 5 cos2i 1 = 0, i.e. when i = 63.4.
The Soviet Union exploited this phenomenon in their Molniya telecommunications
satellite programme. In the early days of space exploration, the Soviets lacked rockets
powerful enough to inject satellites into GEO from their relatively high-latitude launch
sites (Baikonur being at latitude 46N). Besides, satellites in equatorial GEO appeared too
close to the horizon for comfort, as seen from Soviet territory. The Soviets therefore
launched their Molniya satellites into highly elliptic, 12-hour orbits (Ap = 40,000 km, Pe
= 500 km) and parked the apogee above their territory. Each time a satellite approached
the apogee, it slowed down until it became practically geostationary for several hours.
When it finally began to drop down towards the perigee, another satellite took its place at
apogee and so forth until the 24-hour day was completely covered. In this manner the
Soviets were able to create a pseudo-geostationary service that fell within the lift
capability of their launch vehicles (Figure 2-86).
Apogee

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Apogee

Perigee

Perigee

Figure 2-86 Principle of the Molniya system.


The square represents a ground station.

The only problem was how to prevent the apogee from drifting away from Soviet
territory. By selecting i = 63.4, the apogee was made to stay put. Since the national
territory extended in latitude from 45N to 75N, this inclination had the added benefit of
enabling Soviet ground stations to view the satellites near zenith, instead of low on the
horizon where the radio signals would frequently have been corrupted by buildings,
mountains and multipath effects.
Figure 2-87 shows the subsatellite track of a typical Molniya satellite. Out of the 12-hour
orbital period, the satellite spends no less than 10 hours within each closed loop. In
practice, the requirement for stationarity is such that only the top portion of the loop is
used, corresponding to about 4 hours of almost stationary ground coverage. Three
72

2 / Orbital Dynamics

olo
gy
.

satellites are needed to populate the system for continuous 24-hour coverage (3 satellites
x 4 hours = 12 hours = , after which the process repeats itself). The 12-hour orbital
period creates synchronism with the earths 24-hour rotational period, thereby ensuring
that the loops do not shift eastward or westward over time.

fT

ec

hn

Notice that the system could equally well have been exploited in Canada.

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Figure 2-87 Molniya subsatellite track


(Ap = 40,000 km, Pe = 500 km, i = 63.4, = 270).

2.5.4. Low Earth Orbits (LEO)

The proximity to the earth makes LEO satellites obvious candidates for photography and
telecommunications, and also for many scientific and military applications. When applied
to circular obits, the term LEO usually brings to mind the mobile telecommunication
satellite systems Iridium and Globalstar, which went into liquidation around the turn of
the century after losing billions of dollars each for their investors (although they have
since recovered). These systems provide global coverage from near-polar LEO, taking
advantage of the favourable radio link budgets compared to GEO. Figure 2-88 outlines a
typical LEO constellation.

Seamless
coverage
footprints

Figure 2-88 Outline of the Iridium system with its intersatellite links.

73

2/ Orbital Dynamics
Equations 2.54 and 2.55 spell out how many orbital planes are needed, and how many
satellites per plane, in order to achieve global coverage from the orbital altitude h.
Circular, near-polar orbits are assumed, with equally spaced and .

2
P=

3'

(2.54)

No. of satellites per plane:

2
N =

3'

(2.55)

olo
gy
.

No. of orbital planes:

No. of satellites in the constellation: S = P N

hn

(2.56)

The ground station coverage half-angle is obtained from Eq 2.42 as:

ec

' = cos 1
cos
R+h

(2.57)

fT

Not surprisingly, the number of satellites S required for seamless global coverage
increases with reduced orbital height h. Figure 2-89 shows this dependency for = 10.

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Taking a specific example, the Iridium satellite constellation for mobile


telecommunications has an orbital height h = 780 km. The mission analysts decided that
the minimum elevation above the local horizon had to be = 8.2 to avoid signal
obstruction. Eq 2.57 yields = 20. Inserting in radians in Eq 2.54 2.56 gives us P
= 6, N = 11, and S = 66, which is indeed how the Iridium system is configured.

When assessing the economics of a global constellation, system planners trade off the
number of satellites required against the price per satellite, given that communications
satellites become cheaper as the link budget improves with lower height.

No. of satellites

1000

100

Iridium

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

Orbital height h (km)

Figure 2-89 Number of satellites in polar orbit required to achieve global coverage.

74

2 / Orbital Dynamics

olo
gy
.

Commercial example: Each of the small Iridium satellites is rumoured to cost $5 million. A
Delta II rocket can launch 8 Iridium satelllites at a time and costs $80 million, so the total
cost of launching 66 satelllites for global coverage plus 8 in-orbit spares would be 74 x ($5 +
$80/8) = $1,110 million.

To achieve global coverage with a hypothetical GEO satellite system, three large satellites
plus one in-orbit spare are required. If each satellite costs $150 million, and if each Proton
launch has a price tag of $100 million, the total bill is 4 x ($150 + $100) = $1,000 million.

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fT

ec

hn

Thus, the difference in capital outlay to deploy the two systems is not significant. The choice
should be made on other grounds, e.g. the cost of the ground terminals, the service lifetime
of the system, etc.

75

2/ Orbital Dynamics

2.6.

Solved Problems

See Appendix C for solutions.

olo
gy
.

2.6.1 A satellite in a circular orbit has an orbital period = 96 minutes. What is the
orbital height h and the velocity V ? The earths average radius R = 6371 km and the
gravitational parameter = 398,601 km3/s2.

hn

2.6.2 A satellite is travelling in an equatorial geostationary transfer orbit with the


apogee height Ap = 35,786 km and the perigee height Pe = 300 km. What is the orbital
velocity V when the true anomaly = 90? The earths equatorial radius R = 6378 km
and the gravitational parameter = 398,601 km3/s2

ec

2.6.3 The satellite in Problem 2.6.2 has a mass m = 1000 kg. Calculate its kinetic and
potential energy when = 90.

fT

2.6.4 Is it possible to design an orbit where the perigee drift equals the nodal drift? If
so, what are the values of a, e and i?

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2.6.5 A satellite that never travels through the earths shadow needs no batteries. Design
the lowest circular orbit that guarantees the satellite uninterrupted sun illumination.
Assume the eclipse contour to be a cylinder with radius R = 6371 km.
2.6.6 A satellite is to be launched south on 1 March from Vandenberg (lat 34.7N, long
239.4E) into a sun-synchronous orbit with i = 98 and = 70. At what local time must
the satellite be launched? Vandenberg is 8 time zones west of Greenwich.

2.6.7 A satellite constellation is being designed to provide global, uninterrupted


telecommunications from an altitude h = 1000 km. A fundamental requirement is that at
least one satellite shall be visible at an elevation > 20 above the local horizon
anywhere on earth. How many satellites will be needed if the orbits are polar?

2.6.8 A satellite is launched in 2003 into the geostationary orbit with an initial
inclination i0 = 3 deg and an initial RAAN = 270 deg. How long will it take for the
inclination to drift back to 3 deg, and what is the minimum inclination encountered en
route?
2.6.9 A typical Molniya orbit has an apogee of 40,000 km and a perigee of 500 km.
How many Molniya satellites are needed for round-the-clock coverage if each satellite is
to be used from the ground while passing through the true anomalies = 169.8 deg and
190.2 deg? The Earths average radius R = 6371 km. The Earths gravitational parameter
= 398,601 km3/s2.

76

3 / Power Management

3.1.

olo
gy
.

3. Power Management
Introduction

The power subsystem is the satellites lifeline. Using the human analogy, it is the food
intake and digestion needed to sustain the organism.

fT

ec

hn

Whatever the satellite payload a telecommunications repeater, a camera, or a scientific


sensor the demand for electric energy is likely to be a major design driver for the rest of
the spacecraft. This is so because the primary energy source for most earth-orbiting
satellites consists of photovoltaic solar cells, whose solar radiation conversion efficiency
is relatively poor. Moreover, the intensity of solar illumination in the earths vicinity is
quite modest. Consequently, in order to satisfy a typical satellites appetite for electric
energy, the size of the solar panels can be substantial so large, in fact, that they have to
be folded during launch and require a sufficiently big spacecraft body to be folded up
against.

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The size of the satellite is further influenced by the need for rechargeable batteries to
sustain the onboard subsystems whenever the satellite passes through the earths shadow
(eclipse), i.e. when the solar panels cease to produce energy. The efficiency of batteries
is limited, and there are also restrictions on how deeply a battery may be drained.
Accommodating the weight and bulk of batteries remains a challenge for satellite
designers.
The payload is not the only subsystem to demand electric energy. Most platform
subsystems also need access to electric power in order to function. For example, certain
electric micropropulsion thrusters claim a significant proportion of a satellites power
generation capacity. But payloads tend to dominate. Nearly all payloads use radio signals
to relay their mission parameters to the ground, and radio transmitters are notoriously
power-hungry.
The present chapter deals with

primary power supply, i.e. the direct conversion of solar energy to electric energy;
energy storage in rechargeable batteries to permit continued satellite operation in
eclipse;
power conditioning and distribution, i.e. the stabilization and conversion of bus
voltages within the satellite; and
alternative means of generating and storing electric energy.

The concepts of power and energy are often used loosely in the literature. Keep in mind
that power = energy produced or consumed per unit of time.

77

3 / Power Management

3.2.

Primary Power Supply

olo
gy
.

3.2.1. Solar Cell Design

fT

ec

hn

A typical solar cell is shown in Figure 3-1.

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Figure 3-1 Typical solar cell for satellites.

Photovoltaic solar cells generate electric energy by allowing photons from incoming
sunlight to dislodge electrons in a semiconducting p-n junction. By interconnecting the player of one cell with the n-layer of an adjacent cell, a current is made to flow. Desired
levels of current and voltage are achieved by stringing a number of cells together (Figure
3-2).

n
p

Figure 3-2 Stringing of solar cells.

The n-layer, being less prone to radiation damage than the p-layer, is placed on top.
Further radiation protection is provided by a glass cover slip, which is coated with a
suitable UV filter, as well as with an electrically conductive film to prevent the build-up
of static electricity across the cell array. The cover slip is attached to the n-layer using a
transparent adhesive. More adhesive is employed to secure each cell to the solar panel
substrate (Figure 3-3).

78

3 / Power Management
Cover glass
n-layer
Adhesive

olo
gy
.

p-layer

Substrate

Figure 3-3 Constituents of a solar cell.

ec

hn

The active semiconductor element has traditionally been made of silicon, whereby the n
and p-layers are created through a suitable level of doping. Silicon cells absorb sunlight in
the visible spectrum and converts it to electric energy. Higher energy conversion
efficiencies are being achieved with gallium arsenide ( GaAs). The larger and thinner the
cell, the higher the efficiency, the practical limit being set by fragility considerations.
Typical sizes are 4 cm by 6 cm, with thicknesses around 100 m.

UV

fT

So-called triple junction GaAs cells are able to convert sunlight not only in the visible
spectrum, but also in the ultraviolet (UV) and near-infrared (IR) spectra. The process is
illustrated in Figure 3-4.
VIS

IR

Solar Radiation (W/cm 2/


m)

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0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00

0.1

10

Wavelength (
m)

Current

Triple
junction
solar cell

Figure 3-4 Energy conversion using triple junction GaAs cells.

The upper diagram of the Figure shows the energy density of sunlight in near-earth space
within each of the three spectral bands. The triple junction GaAs solar cell is outlined at
the bottom of the Figure.
We now see how the top layer of the solar cell absorbs the UV light but allows the VIS
and IR light to pass through. The middle layer of the cell then absorbs the VIS light while
letting the IR light pass through to the bottom layer. Hence the improved efficiency of the
triple junction GaAs cell compared to the traditional silicon cell.

79

3 / Power Management
3.2.2. Solar Cell Performance

The following curve-fit equation applies to Figure 3-5:


U
I = 130 cos 0.1

380

hn

(3.1)

olo
gy
.

A representative silicon solar cell performance curve is shown in Figure 3-5 for a cell
measuring 2 cm x 2 cm. The open circuit voltage is in the region of 600 mV, while the
short-circuit current might be 60 mA, the actual value depending on the cell size. The cell
is exploited most efficiently if the working point is chosen at the knee where the output
power reaches a maximum. This becomes evident if the y-axis is made to show power
rather than current, as in Figure 3-6.

ec

The power output in Figure 3-6 is obtained by multiplying U and I along the curve in
Figure 3-5.

fT

120
100
80

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Cell current I (mA)

140

60
40
20
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Cell voltage U (mV)

Figure 3-5 Typical cell I/U profile.

Cell output power (mW)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Cell voltage U(mV)

Figure 3-6 Equivalent cell output power profile.

In our example, Figure 3-6 shows peak cell power output at 550 mV, so this is where
the working point should be located for maximum efficiency. The corresponding cell

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3 / Power Management
current is then obtained from Figure 3-5 as 105 mA, yielding an output power level of 58
mW.

olo
gy
.

Some modern satellites come equipped with automatic maximum power tracking circuitry
(a so-called Maximum Power Point Tracker, or MPPT) which adjusts the voltage bias to
keep the operating point at the knee of the I-U curve. Conversely, the operating point may
be dynamically adjusted away from the knee, in order to adapt the array power output to a
variable power requirement.

hn

The curve-fit: The advantage of a reasonably accurate curve-fit equation is that derived
parameters can be obtained analytically. In the above example, U, I and P at the optimum
working point are calculated as follows.

ec

The first step is to guesstimate which type of function (polynomial, trigonometric, ...) might
provide the simplest and best fit. In this instance the curve-fit might take the form I = a
c
cos (bU). The optimum working point is where the power output is maximum, i.e. where
dP/dU = 0. With P = UI, we have

and therefore:
c

c-1

fT

P = aU cos (bU)

tan( bU ) =

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dP / dU = a[cos (bU) bcUcos (bU) sin(bU)] = 0;

1
bcU

With a = 130, b = 1/380 and c = 0.1, we find the optimum working point at
U = 543 mV, I = 107 mA, P = 58 mW.

Obviously the accuracy of the analytical result is only as good as the accuracy of the curvefit.

The cell performance outlined in Figure 3-5 is temperature sensitive, as suggested in


Figure 3-7. The sensitivity translates itself into a change in cell conversion efficiency,
which will be discussed below.

Figure 3-7 Temperature-dependent cell conversion profile.

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3 / Power Management

olo
gy
.

The solar power flux in the earths vicinity varies between Smax = 1413 W/m2 in early
January and Smin = 1321 W/m2 in mid-summer. The variation is due to the slight
eccentricity of the earths orbit around the sun. For preliminary design purposes, an
annual mean value S = 1367 W/m2 is often assumed. It is also common practice to assume
that this value applies at all orbital altitudes up to GEO.
Thus it is tempting to think that a solar panel measuring 1 m2 should produce 1367 W of
electric power, on average. In practice, we are lucky to obtain even 15% of this output.

hn

Firstly, the efficiency of present-day solar cells is less than 30% using modern gallium
arsenide (GaAs) cells a value which drops to 20% in the case of the more conventional
silicon (Si) cells. Even these modest values drop significantly when the solar cells
become warm (Figure 3-8).

ec

30

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

20

Silicon (Si)

15
10

fT

25

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Cell efficiency (%)

35

5
0

-50

50

100

150

200

Cell temperature T (C)

Figure 3-8 Solar cell efficiency as a function of cell temperature T.

A reasonably good curve fit of Figure 3-8 is obtained using the following equations:
GaAs:
Si:

T + 50

250
T + 50
= 27 cos1.2

200

= 30 cos1.2

(3.2)
(3.3)

Secondly, the solar cell output depends on the solar incidence angle according to the
cosine rule illustrated in Figure 3-9. For instance, if the sun angle s is offset by 60 from
the cell normal, the power output drops to 1/2 of the maximum value (cos 60 = 0.5).

82

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3 / Power Management

Figure 3-9 Cosine rule of solar cell output.

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ec

Thirdly, there is a seasonal variation of solar cell output as the distance re between the
earth and the sun varies during the year, and the satellite designer has to assume the
worst case for dimensioning purposes. Given that the semimajor axis of the earths
orbit around the sun is ae = 149,597,870 km and the eccentricity ee = 0.0167, we find
from Eq 2.3 that:
2
a e (1 ee )
re =
1 + ee cos e

The solar power density is a function of the square of the distance, so we introduce a
cyclic variation factor
Fc = (ae/re)2

(3.4)

as the earth moves through e from perihelion to aphelion and back see Figure 3-10.

Figure 3-10 Cyclic variation factor Fc.

Lastly, the performance of a solar cell degrades over time. This secular degradation is due
to damage caused by an influx of high-energy protons and electrons in the Van Allen
belts, and of ultraviolet radiation from the sun. The corresponding degradation factor Fs is
approximately
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3 / Power Management

Fs 0.7 + 0.3 e-t/1000

(3.5)

ec

hn

olo
gy
.

where t is the number of days from launch (Figure 3-11).

Figure 3-11 Secular degradation factor Fs.

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P
= Fc Fs cos s
Pmax

fT

Combining the above degradations, we obtain the following approximate expression for
solar cell power output:
(3.6)

Figure 3-12 plots Eq 3.6 for a geostationary satellite whose solar panels are parallel with
the earths N/S axis. Note that, though the panels are pointed towards the sun, the sun
angle s will vary between 0 and 23.45 due to the panels being aligned with the N/S
axis (Figure 3-13), according to
s = sin-1[sin sin(23.45)]

(3.7)

Hence the overlay of two different cyclic variations, one with a 12-month period caused
by the annual variation of re, the other with a 6-month period as s varies from +23.45 at
summer solstice to 23.45 at winter solstice. The winter dip is shallower than the
summer dip because the earth is then closer to the sun.

84

1.00

Spring equinox

0.95

0.85

olo
gy
.

Autumn equinox

0.90

Worst case

0.80
0.75
0.70

Winter solstice

0.65

Summer solstice

0.60
0

10

hn

Relative cell output P/Pmax

3 / Power Management

Years from launch

fT

=23.45

ec

Figure 3-12 Combined variations in relative solar cell output.

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23.45

23.45

23.45

Figure 3-13 Seasonal 23.45 variation of sun illumination of GEO solar panels.

Since the output is time-dependent, the solar panels have to be sized for the worst-case
scenario, which usually occurs at the end-of-life (EOL) of the satellite. Take, for example,
a GEO satellite designed for a 10-year lifetime whose GaAs solar cells rise to a
temperature of 20C at EOL. In order to yield P = 1367 W at worst-case EOL, the solar
panel would require a surface area of:
A=

P
SFs Fc cos s

In our example: A =

(3.8)

1367

= 5 .8 m 2
1367 0.28 0.7 0.97 cos 23.45
i.e. nearly 6 times larger than in the ideal condition where , Fs, Fc and cos s are all = 1.

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3 / Power Management
As mentioned earlier, cell conversion efficiency increases with increasing cell size. A
typical size of modern solar cells is 4 cm x 6 cm. It follows that, for the above satellite,
the number of 4 x 6 cm cells required is 5.7/0.0024 = 2375.

olo
gy
.

So far we have only considered performance losses associated with the solar cells
themselves. In addition, there are circuit and conversion losses within the satellite, and
these must also be taken into account when sizing the solar arrays.

3.2.3. Solar Arrays

fT

ec

hn

Solar cells are connected in series in order to obtain the desired power bus voltage
onboard the satellite (Figure 3-14). Multiple strings are connected in parallel to yield the
required current. (Compare with an ordinary household appliance such as a flashlight, in
which 1.5 V batteries are connected in series to achieve a higher voltage.)

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10A
50V

Figure 3-14 Cell string assembly on a solar panel


(in this example the panel yields 500W)

The strings are mounted on structural members to form solar panels. Care must be taken
to account for the possibility of shadowing from adjacent satellite members during certain
times of the day and the year (Figure 3-15). To mitigate the energy loss due to shadowing
e.g. from an antenna dish, the strings should be orientated as shown in the upper example,
rather than as in the example below.

86

Array shadowing

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.

3 / Power Management

Cell string orientation

ec

Figure 3-15 Solar panel shadowing and cell string orientation.

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Moreover, diodes are used in various configurations to protect inactive cells due to
shadowing from the spacecraft body or failure of adjacent cells (Figure 3-16). In the
absence of such protection, a cell or an entire string might experience damaging reverse
bias voltage under the influence of active cells within the affected string.

Figure 3-16 Bypass diodes.

Solar arrays typically come as flat panels, as in the case of body-stabilized satellites, or as
cylindrical shells in the case of spin-stabilized spacecraft (Figure 3-17). Other variants
exist, e.g. flexible panels that are deployed and retracted like motorized roller blinds.

Solar arrays

Figure 3-17 Solar arrays for body (left) and spin stabilized (right) satellites.

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3 / Power Management

olo
gy
.

The solar panels on body-stabilized satellites are often mechanically steered to keep them
pointed towards the sun while the spacecraft body stays pointed towards the earth. In the
case of a satellite in GEO, the panels are aligned with the earths N/S axis and are made
to rotate 360 per day so as to track the apparent motion of the sun.

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Deployable
telescopic
skirt

ec

hn

On spin stabilized satellites the arrays are not steerable, so the attitude of the entire
satellite must be maintained such that the array faces the sun. The illuminated portion of a
cylindrical array equals dh, while the total cylindrical surface area = dh. The
dh
1
efficiency of a cylindrical array is therefore
= 30% . The possibility exists to
dh
double the array area by introducing a concentric cylindrical skirt which is telescoped
out after launch, at minimal cost in launch mass and volume (Figure 3-18).

Figure 3-18 Illumination of single and double cylindrical arrays.

How much of an array is illuminated?

If a satellite is covered with solar cells, some of the cells may be illuminated head on, others
at an angle, and others again not at all. To calculate the equivalent illuminated cell area,
imagine a screen placed directly behind the satellite, as seen from the sun. The illuminated
2
area is simply the area of the shadow on the screen. In the case of a sphere, A = d /4,
where d is the spheres diameter. For a cylinder facing the sun as shown in the figure, A =
dh, where h is the cylinders height. For an arbitrary body shape, it suffices to calculate the
projection of the body onto the screen i.e. the shadow.

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3 / Power Management

3.3.

Energy Storage

olo
gy
.

Rechargeable batteries are used onboard satellites as a secondary power supply to allow
satellite equipment to function in eclipse, when the solar arrays are no longer useful.
Sometimes batteries are also called upon to supplement the solar arrays during peak load
situations in sunlight.

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fT

ec

hn

Traditionally, spacecraft batteries have employed nickel-cadmium (NiCd) or nickelhydrogen (NiH2) technology. In NiCd cells, the nickel and cadmium electrodes are
interleaved to form a rectangular box. NiH2 cells experience hydrogen gas pressure up to
30 atm and are therefore shaped like cylindrical pressure vessels with spherical tops and
bottoms. In both technologies the cell voltage is typically 1.2 V during the level part of
the discharge cycle. The cells are connected in series to yield the required bus voltage
(Figure 3-19).

Figure 3-19 NiCd and NiH2 battery cells connected in series.

Allowable depth of discharge %

Batteries require careful charge/discharge management in order to guarantee maximum


lifetime in orbit. Their capacity, measured in ampre-hours (Ah) must not be depleted
entirely. For a GEO spacecraft, the permissible depth of discharge (DOD) of NiCd
batteries is around 60% of the rated capacity, while 80% DOD is often acceptable for
NiH2. The allowable DOD for satellites in low orbits is significantly lower due to the
increased charge/discharge frequency (Figure 3-20).
90
80
70
60
50

NiCd

40

NiH2

30
20
10

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Ratio te/ts

Figure 3-20 Permissible DOD as a function of eclipse/sunlight duration ratio.

89

3 / Power Management

olo
gy
.

The weight of batteries is of concern to spacecraft designers. The energy yield for NiCd is
around 40 Wh/kg, and for NiH2 it is in the region of 60 Wh/kg. Hence the mass of a NiCd
battery needed to supply a medium-sized GEO satellite drawing 3200 W in maximum
eclipse (1.2 h) would be 3200 1.2/(40 DOD) = 160 kg. A NiH2 battery on the same
satellite would weigh 120 kg.

Forced
discharge
to 100% DOD

100

fT

DOD

Forced
discharge
to 100% DOD

ec

Capacity
(% of C)

hn

Both battery technologies are said to possess a memory, i.e. their capacity deteriorates
over time at a rate, which is dependent on how well earlier charge-discharge cycles were
managed (Figure 3-21). The deterioration has two components: one that is reversible
through reconditioning, and another that is permanent. Reconditioning consists in fully
discharging the battery at a high rate across a purpose-made load. This is a delicate
procedure, as it risks running the battery into short circuit and destroying it.

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50

Reversible
loss

Reversible
loss

Reversible
loss

Irreversible loss
3 Time (years)

Figure 3-21 Reversible and irreversible deterioration of battery capacity.


(Source: European Space Agency)

The choice between NiCd and NiH2 technologies is influenced by the type of orbit and
bus regulation technique (see Section 3.4.2 below). NiCd is favoured in low earth orbit
applications where eclipse transits are long and frequent ( 40% of every circular orbit),
since this technology performs best when the DOD is shallow. NiCd also manifests a
relatively constant output voltage during the discharge cycle, thereby reducing the need
for voltage stabilization in eclipse. NiH2 batteries, with their preference for deeper DOD
and fewer discharge cycles, are sometimes found onboard geostationary satellites where
eclipse transits are limited to max 72 minutes during a 45-day window around spring and
autumn equinox. The voltage drop is more prominent during the discharge cycle than in
the case of NiCd, making full bus voltage regulation desirable.
New battery technologies have been developed for satellites to reduce the mass and the
rate of deterioration through the memory effect. Two of these technologies are familiar
from cellular telephones, namely Ni-MH and Li-Ion, whose specific energy amounts to
70 and 120 Wh/kg, respectively. Li-Ion is becoming the norm onboard modern satellites.
Despite its advantages, careful voltage balancing among the battery cells is necessary to
maintain the original capacity and avoid overheating.

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3 / Power Management

Numerical Example

olo
gy
.

A three-axis stabilized geostationary satellite is equipped with two solar wings that are
aligned with the earths N/S axis. The satellites power consumption is constant at Psat =
2000 W, its bus voltage Ubus = 100 V and its operational lifetime is 10 years. Calculate the
charge capacity and mass of its NiH2 battery, as well as the size of its GaAs solar panels
operating at a worst-case temperature of 80C.

hn

Solution: Let us begin by sizing the battery. The maximum eclipse duration in GEO, te = 72
minutes (1.2 hours), occurs around the two annual equinoxes. The battery must be capable
of yielding a current I = 2000/100 = 20 A during 1.2 hours; therefore the batterys useable
capacity Cused = 20 1.2 = 24 Ah. Figure 3-20 suggests a permissible DOD of 80%. The
rated battery capacity must therefore be Crated = 24/0.8 = 30 Ah.

Cused = 24 Ah
Crated = 30 Ah.
mbatt = 50 kg

fT

In summary:

ec

The mass of the battery is obtained from the knowledge that the specific energy of a NiH2
battery is around 60 Wh/kg, so the battery weighs mbatt = Crated Ubus/ = 30 x 100/60 = 50 kg.

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Turning now to the solar arrays, we know that they must produce Psat = 2000 W in sunlight
to sustain the satellite, plus the necessary power to recharge the battery Pbatt. The total
array power output is therefore Parray = Psat + Pbatt, where Pbatt is an unknown. To assess the
magnitude of Parray, it is useful to analyse the energy balance. The solar array must produce
enough energy during the time ts in sunlight (ts = 24.0 1.2 = 22.8 h) to sustain the satellite
in sunlight, and also to replenish the energy taken from the battery during the time te in
eclipse. We have:
Parray ts = Psat ts+ Pbatt te;

i.e. Parray = Psat + Pbatt te/ ts

where Pbatt = 1.2 Ubus Cused / te. The factor 1.2 comes about because of battery efficiency
considerations, i.e. the recharge voltage needs to be approximately 20% higher than the
discharge (bus) voltage. Thus:
Parray = Psat + 1.2 Ubus Cused / ts = 2000 + 1.2 100 24/22.8 = 2126 W
The size of the array is calculated considering the solar influx energy density S = 1367
2
W/m , the degradation over 10 years = 0.7, the efficiency of GaAs cells at 80C (25%), and
the worst-case sun vector deviation from the solar panel normal = 23.45 around the
solstices. We have:

A array =

In summary:

2126

o = 9.7
1367 0.7 0.25 cos(23.45 )

Parray = 2126 W
2
Aarray = 9.7 m

Immediately after reconditioning, it is of course necesssary to recharge 100% of Crated,


since in that scenario Cused = Crated.

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3 / Power Management

3.4.

Power Conditioning and Distribution

olo
gy
.

Onboard users receive electric energy from the solar array or from the battery via a power
bus. The bus is equipped with fuses or other current-limiting devices to prevent a short
circuit in one unit from bringing down all the other units. These devices are placed at
strategic points along the bus to minimize the functional damage to equipment in order of
priority. For example, isolating a shorted propellant tank heater is more affordable than
losing the entire telecommand function, since a satellite becomes crippled the moment it
is unreachable by telecommand. The reliability of energy distribution can, in many cases,
be increased by employing redundant buses.

fT

ec

hn

The voltage of the power bus is typically chosen in the range of 28V 100V DC, and is
achieved by connecting a corresponding number of solar cells in series, as well as battery
cells in series (recalling that a solar cell delivers approximately 0.5V and a battery cell
1.2V). The lower the voltage, the higher the current drawn by a user for a given power
requirement (since P = UI), and the thicker and heavier the wire harness has to be to
avoid excessive resistive power losses (P = RI 2) - see Figure 3-22. The harness can
therefore be thinner and lighter if a higher bus voltage is chosen, but then it becomes
more fragile and prone to breakage during installation. Higher voltages also challenge the
state of the art in semiconductor switching technology.

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Mass (kg/m)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

50

100
150
Current (A)

200

Figure 3-22 Ability of copper wire to conduct current depending on gauge.

Many electronic units onboard a satellite require several input voltages. Moreover, these
voltages usually have to be stable. On the other hand, the supply voltage from the solar
array and the battery can vary considerably over time, as illustrated in Figure 3-25 below.
A need therefore exists to manipulate the supply power by performing DC/DC voltage
conversion as well as voltage stabilization. Conversion and stabilization are known
collectively as conditioning.
3.4.1. Voltage Conversion

Traditional induction transformers are not usable in DC circuits, since AC is needed to


achieve induction. One solution is to chop up the direct current using a pair of transistors
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3 / Power Management
connected at the base, send the AC thus formed through a transformer, and subsequently
rectify the current at the new voltage level.

hn

olo
gy
.

A more efficient method of performing DC/DC conversion is called pulse width


modulation (PWM). Here the direct current is made to pass through an electronic switch
that opens and closes the circuit with variable ON/OFF duty cycles. A capacitor serves as
a charge storage device, which is filled during the ON period and is drained during the
OFF period, thereby ensuring continuity of current flow. An inductor helps smooth the
inevitable voltage ripple (Figure 3-23). The ratio between the ON and the OFF periods
determines the output voltage (Figure 3-24).

Uout

ec

Uin

fT

Figure 3-23 PWM circuit.

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Uin

ON

OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF

Uout
time

Uin
ON

OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF

Uout
time

Uin
ON

OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF

Uout
time

Figure 3-24 Principle of PWM voltage conversion.

The feedback loop in the above circuit diagram controls the switching period needed to
achieve Uout.
3.4.2. Voltage Stabilization

If left unregulated, the bus voltage will vary over time to a degree that is unacceptable for
most electronic equipment. In sunlight, the power output of the solar array is a function of
the array temperature, as shown in Figure 3-7. If the satellite passes through the earths
shadow, the array cools down during the eclipse transit and warms up during the active
sunlit part of the orbit; hence the variation of the unregulated bus voltage in sunlight. The
battery output voltage is also temperature dependent and changes during discharge in
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3 / Power Management

eclipse. The unregulated bus voltage may therefore behave as in Figure 3-25 during an
orbital period.

olo
gy
.

Bus voltage

Desired voltage
Eclipse

Sunlight

hn

Sunlight

Time

ec

Figure 3-25 Unregulated bus voltage profile.

fT

Voltage regulation may be performed centrally at source, or at the level of individual


units. The former is preferred when new equipment is being designed, while the latter
solution may be appropriate when using off-the-shelf equipment with its own built-in
voltage regulators.

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At bus level, there are essentially three levels of regulation (Figure 3-26). The
unregulated bus is as described above. A sun-regulated bus employs voltage regulators
during the sun-lit phase of the orbit, while the batterys relatively constant output voltage
is deemed to provide adequate regulation during eclipse. A fully regulated bus offers
voltage stabilization throughout.
Fully regulated

Unregulated

Array

Charge
switch

Discharge
switch

Array

Charge
regulator.

Discharge
regulator

Load

Battery

Battery

Shunt

Array

Charge
regulator.

Load

Battery

Shunt

Sun-regulated

Figure 3-26 Power bus regulation methods.

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Series

Shunt

Variable
resistor

olo
gy
.

Voltage regulators come in two basic designs: serial and parallel (Figure 3-27). The latter
is also known as a shunt regulator. In a series regulator, a zener diode is connected to the
base of a transistor to provide the voltage reference. The transistor acts as a variable
resistor connected in series with the load. A shunt regulator, on the other hand, has the
transistor connected parallel with the load, and is controlled in such a way that excess
current is made to bypass the load.

Shunt
Array

Controller

Load

ec

Load

hn

Array

fT

Figure 3-27 Basic principle of series and shunt regulators.

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An example of an unregulated bus is the use of automatic maximum power tracking


(MPPT) mentioned in Section 3.2.2. The aim is to extract as much electric power as
possible from the solar arrays at all times, regardless of cell temperature or aging. The
fact remains, however, that solar cells do age, so the maximum obtainable power will
inevitably decrease over time. Most satellites have a constant power consumption profile
over their entire lifetime. Since the array must be sized to satisfy a satellites needs at the
end of its life, it follows that it is oversized at the beginning of life. If MPPT is adopted,
there will be a great deal of excess power from the outset that needs to be dissipated
through a shunt in the form of heat. This may be undesirable from a thermal balance point
of view. MPPT is therefore better suited for satellite missions where the power
consumption in greater at the beginning of life than towards the end. For example, a
satellite using power-hungry electric propulsion to work its way from GTO to GEO as
quickly as possible may fire several thrusters during the transition, whereas only one or
two thrusters will be needed later for station-keeping in GEO.
Fully regulated bus voltage is nowadays achieved using a technique called Sequential
Switching Shunt Regulator (S3R). A bus voltage sensor activates a set of electronic
switches that disconnect superfluous array strings by placing them in open circuit. All the
remaining strings but one yield the bulk of the required power. Fine-tuning of the bus
voltage is achieved by varying the output of that last string through shunting (Figure
3-28).

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3 / Power Management

Solar array

Satellite body

Array
string

olo
gy
.

Shunt

ec

hn

Loads

Figure 3-28 Array switching regulator.

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fT

Figure 3-29 shows a very basic block diagram of a typical satellite power regulation and
distribution architecture.

Array

Charge
regulator.

Discharge
regulator

50 V

Battery

Shunt

Figure 3-29 Power regulation and distribution.

96

Payload

Attitude & Orbit


Control (AOCS)
Tracking, Telemetry
& Command (TT&C)
Onboard Data
Handling (OBDH)
Propulsion

Mechanisms
Thermal Control
(TCS)

3 / Power Management

3.5.

Fuel Cells

olo
gy
.

Solar panels have the disadvantages of being idle in eclipse and, for low-orbiting
satellites, causing aerodynamic drag. Partly to overcome these problems, so-called fuel
cells have been developed (Figure 3-30).

H2 O

O2

Cathode

hn

H+

Electrolyte

fT

ec

Load

Anode

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H2

Figure 3-30 Principle of fuel cell operation.

In principle, a fuel cell operates like a battery but does not run down or require
recharging. It will produce energy in the form of electricity and heat as long as fuel is
supplied.
A fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two electrodes. Oxygen passes
over one electrode and hydrogen over the other, generating electricity, water and heat.
The hydrogen is fed into the anode of the fuel cell. The oxygen enters the fuel cell
through the cathode. A catalyst helps split the hydrogen atom into a proton and an
electron, which take different paths to the cathode. The proton passes through the
electrolyte, while the electrons create a separate current that can be utilized before they
return to the cathode, to be reunited with the hydrogen and oxygen in a molecule of water.
The main disadvantage of fuel cells is the need to carry onboard fuel in the form of
hydrogen and oxygen. Todays fuel cells are also bulky, and their space use is currently
restricted to manned missions where the water byproduct is used by the crew for
consumption and household chores. As smaller sizes become available, they will likely be
incorporated in unmanned spacecraft as well. Future miniature fuel cells might allow
consumers to talk for up to a month on a cellular phone without recharging. They also
promise to change the telecommuting world by powering laptops and palm pilots
substantially longer than present-day batteries.

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3 / Power Management

3.6.

Solved Problems

olo
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.

See Appendix C for solutions.

3.6.1 A spin-stabilized cylindrical satellite is deployed in geostationary orbit. Its spin


axis is parallel with the earths N/S axis, and its cylindrical surface is covered with solar
cells which operate at a constant temperature. The cells yield a total of PBOL = 1000 W at
the beginning of life (BOL), which occurs at spring equinox. How much do they produce
at summer solstice 7 years later?

hn

3.6.2 What storage capacity should a NiCd battery have, in order to sustain a satellite in
a 600 km circular orbit? The satellites bus voltage is Ubus = 50 V, and its maximum
power requirement Psat = 1000 W.

fT

ec

3.6.3 How many 4 cm x 6 cm GaAs solar cells are needed to supply a GEO satellite
with 4 kW of power after 10 years in orbit? The satellites solar panels are aligned with
the earths N/S axis. Assume that the worst-case cell temperature is 70C. The annual
average solar power density S = 1367 W/m2.

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3.6.4 Solar cells on older satellites are prone to permanent damage in case of local
shadowing of the panels. The damage is due to reverse voltage breakdown as adjacent
sunlit cells connected in series continue to produce power. Modern satellites (from around
2000 onwards) avoid the problem by installing bypass diodes around each cell. Older
satellites do not always provide this protection. A rescue satellite (chaser) is launched
with the aim of intercepting an old, ailing GEO communications satellite (target) and
docking with it. Both satellites have the classic GEO construction with a central body and
two solar wings. The chaser must not shadow the targets solar panels under any
circumstances, i.e. neither during the final approach nor after docking, because of the risk
of permanent cell damage. How is partial shadowing of the target to be avoided?

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4 / Attitude Management

4.1.

olo
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.

4. Attitude Management
Introduction

Attitude is aerospace lingo for orientation. The very first manmade satellite, Sputnik,
fulfilled its task brilliantly without any attitude stabilization or control whatsoever; it just
tumbled randomly in orbit. So what has changed?

ec

hn

In fact, all that Sputnik managed to do was to tansmit a couple of beeps of data per second
from a few hundred kilometers above the earths surface. The satellite had no solar cells,
and the onboard battery ran flat after only 3 weeks.

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fT

Since then, the demands on satellites have grown. Modern satellites transmit and receive
speech, television and camera images at data rates amounting to several million bits per
second from altitudes as high as 100,000 km above our planet. High-gain antennas are
needed to focus the transmission energy. These antennas, along with cameras, telescopes
and other sensors have to be aimed at their respective targets. All the while, the solar
arrays must stay pointed at the sun continuously for up to 15 years. This is why nowadays
we launch satellites with an attitude.
Attitude management involves four primary tasks:

to stabilize the satellite,


to measure its attitude,
to reconstitute the attitude from the measurements, and
to re-orientate the satellite.

We will divide the present chapter into four main sections: Attitude Stabilization, Attitude
Measurement, Attitude Determination, and Attitude Control.
The attitude management subsystem has different names in different satellite projects.
The most common variants are Attitude Control Subsystem (ACS), Attitude
Determination & Control Subsystem (ADCS), Attitude & Orbit Control Subsystem
(AOCS), and Guidance, Navigation & Control Subsystem (GN&C). The latter two lump
attitude management (Chapter 4) and orbit management (Chapter 5) into a single
subsystem, which can be confusing since the two tasks are separate from the point of
view of physics, engineering and operations. That said, attitude and orbit control share
some of the same resources, such as the computer and the thrusters - but just to confuse
matters further, the thrusters belong to a different subsystem, namely Propulsion (Chapter
6). Figure 4-1 attempts to clarify the scope of the AOCS.

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4 / Attitude Management
OBDH
(Chapter 8)

Data bus

Attitude
Management
(Chapter 4)
Reaction
Wheels

Thrusters

Ranging
Transponder

Propulsion
(Chapter 6)

TT&C
(Chapter 7)

GPS

hn

Attitude
Sensors

Orbit
Management
(Chapter 5)

olo
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.

AOCS
Computer

AOCS

ec

Figure 4-1 Scope of the AOCS.

Attitude Stabilization

fT

4.2.

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An important quantity in stability analysis is the mass moment of inertia I, so this is a


good time to recapitulate its meaning. Just as the mass m of a body resists linear
acceleration by mobilising a reaction force F = ma, so the moment of inertia I resists
rotational acceleration by countering with a reaction torque T = I . (Or, conversely, it
takes a force F to impart a linear acceleration on a mass m, and a torque T to accelerate
the rotation of a body around a spin axis.) The inertia is directly proportional to the
magnitude of m and I, respectively.

If we imagine a spinning satellite as being made up of n infinitely small mass elements


mi, we obtain the satellites moment of inertia by adding up the products of each mass mi
times its distance ri squared from the spin axis.
n

I sat = mi ri

(4.1)

i =1

or, in the case of a homogeneous body:


Isat = r2 dm

(4.2)

In practice, of course, the mass elements onboard a spacecraft are not infinitely small but
consist of substantial units i with their own moments of inertia Ii around an axis parallel
to the satellites spin axis. With the help of Steiners theorem we are able to reformulate
Eq 4.1 as follows:
n

I sat = ( I i + mi ri )
i =1

100

(4.3)

4 / Attitude Management
z

I1
m1

m5
r1

I2

olo
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.

r2
x

r3

m3

m2
m4

Figure 4-2 Moments of insertia.

ec

hn

In the above illustration, m1 and m2 represent the mass of two pieces of equipment, while
m3 is the mass of the cylindrical wall, and m4 and m5 refer to the circular top and bottom
plates. Instead of using the subscript sat, it is customary to indicate the chosen spin axis,
in our example the z-axis.

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fT

The axis around which a body has its maximum moment of inertia is called the major
axis. The axis showing the smallest moment of inertia is the minor axis. Miraculously,
these two axes are always perpendicular in all rigid bodies, regardless of shape or content.
The major and minor axes, along with the third axis that forms a right-handed orthogonal
triad, are called principal axes of inertia, and we denote the corresponding moments of
inertia Ix, Iy, Iz. Formally speaking, the principal axes are those around which the products
of inertia Ixy, Ixz, Iyz = 0. In practice, the principal axes are usually those which define
relative body symmetry, as illustrated below. The analysis of the dynamic behaviour of a
satellite and its constituent parts is greatly simplified if the body coordinate system xyz is
anchored to the centre of mass and is chosen to coincide with the principal axes.
y

Figure 4-3 Principal body axes.

In the case of a body-stabilized satellite, the x-axis usually coincides with the orbital
velocity vector; the y-axis points south; and the z-axis points towards the earth or some
other celestial target.
The angular momentum vector H is defined as:

H=I

(4.4)
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4 / Attitude Management

olo
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.

where is the spin axis vector, the direction of which is determined by the right-handed
screw convention. The momentum vector is therefore aligned with the spin axis vector
at least in the case of a clean spin. Angular momentum is analogous with linear
momentum P = mV, where m is the mass of the body in motion and V is its velocity
vector. Here are some additional analogies which we will need later in this chapter:

Linear

Rotational
Mass moment of
I
inertia
Angular
H = I
momentum

Mass
Linear momentum

P = mV

T =dH/dt = I d/dt

Linear impulse

Ilin = Ft

Irot = Tt

Kinetic energy

E = mV2 = PV

E = I2 = H

hn

F = ma = dP/dt =
m dV/dt

Torque

ec

Rotational
impulse
Rotational
energy

fT

Force

Table 4-1 Physical analogies in linear and rotating space.

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The law of conservation of angular momentum states that the magnitude and direction of
the satellites overall H will not change due to torques originating within the spacecraft
(e.g. propellant sloshing, wheel acceleration, or the turning of solar panels). External
forces are needed to change H (e.g. expelling propellant through thruster operation,
interaction with the earths magnetic field, or solar pressure).

4.2.1. Gyroscopic Stabilization


4.2.1.1.

Gyro Dynamics

One of Natures most useful gifts to Man is gyroscopic stiffness, the mysterious
phenomenon whereby the spin axis of a freely rotating body keeps its orientation fixed in
inertial space and resists any attempt to change it. Figure 4-4 illustrates how an
undisturbed spinning satellite maintains its inertial attitude as it orbits the earth.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 4-4 Attitude stability of a spinning body in inertial space.

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4 / Attitude Management

olo
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.

Looking at Figure 4-4, orientating the spin axis perpendicular to the orbit plane, as in (c),
is usually preferred over (a) and (b), since it is the only attitude where one side of the
spacecraft always faces the earth, for the benefit of telecommunications and earth
observation.
The gyroscope thus provides not only stability, but also an inertial reference for a
spinning bodys changing orientation in space. The latter thought will be developed
further in Section 4.3.
Though there are several ways of stabilizing a satellite in space, the gyroscope is the
device most commonly used. There are basically three implementations:

hn

a) Spinning the entire spacecraft;

ec

b) Using a dual-spin concept whereby the satellites main platform is made to spin
while part of the payload (e.g. a camera or an antenna) is despun to stay pointed
at the earth;

fT

c) Installing a spinning momentum wheel inside a despun body.

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In addition there exists a stabilization method which does not, priori, rely on gyroscopic
stiffness, namely by d) Installing a reaction wheel along each of the satellites roll, yaw and pitch axes.

These four implementations are illustrated in Figure 4-5. There are variants of these
methods, but they are too rare on earth-orbiting satellites to merit analysis in this book.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 4-5 Stabilization methods.


(a) Spinning spacecraft, (b) Dual spin,
(c) Bias momentum wheel, (d) Zero momentum reaction wheels.

The implementations shown in (a) and (b) are called spin-stabilized satellites, while those
in (c) and (d) are known as body-stabilized or three-axis stabilized satellites. In principle,
there is not a big difference between (b) and (c), since in both cases one part of the
satellite is spun and the other is despun; but because of their physical appearances, they
fall into the stated categories.

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4 / Attitude Management

olo
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.

Solution (a) is the simplest and most reliable method of stabilizing a spacecraft. The
method also facilitates feeding propellants from tanks (with the aid of centrifugal forces),
and provides a benign thermal environment due to the barbecue effect. The major
disadvantage is the difficulty of pointing a payload continuously to a target such as the
earth. Other drawbacks include the relatively high propellant consumption for attitude
manoeuvres (to overcome the gyroscopic stiffness), and the fact that less than one third
(1/) of the solar cells on the cylindrical shell are illuminated at any one time.

hn

If the member to be pointed is an antenna, then one solution is to install a cylindrical


drum on top of the main body, and to mount radiating elements on its cylindrical wall, as
shown in (a). The elements are scanned electronically like a despun phased array. This is
the solution adopted e.g. for the early Meteosat and GOES weather satellites.

fT

ec

In solution (b), the unit to be pointed is mounted on the shaft of an electric motor. As we
shall see later, the despun platform has a calming effect on the satellites unstable
tendencies and allows it to be spun around a minor moment of inertia axis. This in turn
enables designers to build a taller, more slender spacecraft that make better use of the
available volume inside the launch vehicles heatshield.

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In (c), the spinning flywheel inside the satellite provides gyroscopic stiffness around the
axes orthogonal to the spin axis, but not around the spin axis itself. Rotation around this
axis is achieved by varying the speed of the wheel. Because the wheel maintains angular
momentum by virtue of its spinning motion, the method is known as momentum bias.
This design overcomes the disadvantages of (a) and (b).
In contrast to (c), the three wheels in (d) are normally at a standstill, i.e. they have no
momentum bias. If the satellite experiences a disturbance torque, the appropriate wheel(s)
will accelerate so as to correct the resulting attitude error through action and reaction;
hence the label reaction wheels. It follows that method (d) is a zero momentum approach,
and therefore does not employ gyroscopic stiffness as a means of stabilization, although a
degree of stiffness appears as soon as a wheel begins to turn. This design is more
complicated and therefore less reliable than (c), but has the advantage of greater agility
and pointing accuracy around all three axes.
Spin-stabilized satellites are a vanishing species, whether in pure spin as in (a) or dual
spin as in (b). Even so, we will devote the next few Sections to spinning bodies, since a
good comprehension of gyroscopic principles facilitates the understanding of gyros and
momentum wheels. Moreover, a few nominally body-stabilized GEO satellites are spinstabilized in GTO to improve directional stability during apogee motor burn.

The gyroscopic stiffness is proportional to the moment of inertia I of the body around its
spin axis, as well as to the spin rate . If we want to force the gyro to change its
orientation, we must apply a torque T. A torque is created by a force pair, as when two
hands turn a steering wheel. If we turn the wheel to the right, the torque vector T points
into the steering column, in accordance with the right-handed screw convention. By
applying the torque vector perpendicular to the angular momentum vector H for a short
duration t, we create a small angular displacement of the momentum vector (Figure
4-6), such that H = T t, or:

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4 / Attitude Management
T
T
=
=
t H
I

(4.5)

T t

hn

olo
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.

The fact that the displacement velocity /t decreases with increasing and/or I
suggests resistance, or stiffness.

ec

Figure 4-6 Illustration of gyroscopic stiffness.

fT

Q: Is there a more intuitive explanation to why a gyroscope feels stiff when we try to turn
its axis?

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A: Yes. Newtons 1st Law states that a particle in motion wants to move along a straight
line, and it takes a force to make it deviate. The greater the mass and/or the velocity of the
particle, the more it will resist any diversion. This is why firearm bullets are made of lead
and travel fast.
If we spin a flywheel in the weightlessness of space fast enough, the centrifugal forces will
eventually overwhelm the molecular cohesion among the mass elements. The wheel
disintegrates, and the mass elements fly off along straight lines in all directions. When we
attempt to turn the spin axis of a flywheel, we are in fact making an out-of-plane change in
the orbit of the mass elements, and they will resist that, too. Hence the stiffness feel of a
gyroscope.

Mass element

As we saw in Figure 4-4, an undisturbed spinning spacecraft will maintain a constant spin
axis direction in inertial space, no matter where the satellite is along the orbit. In real life,
a spin-stabilized satellite is disturbed all the time, either intentionally to achieve a reorientation of the spin axis, or involuntarily by internal or external forces. Table 4-1
above contains an entry which states that the spin rate will change if a torque is applied
along the spin axis:
T = dH/dt = I d/dt

(4.6)

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4 / Attitude Management

Let us now apply a torque vector T at some arbitrary angle (Figure 4-7).
z
z

hn

ec

y
x

olo
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.

In this case the orientation of the spin axis does not change. Conversely, Figure 4-6
showed us that a torque applied perpendicular to the spin axis will change its orientation
but not its magnitude.

Using vector notation:

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T = dH/dt = I d/dt

fT

Figure 4-7 Satellite with rotating coordinate system xyz, as seen from inertial space.

(4.7)

Note that, just as the torque T has three components Tx, Ty, Tz, then so does the resulting
spin vector , namely x, y, z. This leads us to the intuitively obvious but nonetheless
important conclusion that an arbitrary torque will cause a rotational movement not just
around the spin (z) axis, but around all three axes.
To illustrate the point, take a spinning top and give it a slight push (i.e. an instantaneous
torque around its centre of mass). What happens? The spin axis is now subject to
precession (a coning motion), which is to say that there are spin components around all
three axes.
To better understand the dynamic process, we need to climb out of the satellite-fixed,
rotating xyz-system and move to a fixed point in inertial space some distance away from
the spacecraft. Eq (4.7) then takes the form

T = dH/dt + x H

(4.8)

Eq 4.8 is known as Eulers equation of motion and is a close cousin of the Coriolis
theorem.

Given that H = I, and assuming that we have chosen the coordinate system axes xyz to
coincide with the satellites principal axes (usually the axes of relative symmetry), Eq 4.8
may be broken down into its component parts as follows:

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4 / Attitude Management

y
I y y

z
I x z

olo
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.

x
Tx I x x

Ty = I y y + x
T I  I
x x
z z z
which translates to:

Tx = I x x + y z ( I z I y )
T y = I y y + x z ( I x I z )

(4.9)

Tz = I z  z + x y ( I y I x )

Stability Criteria

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4.2.1.2.

fT

ec

hn

Recall that there are two kinds of torques: those caused by external forces, and those
generated internally to the satellite. Firing a torque-generating thruster pair gives rise to
an external torque, since the thrusts are in reaction to propellant being ejected.
Accelerating a momentum wheel generates an internal torque. Both kinds may upset the
balance of a spinning satellite, but there is an important difference: External torques
change the magnitude and/or the orientation of the satellite momentum vector H, whereas
internal torques do not.

Eq 4.9 gives us a complete mathematical model of a disturbed spinning satellites


complex motion, including the cross-coupling between axis rotations. This set of
equations may also be used to analyse the stability of the satellite motion, i.e. if it will
keep spinning around the intended axis or degenerate into some other spin mode.
Unfortunately, the three equations cannot be solved in a closed form as they stand, but
solutions may be found if we make some simplifying assumptions. For example, if we
remove the torque in order to study the satellite at rest, the first two identities in Eq 4.9
reduce to:
0 = I x x + y z ( I z I y )

0 = I y y + x z ( I x I z )

Let us eliminate y by differentiating the first equation with respect to time:

0 = I x x +  y z ( I z I y )
0 = I y y + x z ( I x I z )

Here we have assumed that z is constant, which is true at least during the onset of a
disturbance. Elimination of  y gives us:

2
 x + z 1

Iz
Ix

I
1 z x = 0

I y

(4.10)

Taking the Laplace transform of Eq 4.10, we arrive at the characteristic equation:


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4 / Attitude Management
2
I
I
2
s + z 1 z 1 z x ( s ) = 0
I x I y

Iz
Ix

I
1 z

I y

Let

nut = z 1

Then

s 2 + nut = 0; s 2 = nut

olo
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.

(4.11)

(4.12)

hn

The subscript nut stands for nutation which we will deal with later. Recall from the
theory of feedback control systems that nut must be real if there is to be dynamic
stability. According to Eq 4.12, this is the case if Iz > Ix and Iy, or else if Iz < Ix and Iy, but
not if Iz lies somewhere in between Ix and Iy.

fT

ec

What does all this signify in practice? It means that a satellite will spin cleanly around the
z-axis if the corresponding moment of inertia Iz is either the greatest or the smallest of the
three principal moments of inertia. Otherwise the satellite will tumble in some
complicated fashion.

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However, this is not to say that the spin motion is stable in both cases. The laws of
physics dictate that dynamic systems always try to shed kinetic energy to reach a certain
minimum energy threshold. The same is true for a spinning satellite. Energy may be
dissipated by processes internal to the spacecraft, usually some form of friction caused by
structural flexing or liquid sloshing. Recall from Table 4-1 that the energy E = H.
Given that the angular momentum H stays constant also during the energy dissipation
process, must decrease as the energy E decreases. But with H = I, and with H being
constant, I must increase as decreases. This means that the satellite will endeavour to
spin around the major axis, i.e. the axis representing maximum moment of inertia I. If that
happens to be Iz our intended spin axis then all is well; but if Iz is smaller than either Ix
or Iy, then the satellite is no longer stable and will choose the largest of the latter two as
its new spin axis. We then have a condition known as flat spin, which often spells the end
of the mission.
It is worth repeating that the degeneration from unstable spin around a minor axis to
stable spin around the major axis only occurs if there exists some internal energy
dissipation device. Otherwise the satellite will happily continue spinning around the
minor axis.
In conclusion, a satellite is spin-stable if Iz/Ix > 1 and Iz/Iy > 1 at all times, with Iz being the
major principal axis around which the satellite is spinning. There is a more compact way
of expressing these criteria:

Iz
I
1 z 1 > 1

Ix
I y

= 1 +

where is the stability margin.

108

(4.13)

4 / Attitude Management
If the satellite is axisymmetric (Ix = Iy), then Eq 4.13 reduces to:

Iz
>1
Ix

(4.14)

olo
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.

hn

As a rule, rigid satellites are designed with a small stability margin, e.g. 1.1. A bigger
margin, while desirable in principle, would mean a flatter and wider satellite, making
poor use of the available volume inside the launch vehicles heatshield. That said, if a
satellite contains substantial volumes of propellant that are prone to sloshing, the margin
needs to be increased accordingly.

ec

Historical note: Spacecraft designers inadequate understanding of spin dynamics has


caused several mission failures. Flat spin is a case in point.

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fT

The first mission to fail in this manner was Americas very first satellite, Explorer 1, launched
on January 31, 1958. A more recent example is NASAs Lewis spacecraft, built under the
Agencys new better, faster, cheaper motto and launched on August 23, 1997. As a result
of flat spin, the satellites solar panels ceased to be adequately illuminated a predicament
which also prevented the onboard battery from being recharged.

4.2.1.3.

Nutation

Spin-stabilized satellites

When a spinning satellite experiences an internal disturbance, the angular momentum


vector H maintains its original orientation. If the disturbance originates outside the
spacecraft, H may change in amplitude or direction. Either way, the disturbed satellite
body goes into a coning motion called nutation (Figure 4-8).

Figure 4-8 Nutation.

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4 / Attitude Management

Q: Can we observe nutation here on earth?

olo
gy
.

A: Yes. A spinning top starts out spinning cleanly, but as the angular velocity z
diminishes due to friction and air drag, gravity gets hold of the tops centre of mass. The
influence of gravity constitutes a torque T around the tip of the shaft, which causes the top
to nutate. The nutation amplitude as well as the torque T increase as z decelerates
further and the gyroscopic stiffness weakens. Eventually the top falls over.

z
nut

ec

hn

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fT

The earth is a gyro that nutates under the influence of gravitational pull from the sun and the
moon. Because of the earths equatorial bulge, the pull is not symmetrical, thus giving rise
to a torque around the earths centre of gravity. Consequently the earths spin axis
precesses one turn every 26,000 years. A satellite orbit may also be seen as a gyro
containing a single mass element, namely the satellite itself. Without orbital corrections, the
nodes of a geosynchronous orbit (i 0) will complete a turn in 54 years.

Let us return to Eulers equation of motion to try to understand this phenomenon. By


setting z = constant, we arrived at the differential equation in Eq 4.10:

2
 x + z 1

Iz
Ix

I
1 z x = 0

I y

(4.15)

Note the similarity between this equation and the linear force equation mx + kx = 0 , or
k
x + x = 0 , which has a natural oscillation frequency = k m . We should therefore
m
expect our spinning satellite to exhibit an oscillation when disturbed, and that is precisely
what the nutation is. Thus:

nut = z 1

I z I z
1
I x I y

(4.16)

Most spinning satellites are mass-symmetric with regard to the x and y-axes
(axisymmetric) such that Ix = Iy. Eq. 4.16 then reduces to:
2

nut = z

110

Iz
1 = z
Ix

Iz

1 = z z 1
Ix

Ix

(4.17)

4 / Attitude Management
The third equation in Eq 4.9 now reads (in equilibrium):
0 = I z  z + x y ( I x I x )

olo
gy
.

i.e. I z z = 0 , and therefore z = constant, so there is no change or variation of the


satellites original spin rate due to nutation.

(4.18)

ec

Iz

I
1 + z = z z
Ix

Ix

nut = z

hn

Eq 4.17 gives the nutation rate as perceived by an observer locked inside the spacecraft
(or, more likely, by a piece of equipment). The difference between an observer inside the
spacecraft and outside in inertial space is that the former does not perceive the body spin
z, whereas the outside observer does. Therefore, seen from a point in inertial space, Eq
4.17 becomes:

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fT

There are in fact two rotations involved: the nutation nut of the z-axis around the H-axis,
and the rotation z of the body itself around its z-axis. The latter may go either way
depending on whether Iz/Ix >1 (stable) or <1 (unstable). It can be shown (Kaplan [8]) that
the following nutation geometries exist:
H

nut

nut

Body
cone

Space
cone

Figure 4-9 Nutation illustrated by rolling cones.


Credit Kaplan [8].

The illustration to the left shows the dynamics when Iz < Ix (a tall, slender, unstable
spacecraft), while the right-hand illustration represents the scenario where Iz > Ix (a short,
chubby, stable spacecraft). The drawings feature two invisible cones, namely a space
cone which remains fixed in inertial space, and a slewing body cone containing the zaxis at its centre. The two cones facilitate the understanding of the dynamics of nutation.
The picture to the left is the easiest to visualize, in that z and nut rotate in the same
sense as the body cone rolls on the outside of the space cone. In the right-hand picture, z
rotates in the opposite sense to nut. One can convince oneself that this is so by pressing a

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pencil against the inside wall of a glass. If the pencil is rolled around the glass clockwise,
the pencil itself will rotate counter-clockwise.

tan =

olo
gy
.

As for the cone sizes, it can be shown that

Iz
tan
Ix

(4.19)

hn

where is the angle between the z-axis and the line of cone contact, while is the
nutation amplitude. Therefore, for a stable spacecraft, > , which is confirmed by Figure
4-9.

Iz
<2
Ix

fT

ec

Since we generally intend spin-stabilized satellites to be stable (Iz/Ix >1), it is the scenario
to the right that interests us. The most stable spacecraft of all would have the shape of a
flat disc. We know from classical mechanics that, for a flat disc, Iz = Ix + Iy. In our
axisymmetric case, Iz = 2Ix , and therefore Iz / Ix = 2. Consequently, for stability, our
moment of inertia ratio Iz / Ix must fall in the following range:

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Inserting this inequality in Eq 4.17 gives us the nutation rate interval in the body-fixed
coordinate system:
0 nut < z

(4.20)

Similarly, from Eq 4.18 in the inertial reference frame:

z nut < 2 z

(4.21)

Numerical example: Let us take a satellite in the form of a homogeneous aluminium


cylinder spinning at 60 rpm.
Physical measurements:

Diameter d = 1 m, radius r = 0.5 m, height h = 0.5 m


2
3
Volume V = r h = 0.4 m
3
Density of aluminium = 2,700 kg/m
Mass m = V 1,060 kg

Moments of inertia:

Iz = mr = 133 kg m
2
2
2
Ix = Iy = 1/12 m(h + 3r ) = 88 kg m
Iz/Ix = 1.5 satellite spin-stable around the z-axis.

Spin rate around z-axis:

z = 60 x 2 / 60 = 6.28 rad/s = 360 deg/s

Nutation rate: nut = 360 x (1.5 1) = 180 deg/s 30 rpm in the body reference frame.
nut = 360 x 1.5 = 540 deg/s = 90 rpm in the inertial reference frame.

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Dual-spin satellites

olo
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.

A mechanically despun member on a spin-stabilized satellite (Figure 4-5 b) has a


stabilizing effect. We will not present the rather complex mathematical analysis here.
Suffice it to say that the spin motion is stable even around the minor axis as long as the
energy dissipation in the despun part is greater than in the spinning body (see nutation
damping below).
The nutation rate, measured in the inertial frame, is given by:
Iz
*

Ix Iy

(4.22)

hn

nut = z

Iz
Ix

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nut = z

fT

In the axisymmetric case, with Ix* = Iy*:

ec

where Ix* and Iy* are the transverse inertia axes of the overall satellite, including the
despun member.

(4.23)

The despun member is usually much lighter than the spacecraft body, such that Ix* and Iy*
are only marginally greater than Ix and Iy of the spinning body alone. As a result, the
nutation rate obtained from Eq 4.23 is slower than in Eq 4.18, but not drastically so.
Body-stabilized satellites

A satellite equipped with an internal momentum bias wheel (Figure 4-5 c) has similar
dynamic characteristics to those of dual-spin satellites, in that the wheel has now become
the spinning body, and the actual body corresponds to the despun member The main
difference is that the magnitudes of moments of inertia are now reversed, and therefore
the nutation rate is much slower.

Numerical example: Take a momentum wheel spinning at z = 600 rpm with Iz = 1 kg m .


2
The satellite body is axisymmetric with Ix = Iy = 1200 kg m . Then Hz = 600 x 2/60 x 1 =
2
62.8 kg m /s = 62.8 Nms, and nut = 0.052 rad/s = 3.0 deg/s = 0.5 rpm.

Satellites employing zero-momentum reaction wheels for stabilization (Figure 4-5 d) are
insensitive to the stability and nutation phenomena discussed above, unless the
disturbance torques are of such a magnitude that one or more of the wheels attain a
significant spin rate. The zero momentum can always be restored through a procedure
known as momentum dumping (Section 4.5) not to be confused with nutation damping
(see below).

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Nutation damping

olo
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.

Nutation is nearly always undesirable, primarily because it upsets the pointing accuracy
of onboard instruments and antennas. It may also give rise to elastic flexing of flimsy
appendages (such as solar panels) and to sloshing in propellant tanks. Flexing and
sloshing, while undesirable in their own right, may also alter the dynamic behaviour of
the spacecraft, with sometimes dire consequences for the mission.

ec

hn

Historical note: The original, spin-stabilized Meteosat satellite had a telescope that took
pictures of the earth every 30 minutes. The telescope was pivoted from south to north in the
course of 25 minutes, after which it rapidly retraced to its starting position for another 2
minutes. The brutality of the retrace motion induced nutation, which would have seriously
degraded the quality of subsequent images. The remaining 2 minutes of each 30-minute
slot were therefore allotted to nutation damping.

fT

As mentioned earlier, dynamic systems tend to shed excess kinetic energy and operate at
the minimum achievable energy level. Nutation represents excessive energy, since it has
been introduced artificially through internal or external torques, so if we install a suitable
energy dissipator, we are able to remove nutation.

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The simplest solution is to install a passive nutation damper, which usually consists of a
closed tube with a viscous liquid or a steel ball inside. The tube is mounted in a way to
achieve maximum sloshing or ball movement apace with the nutation frequency. Energy
is dissipated through heat generated by viscous friction in the liquid, or by a ball moving
through a gas and slamming into the ends of the tube.
Active nutation damping may be required if a faster elimination time is required, or if the
inertial properties of the satellite are such that the nutation might degenerate into flat spin
(e.g. due to propellant sloshing). In this procedure, an attitude thruster is fired in pulsed
mode at the spin frequency, such that the pulses are phased in a way to counteract the
nutation movement. Another method consists in using an accelerometer to sense the
nutation frequency and amplitude around a particular body axis, and then feed this
information to the control electronics of the satellites momentum wheel. By modulating
the spin speed of the wheel, the nutation may be damped. (An accelerometer behaves like
a damped mass on a spring, whereby the displacement of the internal mass relative to the
casing is monitored and delivered as an electrical output.)

4.2.2. Gravity Gradient Stabilization

Gravity gradient stabilization exploits Newtons law of general gravitation which, in the
earth-satellite context, states that the gravitational pull F on a stationary mass m is
proportional to the square of the range distance r from the earths centre:
F =

m
r2

(4.24)

Gravity gradient stabilization is a much simpler way of maintaining a satellites attitude


than using gyroscopic techniques. Being simpler, it is also more reliable. While the

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gyroscopic effect is inertial in nature, the gravity gradient phenomenon has the added
advantage of always keeping the spacecraft earth-pointed a state of affairs which suits
most satellites.

fT

ec

hn

olo
gy
.

A satellite stabilized by gravity gradient techniques consists of two distinct masses, which
are located some distance apart (5 10 m) and are interconnected by a mast (Figure
4-10).

Figure 4-10 Earth pointing by means of gravity-gradient.


(not to scale)

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As the name implies, we stabilize the satellite by exploiting the difference in gravitational
pull on the main body (the cube in Figure 4-10) and the auxiliary mass (the sphere) due to
the difference in their distance from the earth. As we shall see, that minute difference is
sufficient to keep the configuration aligned with the radius vector at all times.
It does not matter which of the two bodies is closest to the earth; the configuration is
stable either way (Figure 4-11).

Figure 4-11 Reversed satellite attitude.

The configurational ambiguity may create a problem when deploying the satellite after
launch. To illustrate this point, we will pretend that the spacecraft in Figure 4-11 is the
Russian Gonyets telecommunications satellite. The satellite is launched with the
telescopic mast compressed to fit inside the heatshield of the launch vehicle. After
injection into orbit, the mast is deployed by telecommand, and the satellite may adopt
either one of the attitudes in Figure 4-10 and Figure 4-11. The attitude in Figure 4-11 is
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4 / Attitude Management

olo
gy
.

not desired, because the antenna is pointing straight out into space instead of at the earth.
The only way to rectify the situation is to retract the mast using the onboard electric
motor, wait for the satellite to tumble out of sync, and redeploy the mast. With luck, the
satellite will now align itself as shown in Figure 4-10; if not, the procedure has to be
repeated until it does.
Let us analyze the physics of gravity gradient. Assume that the satellite immediately after
injection and deployment finds itself in the attitude shown in Figure 4-12.

CoM
r

F2

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fT

ec

F1

hn

Figure 4-12 Differential gravitational pull.

If the auxiliary mass is closest to the earth, then the gravitational pull F1 will be greater
than F2. Consequently a moment M will appear around the satellites centre of mass
(CoM) which will endeavour to align the mast with the gravitation vector (parallel with
the range vector r).
The torque Tgg occasioned by the two forces F1 and F2 is obtained as follows (Figure
4-13):
3
Tgg = 3 (I z I x )sin(2)
(4.25)
2r
with

and

116

= the gravitational parameter = 398,601 km3/s2


r = range distance from the earths centre (km)
= angle between the satellite's "long" axis of symmetry and the radius vector
Iz = the satellites moment of inertia around the z-axis
Ix = the satellites moment of inertia around the x-axis
Iz >> Ix

4 / Attitude Management
z
Iz

Ix
x

olo
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.

Tgg
r

ec

Figure 4-13 Moments of inertia.

hn

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fT

Eq 4.25 tells us that the torque Tgg is maximum when = 45 deg, that it is proportional to
the magnitude of the difference between Iz and Ix, and that it becomes rapidly weaker with
altitude. It follows that gravity gradient stabilization is most effective for low-orbiting
satellites that can afford carrying a long, deployable boom with a heavy tip mass. The
torque itself is weak. As an example, a satellite in a circular orbit at 600 km altitude with
Iz = 40 kg m2 and Ix = 10 kg m2 will experience a maximum stabilizing torque Tgg = 5.3
10-5 Nm.

The fact that the main body has more mass than the auxiliary body does not mean that F2
> F1. Think of it this way: the CoM is weightless in space, meaning that its gravitational
and centrifugal forces are in balance. The auxiliary mass in Figure 4-12 is travelling
around the earth at the same speed as the CoM, but it is closer to the earth. Therefore it
experiences a greater gravitational pull and a smaller centrifugal force, which means that
the gravitational pull predominates. For the main body the opposite is true, i.e. the
centrifugal force predominates over the gravitational. So while the auxiliary body is
attracted to the earth, the main body wants to head out into space. The net result is a
moment about the CoM as shown in Figure 4-12.
Note that, when = 90 deg, the two satellite bodies travel along exactly the same orbit
trajectory; hence there is no gravity gradient torque. However, this attitude is unstable,
since the slightest change in due to drift will activate the gravity gradient phenomenon.
Despite these major advantages, gravity gradient is not commonly used as a stabilization
method. There are three primary reasons for this:

The pointing accuracy is poor (approximately 5 around the nadir axis, as


compared to 0.001 - 1 using gyroscopic properties);

Only the nadir axis is stabilized, not the other body axes, to the detriment of earthimaging instruments and antenna coverage;

The technique only works well in low earth orbit where the gravitational pull is
strong.
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4 / Attitude Management
That said, the method remains attractive for a select number of low-budget, low-orbit
missions where the cost of developing, building and launching the satellite(s) is of greater
concern than the pointing accuracy.

olo
gy
.

There are two reasons for the poor pointing accuracy:

a) Any pendulum oscillation around the stable direction following deployment will
continue indefinitely unless it is damped.

hn

b) The earths gravity field is not homogeneous, i.e. the gravity vector deviates from
the range vector r as the satellite moves along the orbit due to varying mass
concentrations in and on the earth (mountains, ocean trenches, etc.).

ec

Even if we manage to damp out the oscillation in (a) with a suitable energy dissipator, we
are left with the problem in (b).

fT

Point (b) may be appreciated if we use the analogy with the nut part of a coconut. The nut
is basically round, but its surface has many wrinkles. The same is true for the earths
gravitational field potential at any particular altitude. Eq 4.26 is a fairly accurate
mathematical model of the wrinkled field. The model is based on spherical harmonics,
which is a three-dimensional form of Fourier series.

n
n

R
1
+
(C nm cos m + S nm sin m ) Pnm (sin )
r n = 2 m =0 r

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U (r , , ) =

(4.26)

where U(r,,) = is a potential function describing the gravitational surface at


each point r, , ;
r = radial distance to the satellite;
= latitude; = east longitude;
R = earth's average radius = 6371 km;
Pnm = associated Legendre polynomials;
Cnm and Snm = harmonic coefficients.

The gravitational force acting on a satellite at point r, , above the earth is:
T

1 U
U 1 U
T
F = U =
,
,
= (Fr , F , F )
r r r cos

(4.27)

Eq 4.26 is not as difficult to use as it looks, since the various polynomials and coefficients
are readily available in the literature. That same literature also offers suggestions how far
to expand the series for a given accuracy requirement (e.g. stopping at n = 10). The
purpose of showing Eq 4.26 and 4.27 here is only to illustrate the methodology, which is
also used for modelling the earths magnetic field (Section 4.2.3).
We mentioned earlier that the satellite is only stabilized along the nadir axis, meaning that
the other two axes are free to drift uncontrollably. A degree of control may be introduced
by mounting reaction wheels along the two free axes but in so doing, we have defeated

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the very purpose of having gravity gradient stabilization, namely simplicity and
reliability.

olo
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.

4.2.3. Geomagnetic Stabilization


The earths magnetic field may be approximated by a dipole whose axis forms an angle
11 with the earths spin axis (Figure 4-14). To be more precise, the geomagnetic pole
is currently located at latitude 79N, longitude 109E, and is slowly drifting northwestward.

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fT

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hn

Geographic
Geomagnetic North
North

Figure 4-14 Geomagnetic stabilization of satellites in equatorial and polar orbits.

The strength of the geomagnetic field is given by the magnetic flux density B, measured in
gauss, tesla or Wb/m2. Wb stands for weber. 1 Wb = 1 V-s; 1 tesla = 1 Wb/m2 = 1 kg/A-s2
= 1 N/A-m = 104 gauss.
The magnitude of B in the simplified dipole model may be computed from the following
expression, assuming = 0 deg:
B = 2.6 1011

B0
1 + 3 sin 2 [tesla]
3
r

(4.28)

where r is the radial distance to the satellite in km, is the geomagnetic latitude, and B0 is
the magnetic flux density at the geomagnetic equator on the earths surface = 0.30 gauss
= 3 10-5 tesla. For example, the value of B at 300 km altitude above the equator (r =
6,671 km) is 2.6 10-5 tesla, while at geostationary altitude it is found by setting r =
42,164 km, which gives BGEO 10-7 tesla.
Aligning a satellite along the geomagnetic field lines is straightforward, since all it
requires is a magnet onboard. The method has some validity in the equatorial orbit, while
its usefulness in polar orbit or in any inclined orbit for that matter is dubious due to
the changing orientation of the field lines encountered by the satellite.

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olo
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.

As in the case of gravity gradient stabilization, this technique is only of interest in low
orbits, since the geomagnetic field strength decreases with r3. Also, as with the
gravitational field, the geomagnetic field pattern is far from homogeneous, to the
detriment of the satellites pointing accuracy.
However elegant Eq 4.28 may seem, it is not very useful, partly because of the significant
tilt , and partly due to the fact that the actual field is far from regular. If the earths
gravity field is the shell part of a coconut, then the magnetic field may be likened to a
green pepper vegetable, surface irregularities and all. Here again, spherical harmonics
provide a more precise model of the field in a geographically linked coordinate system:
n +1

(Gnm cos m + H nm sin m ) Pnm (cos * )

(4.29)

hn

n
R
U (r , * , ) = R
n =1 m = 0 r

fT

ec

where U(r,,) is a potential function describing the gravitational surface at


each point r, , ;
= 90 - is the colatitude;
R = 6371 km;
Pnm = associated Legendre polynomials;
Gnm and Hnm = harmonic coefficients.

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Note the strong similarity with Eq 4.26, which models the earths gravitational field, the
main difference being the use of the colatitude rather than the latitude , whereby =
90 - .
The geomagnetic field density acting on a satellite at point r, , above the earth is:
1 U
1 U
U
B = U =
,
,
= ( B r , B , B )
*
r
r sin *
r

(4.30)

While the geomagnetic field is of only marginal interest for stabilization purposes, it is
nevertheless an important element for attitude measurement (Section 4.3) and control
(Section 4.5).

4.3.

Attitude Measurement

Attitude measurement means using sensors to establish the orientation of the satellite in
space, and to relay the sensor output to the ground via telemetry. Attitude determination
is the next step; it involves processing the sensor data to improve measurement accuracy
and place the attitude in an operationally convenient coordinate system (datum).
Operational convenience means facilitating the association of attitude with payload
functions (e.g. taking images or pointing antennas) and housekeeping tasks (e.g. the
preparation of attitude and orbit manoeuvres).
For example, many geostationary communications satellites use an orbit-referenced
coordinate system whose x-axis is aligned with the velocity vector, whose y-axis points
south along the negative orbit normal, and whose z-axis coincides with the nadir vector.
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olo
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.

Other GEO satellites prefer a similar system but earth-referenced, such that the y-axis is
aligned with the earths spin axis rather than the orbits normal. An astronomy spacecraft,
on the other hand, will usually require an inertially fixed coordinate system, with selected
stars as reference points. The attitude sensors are chosen to make the correlation with the
preferred datum as direct as possible.

hn

In most satellite missions, attitude measurement takes place onboard the satellite, while
attitude determination is carried out on the ground. But there are exceptions. For example,
the attitude of a satellite may be measured on the ground by interferometric methods, i.e.
measuring the phase difference between incoming radio carrier signals. Conversely,
attitude determination may be carried out onboard the satellite, in addition to attitude
measurement, by equipping it with GPS receivers (Section 4.3.8).
4.3.1. Definition of Axes

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fT

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We will introduce this Section by recalling the definition of roll, pitch and yaw, since this
terminology is important in the context of body-stabilized satellites. In the case of a ship
or an aircraft, roll is the rocking movement around the axis of symmetry (Figure 4-15).
Pitch is the up-and-down movement of the symmetry axis (Figure 4-16), and yaw is the
sideways movement of the symmetry axis (Figure 4-17). An aircraft uses the ailerons to
achieve roll, the elevators to create pitch, and the rudder to induce yaw.
Elevator

Aileron

Rudder

Aileron

Figure 4-15 Definition of roll.

Figure 4-16 Definition of pitch.

121

hn

Figure 4-17 Definition of yaw (also known as heading).

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4 / Attitude Management

ec

The three rotation angles , and are called Euler angles. They are measured with
reference to the equilibrium axes i.e. level, horizontal flight with the fuselage aligned
with the velocity vector in the case of an aircraft.

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fT

To the extent that a satellite resembles an aircraft, it is easy and logical to use the same
geometrical convention. Let us equate the solar panels with the wings, the spacecrafts
body with the aircrafts fuselage, and the earth-facing side of the spacecrafts body with
the belly of the fuselage (Figure 4-18).

x Roll axis
(= velocity vector in GEO)

z Yaw axis points


towards the earth

Earth

y
Pitch axis completes the
right-handed coordinate system
(= south in case of a GEO satellite)

Figure 4-18 Definition of roll, pitch and yaw for a satellite.

If the satellites geometry offers no analogy with an aircraft, it is up to the designer to


name the axes. Usually one side of the satellite faces the earth; if so, it is common
practice to let z denote the satellite-earth (nadir) axis. A right-handed xyz-convention is
the norm as regards axis sequence and rotational direction.
4.3.2. Attitude Measurement Hardware

Note that there is a difference between a sensor and a detector. The detector registers the
presence and magnitude of incoming radiation (mostly visible or infrared) and converts it
to voltages or currents. The sensor is the structural box that houses one or more detectors.

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It may also include optics and processors for performing power and signal conversion, as
needed.

olo
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.

The sensors most commonly used are sun sensors, earth sensors, star trackers,
magnetometers, gyros and GPS receivers. The satellite designers choice among these
sensors depends mainly on the payloads preferred datum, the stabilisation method (spin
or body), the required measurement accuracy, and the cost.

hn

The first three sensors measure the angle between the satellites axes and the vector from
the satellite towards a celestial target. The position of the targets is either fixed in inertial
space (i.e. the stars), or moves in space in a highly predictable fashion (the sun and the
earth). Because the latter two sensors only resolve the attitude with respect to one or two
of the satellites three axes, it is necessary to embark at least two of the sensors and to
combine their measurements. This will be explained below.

fT

ec

The following sensors are used on body-stabilised satellites. The magnetometer is


relatively simple in construction, and is also less accurate. It measures the magnitude and
direction of the instantaneous geomagnetic field vector in the body coordinate system.
Since the geomagnetic field has been fairly well mapped, it is possible to translate the
measurements to a more convenient terrestrial datum.

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The gyro is used during attitude manoeuvres and measures the inertial attitude of all three
satellite axes with respect to the starting position.
GPS receivers are flown on a trial basis to combine attitude measurement and
determination directly onboard the satellite.
Links to detailed hardware data sheets are found in Appendix E.
4.3.3. Sun Sensors

The sun is an ideal attitude reference for satellites in earth orbit because of its high
luminosity and small apparent size (0.5 as seen from the earth).
In its most basic form, a sun sensor is simply a solar cell, whereby the cell output current
is proportional to the solar incidence angle s according to the cosine rule. As illustrated
in Figure 4-19, the measurement is ambiguous, since the incoming sunlight may lie
anywhere along the mantle of the cone.

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olo
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.

Ambiguity cone

Iout = I0 cos s

Figure 4-19 Solar cell as basic sun sensor.

hn

Solar cell

fT

ec

This type of sun sensor is sometimes mounted on the solar panels of GEO satellites to
facilitate sun tracking. The ambiguity is of no consequence in this case if the panels only
have one degree of freedom of rotation.

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A more sophisticated sun sensor is shown in Figure 4-20. Sunlight enters through a
square window on the sensor wall and is projected onto the four solar cells below. The
matrix of cells yields four different output currents, whose ratios determine the solar
incidence angle with respect to the sensors three body axes.

I1

I2

I3

I4

Figure 4-20 Static sun sensor with four solar cells.

In the above example, cell 1 is illuminated 70%, cell 2 30%, cell 3 60% and cell 4
100%. Note that this sensor only measures the direction of the sun vector relative to the
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4 / Attitude Management
three body axes. It still does not tell us how the satellite is rotated around the sun vector.
Therefore it does not by itself allow us to determine the satellites attitude
unambiguously, so we are left with three ambiguity cones, one for each body axis.

olo
gy
.

The accuracy of the cell-based sensors is limited to a few degrees, mainly because of the
flatness of the cosine curve near its peak. The FOV is similarly limited to 170, since
sunlight is not absorbed by the cell at grazing incidence angles due to total reflexion.

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Slit openings

hn

Several sun sensor designs exist for greater accuracy, with 0.1 being readily achievable.
The one presented in Figure 4-21 is called a V-slit sun sensor.

Figure 4-21 V-slit sun sensor.

The working of the sensor is easiest to understand if we imagine it mounted on the


cylindrical wall of a spin-stabilized satellite, and if we project the sunlight entrance slits
onto a surrounding sphere (Figure 4-22). Using a sphere is justified on the grounds that
the satellite changes its attitude by nodding around its centre of mass.

90-s

90-s

90-

Figure 4-22 V-slits projected onto sphere whose spin-axis


coincides with that of the satellite.

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Note that the satellite is inside the sphere looking out, and that we are viewing the same
sphere from the outside.

hn

olo
gy
.

The quantity we wish to reconstitute is the solar incidence angle s, i.e. the angle between
the sun vector and the satellites spin axis. With the satellite and hence the sphere
spinning at an angular velocity , the sun will trace a circle on the sphere as per the
dotted contour. The trace first crosses the tilted slit, and t seconds later the vertical slit.
A detector inside the sensor records the slit crossings. If the slits form an angle with
each other, we arrive at the spherical triangle shown enlarged on the right. All the sides
are great circles, so we may use spherical trigonometry (see Appendix A) to derive s.
Napiers rule gives us:
tan
s = tan 1

sin( t )

ec

(4.31)

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fT

For example, take a satellite spinning at = 60 rpm = 2 rad/s. The spacecraft comes
equipped with a V-slit sun sensor whose slits are inclined at an angle = 30. Figure 4-23
plots the sun angle s versus the measured transition time t. From the diagram it is
evident that the lower limit of measurable sun angle equals the angle between the slits.
90

Sun angle s (deg)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

50

100

150

200

Slit transition time t (msec)

Figure 4-23 Sun angle versus slit transition time for V-slit sun sensor,
with the angle between slits = 30 and spin rate = 60 rpm.

The V-slit sun sensor measures the sun angle with respect to only one body axis in this
example the spin axis. The orientation of the spin axis in inertial space remains as
ambiguous as in Figure 4-19, i.e. the spin axis may lie anywhere on the mantle of the
ambiguity cone whose apex half-angle = s. To resolve this ambiguity, we need a second,
independent sensor (see Section 4.4.2).
It is possible to use a V-slit sun sensor on a body-stabilized spacecraft. In the absence of a
spinning motion, the sun is made to sweep across the entrance slits by placing an
oscillating mirror in front of them. Since the sensor measures the sun angle with respect
to only one body axis, a second sensor may be mounted perpendicular to the first to
obtain the sun angle relative to a second body axis (Figure 4-24). Placing the second

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hn

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.

sensor on a different body face is not a good idea, since both sensors might not see the
sun at the same time, and the attitude may drift in the meantime.

Figure 4-24 V-slit sun sensors on a body-stabilized satellite.

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fT

The sun sensors described so far are analogue by nature, and the sensor output must
therefore be digitized before transmission to the ground via telemetry. Digital sun sensors
eliminate this step in the data relay chain. A sensor developed by Adcole allows the
sunlight to enter through an entry slit and project onto a floor, which has rectangular holes
(reticle slits) laid out in a Gray-code pattern. The sun beam thus coded falls onto
underlying photo detectors, which produce electrical 1s, and 0s (Figure 4-25).

Figure 4-25 7-bit digital sun sensor.


Credit: Adcole Corporation

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4 / Attitude Management
The field of view (FOV) of this sensor is in the order of 60 x 60. In Gray-code, only one
bit changes from one transition to the next, whereas in binary code there can be several
bit changes. The Gray-code is therefore more resilient to bit errors.2

olo
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.

4.3.4. Earth Sensors

With most satellites being focussed on the earth, our planet is an obvious target for
attitude referencing. The reference vector of interest is the one from the satellite to the
earths centre. However, finding the centre is not trivial, given the size of the earths disc
as seen from a satellite. The earths disc subtends an angle
2 = 2 sin-1[R/(R+h)]

hn

(4.32)

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fT

ec

at the satellite according to Figure 4-26.

Figure 4-26 Earths disc as seen from a satellite.

For example, seen from a GEO satellite, the earth subtends 2 = 2 sin[R/(R+h] = 2
sin(6,378 / 42,164) = 17.4. From a 600 km LEO, 2 = 132. To make matters worse,
only the daylight portion of the globe is illuminated in the visible spectrum, and the edge
of the disc (the limb) is rather fuzzy due to the atmosphere.
To overcome the illumination problem, infrared detectors are favoured over detectors
operating in the visible spectrum, since the earth radiates heat day and night. The CO2
portion of the IR band (14 16 m) is preferred due to its relatively flat emission profile,
and is bandpass-filtered by the sensor optics.
A simple method of finding the centre of the earths disc is shown in Figure 4-27.

Gray-codes are useful in analogue-to-digital (A/D) converters, since a slight change in location only
affects one bit. Using a typical binary code, several bits could change, and slight misalignments between
reading elements might cause wildly incorrect readings. To illustrate this point, decimal 63 = binary
0111111, while decimal 64 = binary 1000000, i.e. a change of 6 bits.

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I1

I3

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.

I2

I4

(a)

(b)

(c)

hn

Figure 4-27 Static infrared earth sensor.

fT

ec

Four IR detectors in a star configuration view the earth. In (a) the FOV of the detectors
are all covered at around 50%, so the centre of the earth must lie in the middle between
them. In (b) one detector is covered 100%, another 0%, and the remaining two 20%. In
analogy with the static sun sensor in Figure 4-20, the ratios of the IR detector outputs I1,
I2, I3, I4 give us an idea where the centre of the earth has moved relative to the body axis.
The same applies to (c).

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This type of sensor is suitable for body-stabilized satellites. It permits simultaneous


attitude angle determination around two body axes (i.e. pitch and roll in the picture, but
not yaw). However, because of the poor definition of the earths limb and the relative
weakness of the IR radiation, the accuracy of this earth sensor is limited to a few degrees.
From the accuracy viewpoint, a better approach to finding the centre is to somehow
measure the length of a scan chord from limb to limb, and then divide that distance in
half. This can be done by letting an infrared sensor scan the earths disc and recording the
limb transitions (Figure 4-28).

Figure 4-28 IR earth sensor type Dual-Beam Horizon Crossing Indicator.

The earth sensor works on the principle that crossing the earths limb is detectable, since
the IR radiation goes abruptly from around 4 K to 293 K in the transition from space to
earth and vice versa. By allowing the IR sensor to scan the earths disc, we record two
such limb crossings in each spin period, as well as the time difference t between them.
The chord length is therefore = t.
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.

The optics of each telescope have a FOV of approximately 1. The germanium lenses
contain a filter for letting the CO2 spectral band through. The radiation is detected by a
bolometer. A bolometer measures changes in the heat input from the surroundings and
converts this into a measurable quantity such as a voltage or current.
The earth sensor described above is known as a horizon crossing indicator (HCI) or,
alternatively, a pencil-beam IR sensor.

hn

If the sensor has two detectors which are mutually inclined (Figure 4-28), we obtain two
chords having arc lengths 1 = t1 and 2 = t2, as suggested in the right-hand
illustration. The two chord lengths will be equal only if the satellites spin axis is truly
perpendicular to the earth vector. Intuitively, therefore, we may conclude that the ratio of
unequal chord lengths is proportional to the spin axis offset from that reference.

fT

ec

As in Figure 4-22, the principle is easiest to understand if we choose a spin-stabilized


satellite and circumscribe it with a sphere (Figure 4-29). We seek to calculate the earth
angle e between the satellites spin axis and the nadir vector.

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t2

e
e+

Nadir

t1

e-

e+

Figure 4-29 Calculation of the earth angle e.

In Figure 4-29, we are again looking at the circumscribed sphere from the outside,
recalling that the satellite is located at the centre of the sphere. The shaded circle is the
earths disc projected onto the sphere, and the scanned chords are shown as thick black
lines. The angle is the angular equivalent of the earths radius R as per Eq 4.28. The two
IR telescopes are inclined degrees to each other (Figure 4-28). Knowing , , , t1
and t2, we may now compute e from the magnified spherical triangles to the right in
Figure 4-29. Using the cosine rule:
cos = cos e sin + sin e cos cos ( t2)

(4.33)

cos = - cos e sin + sin e cos cos ( t1)

(4.34)

Eliminating cos , we arrive at the following equation:

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2 tan
e = tan 1

cos( t1 ) cos( t 2 )

olo
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.

(4.35)

Figure 4-30 shows e for various chord length ratios t1 / t2 pertaining to a GEO
satellite spinning at = 60 rpm 2 rad/s, and having the two IR telescopes canted at
= 10.
93
92

hn

91
90
89
88

ec

Earth angle e (deg)

94

87
0.1

1.0

fT

86

10.0

Chord ratio 1 /2 = t
t2
1/

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Figure 4-30 Earth angle e as a function of scan chord length ratio.

The corresponding geometry is shown in Figure 4-31.

t2

t2

t1

t1

Figure 4-31 Scan chords in perspective.

To be able to discriminate between the two chord lengths, should be as large as


possible. But note that must be << if both telescopes are to view the earth
simultaneously and meaningfully. In the GEO case, = 8.7, and our chosen = 5. For
a LEO satellite, with in the region of 75, should of course be much greater.
Note that the measurable e range is limited to ( ) degrees, or (8.7 - 5) = 3.7
in our example (as confirmed by the diagram in Figure 4-30).

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t1 = 1947 milliseconds;

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.

Numerical example: In the telemetry from our sample GEO satellite (r = 42,164 km, = 60
rpm, = 5), we find the following IR sensor readouts:
t2 = 2493 milliseconds

Using Eq 4.35, calculate the angle e between the satellites spin axis and the nadir vector.

From Eq 4.32 we obtain = 8.7, and we know that = 2 rad/s. Insertion in Eq 4.35 yields:
e = 88.8

ec

hn

Let us verify this result by taking the ratio t1 / t2 = 1947/2493 = 0.781. Entering this ratio in
Figure 4-30 does indeed give us e = 88.8.

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fT

As with the V-slit sun sensor, an IR sensor may be adapted for use onboard bodystabilized satellites by placing an oscillating mirror in front of the telescopes (Figure
4-32). The sensor measures the roll angle ( = e) or the pitch angle ( = e) directly
relative to the nadir vector, depending on how the sensor is mounted on the spacecraft
body.
Incoming
light

Fixed
mirror

Rotating
mirror

Lens

Bolometer

Figure 4-32 Dual-beam horizon crossing indicator.

The two beams are formed by capturing the incoming IR radiation on two fixed mirrors.
These are offset from 45 so as to create the equivalent of the cant angle .
In the case of a sensor mounted for measuring roll, establishing the pitch angle e is a
little more complicated (and vice versa for a pitch-measuring sensor). It may be
calculated by timing the space-earth crossing and the earth-space crossing using the
satellite clock. The mid-time between the two crossings gives us the onboard actual time
of crossing the centreline of the earths disc. By taking the difference between this time
and the reference time for zero pitch, and multiplying by , we have the pitch angle.
Thus, as in the case of the static IR earth sensor, the horizon crossing indicator allows us
to measure the attitude in terms of pitch and roll, but not yaw, because the earth appears
to the sensor as a contourless disc (Figure 4-33). In order to measure the yaw angle, the
sensor would have to be able to recognize landmarks on the earth's surface and correlate

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.

these with maps held in memory. This would call for a very complex instrument. As we
shall see in Section 4.4.2, it is better to simply add another attitude sensor that uses a
different celestial target.

Roll
angle

Pitch error

hn

Yaw angle

ec

Pitch
angle

fT

Roll error

Figure 4-33 The HCI measures pitch and roll errors, but not yaw.

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Nonetheless, the yaw angle e may be obtained in a roundabout way. If we examine


Figure 4-34 carefully, we notice something interesting. The roll angle error becomes a
yaw angle error quarter of an orbit later. This phenomenon is called quarter-orbit
coupling between roll and yaw, and is exploited to correct yaw errors without having to
add another attitude sensor. The disadvantages with this technique is that the roll and yaw
measurements cannot be made simultaneously. For example, in GEO it is necessary to
wait 6 hours between the roll and yaw measurements, during which time the attitude may
already have drifted in some unpredictable manner. If this time delay is unacceptable, it
will indeed be necessary to add another sensor e.g. a sun sensor or a star tracker in
order to determine the yaw angle.

Figure 4-34 Quarter-orbit coupling between roll and yaw.

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4.3.5. Star Trackers

olo
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.

Star sensors are a relatively new addition to the stable of attitude sensors. The early
models were heavy, bulky, costly and consumed a great deal of electric power. Even so,
they showed potential because of their extremely high measurement accuracy as low as
1 arcsecond (1/3600, compared to 0.5 - 1 for sun and earth sensors).

hn

In recent years these drawbacks have been largely overcome, and the sensors are finding
use onboard commercial as well as scientific and military satellites. As the name
suggests, star sensors use star constellations in the universe as their attitude datum. Their
high accuracy is made possible because of the constancy of the stellar geometry and the
pinprick size of the stars.

fT

ec

There are two main types of star sensors, namely star scanners and star trackers. Star
scanners are used on spin-stabilized vehicles such as sounding rockets, and will not be
dealt with further in this book. Star trackers keep a map of a certain segment of the
universe in memory and compare this map with the star constellation visible through the
sensor FOV. If the comparison is successful, the satellites attitude is defined in roll, pitch
and yaw (Figure 4-35). The FOV is typically 30.

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FOV

Figure 4-35 Star tracker map comparison.

To the left in Figure 4-35, the faint background star map shows the orientation that
represents the nominal attitude for the spacecraft. The sharp foreground map is what the
star sensor actually sees. To keep the scope of the comparison effort down, the detector is
calibrated to only track stars above a certain luminosity threshold, as shown in bold. The
up-down displacement is a measure of the roll error , the sideways displacement
corresponds to the pitch error , and the yaw error may be estimated from the rotation
angle between the two frames.
The yaw measurement is sometimes ignored due to its modest accuracy. In the roll and
pitch measurements, the target stars are at 90 to the body axes in question, whereas in
the yaw mode the radial distance is less than half the FOV, or 15 at best (if the radius
were = 0, there would be no yaw readout at all). Therefore the star tracker is often treated
as a two-axis measurement sensor, just like the sun sensor and the earth sensor.
Figure 4-36 is an exploded view of a typical star sensor. A baffle keeps stray light from
the sun out of the optics. The star pattern within the FOV is projected onto a charge

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.

coupled device (CCD) or an active pixel sensor (APS), which is basically a plate covered
with a matrix of maybe 500 x 500 photosensitive semiconductor elements. The electrical
output from the illuminated elements is filtered to isolate the target stars from the stellar
background. It is then fed to a microprocessor, which compares the observed star
configuration with a map stored in memory.

fT

Optics

ec

Baffle

CCD or APS

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Microprocessor

Figure 4-36 Star tracker.

We are familiar with APS technology from cell phone cameras and web cameras. In
space applications, it is superceding CCD technology mainly because it is less prone to
damage from sun and moon blinding, should the star tracker be pointing at these celestial
bodies. Many satellites carry two or even three star trackers angled relative to each other,
partly for redundancy reasons and partly to be able to continue making attitude
measurements even if one tracker is blinded.
Storing star maps costs memory, and the processing effort grows exponentially with the
number of stars to be compared, so there is an incentive to restrict the coverage. Modern
star sensors are able to map up to 50 stars simultaneously, of which about 20 are used for
attitude determination.
4.3.6. Magnetometers

The strength and direction of the earths magnetic field at various heights is fairly well
known as a result of numerous satellite measurements. Knowing the orbital elements, and
by measuring the xyz components of the instantaneous field vector, the satellites attitude
may be determined. That said, our knowledge of the field is not perfect and, besides, it
changes slightly over time, so the attitude determination accuracy is limited to a few
degrees.
Magnetometers are light, small, inexpensive and do not consume much electric power. A
commonly used device in satellite applications is the fluxgate magnetometer (Figure
4-37). In a nutshell, this magnetometer consists of two electric coils wound around a
common core. One coil is fed with an alternating current, while the other coil is subject to
electromagnetic induction and is connected to a detector. The earths magnetic field
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distorts the a.c. in such a way that a measurable induction voltage is generated between
the two coils. The voltage is proportional to the magnitude of the field. By installing three
orthogonal magnetometers in the satellite, the three components Bx, By, Bz of the field
vector B are obtained.

Earth

Polarity

hn

+
Reversed polarity

Interference

time

fT

ec

Induced amplitude

Amplitude

time

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Figure 4-37 Principle of operation of the fluxgate magnetometer.

The magnetometer measures the instantaneous field vector in the chosen frame but, as
with the sun and earth sensors, an ambiguity remains regarding the rotation of the satellite
around that vector. That ambiguity can be resolved by making successive attitude
measurements as the field vector changes (refer to Figure 4-14).
4.3.7. Gyroscopes

In Section 4.2 we discussed the gyroscope at some length in the context of attitude
stabilization, and we will return to it in Section 4.5 under the heading attitude control.
Gyros also play an important role in attitude measurement, where they are used in the
same manner as in aircraft, namely to measure short-term attitude changes with respect to
an initial orientation. Thus, the gyro differs from other attitude sensors in that its
reference is unrelated to the relative position of celestial bodies such as the earth, the sun
and the stars.

Four different gyro technologies are found in satellite engineering, namely spinning
gyros, ring lasers, hemispherical resonating surfaces and laser fibre optic bundles. The
first two being most common, we will focus on these in the following.

4.3.7.1.

Spinning Gyros

Spinning gyros, also known as iron gyros, are the oldest in satellite applications. The gyro
consists of a rotating wheel, which reacts to imposed rotations in some measurable
manner. There are rate gyros which measure angular displacement velocity, and rate
integrating gyros which measure actual angular displacement. Figure 4-38 illustrates the
functional principle of the latter.

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.

H = I G z

hn

ec

fT

Figure 4-38 Rate integrating gyro (RIG).

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The gyro wheel has a moment of inertia I around the spin axis and is spinning at a rate
G. The wheels angular momentum is therefore H = I G and is directed along the z-axis
in the Figure. When the satellite body turns at a rate B around the y-axis, the gyro tries
to resist the movement. But the satellite is much bigger and heavier than the gyro, and
will prevail. Therefore, the wheel experiences the turning movement as a forced torque T.
But instead of precessing around the y-axis, the wheel's spin axis tries to align its
momentum vector H with the torque vector T, i.e. it will precess around the x-axis.
A rate integrating gyro (RIG) works on the same principle as the rate gyro (RG), and the
attitude angle is calculated by integrating the angular rate over the elapsed time period t:

= 0 +  dt = 0 + b dt

(4.36)

where 0 is the initial attitude angle before the onset of the disturbance.

To obtain a rate gyro that measures the body rate B induced by the torque, we restrain
the spin axis with a torsion spring having the spring constant k2 and giving rise to a
counter-moment M. The deflection will stop at an angle , which is directly proportional
to the body angular rotation speed B (Figure 4-39).

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.

H = I G z

fT

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hn

Figure 4-39 Rate gyro (RG).

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Looking at the balance of moments, we have:

B x H = - B G I x
M = -k2 x = -

or

k 2
G I

(4.37)

as long as B and H remain approximately perpendicular.

Thus the RG is an excellent tool for measuring body rotation rates around the axis shown.
Note that an RG does not provide attitude angles as such, but only the rate of change of
attitude.
To measure rotation angles or rates around all three body axes, three orthogonal RIGs or
RGs may be installed.
RGs are useful for triggering corrective action of rapid attitude disturbances, such as
active nutation damping. RIGs help spacecraft controllers monitor the satellites attitude
during short periods when other sensors may be incapacitated (e.g. sun sensors during
eclipse). They are also used together with sun and earth sensors to resolve the attitude
ambiguity around the yaw axis. Given that RIGs have a tendency to drift at typically
0.001 degrees per hour, their duty cycles are by necessity rather short. Eliminating the
drift requires calibration using the other onboard sensors when available.
Spinning gyros are compact and consume only modest amounts of electric power. The
technology is well tried and tested, but the moving parts represent a reliability hazard
over the solid state equivalents, such as the ring laser gyros.

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4.3.7.2.

Ring Laser Gyros

olo
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.

Because the ring laser gyro (RLG) has no moving parts, it excels over the spinning
variety in terms of reliability and weight.

hn

The functional principle is shown in Figure 4-40. A laser beam splitter divides the light
from a laser emitter equally between two semicircular fibres. At the opposite fibre ends
the light is recombined inside a phase meter. As long as there is no spacecraft body
rotation around the axis pointing towards the reader, each quantum of light will travel the
same distance, and the phase meter will show zero. If a rotation is induced counterclockwise, the quantum travel distance d1 becomes longer than the distance d2. The
distance difference x = d1 - d2 translates into a phase shift between the two laser beams
which is measurable by the phase meter. The output from the meter is therefore directly
proportional to the body rotation rate b.

fT

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Phase meter

d1

Quantum
of light

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d2
R

Laser emitter

Figure 4-40 Ring laser gyro.


The solid rectangles show the position of the units at the
beginning of the quantums journey. The dotted contours
indicate the position of the units at the end of the journey.

To increase the path length and hence the resolution of the instrument, it is common
practice to let the light travel through several hundred circular loops before arriving at the
phase meter.
Let us derive a mathematical expression that relates b to our other known parameters,
namely the radius R of the ring and the speed of light c. (Note that, according to the
theories of relativity, the speed of light is the same regardless of any movement or
rotation of the medium.). We know that:
d1 = 2R + R + bR t1 = R[(2N+1) + b t1]

(4.38)

where t1 is the travel time for the light quantum though branch 1, and N is the number of
fibre-optic loops. Since N > 100, we may replace 2N +1 with 2N. Thus:

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d1 2RN + b R t1

We also know that d1 = c t1. If we solve for t1, we have:


2NR
c b R

olo
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.

t1 =

Similarly, the travel time t2 through branch 2 is defined by:


2NR
c + b R

hn

t2 =

The difference in travel distance is therefore:

c2 b R 2

Since 2R2 << c2, this equation may be simplified:

b R 2
c

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x 4N

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c b R 2

fT

x = ct = c(t1 t 2 ) = 4N

The phase shift is a function of x:


= 2

R2
x
= 8 2 N b

(4.39)

where is the wavelength of the laser ( 0.63 m for a helium-neon laser). Finally, given
that the output voltage of a phase meter equals the input voltage multiplied by the cosine
of half the phase difference:

U out = U in cos

R2

= U in cos 4 2 N b
c
2

(4.40)

R is typically in the range 10 20 cm. Figure 4-41 shows Uout/Uin for various values of R
and b, with N = 200.

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Ring radius
(cm)

1.0

10

0.8

12

olo
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.

Phase meter Uout/Uin

1.2

14

0.6

16

0.4

18
20

0.2
0.0
0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

hn

Body angular rate b (rps)

0.20

ec

Figure 4-41 Ring laser gyro output versus ring radius and body angular velocity.

fT

Mirrors are often used instead of fibre optics. The mirrors are mounted in the corners of a
triangle with equal sides to create a closed laser circuit. The mathematical treatment is
similar to the above, except for Eq 4.38 which has to reflect the triangular rather than the
circular geometry.

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4.3.8. GPS

Experiments have shown that GPS may be used for autonomous onboard attitude
determination in all three body axes. The underlying technique is interferometry, whereby
an incoming GPS carrier signal is picked up by multiple, widely separated satellite
antennas. The phase difference between the antenna outputs provides a
straightforward measure of attitude around the axis perpendicular to the line connecting
the two antennas (Figure 4-42).

Wave
front

Antenna

Antennas

Antenna

Figure 4-42 Attitude measurement using interferometry.


In the illustration, 270.

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GPS transmits at f = 1.5 GHz, which corresponds to a wavelength = c/f = 20 cm. If the
distance between the receiving antennas onboard the satellite is d, then x/ = /2, or:

Therefore:

olo
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.

x =


x
1
= sin

2d
d

= sin 1

(4.41)

ec

hn

For example, in Figure 4-42 with d = 1 m and = 270, we obtain = 8.63. This is the
angle between the wave front and one edge of the satellites body, a measurement that is
not immediately useful. By installing two more antennas as shown in Figure 4-42, we
have constructed an orthogonal baseline which yields three angles 1, 2, 3 around the
satellites body axes. These may be converted to direction cosines for the satellite GPS
vector, whose orientation in the earth-fixed frame is determined from measurements by
the satellites onboard GPS receiver.

fT

From Eq 4.41 we conclude that the measurement accuracy improves, the further the
antennas are separated from each other, i.e. the longer the distance d. Accuracies of 0.1
0.5 are frequently quoted in manufacturers data sheets.

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Despite the obvious attraction of using GPS for attitude measurement, the method is
associated with some operational difficulties. Since GPS spacecraft have been designed
for terrestrial navigation, their antenna beams are focussed on the earths disc.
Consequently, satellites will experience loss of signal when moving behind the disc into
space, as seen from GPS. Given the criticality of continuous attitude monitoring for
payload performance, occasional GPS outages will also cause a loss of pointing accuracy
over time. This is particularly true for satellites in orbits higher than those of GPS, for
reasons explained in Section 5.2.5. Taken together, these signal losses may prove
unacceptable for some satellite missions, or may at least necessitate the provision of backup sensors.
4.3.9. Attitude Sensor Summary

Table 4-2 provides a summary of the uses and accuracy of the various attitude sensors
described above.

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Earth acquisition
Earth maintenance
Substitute for sun or earth sensor
LEO satellites
During eclipse transits
During eclipse transits
Experimental for autonomous
onboard attitude determination

fT

GPS

Sun acquisition
Sun maintenance
Sun maintenance

5
0.1
0.05

$
$$$
$$$

5
0.1
0.01
3

$
$$$
$$
$

hn

Sun sensors
Solar cell
V-slit
Digital
Earth sensors
Static
Horizon crossing
Star tracker
Magnetometer
Gyros
Spinning
Ring laser

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.

Common applications

ec

Sensor type

Achievable
pointing
Price
accuracy
(deg)

0.01
0.005

$$
$$$

0.5

$$

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Table 4-2 Comparative attitude sensor characteristics.

4.4.

Attitude Determination

In Section 4.3 we focussed on attitude measurement. Having received raw measurement


data from the attitude sensors, we are now in a position to perform attitude determination,
which allows us to reconstitute the attitude in an operationally convenient coordinate
system. Strictly speaking, this subject is outside the scope of the present book, since
attitude determination usually takes place on the ground rather than onboard the satellite.
We will therefore limit the discussion to an outline of the approach.
4.4.1. Measurement Data Filtering

Before undertaking the necessary coordinate transformation, we must first tidy up the raw
data, i.e. filter out the measurement noise as far as possible. Data is corrupted as a result
of optical, mechanical and electrical imperfections in the sensors themselves, as well as
from external factors such as mounting misalignment or diffuseness of the earths
horizon. Some of these problems are systematic and can be eliminated through calibration
based on test results before launch. Others are random in nature.
Much of the random noise may be removed by mathematical filtering methods. These
employ statistical algorithms to find solutions that converge on the true values. One of the
best-known methods is Kalman filtering, a recursive solution of the least-squares
problem. For a tutorial in Kalman filtering, go to:
www.cs.unc.edu/~welch/kalman/Levy1997/index.html (click on the PDF file)

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4 / Attitude Management

4.4.2. Resolving Attitude Ambiguities

olo
gy
.

In the functional description of attitude sensors, we pointed out that most of them are only
able to measure rotations around two of the three satellite body axes, namely pitch and
roll, but not yaw. To find the yaw angle, we must either wait until the reference vector
(e.g. the sun or earth vector) has moved significantly, or else use two separate sensor
types. The difficulty with waiting is that the satellites attitude may have drifted in the
meantime, such that the two sequential measurements no longer refer to the same attitude.
The preferred solution is therefore to perform simultaneous measurements using two
different sensors.

ec

hn

The ambiguity problem is illustrated graphically in Figure 4-43 for the simple case of a
spin-stabilized satellite, whose attitude is defined by a single body axis to orientate
(namely the spin axis). The sample satellite is equipped with a sun sensor and an earth
sensor.

fT

z1

Possible attitudes

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z2
e

Figure 4-43 Ambiguity cones around the sun and earth vector.

Recall that the sun sensor measures the half apex angle s of the ambiguity cone around
the sun vector s, and that the spin axis may lie anywhere on the mantle of the cone. The
same applies to the angle e measured by the earth sensor around the earth vector e.
Looking at Figure 4-43, we realize that the true spin axis attitude vector must coincide
with one of the two intersections between the cones (shown in bold). Though we still
have ambiguity, the attitude has been reduced to two distinct possibilities, namely z1 or
z2. The challenge now is to establish which of the two is true, and which is false. The
ambiguity is resolved either by drawing on prior knowledge of the attitude, by studying
the evolution of z1 and z2 over time (the false solution will wander, while the correct
solution stays relatively constant), or by using data from yet another attitude sensor.
In the case of a body-stabilized satellite, the yaw ambiguity is resolved in the same
manner, i.e. by combining the measurements from the earth sensor and the sun sensor.
4.4.3. The Attitude Matrix

It is often desirable to transfer measured vectors from one reference frame to another
e.g. from a satellite body frame to an inertial frame so as to facilitate the pointing of an
astronomical payload, or from a body frame to a geocentric frame to point
communications antennas. The transformation is executed with the help of a 3 x 3 attitude

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4 / Attitude Management
matrix [A] whose elements are the direction cosines between the axes of the two
coordinate systems (Figure 4-44).
z
vector

w
u
v
y

hn

olo
gy
.

Pointing

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u x u y u z
[ A] = v x v y v z
w x w y w z

fT

In other words,

ec

Figure 4-44 Using the attitude matrix to translate an attitude vector from one coordinate system to
another.

where u x is the cosine of the angle between unit vectors u and x, etc. Any vector V in
the xyz-frame may be transplanted to the uwv-frame via the equation:

Vuvw = [A] Vxyz

Conversely, since the [A] matrix is orthogonal:


Vxyz = [A]-1 Vuvw = [A]T Vuvw

In practice, finding [A] requires some mathematical detective work. The easiest method is
to take some vectors as measured by the satellite in uvw body coordinates, and to compare
these as computed in the xyz reference system. This abstract thought becomes clearer if
we take the practical example of an astronomy satellite where we wish to point an
onboard telescope at a particular star in the universe. The question arises how to orientate
the telescope within the satellites body axes. To find the answer, we must first relate the
body-centered uwv frame to an earth-centered inertial xyz frame via the attitude matrix
[A], as illustrated above in Figure 4-44.

To link the two frames, we may select two unit vectors measured at the same time
onboard the satellite and on earth e.g. the sun vector S and the earth vector E. The sun
and earth sensors give us SB and EB, where the subscript B stands for spacecraft
body. The same vectors are known from ground observations in the inertial reference
frame as SR and ER, since the positions of the sun, the earth and the satellite are well
established at all times. The subscript R stands for reference.

The underlying thought is that if we attach a coordinate i, j, k system to, say, the sun
vector in the body frame, and attach a similar system l, m, n to the sun vector in the
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4 / Attitude Management
reference frame, the resulting transformation matrix [A] between the two systems is the
same as the matrix between systems u, v, w and x, y, z.

olo
gy
.

Let us proceed thus by forming an orthogonal coordinate system ijk within the body
frame as follows:
i = SB
j = SB x EB
k=ixj

iv
jv
kv

iw
j w
k w

fT

We then form a similar system within the reference frame:

ec

iu
[B] = ju
k u

hn

This ijk system is anchored to the sun and earth vectors, and remains fixed to the uvw
frame during the instant of attitude measurement. In matrix form:

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l = SR
m = SR x ER
n=lxm

This lmn system is also anchored to the sun and earth vectors, and remains fixed to the
xyz frame during the period of attitude measurement. In matrix form:
lx

[R ] = m x
nx

ly

my
ny

lz

mz
n z

Therefore, [B] = [A][R], or

[A] = [B][R]-1

(4.42)

Since ijk and lmn are fixed inside their respective principal frames, it follows that [A] is
also the translation matrix from uvw to xyz for as long as the satellites attitude remains
fixed in the reference frame. In our specific example, this means that any inertial earthstar vector may be translated to telescope pointing angles by the simple expedient of [A].

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4 / Attitude Management

ER

0.953

-0.195

0.811

0.095

0.976

-0.308

0.290

0.110

0.497

Length:

1.001

1.003

Length:

[R]

l
SR
0.953
0.095
0.290

m
SR x ER
-0.273
-0.161
0.949

Length:

1.001

1.002

EB

0.528

0.535

-0.660
1.001

ec

[B]

i
SB
0.811
-0.308
0.497

j
SB x EB
-0.063
0.798
0.597

k
ixj
-0.580
-0.515
0.628

0.996

0.996

0.710
-0.581
0.396

0.656
0.347
-0.665

0.250
0.733
0.630

0.998

0.994

0.996

fT

n
lxm
0.137
-0.983
-0.128

u
v
w

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x
y
z

SB

hn

SR

olo
gy
.

Numerical example: At a given moment in time, the sun sensor onboard a satellite yields
T
the following sun unit vector measurement: SB = (0.811, -0.308, 0.497) . Similarly, the earth
T
sensor measures EB = (0.528, 0.535, -0.660) . The corresponding inertial reference vectors
T
are found from ground observations to be SR = (0.953, 0.095, 0.290) and ER = (-0.195,
T
0.976, 0.110) . We have:

Length:
[A]=

[R]
x
y
z

-1

Length:

[B][R]-1

0.953
-0.273
0.137

0.095
-0.161
-0.983

0.290
0.949
-0.128

1.000

0.999

1.001

Length:

The verification of unit vector length at each step is useful to detect computation errors. The
lengths should be equal to 1.000, or at least be close to that value if we are dealing with
actual measurements and their inherent errors.

For example, suppose the satellite is equipped with an astronomical telescope aligned with
the satellites u-axis. We wish to point the telescope at a star located along the inertial xaxis. Determine the required satellite attitude in the inertial reference frame.
T

We have: (u, v, w) = [A] (1, 0, 0) = (0.710, 0.656, 0.250) , i.e. the satellites u-axis should
-1
form an angle = cos (0.710) = 44.8 with the reference x-axis; the v-axis should form
49.0 with the x-axis; and the w-axis should form 75.5 with the x-axis.

The above coordinate system rotation method with its 9-element trigonometric
transformation matrix is cumbersome to use in onboard attitude data processing. A
method based on matrix eigenvectors and quaternions allows the same rotation to be
performed using only 4 algebraic elements, and this is the technique most commonly used
today.
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4 / Attitude Management

olo
gy
.

Quaternions save computing power when performing complex and frequent coordinate
transformations, an important advantage when the calculations are performed by a small
onboard computer. Quaternions look like 4-dimensional vectors and take the form q =
(q1, q2, q3, q4), whereby the individual components are readily computed from the
corresponding rotation angles in the direction cosine matrix.
For example, assume that we want to solve Eq 2.20 for = 30, = 60, i = 15, = 70,
= 50. If we multiply all the matrices, we arrive at the equation

fT

q = (-0.11, 0.07, -0.81, 0.57)

ec

The above matrix may be expressed as a simple quaternion:

hn

0.33 0.94 0.09


r = 0.91 0.34 0.24 rs
0.26
0.00
0.97

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from which we immediately compute the eigenvector E = (-0.13, 0.09, -0.99) and the
rotation angle = 110.7 deg i.e. the whole cumbersome rotation sequence in Eq 2.20
could have been performed in one go by turning the original coordinate system an angle
around the constant E-vector. If this looks like magic, take a look at Appendix B where
matrices, eigenvalues, eigenvectors and quaternions are explained.
On the ground, quaternions are converted to Euler angles for ease of human
interpretation.

4.5.

Attitude Control

Having mastered the art of stabilizing and measuring the attitude of a satellite, we are
now ready to tackle attitude control. Measuring and changing the attitude is a classical
feedback control task, as illustrated in Figure 4-45.

Comparator

Desired attitude
in

G1(s)

G2(s)

G3(s)

Attitude
computer

Actuator

Spacecraft
dynamics

out

Actual attitude
out

H(s)

Actual attitude feedback

Attitude
sensors

Figure 4-45 Simplified attitude control loop.

In this simplified diagram, the desired attitude in is uplinked as quaternions (see


Appendix B) via telecommand to the satellite's attitude computer. This unit sends control

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4 / Attitude Management

olo
gy
.

signals to the actuator, which may consist of thrusters, momentum wheels, a


magnetorquer, etc. The spacecraft reacts dynamically to the actuators angular momentum
impulses, depending on its moments of inertia, and adopts a new attitude. The new
attitude is recorded by the attitude sensor and is fed back to the comparator, where the
difference between the desired and the attained attitudes is recorded for onward transfer
to the computer. Hence = in - out. The attitude control loop minimizes the error by
having the attitude computer sending frequent corrective commands to the actuator.

fT

ec

hn

It is not possible in the present book to cover all the complexities of control theory, so the
reader is referred to standard textbooks on the subject, e.g. Dorf and Bishop [4].
However, an intuitive understanding of the processes is gained by recalling how we drive
a car. The driver desires to travel from A to B. One part of his brain (the attitude
computer) makes his hands (the actuator) turn the steering wheel, and hence the front
wheels of the car, whereby the car aligns itself with the desired heading (car dynamics).
The drivers eyes (attitude sensors) provide feedback to another part of his brain where a
comparison takes place between actual and desired heading. If there is an error, the
mental comparator informs the first part of the brain to take corrective action and so
forth.

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Each block in the feedback loop has a transfer function of some kind. A transfer function
is a mathematical model of the units generic behaviour and is obtained by forming the
ratio between the output and input signals. The functions often take the form of a
differential equation with respect to time. To study the dynamic behaviour of the loop,
one can solve these equations in the time domain a cumbersome task, especially when
the output of one unit is fed into the subsequent unit. The equations are therefore
converted from differential to algebraic using Laplace transforms, thereby moving them
into the frequency domain and making them much easier to solve.

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Time domain versus frequency domain

olo
gy
.

What do we mean by "time domain" and "frequency domain"? In the time domain, we
display a function as it evolves over time, i.e. we show the time parameter along the
horizontal axis and the amplitude along the vertical axis. A typical sinus curve is shown in
this manner. In the frequency domain, we display the frequency of our sinus curve as a
straight vertical line along the horizontal axis, again with the amplitude along the vertical
axis.

hn

To illustrate the point, examine the complex waveform on the right-hand corner wall.
Through Fourier analysis we find that this waveform is the sum of two pure sinus curves
with different frequencies and amplitudes. By lifting out the two sinus curves and projecting
them against the left-hand wall, we observe their location along the frequency axis as well
as their amplitude.

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fT

ec

Amplitude

In Figure 4-45, G1(s), G2(s) and G3(s) are the Laplace transforms of the transfer functions
of the units shown. The transfer function T(s) of the overall loop in the figure is:

T (s) =

G1 ( s) G2 ( s ) G3 ( s )
out ( s )
=
in ( s ) 1 + H ( s )G1 ( s) G2 ( s ) G3 ( s )

(4.43)

The system parameters in Eq 4.43 must be chosen so as to yield a fast, accurate and stable
system. The Attitude Controller may be designed in many different ways, but the one
most commonly used is the Proportional, Integral and Derivative (PID) regulator (Figure
4-46).

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4 / Attitude Management

in

Comparator

olo
gy
.

KI /s

KP

Spacecraft
dynamics

Actuator

out

Attitude
sensor

hn

KD s

out

ec

Figure 4-46 PID regulator (shaded box).

u(t) = KP (t) + KI dt + KD d/dt

fT

The PID regulator acts on the error signal (t) from the comparator according to:
(4.44)

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where u(t) is the output of the regulator in the time domain, and KP, KI, KD are the
proportional, integral and derivative gain settings, respectively. We may place Eq 4.44 in
the frequency domain via the Laplace transform:
u(s) = KP (s) + 1/s KI (s) + s KD (s)

which yields the following transfer function:


G PID ( s ) =

K
u ( s)
= KP + I + KDs
( s )
s

K s2 + KPs + KI
= D
s

(4.45)

Note that integrals in the time domain are represented by 1/s in the frequency domain, and
that derivatives become s. The transfer function remains the same regardless of the shape
ofthe error function , so the output u(s) - and hence u(t) - is obtained by multiplying the
function by the transfer function. After manipulating the Laplace equations in a certain
way, it is possible to convert the equation back to the time domain.
When introduced in place of G1(s) in Eq 4.43, GPID(s) may be tuned using KP, KI, KD to
provide excellent system characteristics in terms of rise time, overshoot, settling time, and
steady-state error (Figure 4-47). Generally speaking, the I-function helps to eliminate the
steady-state error following changes in the input profile, while the D-function improves
the rise time or the stability of the response. (Instability implies that the amplitude of the
swings in Figure 4-47 increases rather than decreases over time.)

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4 / Attitude Management
Amplitude

olo
gy
.

Overshoot

Steady-state error
Target amplitude
Settling time

hn

Time

Figure 4-47 Definition of rise time, settling time, overshoot and steady-state error.

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fT

ec

We will return to the car-and-driver analogy to understand the action of the PID regulator.
The accelerator is a derivator, because pressing the pedal a certain distance x results in a
travel velocity dy/dt. The speedometer is an integrator, since the rotational velocity d/dt
of the wheel translates into a fixed angle of the speedometers needle. The action of the
steering wheel on the orientation of the front wheels is proportional, given that a certain
turn of the steering wheel causes a proportional deflection angle of the front wheels.
In mathematical terms:
dy/dt = KD x
= KI d/dt
= KP

If the gains KD, KI or KP are set too high, the car will react very abruptly, and there is a
good chance that the driver may lose control. Conversely, if the gains are set too low, the
car will act rather sluggishly to the drivers commands, causing him to over-compensate
and again lose control. A good PID regulator provides adequate vehicle response in a
reasonable time and without under- or overshooting the intended goal. (By the way,
whether or not the car stays on the road does not depend on the driver alone, but also on
the vehicles weight, moments of inertia and speed, not to mention the road conditions.
These and many other factors constitute important transfer functions G(s) in the overall
control loop.)
Figure 4-48 offers a graphical illustration of the P, I and D effects in response to an input
signal with ramp-shaped leading and trailing edges.

152

Input

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.

4 / Attitude Management

Proportional
Integral

10

20

30
Time (seconds)

40

50

ec

hn

Derivative

60

fT

Figure 4-48 P, I and D response to a typical change in the input signal.

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Similarly, the attitude control subsystem onboard a satellite has to pilot the spacecraft to
the correct attitude while avoiding instability through over-compensation, taking into
account disturbing forces such as aerodynamic drag, solar pressure and magnetic torques,
the flexing of solar panels, and the sloshing of propellants inside tanks. For these reasons,
the PID regulator is the backbone in modern attitude control. Sidi [10] offers
comprehensive examples of how control theory is implemented in the context of
spacecraft dynamics and control.
4.5.1. Spin-Stabilized Satellites

We will once again begin with spin-stabilized satellites to illustrate the dynamics of
attitude control in the context of gyroscopic stability.
To apply the necessary control torque, we have the option to either operate thrusters in
pulsed mode, or magnetic torque rods (magnetorquers) in continuous mode. But before
we go into the details of control methods, let us examine how a gyro behaves under the
influence of a torque, whatever the origin.
If the spin-stabilized satellite (i.e. the gyro) does not spin, we would expect it to rotate as
shown in Figure 4-49 (a) under the influence of a torque T along the y-axis. Moreover,
the rotation would take the form of an acceleration d2/dt2. If, on the other hand, the
satellite is spinning at a rate around the z-axis, the angular momentum vector H will try
to align itself with the torque vector T, and the alignment velocity d/dt is constant see
Figure 4-49 (b). This phenomenon was discussed in Section 4.3.7.1.

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z

z, H

(b)

hn

(a)

olo
gy
.

Figure 4-49 Torque response without spin and with spin.

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fT

ec

The behaviour of the satellite in Figure 4-49 (b) is indeed surprising. Some technical
museums allow the more adventurous visitors to experiment with bicycle wheels mounted
on a gimbal, in order to convince themselves that this curious dynamic behaviour is real.
Here is an analogous drawing:

Figure 4-50 Bicycle wheel on a gimbal.

The following identities apply:


Figure 4-49 (a):

 ;
T = I y

Figure 4-49 (b):

T = I z  ;

T
Iy

(4.46)

T
 =
I z

(4.47)

 =

Let us now return to the subject of how to generate the control torque for a spinning
satellite.
Torque may be generated by operating a thruster in pulsed mode, whereby the pulse
occurs at the same spin phase during each revolution relative to some fixed reference
(Figure 4-51).

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4 / Attitude Management

olo
gy
.

hn

fT

ec

Figure 4-51 Torque generation using thruster.

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In Figure 4-51, the thrust phase angle has been set by telecommand with reference to
the sun vector, as registered by the V-slit sun sensor. In practice, the telecommand inserts
a binary time tag in a shift register corresponding to . The onboard clock then counts
down from the moment of sun detection to the time contained in the shift register and
triggers the thruster accordingly.
The thrust force vector F gives rise to a torque vector T such that:

T=LxF

(4.48)

where L is the moment arm vector. Usually L is perpendicular to F, and therefore:


T=LF

(4.49)

As mentioned earlier, the satellites momentum vector H will react to the impulse
F t
with a small angular movement aimed at aligning it with the torque vector T.
According to Eq 4.5:
=

LF
t
I z

(4.50)

Something peculiar happens when we conduct successive thruster firings and follow the
progression of (Figure 4-52).

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.

4 / Attitude Management

Figure 4-52 Rhumb line movement of momentum vector.

fT

ec

If the thrust phase angle is less than 180, the tip of the momentum vector describes a
logarithmic spiral which converges on the reference vector in our example the sun
vector. The spiral is also referred to as a rhumb line.

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The Moth Analogy: A moth approaches a lit


candle or lightbulb along a logarithmic spiral. This
is so because the moth sees the light source
through the corner of her eye, at a constant
angle, much in the same way that a satellite
thruster sees the sun (or some other reference
point) through a sensor displaced from it at a
given phase angle.

Figure 4-53 illustrates the process as seen from above.

-90
-90
-90

Thruster impulse response

-90
3
-90
A

Figure 4-53 Three rhumb line trajectories.

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4 / Attitude Management

olo
gy
.

The figure outlines the movement of the tip of the momentum vector in three different
scenarios, namely (1) with = 180, (2) with 90 < < 180, and (3) with = 90. Note
that, in all three cases, the trajectory cuts the spokes of the wheel at constant angles
90. This is a fundamental characteristic of the rhumb line.

It follows that, if we wish to change the satellites attitude from point A to point B, we
must find the rhumb line that connects the two points. The most primitive approach
would be to establish the rhumb line graphically and read off the angle 90. In
practice, the rhumb line is calculated using a complex set of equations. The manoeuvre is
referred to as a slew.

n =1

L N
FL
P ( n) =
Nt

I z n =1
I z

(4.51)

ec

= =

hn

The angular slew distance is obtained by summing up the individual resulting from
each thruster impulse:

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fT

where P(n) is the n-th control impulse due to F t. Conversely, if we know the angular
slew distance and the thrust F, we are in a position to define the thruster pulse duration
t and the total number of pulses N needed to complete the manoeuvre. Note that the
pulses must be very short in relation to the spin period. To understand why, imagine the
extreme case where the pulse is as long as the spin period, in which case the resultant
torque cancels itself out.

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4 / Attitude Management

Numerical example

= 60 rpm 2/60 rad/s


F=1N
= 90 /2 rad

L = r = 0.5 m
2
2
Iz = mr = 250 kg m
m = 2000 kg
Eq 4.51:

Nt =

I z
250 2
=
= 82.3 seconds
FL
60 0.5 2

olo
gy
.

Take a spin-stabilized satellite with the following physical and dynamic characteristics:

Satellites with Momentum Wheels

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4.5.2.1.

fT

4.5.2. Body-Stabilized Satellites

ec

hn

Hence this manoeuvre may be achieved using, say, 823 pulses with a 0.1 second duration
each. With one pulse per spin period, and with each spin period being 1 second long, the
whole manoeuvre would take 823 seconds, or 13.7 minutes. If two thrusters 180 apart
were used, the manoeuvre duration would be cut in half. Either way, the manoeuvre would
actually take slightly longer because of the (small) torque cancellation caused by the finite
pulse duration.

Changing the satellites attitude around the spin axis of the momentum wheel is
straightforward. The law of momentum conservation makes sure that, if the momentum
wheel is accelerated by the amount d/dt in one sense, the satellites body will rotate the
other way around the same axis by d/dt. We have:
H = Isat + Iwheel

(4.52)

Numerical example: A satellite has a bias momentum wheel spinning around the pitch
axis. We wish to change the pitch angle by 30 in 10 seconds. By how much will the spin
2
rate of the momentum wheel have to change during the manoeuvre? Isat = 250 kg m , Iwheel
2
= 2.5 kg m , 1 = 30/10s = 3/s.
Before the manoeuvre:

H = Isat 0 + Iwheel 0 = Iwheel 0,

During the manoeuvre:

H = Isat 1 + Iwheel 1 = Iwheel 0.

= 0 1 =

I sat

I wheel

since 0 = 0.

1 = 300/s = 50 rpm.

Similarly, if we are standing at the edge of a cliff and are about to fall over, we intuitively
rotate our arms to regain balance. We rotate our arms in the same direction as we are
falling in order to create a counter-moment (try it out some time!). Moreover, though we may
not be aware of this, we accelerate the arm-swinging rotation so if we have not recovered
our balance by the time we run out of acceleration stamina, we still topple over the edge.

A momentum wheel may also be used to counteract a continuing disturbance. As an


example, take a cubed-shaped satellite with a square solar panel attached to one side. The

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4 / Attitude Management

fT

ec

hn

olo
gy
.

satellite is equipped with a momentum wheel and is subjected to solar pressure as in


Figure 4-54. Due to the geometric asymmetry, the solar pressure gives rise to a perturbing
moment M around the centre of mass. The momentum wheel compensates for the
disturbance by accelerating in the same direction as M, thereby generating a countertorque T.

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Figure 4-54 Satellite being perturbed by solar pressure.

The solar pressure translates to a force which applies at the centre of pressure of the
panel. The active component is perpendicular to the panel:
F=

S
A cos s
c

(4.53)

where S is the mean solar power density = 1367 W/m2, c is the speed of light = 3 108
m/s, A is the panels surface area, and s is the solar incidence angle. (Eq 4.53 assumes
that the panel absorbs all the sunlight. See Section 12.3.9 for a more comprehensive
analysis.) For example, if A = 1 m2 and s = 30, then F = 3.9 10-6 N. This is a very
small force indeed, as one might expect, but it does affect the satellite over time.
The solar pressure force gives rise to a moment M around the satellites centre of mass:
M = F L

(4.54)

where L is the moment arm, i.e. the distance from the centre of pressure to the centre of
mass. The momentum wheel responds with a counter-torque T:
T = I wheel 

(4.55)

The wheel is thus able to maintain the satellites attitude by equating T with M:

 =

F L
I wheel

(4.56)

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4 / Attitude Management

-6

t =

olo
gy
.

Numerical example: Assume that F = 3.9 10 N, L = 2 m and Iwheel = 3.9 kg m . Then


 = 210-6 rad/s2. Now suppose that the wheel has an initial spin rate of 0 = 5000 rpm and

a maximum allowable spin rate of max = 5500 rpm. How long will it take for the wheel to
saturate, i.e. reach its maximum speed? If the wheel is turning in the same direction as the
disturbing moment M, then:

max 0 (5500 5000) 2 / 60


6
= 26 10 seconds = 303 days.
=
6


2 10

fT

ec

hn

In other words, the wheel will reach momentum saturation in less than a year. A longer
period to saturation could have been achieved by spinning the wheel at 5000 rpm in the
opposite direction initially and letting it decelerate through zero before accelerating to
5500 rpm. This is indeed how some reaction wheels are operated. The difficulty in our
example is that the gyroscopic stiffness would be lost as the momentum wheel transited
through the 0 rpm region, and the whole purpose of having a momentum wheel is to have
momentum bias at all times.

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Once the wheel has saturated, it must be desaturated through a procedure called
momentum dumping. The procedure calls for an external torque to be applied in the
opposite direction to the net perturbing moment, such that the wheel tries to maintain the
satellites attitude by decelerating down to an acceptable spin rate.* The restoring torque
may be generated continuously using a magnetorquer, provided the earths magnetic field
is strong enough at the chosen orbital altitude. A faster and more universally applicable
method is to fire a pair of attitude thrusters (Figure 4-55).

Figure 4-55 Momentum dumping using thrusters.

If each thruster yields a thrust F, then the total impulse using two thrusters is 2F t.
Given a moment arm of length L, we have M t = 2FL t. Once again, the momentum
wheel creates a counter-torque T by decelerating from max to 0 during the same time
interval t.
*

The range of acceptable spin rates is typically 10% around nominal. The nominal rate is usually in the
range 5000 6000 rpm.

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4 / Attitude Management

(T =) I wheel

I wheel
( max 0 )
2 FL

(4.57)

olo
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.

t =

or:

max 0
= 2 FL (= M )
t

Numerical example: If Iwheel = 3.9 kg m as before, and F = 1 N, L = 0.5 m, the thruster


activation time t needed to reduce the wheel spin rate from 5500 rpm to 5000 rpm is:

Satellites with Reaction Wheels

ec

4.5.2.2.

3.9
(5500 5000) 2 / 60 = 204 seconds = 3.4 minutes.
2 1 0.5

hn

t =

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fT

The dynamics of reaction wheels are similar to those of a momentum wheel but offer
much greater manoeuvre flexibility. Three orthogonal wheels provide good flexibility, at
the expense of complexity, cost and reliability. Some satellites come equipped with a
fourth wheel as a spare, in case one of the main three wheels suffers electromechanical
failure. This fourth wheel may be canted at a constant angle relative to each of the other
three, so as to be able to take over from either one (Figure 4-57).
max

=0

min

Day1

10

11

Figure 4-56 Example of momentum dumping of three reaction wheels


onboard a GEO satellite subjected to diurnal torques due
to solar pressure. (Amplitude growth highly exaggerated.)

Figure 4-57 Orthogonal reaction wheels with canted spare.

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4 / Attitude Management

hn

olo
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.

The functionality of the spare wheel is easier to understand by examining Figure 4-58.
Recall from Eq 4.4 that H = I
, where H is the angular momentum vector, I is the mass
moment of inertia and is the spin rate around the spin axis vector. Assume that we wish
to create an angular momentum around axis 3 but that wheel 3 is malfunctioning and that
wheels 1 and 2 are idle. We want to use the spare wheel 4 to create the angular
momentum in wheel 3, so we spin up wheel 4 until the desired H3 vector is achieved as a
component of H4. Unfortunately, spinning wheel 4 also generates the undesirable
momentum components H1 and H2 (left figure). These parasites may be cancelled out by
spinning up wheels 1 and 2 so as to create momentum vectors in the opposite direction,
i.e. by creating -H1 and -H2 (right figure).

ec

H1

H4

H4

-H2

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H3

fT

H2
H3

-H1

Figure 4-58 Cancellation of parasitic angular momentum H1 and H2.

Using vector notation, the vector sum in the left figure is:
H4 = H1 + H2 + H3

(4.58)

After re-arrangement::

H3 = H4 - H1 - H2 = H4 + (-H1) + (-H2)

(4.59)

which tells us that H4 can achieve a pure H3 if wheels 1 and 2 are spun up in a direction
so as to generate angular momentum vectors along their respective negative axes (righthand figure in Figure 4-58).

Note that wheels 1 and 2 do not have to be idle for the above strategy to work. If they are
already spinning, it is just a matter of adjusting their spin rate to achieve the equivalent
cancellation of the parasitic H1 and H2. Also, the wheel system does not need to be
installed at the centre of the spacecraft.
In practice, the reaction wheel system is often configured to generate angular momentum
vectors like the sloping edges of an Egyptian pyramid, none of which is aligned with the
satellite's principal axes (Figure 4-59). Moreover, all four wheels are actively spinning,
rather than one wheel remaining idle as a spare. The advantage of this arrangement is that
the four angular momentum vectors (i.e. spin rates) may be combined in many different

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4 / Attitude Management

hn

olo
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.

ways to achieve a particular resultant, which means that there exists a particular
combination that minimizes the power consumption of the electric drive motors. It is also
possible to bias the wheel spin rates in such a way that they seldom if ever need to pass
through zero speed, with its associated risk of stiction. "Stiction" is short for "static
friction" or "sticking friction" and denotes the phenomenon where bearing friction
increases near zero speed to the point where the wheel might not be able to resume
spinning.

fT

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Figure 4-59 Reaction wheels in pyramid configuration in the context of the satellite's primary axes X,
Y, Z.

If one of the four wheels were to malfunction, it is still possible to generate net
momentum vectors of any magnitude and direction, albeit not in the same poweroptimized manner.
To generate attitude control torques, the relevant wheels must be accelerated or
decelerated, and Eq 4.7 and 4.8 apply.
4.5.3. Alternatives to Thruster Control

The use of thrusters ensures powerful and rapid control of a satellites attitude, and also
allows dumping of excess momentum from momentum and reaction wheels. However, a
price has to be paid in terms of consumed propellant and degraded reliability compared to
more passive methods. One such method is the use of a magnetorquer, and the other is
called solar sailing.
4.5.3.1.

Magnetic Control

Figure 4-60 shows the earths magnetic field in its idealized, bipolar form. A polar
satellite orbit has been added for good measure.

163

Figure 4-60 The earths magnetic field.

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.

4 / Attitude Management

ec

The magnetic field lines have a direction, as evidenced by the fact that the needle of a
magnetic compass points north. According to convention, the direction is from south to
north.

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T=MxB

fT

What makes the compass needle turn is a torque T occasioned by the interaction between
the needles magnetic moment M and the local geomagnetic flux density B, such that:
(4.60)

The moment of an electromagnet depends on the number of coil windings n, the crosssectional area A of the coil, and on the amount of current I that passes through the coil:
M = nIAu

(4.61)

where u is the unit vector along the coils axis. By combining Eq 4.60 and 4.61, we find
the torque as:
T = nIA(u x B)

(4.62)

where B = (Br, B, B) is available from Eq 4.30. If is the angle between the coil axis
and the local magnetic field, then:
T = nIAB sin

(4.63)

it being understood that T acts perpendicular to both the coil and the field.

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4 / Attitude Management

Eq 4.28 gives us: B = 2.6 1011

olo
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.

Numerical example: A satellite in a 300 km polar orbit carries an electromagnet consisting


2
of n = 1000 coil windings with a cross-section of A = 12 cm which is fed with a current I =
1A. What is the maximum torque generated by the electromagnet?

B0
-5
1 + 3 sin 2 , with B0 =310 tesla. Maximum torque is
3
r

obtained when = 90 and = 90, i.e. over one of the poles. Therefore:

3 10 5
1 + 3 sin 2 ( / 2) = 5.210-5 tesla
3
6671
-4

-5

hn

B = 2.6 1011

-5

ec

T = 10001210 5.210 = 6.210 Nm

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fT

This is fine as far as it goes, but if we leave the electromagnet switched on all along the
polar orbit, the torques will cancel out, and no attitude control is achieved. If we wish to
actively control a satellite by magnetic means, we are better off with a magnetic torque
rod (also known as a magnetorquer or torqrod), which is an electromagnetic rod with
switchable polarity. By switching magnetorquer polarity every quarter of an orbit, we
achieve the same effect as if we reversed the geomagnetic field direction in alternate
quarters (Figure 4-61 and Figure 4-62).

Figure 4-61 Quarter orbit polarity switching at latitude 0 and 90.

Figure 4-61 shows the equivalent geomagnetic field if we switch the magnetorquer
polarity over the equator and over the poles. The dotted arrows represent the average
magnetic field direction in each quarter, and the white arrow in the centre is the average
of the averages i.e. the effective B-vector as the satellite goes around the orbit. The
resultant torque is obtained by numerically integrating Eq 4.62 or 4.63 at each step along
the orbit. The torque may serve several purposes, such as counter-acting solar pressure
moments, providing continuous excess momentum dumping, or performing attitude
manoeuvres.

165

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4 / Attitude Management

fT

Figure 4-62 Quarter orbit polarity switching at latitude 45.

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Figure 4-62 shows how the resultant B-vector may be rotated 90 by phasing the polarity
switching points differently from Figure 4-61. Any in-plane orientation of B is possible
by altering the switching points in polar orbits, and out-of-plane orientations may be
achieved for non-polar orbits.
The designers of the spin-stabilized satellite ESRO-IV showed great inventiveness in the
use of magnetic attitude control (Figure 4-63). The figure shows the polar orbit as seen
from the orbital "edge", along with the trajectory of the tip of the satellites spin vector as
it manoeuvred from one attitude to another. The shaded waveform indicates areas of
forbidden sun angles, and the manoeuvre trajectories were designed to avoid these. A
complete attitude slew lasted about 1 week.

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4 / Attitude Management

Orbit
plane

olo
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.

Slew trajectory

Tip of effective
B-vector
Forbidden
sun angle

ec

hn

Figure 4-63 Different attitude manoeuvre modes.


(a) Single-stage manoeuvre, fixed effective B-vector.
(b) Two-stage manoeuvre with different effective B-vectors.
(c) Three-stage manoeuvre with sliding effective B-vector
during the horizontal phase.

fT

4.5.3.2 Solar Sailing

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Solar sailing in the satellite context refers to a technique whereby the solar pressure is
exploited to create a torque around the roll or yaw axis. The technique has found usage
among GEO satellites whose solar wings are deflected to create a windmill effect (Figure
4-64). The deflection away from the sun vector is only between 5 and 25 degrees, in order
not to jeopardize the electric energy generation from the solar cells.

Figure 4-64 Using the solar panels in a windmill mode.


(Windmill angle highly exaggerated.)

As in the case of magnetic torquing, the solar sailing torque is very weak and lends itself
primarily to counter-acting disturbance torques on a continuous basis.
Solar pressure is discussed further in Section 12.3.9.

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4 / Attitude Management

4.6.

Solved Problems

See Appendix C for solutions.

ec

hn

olo
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.

4.6.1 You are standing on a platform that is free to turn, and you are holding a bicycle
wheel mounted on an axis which you point straight out. If you spin the wheel fast
clockwise and then try to bend the axis downward, the platform you are standing on will
turn. In which direction will it turn, and why?

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fT

4.6.2 A cylindrical object in space is spinning around its z-axis. The object is made of
solid, homogeneous metal. What ratio h/r is required for spin stability?

2r

4.6.3 A cube-shaped, body-stabilized satellite is equipped with sun sensors on three of


its perpendicular faces. At some point in time the three sensors measure u = 37, v = 60
and w = 70. Establish the unit sun vector s in the satellites uvw coordinate system.

4.6.4 The bearings of a pitch momentum wheel onboard a geostationary satellite


suddenly seize up, causing the wheel to grind to a halt from 5000 rpm. As a result, the
satellite begins to turn around the pitch axis. At what rate? Iwheel = 0.5 kg m2, and Isat =
500 kg m2.

4.6.5 The quaternion q = (, , , ) represents a coordinate transformation. Describe


the corresponding rotation in plain English, employing the rotation matrix [R], the
eigenvector E, the eigenvalue , and the rotation angle .

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5 / Orbit Management

5. Orbit Management
Introduction

olo
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.

5.1.

In Chapter 2 we studied orbits from the point of view of pre-launch mission planning. We
familiarized ourselves with common algorithms and examined which orbit types are most
suitable for particular satellite missions.

measure the orbit by various tracking techniques;


determine (= compute) the orbit using tracking data as the input; and
control the orbit by propelling the satellite from its original orbit into a new orbit.

ec

hn

The present chapter deals with orbit management after launch. As in the case of satellite
attitude management (Chapter 4), we must first measure and determine the orbit before
we can aspire to control it. The sequence is therefore to:

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fT

Note that Orbit Management is quite different from Attitude Management, even though
both tasks involve spacecraft dynamics and the use of the onboard propulsion subsystem.
The attitude defines the orientation in space of the satellites geometric reference axes,
while the orbit defines the satellites position in space. In other words, attitude control
involves an angular rotation of the spacecraft body around its centre of mass. Orbit
control is a translation manoeuvre to send the satellite from one orbit to another.

The generic term for all methods of orbit measurement is tracking. Historically, the
measurement of satellite orbits was performed using angle tracking techniques,
subsequently complemented by slant ranging. Angle tracking involves pointing ground
station telescopes or antennas at a target satellite and recording the pointing angles. Using
a set of pointing records, it is possible to calculate the classic orbital elements (COE).
Slant ranging is synonymous with distance measurement. The distance from the ground
station to the satellite is obtained by relaying a radio signal or a laser pulse via the
satellite. The time or phase difference between transmission and reception at the ground
station is a direct measure of the distance. Ranging measurements yield a higher orbit
determination accuracy than angle tracking, although the two methods are often used in
combination.
The ranging accuracy may be improved further by making range-rate (Doppler)
measurements, i.e. by using radio carrier frequency shifts to measure the rate of change of
the ground station satellite distance over time.
In recent years, the Global Positioning System (GPS) has been co-opted for autonomous
onboard position measurement of low-orbiting satellites without the need for ground
intervention.
Orbit determination is the result of processing the tracking data to calculate the COE as a
function of time. This calculation is necessary to predict the evolution of the orbit, and

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5 / Orbit Management
specifically to plan future orbital events such as ground station passes, mission tasks and
orbital manoeuvres.

olo
gy
.

Orbit control means changing an existing orbit. It entails altering one or more of the COE
using the onboard propulsion system. Most orbit manoeuvres are aimed at restoring the
original COE, which may have changed as a result of orbital perturbations (Chapter 2). In
some instances the manoeuvering is more drastic, e.g. when propelling a satellite from
geostationary transfer orbit to GEO.

hn

Some literature employs the terms navigation for orbit measurement, guidance for orbit
manoeuvre planning, and control for executing an orbit manoeuvre. (Navigation tells us
where we are, guidance where we want to go, and control how to achieve it.)

Orbit Measurement

fT

5.2.

ec

In the following we will describe the orbit management tools and methods available to the
spacecraft designer. For information about related hardware, refer to Chapters 6
(Propulsion) and 7 (TT&C), as well as Appendix E.

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There are two basic methods of tracking a satellite in orbit, namely angle tracking and
ranging (Figure 5-1).

Rx

Tx

Radio
beacon

Tx

Angle tracking

Ranging

Figure 5-1 Angle tracking and ranging.

5.2.1. Angle Tracking

As the name suggests, this tracking method consists in recording the pointing angles of
the tracking instrument and inserting these in a suitable algorithm for orbit determination.
The instrument may be an optical telescope or, more likely, the antenna of a radio
receiver. In the latter case, the antenna may have multiple feeds for receiving the satellite
signal carrier. By sensing the amplitude and phase difference between the feeds, the
antenna is able to home in on the satellite with high pointing accuracy (Figure 5-2).
Measuring the phase difference is a form of interferometry.

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5 / Orbit Management

Satellite
Transmitter

olo
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.

Receiver

Phase shift

Receiver

Transmitter

ec

Ground
Station

hn

fT

Figure 5-2 A multiple-feed antenna is made to home in on the satellite


by measuring the phase difference , whereby = sin-1( /2d) as per Eq 4.41.

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5.2.2. Slant Ranging

Ranging means distance measurement. The resulting distance d is called the slant range
(slant meaning slope, as opposed to measuring straight overhead distances). We can
determine the geocentric range vector r of a satellite either by combining slant range
measurements taken by a single ground station over time, or else by making simultaneous
measurements from two or three geographically dispersed stations. The latter techniques
are known as bilateration and trilateration, respectively. Trilateration is illustrated in
Figure 5-3.
z

Greenwich
meridian

d1

r
d2

1 s1

x=

y x

d3

3
2
y

Figure 5-3 Orbit determination through trilateration.

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5 / Orbit Management

x1 = R cos 1 cos (1 + 1)
y1 = R cos 1 sin (1 + 1)
z1 = R sin 1

(5.1)

olo
gy
.

Knowing the latitude 1 and longitude 1 of the first ground station, we also know its
geocentric-equatorial coordinates in the inertial xyz system: s1 = (x1, y1, x1)T, where

and so forth for the other two stations. Here R is the earths radius and is the hour angle
between the x-axis and the Greenwich meridian at the moment of trilateration. We seek to
determine the satellites coordinates as defined by r = (xs, ys, zs)T.

hn

Pythagoras theorem in three dimensions gives us:

(xs x1 )2 + ( ys y1 )2 + (zs z1 )2 = d12


(xs x2 )2 + ( ys y2 )2 + (zs z2 )2 = d 2 2
(xs x3 )2 + ( ys y3 )2 + (zs z3 )2 = d32

fT

ec

(5.2)

(xs, ys)

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ys

y1

(x1, y1)

x1

xs

d 2 = (x2- x1)2 + (y2 y1)2

Figure 5-4 Two-dimensional Pythagoras' theorem.

Once we have measured d1, d2, d3, we are left with three equations and three unknowns,
namely the three components of the satellite position r = (xs, ys, zs)T, which we are
therefore able to compute, albeit not in a closed form.
So how do we measure the slant range distances d1, d2 and d3? There are basically three
methods in common use:

5.2.2.1.

Pseudo-random noise (PRN or PN) code ranging;


tone ranging; and
laser ranging.
Pseudo-Random Noise Ranging

In PRN ranging, a pseudo-random noise bit pattern is uplinked to the satellite and is
returned to the ground station. The satellite must therefore carry a radio transponder. The

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5 / Orbit Management

olo
gy
.

returning pattern is fed into a shift register at the ground station and is compared to the
stored original pattern. The instant of perfect match is clocked in. From this receive time
is subtracted the transmit time, yielding the time difference t. The slant range d = c
t, where c is the speed of light. The accuracy of the measurement depends on the bit rate
(for time resolution) and the length of the PRN code (for reliability). Typical bit rates are
1 10 Mbps.

hn

d = c t

Down
t

fT

Figure 5-5 PRN ranging.

ec

Up

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An interesting application of the PRN ranging method was the ESA-sponsored Precise
Ranging and Range-Rate (PRARE). In this approach the space and ground segment roles
are reversed. The satellite emits the PRN signal towards one of many small, mobile and
unmanned ground repeaters scattered across the globe. The repeaters transmit the signal
back to the spacecraft for onboard orbit determination. The orbital ephemerides are
downlinked through the telemetry to the master ground station during regular passes.
The PRARE signals were relayed on two parallel frequencies (2.2 GHz and 8.5 GHz) to
allow removal of signal distortions in the ionosphere. Ranging accuracies < 10 cm were
claimed, along with range-rate (Doppler) accuracies of 0.1 mm/s.
5.2.2.2.

Tone Ranging

Tone ranging involves uplinking a carrier signal i.e. a pure sinusoidal tone to the
satellite and measuring the phase difference between this wave and the returning wave.
Provided the wavelength of the tone is longer than twice the slant range distance, a
single tone yields the range without ambiguity.

Uplink

Downlink

/360

Distance

Ground station

Ground station

Figure 5-6 Long wavelength ranging tone.

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5 / Orbit Management

2d +

or

d=

360

2 360

(5.3)

olo
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.

In Figure 5-6 the path "ground station - satellite - ground station" has been straightened
out in order to illustrate how the tone travels through the satellite. is the measured phase
difference (in degrees) at the ground station. We deduce from the figure that

hn

For example, if the maximum expected slant range to the satellite is 1500 km, the
wavelength of the tone must be > 3000 km, corresponding to a frequency f = c/ = 100
Hz.

2 360

(5.4)

fT

d =

ec

The phase measurement error at the ground station is typically 3 deg, which translates
to a slant range error of

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In the chosen example:


d

3000 3

= 12.5 km
2 360

This magnitude of error is usually not acceptable. If the orbit had been geostationary (d ~
40,000 km), the error would have grown to d > 330 km, which again is unacceptable
due to the risk of interference with neighbouring satellites.
The solution lies in adding a tone with a higher frequency since, according to Eq 5.4, the
error diminishes with smaller wavelengths. The only problem with this approach is that
we now introduce a phase ambiguity, i.e. we do not know within which period the phase
difference is measured.

/360

Figure 5-7 Short wavelength ranging tone.

Eq 5.3 now reads:

d=

174

2
360

(5.5)

5 / Orbit Management
where n is an integer 1, 2, 3, ... etc., indicating the number of periods within the two-way
range distance.

olo
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.

The temptation, then, would be to minimize the range error d by choosing a super-high
frequency for the second tone. Problems arise if the second wavelength is shorter than the
error in the first, because we now move into a different kind of ambiguity. Even without
this new ambiguity, Eq 5.5 might be satisfied by more than one value of n. It is therefore
customary to add several intermediate tones. The European (ESA) ranging standard
includes 7 tones at 8, 32, 160, 800 Hz, along with 4, 20 and 100 kHz. The U.S. (Goddard)
norm adds an 8th tone at 500 kHz.

ec


n2 2 ;
2
360


d = 4 n4 4 ;
2
360


d = 6 n6 6 ;
2
360
d=

(5.6)

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fT


n1 1 ;
2
360


d = 3 n3 3 ;
2
360


d = 5 n5 5 ;
2
360


d = 7 n7 7 .
2
360

d=

hn

The equations needed to solve a set of ESA ranging measurements 1, 2, ... , 7 will
therefore look like this:

where the wavelength i = c/fi, and fi = 8, 32, 160, 800 Hz, 4, 20 and 100 kHz. The correct
value for d is obtained when n1, n2, n3 ... are all integers.

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5 / Orbit Management

Phase
Tone (Hz) difference
(deg.)
8
19.2
32
76.9
160
24.3
800
121.3
4000
246.6
20000
153.1
100000
45.7

olo
gy
.

Numerical example: When tracking a LEO satellite, the following phase measurements
were recorded at an ESA ground station:

hn

ec

Determine the orbital height d, as well as the height error d, assuming that the accuracy of
the phase meter on the ground is limited to = 3 deg.

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fT

Solution: We know that the satellite is in LEO (i.e. below 10,000 km); hence n1 = 0 for the
first tone f1 = 8 Hz, since the wavelength 1 ~ 37,000 km >> 2 10,000 km. Insertion in Eq
5.5 yields d = 1000 km. If this is the right answer, then n2 = 0 also for the second tone, since
2 ~ 9400 km >> 2000 km. Solving Eq 5.5 one more time confirms that d = 1000 km.
We therefore have reason to believe that d = 1000 km is the correct value, but just to be
sure, let us look at the third tone with 3 ~ 1900 km. This value is less than 2000 km, and
therefore n3 must be at least 1. If we try this value in Eq 5.5, we again arrive at d = 1000 km.
Continuing along the same line, we find that d = 1000 km for each of the subsequent integer
values of ni shown in the table below.
f (Hz)
8
32
160
800
4,000
20,000
100,000

(m)
37,474,057
9,368,514
1,873,703
374,741
74,948
14,990
2,998

n
0
0
1
5
26
133
667

(deg)
19.2
76.9
24.3
121.3
246.6
153.1
45.7

d (km)
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000

(deg)
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0

d (km)
156.1
39.0
7.81
1.56
0.31
0.06
0.013

Independently of the orbital height, we may compute the measurement error d from Eq
5.4. According to the last column of the table, the highest tone provides a theoretical
accuracy of 13 m. In practice, such a high accuracy may not be achievable through ranging
due to somewhat unpredictable signal delays in the satellite transponder and phase
distortions in the atmosphere.

5.2.3. Laser Ranging

In theory, the laser is the ideal ranging tool with its ultra-short wavelength and associated
high measurement accuracy. The principle is simple: a short laser pulse is transmitted at a
time t1 towards the satellite equipped with a cluster of retroreflectors (Figure 5-8).
Optical retroreflectors consist of open corner cubes whose orthogonal walls are covered
with mirrors. A light beam arriving at the retroreflector from whichever direction is
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always returned to the source, and nowhere else. The laser pulse is thus returned to the
originating laser station, where it is clocked in at time t2. The range distance from the
ground station to the satellite is calculated as:
d = c (t2 t1) = c t

olo
gy
.

(5.7)

ec

hn

using the same notation as in PRN ranging.

fT

Figure 5-8 Working principle of the concave optical retroreflector


(shown in two dimensions on the left and three dimensions on the right).

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Retroreflectors are also used in the tail lights of road vehicles to ensure that the headlights
from a following vehicle are reflected back to the driver of that vehicle, and nowhere else
(Figure 5-9).

Figure 5-9 Retroreflectors in vehicle tail lights.

The greatest challenge using laser ranging is for the ground station to aim the laser
telescope accurately enough to hit the satellite's retroreflectors.

Suppose, for example, that we are employing this technique on a GEO satellite whose
cluster of retroreflectors is 1 m in diameter. The required pointing accuracy is then = 2
tan-1( 1 / 35,786,000) = 1.4 10-6 degrees and that is in the ideal situation with the
satellite in zenith and the retroreflector perpendicular to the ground station. As for LEO
satellites, the lower pointing accuracy requirement is outweighed by the need to track the
satellite across the sky.

Another difficulty with laser ranging is that the weather has to be clear, because laser
light is absorbed by clouds. Despite these challenges, laser ranging is sometimes used,
and accuracies down to a few centimetres are claimed.

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5.2.4. Range Rate

2 1
V = ;
r a

r=

olo
gy
.

In addition to measuring the slant range d itself, it is possible and useful to measure the
rate at which the slant range changes, i.e. dd/dt. As we shall see in the following, rangerate measurements are particularly helpful in determining the satellites orbital velocity
vector V. Knowing V is helpful for refining our knowledge of key orbital elements.
Recall from Eq 2.13 and 2.3 that
a (1 e 2 )
1 + e cos

hn

With these two equations, we are able to corroborate our ranging measurements in terms
of a, e and at each instant.

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Range-rate measurements are based on the Doppler shift of the satellites signal carrier as
the spacecraft approaches and moves away from the ground station. We are all familiar
with the phenomenon where the horn of a car or a train appears to have a higher pitch on
approach than on retreat. The reason is that a component of the vehicles velocity is added
to the speed of sound, such that the wavelength entering our ears seems compressed. As a
result, the observer perceives a higher tone than that of the horn itself. The reverse is of
course true as the vehicle passes and draws away.

V cos
D

Figure 5-10 Principle of Doppler shift.

The Doppler effect is illustrated in Figure 5-10. The vehicle A is moving to the left with a
velocity V while emitting a sound. Because of the limited propagation velocity of sound,
the sound waves are bundled up in front of the vehicle, such that the listener B faces a
shorter sound wavelength than the original. The shorter wavelength is perceived as a
higher frequency according to f = /v, with v being the speed of sound. Conversely, the
listener C encounters a longer wavelength, and therefore a lower frequency. And the
listener in D perceives a frequency proportional to V cos.

In the space context, A is the satellite. D is a typical ground station, whose recording of
the Doppler effect in the telemetry signal carrier varies over time apace with the variation
of as the satellite passes overhead. The arithmetic is fairly complex, but we can accept
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intuitively that the Doppler effect is proportional to V cos, and hence to the range rate
dd/dt = d .

olo
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.

The slant range vector d can be expressed as follows in the defined topocentric coordinate
system uvw:

sin d u

duvw = d cos sin = d v
cos cos d w

(5.8)

hn

where is the azimuth and is the elevation of the tracking antenna at each instant as it
follows the satellite across the sky (Figure 5-11). The satellites velocity relative to the
ground station is the time derivative of the range vector:

ec
(5.9)

fT

d uvw

d sin +  d cos


= d cos sin  d sin sin +  d cos cos
d cos cos  d sin cos  d cos sin

uvw

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If the ground station is equipped to measure the range rate d , it is probably also capable
of recording the rate of change of azimuth and elevation, i.e.  and  . In that case the
relative velocity vector d(duvw)/dt is obtained directly from Eq 5.9.
z

z
w

y
x

Figure 5-11 Definitions of , , r, d, s, , and the uvw-system.

Converting the range vector from the topocentric uvw-system to the geocentric-equatorial
inertial xyz-system is straightforward (Figure 5-11):

cos( + ) sin( + ) 0 cos 0 sin sin



dxyz = d sin( + ) cos( + ) 0  0
1
0  cos sin (5.10)

0
0
1 sin 0 cos cos cos

or, in shorthand: dxyz = [A(, , )] duvw with being the ground stations longitude,
its latitude, and the hour-angle of the Greenwich meridian relative to the inertial axis .
The ground station provides the sidereal time t (in decimal hours) when the
ranging measurement was made. This gives us:
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= 360 t/24 (deg)

(5.11)

olo
gy
.

It follows that d xyz = [A(, , )] d uvw . However, d xyz Vxyz , because we have yet to take
into account the fact that the ground station itself is moving within the inertial xyz-system
due to the rotation of the earth. If the earths angular velocity vector in the xyz-frame is e
and the station location vector is s, then

Vxyz = d xyz + e s

(5.12)

hn

e
e x s

dxyz + e x s = Vxyz

fT

ec

e x s

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dxyz

Figure 5-12 Determination of the satellite velocity vector V from range-rate measurements.

We already know that the earth turns around its axis 360 in 23 hours and 56 minutes
(sidereal time), i.e. e 0.25/s = 0.0044 rad/s. We also know that the rotation vector is
aligned with the inertial z-axis; therefore e = e (0, 0, 1)T.
From Figure 5-11 (middle), the station vector s is found to be:
sxyz = R [(cos cos(+), cos sin(+), sin)]xyzT

(5.13)

Insertion of d , e and s in Eq 5.12 yields the desired velocity vector Vxyz.

The range-rate approach is not the only method of determining V. An alternative is to


determine successive slant range vectors d1, d2, d3 ... etc., while recording the precise
timing for each (Figure 5-13). If the time difference t is sufficiently small, then Eq 5.14
can be used to obtain V:
V (r2 r1)/t

(5.14)

However, real-life ranging measurements take rather longer, and a more sophisticated
algorithm is therefore necessary. For more detail, consult Bate et al. [1].

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d3

olo
gy
.

d1 d2

hn

Figure 5-13 Determination of a satellites velocity vector V from successive range measurements.

5.2.5. Using the Global Positioning System

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The Global Positioning System, also known as Navstar, is a constellation of 24


operational satellites which travel in circular orbits at a height of 20,200 km and an
inclination of 55. There are 6 orbital planes, with 4 satellites in each. This configuration
allows users anywhere on earth to be in radio contact with at least four satellites at any
one time. The orbital height yields an orbital period of 12 hours, which means that each
satellite passes over the same geographical points every day, the advantage being that the
timing, azimuth and elevation of passes are readily predictable.
The GPS antenna coverage and signal characteristics were originally designed for
terrestrial applications. Satellite designers have since discovered that GPS is also suitable
for position measurement of spacecraft, especially in LEO. The claimed measurement
accuracy varies wildly. The raw real-time accuracy is probably in the order of 15 m, but
much greater accuracies are achieved through mathematical filtering of large data sets.
Velocity is readily computed from the position measurements.
While satellites in orbits below that of GPS acquire GPS signals continuously the same
way as terrestrial users, satellites in orbits above that of GPS (e.g. GEO) receive the
signals more sporadically, and the signals are also much weaker. The reason becomes
apparent when studying Figure 5-14.

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GEO

olo
gy
.

GPS orbit

hn

Earth

Main lobe

26,600km

fT

ec

42,164 km

Figure 5-14 GPS signal coverage of GEO.

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Because the GPS main beam and its sidelobes are directed towards the earth, a satellite in
GEO will receive the signals only if it finds itself on the opposite side of the earth, i.e. at a
distance of approximately 20,200 + 6371 + 42,164 69,000 km. At that distance, the
GPS signal received by the GEO satellite receiver is very weak and therefore unreliable.
Moreover, the GEO satellite will only receive the GPS signal while travelling though the
spill-over from the GPS main antenna lobe and its sidelobes. The net result is that the
GPS coverage of GEO is patchy, such that a GPS receiver onboard the GEO satellite
repeatedly loses GPS signal and must re-acquire it. For these reasons, the deployment of
GPS receivers onboard satellites in GEO and higher is still in its infancy.
Many position measurement systems employ a two-way signal path, whereby the user
terminal emits a radio signal and listens for the echo (cf. ranging and radar). GPS differs
from these systems by requiring only a one-way signal path. This simplification is
achieved by having central ground facilities insert intelligence in the signal, such as time
markers and orbital ephemerides. Stated differently, the GPS downlink signal includes
accurate information about that satellites orbital position at any given moment, thereby
allowing the GPS receiver to directly calculate its own position. A GPS receiver is
therefore a relatively simple, reliable and inexpensive piece of radio equipment. It lends
itself to integration onboard LEO satellites and permits autonomous orbit determination.
To understand how GPS performs position measurement, refer to Figure 5-15. The
configuration is analogous to that shown in Figure 5-3, except that the known reference
points are GPS satellites instead of ground stations. The users satellite must receive at
least three GPS signals simultaneously to achieve a position fix (cf. trilateration in Section
5.2.2). As in the case of trilateration, Pythagoras theorem in three dimensions gives us:

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(xs x1 )2 + ( ys y1 )2 + (zs z1 )2 = d12


(xs x2 )2 + ( ys y2 )2 + (zs z2 )2 = d 2 2
(xs x3 )2 + ( ys y3 )2 + (zs z3 )2 = d32
GPS1

z
d1
d2
d3

olo
gy
.

(5.15)

GPS2
GPS3

hn

ec

fT

Figure 5-15 Orbit determination of LEO satellites using GPS.

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The instantaneous position (x1, y1, z1) of the first GPS satellite is accurately determined by
the GPS control centre and is relayed via the GPS satellite to the GPS receiver onboard
the user satellite. The same is true for the second (x2, y2, z2) and third (x3, y3, z3) GPS
satellites.
Similarly, the distance d1 is determined by the GPS receiver by measuring the difference
t between the time t1 when the clock signal is transmitted by the GPS satellite, and the
time t2 when it is received (t1 is also embedded in the GPS signal). The distance d1 = c/t
= c/(t2 t1), where c is the speed of light. The same procedure is followed to calculate d2
and d3.
This leaves us with three unknowns, namely the three components of the satellite position
r = (xs, ys, zs), as well as with three equations; hence it is possible to calculate the satellite
position.

While the GPS satellites are equipped with extremely accurate onboard atomic clocks, the
GPS receivers clock is far less sophisticated, the receiver being a commercial off-theshelf item. Consequently a timing error is introduced in t, which translates to a distance
error d in d. Because t is common to all three measurements, the error is the same for
all three distances at any one moment in time. With d being a fourth unknown, we now
need simultaneous access to four GPS satellites. The complete set of simultaneous
equations is then:

(xs x1 )2 + ( ys y1 )2 + (z s z1 )2 = (d1 + d )2
(xs x2 )2 + ( ys y2 )2 + (z s z2 )2 = (d 2 + d )2
(xs x3 )2 + ( ys y3 )2 + (z s z3 )2 = (d 3 + d )2
(xs x4 )2 + ( ys y4 )2 + (z s z4 )2 = (d 4 + d )2

(5.16)

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Unfortunately, solving these equations for (xs, ys, zs) is not trivial. Step-by-step methods
can be found on the Internet by searching for GPS.

5.3.1. State Vectors

Orbit Determination

fT

5.3.

ec

hn

olo
gy
.

At this juncture, it is tempting to return to Section 2.5.4 to assess whether the GPS
satellite constellation is correctly configured for global coverage. Assume that an
elevation = 10 deg above the local horizon is required for adequate contact between the
satellite and the GPS receiver on the ground. With h = 20,200 km, Eq 2.57 gives us =
66.34 deg = 1.158 rad. Eq 2.54 yields P = 1.81 2 orbital planes, while Eq 2.55 suggests
N = 3.13 3 satellites per plane. The total number of satellites needed for continuous
contact with at least one GPS satellite is given by Eq 2.56 as S = 2 x 3 = 6. If we now
require simultaneous coverage of 4 satellites, we need a total of 4 S = 24 satellites in total,
as is indeed the case. Calculating the optimum P and N for the 24-satellite constellation is
a little more complicated and must account for the inclination being 55 deg instead of 90
deg.

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The input for orbit determination is tracking data received from one or more satellite
ground stations. The output is a state vector. A state vector is a set of data describing
exactly where the spacecraft is in its orbit at a given point in time. State vectors can come
in many forms: Cartesian, Spherical Polar, Classic Orbital Elements, and Two-Line
Elements, to name a few.
Regardless of how they are formatted, all state vectors have one parameter in common,
namely time. It is necessary to relate all the parameters of the state vector to a particular
epoch (i.e. a point in time). Without this, planning future mission events is impossible.
Most of the formats use seven parameters (e.g. the six COE plus time) to define the orbit.
Over the centuries, the position in the sky of the vernal equinox vector () slowly
changes. Since some of the orbital elements are measured with respect to this vector, it is
important to refer them to the year for which they were derived.
Table 5-1 contains a sample of a two-line element state vector printout produced by the
North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) which tracks all objects in
earth orbit larger than a baseball (http://celestrak.com/NORAD/elements/). The printout
refers to two Iridium mobile communications satellites.

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IRIDIUM 8 [+]
1 24792U 97020A

.00000090

00000-0

5858

86.3961 144.0586 0002080 105.7097 254.4328 14.34217417866198

IRIDIUM 7 [+]
1 24793U 97020B
2 24793

24944-4 0

13324.49480675

.00000556

00000-0

olo
gy
.

2 24792

13324.49555837

19161-3 0

5789

86.3966 144.2700 0002033 105.7407 283.1264 14.34216937866191

hn

Table 5-1 Example of two-line elements.

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The following legend interprets this rather telegraphic NORAD message.

Name of Satellite
(NOAA 6) This is simply the name associated with the satellite. In the sample NORAD
printout (Table 5-1) we read IRIDIUM 8, etc.
International Designator
(84 123A) The 84 indicates launch year was in 1984, while the 123 tallies the 124th
launch of the year, and "A" shows it was the first object resulting from this launch. In the
Iridium case, the letters A, B indicate that the two satellites were launched on a single
rocket.
Epoch Date and Day of Year Fraction
The day of year fraction is the number of days (in GMT) passed in the particular year. For
example, the date above shows "86" as the epoch year (1986) and 50.28438588 as the
number of days after January 1, 1986. The resulting time of the vector would be
1986/050:06:49:30.94, computed as follows:
Days:
Hours:

Minutes:

50.28438588 days = 50 days


50.28438588 50 = 0.28438588 hours;
0.28438588 hours x 24 hours/day = 6.8253 = 6 hours UTC
6.8253 - 6 = 0.8253 hours;
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Seconds:

0.8253 hours x 60 minutes/hour = 49.5157 = 49 minutes


49.5157 - 49 = 0.5157 minutes;
0.5157 minutes x 60 seconds/minute = 30.94 seconds

olo
gy
.

First Derivative of Mean Motion, or Ballistic Coefficient


(0.00000140) The daily rate of change in the number of revolutions the object completes
each day, divided by 2. Units are revs/day. This is a "catch all" drag term used in some
orbital decay prediction models.

ec

hn

Second Derivative of Mean Motion


(00000-0 = 0.00000) The second derivative of mean motion is a second order drag term
used to model final orbit decay. It measures the second time derivative in daily mean
motion, divided by 6. Units are revs/day3. A leading decimal must be applied to this
value. The last two characters define an applicable power of 10. (12345-5 =
0.0000012345).

fT

Drag Term
(67960-4 = 0.000067960) Also called the radiation pressure coefficient, the parameter is
another drag term used in decay predictors. Units are earth radii-1. The last two characters
define an applicable power of 10.

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Element Set Number and Check Sum


(5293) The element set number is a running count of all two-line element sets generated
for this object (in this example, 529). Since multiple agencies perform this function,
numbers are skipped on occasion to avoid ambiguities. The counter should always
increase with time until it exceeds 999, when it reverts to 1. The last number of the line is
the check sum of line 1.
Satellite Number
(11416) This is the catalogue number for this object. The letter "U" indicates an
unclassified object.
Inclination (degrees)
The angle i between the equator and the orbit plane.

Right Ascension of the Ascending Node (degrees)


The angle between vernal equinox and the point where the orbit crosses the equatorial
plane (going north).
Eccentricity
(0012788) The constant e defining the shape of the orbit. A leading decimal must be
applied to this value.
Argument of Perigee (degrees)
The angle between the ascending node and the orbit's point of closest approach to the
earth (perigee).
Mean Anomaly (degrees)
The angle M, measured from perigee, of the satellite location in the orbit referenced to a
circular orbit with radius equal to the semi-major axis.

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olo
gy
.

Mean Motion
(14.24899292) The value N is the mean number of orbits per day the object completes.
(The more common definition of mean motion is n = 2/, which comes to the same thing
as N after some unit conversions).
Revolution Number and Check Sum
(346978) The orbit number at Epoch Time. This time is chosen very near the time of true
ascending node passage as a matter of routine. The last digit is the check sum for line 2.
5.3.2. Computing COE from Topocentric Data

fT

ec

hn

In the above two-line element message, NORAD has already preprocessed the raw
ground station measurement data to provide us with four of the six classic orbital
elements (COE = a, e, i, , and ), namely e, i, , . The missing elements are a and
. The semimajor axis a may be calculated from the mean motion N, since N =
86164/ and = 2a(a/) according to Eq 2.12 (the constant 86164 is the number of
seconds in a sidereal day). The true anomaly is found from the mean anomaly M using
Eq 2.11.*

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As explained in Section 5.2, the raw data from the ground station usually arrives in the
form of a slant range distance d to the satellite, along with two antenna pointing angles:
azimuth and elevation . If we are lucky, the station might also provide us with rangerate data in the form of time derivatives of d, and .

On the basis of the raw data, we are able to compute a state vector combining a geocentric
range vector r and the satellites tangential velocity vector V. These vectors are usually
expressed in a topocentric, Cartesian uvw coordinate system (see Section 2.4.1), and it is
left to the satellite operator to convert these into COE. Mathematically, it stands to reason
that the six components ru, rv, rw, Vu, Vv, Vw can be transformed to the six COE, and
we shall now proceed to prove that this is so.
We will be adding and multiplying vectors defined in different coordinate systems, so we
must first agree on a common target frame. Since i, , and are all defined in the
geocentric-equatorial inertial system (Figure 5-16), let us choose this as our reference.
The x-axis coincides with the intersection between the equator and the ecliptic, the z-axis
with the earths spin axis pointing north, and the y-axis completes the right-handed
orthogonal system.

86164

In the Iridium case, N = 14.34, as shown. Therefore, a =


2N

h = a R = 775 km.
*

2/3

=7146 km;

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olo
gy
.

z= N

hn

x=

ec

Figure 5-16 Inertial geocentric-equatorial coordinate system.

Figure 5-16 recapitulates the definitions of i, , and .

fT

Before proceeding, it is useful to calculate the angular momentum of the orbit.


h=r V

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(5.17)

Next we define the eccentricity vector e:

e = (1/)[(V2 /r)r (rV)V]

(5.18)

This vector points from the earths centre to the perigee, regardless of r and V. The
magnitude of e equals the eccentricity e. (For a derivation of the eccentricity vector, refer
to Sellers [9])
We also require a vector n which points from the earths centre to the ascending node,
and which we obtain from (Figure 5-17):
n=zh

Figure 5-17 Definition of vectors h and n.

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(5.19)

5 / Orbit Management
Lastly, Eq 2.16 provides the specific energy of the orbit:
= V2/2 /r
where = E/m is the total energy divided by the satellite mass.

olo
gy
.

(5.20)

Notice that the parameters h, n and are derived solely from the two measured vectors r
and V.
We are now ready to proceed with the calculation of the six COE.

From Eq 2.17 and 5.20:

a=

From Eq 5.18:

e = ex + e y + ez

From Eq 5.17:

h
h
i = cos 1 z = cos 1 z
h
h
2

hn

h = hx + h y + hz

ec

(5.22)

n
n
= cos 1 x = cos 1 x
n
n

From Eq 5.19:

with

From Eq 5.18 and 5.19:

n = nx + n y + nz

with

r = rx + ry + rz

(5.24)

ne
= cos 1

ne

r e
= cos 1

r e

From Eq 5.18:

(5.23)

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with

fT

(5.21)

(5.25)

(5.26)

It remains to determine which is the correct quadrant for the four angles i, , , , given
that the cos-1 function is ambiguous. These are the rules:
Eq 5.23:

i must always be < 180

Eq 5.24:

Use 360 - if ny < 0

Eq 5.25:

Use 360 - if ez < 0

Eq 5.26:

Use 360 - if rV < 0

So far so good. Unfortunately, ground stations do not measure r and V directly, but rather
the slant range d from the station to the satellite, as well as the antenna pointing angles in

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terms of azimuth and elevation . Section 5.2.4 described how to convert these
measurements to r and V.

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fT

ec

hn

olo
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.

Let us proceed with a numerical example. In the example, a value for r has been chosen
which is the average between r2 and r1, since it offers the best match for V.

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d (km)
(deg)
(deg)

Meas. 1
1000
0
90

Ground station coordinates


Meas. 2
2100
5
17

(deg)
+ (deg)
R (km)

Magn.

Meas. 2
50
1.17
6371

s2 (km)

d1 (km)

d2 (km)

r1 (km)

r2 (km)

V (km/s)

4095.2
0
4880.5

4094.4
83.4
4880.5

642.8
0
766

-1141.2
151.8
1756.3

4738
0
5646.5

2953.1
235.2
6636.8

-6.37
0.84
3.54

7371

7267.9

7.34

fT

s1 (km)

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x
y
z

ec

Calculation of s, d and r

Meas. 1
50
0
6371

hn

Ground station measurements

olo
gy
.

Numerical example: A satellite ground station in Europe ( = 0, = 50N) delivers the


following tracking measurements at midnight sidereal time: slant range d = 1000 km,
azimuth = 0, elevation = 90. 280 seconds later the station produces a new set of
measurements: d = 2100 km, = 5, = 17. Calculate the classical orbital elements, as
well as the apogee, the perigee and the orbital period.

6371

6371

1000

2100

-28.08

km2/s2

r (km)

V (km/s)

h (km2/s)

n (km2/s)

3846
118
6142

-6.37
0.84
3.54

-4743
-52750
3980

52750
-4743
0

-0.054
0.005
0.006

Orbital energy:

Calculation of r, V, h, n, e

x
y
z

Magn.

7247

7.34

53112

52963

0.055

e
0.055

i (deg)
85.7

(deg)
5.1

(deg)
173.6

(deg)
244.6

Vr =
ne =

-2694
-2885

Calculation of COE
a (km)
7098

Calculation of Apogee, Perigee and Orbital Period


Ap (km)
1116

Pe (km)
338

(min)
99

Let us analyse the above numerical example. In the first set of measurements, the antenna
is pointing to zenith ( = 90), so the satellite is passing straight overhead at a height of d
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5 / Orbit Management
= 1000 km. Since the measurement was taken at 0 hours sidereal time, the Greenwich
meridian must cross the -vector; hence = 0.

hn

olo
gy
.

By the time of the second measurement 280 seconds later, the elevation has dropped
significantly, and a small azimuth angle is provided. This tells us that the satellite is
approaching the northern horizon, so the orbit must be near polar. If i = 90, the azimuth
would have adopted a small negative value, since the stations meridian has moved 1.17
eastwards from the -vector due to the earths rotation, such that the orbit would be
passing to the west of the station. But the azimuth given is in fact positive, so i must be <
90 (namely 85.7 according to the table). Consequently the range vector r is for the
moment in the first quadrant of the inertial xyz-system, as corroborated by the fact that rx,
ry and rz are all 0.

ec

With r2 < r1 the orbit must be elliptic (e 0), and the satellite is on its way from the
apogee to the perigee. We would therefore expect to be < 180 + , i.e. < 230,
which is confirmed by the calculations ( = 173.6).

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The above kind of reasoning, as well as the sketch below, is useful for doing a sanity
check on the results.

x=

Figure 5-18 Illustration of numerical example.

5.3.3. Refining the Orbit Determination Accuracy

Having determined the COE from tracking measurements at a particular ground station, it
is possible to predict the timing, slant range, azimuth and elevation of the next station
pass. Any errors in the initial determination will carry over to the next pass, where new
measurements are taken. The difference between predicted and actual pass parameters
constitutes a residual, which can be used to improve the predictions for subsequent
passes. The magnitude of these residuals shrinks as new measurements are made. Various
mathematical filtering techniques (r.m.s., Kalman filtering, etc.) are put to good use to
keep the orbit determination errors to a minimum.

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5 / Orbit Management

5.4.

Orbit Control

olo
gy
.

5.4.1. Control Principles


Conceptually, orbital manoeuvring is simple: Give the satellite an impulse somewhere
along the orbit, and a new orbit will form. Depending on the location, magnitude and
direction of the impulse, it is possible to tailor the new orbit to new requirements. The
illustration sequence below shows how each of the six COE can be changed separately or
in combination. The dotted line represents the original orbit, while the solid contour is the
new orbit resulting from the impulse.

Hohmann transfer.
The dash-dot line
shows an intermediate orbit.

V2

V21

V1

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V21 = V2 V1
V43 = V4 V3

ec

Changing a, while keeping e = 0

fT

5.4.1.1.

hn

The black dot indicates where the impulse should occur. Note that the impulse location is
always at a point where the old and new orbits intersect.

V3
V43
V4

V21 = V2 V1
V43 = V4 V3

5.4.1.2.

Changing e, but not a

V = V 2 V1

V2

V = (V22 + V12 2V1V2 cos )

The impulse may be


entered at either one of
the two orbital intersections.

V1

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5 / Orbit Management
5.4.1.3.

Changing a and e
V2
V = V2 V 1

olo
gy
.

V
V1

V = V2 V1

5.4.1.4.

hn

Usually it is possible
to change more than
one COE at a time.

Changing i, but not

ec

To accomplish a pure
inclination change, the
impulse must be given at
the ascending or
descending node.

V2

fT

V1

i2

i1

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V = V2 V1

V = (V22 + V12 2V1V2 cos i)


with i = i2 i1

5.4.1.5.

Changing , but not i

The manoeuvre must occur at the


intersection closest to the poles.

V1

V = V2 V1

V = (V22 + V12 2V1V2 cos )

= cos-1(cos2i + sin2i cos )

194

V2

5 / Orbit Management
5.4.1.6.

Changing

V = V2 V1

olo
gy
.

V1

V2

V = (V22 + V12 2V1V2 cos )

5.4.1.7.

Changing

ec
fT

Alternatively, the impulse may


be given at the intersection
between the two perigees.

hn

= (1 + 1) (2 + 2)

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V2

V21 = V2 V1
V43 = V4 V3

V21 = V2 V1
V43 = |V4 V3|

V21

V43

V1

V3

V4

The last example deserves elaboration. Assume that the satellite is to be re-phased in the
circular orbit through a change in (t). The solution is to temporarily extend or shorten
the orbital period by altering a, according to Eq 2.12: = 2a(a/).
In the illustration, a is extended in the first step, leading to a longer . Therefore, after the
second step, the satellite will be trailing behind its original (t) position.

If instead the objective is to accelerate the satellite, a must be shortened for the
intermediate orbit (i.e. the ellipse will lie inside the circle).
From the above examples one may draw several conclusions:
a) The old and the new orbits always have one or two points of intersection. This is
the point where the manoeuvre will take place.
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5 / Orbit Management

b) V is the vector difference between V2 and V1 which represent the tangential


velocities of the initial and final orbits at the chosen point of manoeuvre.

olo
gy
.

c) If one or both orbits are elliptic, the magnitude of the two V vectors is likely to
differ; the intersection with the smallest V gives the lowest propellant
consumption.

ec

hn

For the statement in (b) to be strictly true, the impulse must be instantaneous, i.e. of zero
duration. In practice, the rocket motor responsible for the impulse will inevitably burn
during a finite length of time. As a consequence, the magnitude and/or direction of V2 and
V1 will change in the course of the manoeuvre, whereas V will not (assuming the
satellites attitude remains constant). To avoid missing the target, the burn should be kept
very short (a couple of minutes at most), or else a modified V must be calculated using
numerical integration methods. Often the manoeuvre is completed through a sequence of
brief motor burns at each passage through the chosen orbital crossover point.

fT

The magnitude of V is found from simple vector algebra to be:


V = V2 V1 = V1 + V2 2V1V2 cos

(5.27)

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where is the angle between V2 and V1. In the case of a pure inclination change, we find
that = i. In all other cases, is obtained from spherical triangles involving i, and .
When V2 and V1 are parallel (i.e. = 0), we have a so-called Hohmann transfer with
V = V2 V1 . The manoeuvres illustrated in Sections 5.4.1.1, 5.4.1.3 and 5.4.1.7 are
Hohmann transfers, while the others are not.
5.4.2. Choice of Intersecting Points

The purpose of an orbital manoeuvre is to generate a new set of a, e, i, and . Knowing


a1, e1, i1, 1 and 1 of the old orbit, as well as a2, e2, i2, 2 and 2 of the new orbit, the
mission planner must calculate V1 and V2 at the chosen point of intersection, in order to
find V. The required quantities are the true anomalies 1 and 2, which are readily
obtained from spherical trigonometry (Figure 5-19).

V2 = V2 = (V2 V1)2 = V22 + V12 2V1V2 = V22 + V12 2V1V2 cos

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5 / Orbit Management

i1

i2

1+1

2+2

i1

ec

hn

180-i2

olo
gy
.

fT

Figure 5-19 Calculating 1 and 2 at the intersection.

To begin with, we determine the angle between the two velocity vectors using the Law
of Cosines (see Appendix A):

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= cos-1[-cos i1 cos(180-i2) + sin i1 sin(180-i2) cos ]

= cos-1[cos i1 cos i2 + sin i1 sin i2 cos ]

(5.28)

The Law of Sines gives us:

sin(1 + 1 ) sin
=
sin(180 i2 )
sin

sin

1 = sin 1 sin i2
1
sin

(5.29)

sin

and therefore: 2 = sin 1 sin i1


2
sin

(5.30)

or:

We are now in a position to calculate the radius r (= r1 = r2), the velocities V1 and V2, the
velocity increment V and the flight path angles 1 and 2 at the chosen point of orbital
intersection.
2

From Eq 2.3:

a (1 e1 )
r= 1
1 + e1 cos 1

(5.31)

From Eq 2.13:

V1 = (2 / r 1 / a1 )

(5.32)

V2 = (2 / r 1 / a2 )

(5.33)

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5 / Orbit Management

From Eq 2.15:

V = V1 + V2 2V1V2 cos
1 + e1 cos 1
tan 1 =
e1 sin 1
1 + e2 cos 2
tan 2 =
e2 sin 2

(5.34)
(5.35)

olo
gy
.

From Eq 5.30:

ec

hn

Numerical example: A scientific satellite travelling in a polar, circular orbit (i1 = 90) at a
height of h = 600 km has completed its original mission. Because the satellite is expected to
live longer, it has been decided to undertake a supplementary mission in a sun-synchronous
orbit. The new orbit is also circular at the same altitude but, according to Eq 2.18, an
inclination i2 = 97.8 is needed for sun-synchronism. A node rotation of = 10 is also
desirable. Calculate the true anomalies 1 and 2 of the orbital intersections, as well as the
V required to perform the manoeuvre.

V1 = V2 = 7.56 km/s
V = 1.67 km/s
2 = 52.6

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r = a = h + R = 6971 km;
= 12.68;
1 = 51.2;

fT

Solution: With the orbits being circular, e = 0, a = r, and has no meaning since there is
no perigee. By setting = 0 in Eq 5.29 and 5.30, becomes the angular distance from the
ascending node to the intersection points. We have:

This makes sense if we examine the corresponding subsatellite traces:


N

51.2

52.6

The arcsinus functions in Eq 5.29 and 5.30 also have additional solutions 180 apart, so we
would expect another point of intersection at
1 = 51.2 + 180 = 231.2;

2 = 52.6 + 180 = 232.6

This we know intuitively to be true. Since we are dealing with two circular orbits, the values
of V1, V2, and V remain the same for the second point, so both points are equally valid as
concerns the propellant consumption.

5.4.3. Determination of Velocity Vectors

Having determined the magnitude of V, we are now in a position to estimate the quantity
of propellant needed to carry out the orbital manoeuvre, but we also need to find the

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5 / Orbit Management
direction of V, i.e. the thrust vector V. Knowing the direction is a prerequisite for
orientating the rocket motor, and hence the spacecraft, in preparation for the manoeuvre.

olo
gy
.

As we have seen, V = V2 V1, where V1 and V2 are the velocity vectors for the old and
the new orbits at the chosen point of intersection. The challenge is now to express the
components of V, V1 and V2 in a shared coordinate system. Different operators have
different preferences, so on this occasion we will choose the same geocentric-equatorial
inertial xyz-system that we used in Section 5.3.2 above.

hn

To facilitate the process, we will temporarily use the satellite and orbit-fixed coordinate
systems lmn and uvw shown in Figure 5-20, and then rotate these systems to fit with xyz.
l

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n and w point
towards the reader.

fT

r
m

ec

Figure 5-20 Temporary satellite and orbit-fixed coordinate systems.

We see immediately that

ruvw = r (cos , sin , 0)T

and

(5.36)

Vlmn = V (cos , sin , 0)T

where r and V are available from Eq 2.3 and 2.13 as:


r=

a (1 e 2 )
1 + e cos

and

2 1
V =
r a

and where and have been calculated in Eq 5.29 and 5.34 above.
The V-vector is brought from the lmn-system to the uvw-system through the following
rotation:

Vuvw

cos sin 0 cos


cos cos sin sin

= V sin cos 0 sin = V sin cos + cos sin


0

0
1 0
0

(5.37)

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5 / Orbit Management
We have now defined both r and V in the uvw-system of the old orbit. Since the new orbit
has a different uvw-system, it remains to convert each to the shared xyz-system. Recalling
the matrix manipulation method in Chapter 2, we find that

olo
gy
.

Vxyz

(5.38)

0
0 cos sin 0
cos sin 0 1

= sin cos 0  0 cos i sin i  sin cos 0  Vuvw


0
0
1 0 sin i cos i 0
0
1

(5.39)

hn

rxyz

0
0 cos sin 0
cos sin 0 1

= sin cos 0  0 cos i sin i  sin cos 0  ruvw


0
0
1 0 sin i cos i 0
0
1

ec

Vectors ruvw and Vuvw are available from Eq 5.36 and 5.37.

fT

Inserting the COE, along with , for the old and the new orbits, we arrive at V1, V2 and
V.

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Numerical example: Let us continue with the earlier example, in which a polar circular
orbit is manoeuvred to become sun-synchronous. Since both orbits are circular, it follows
that e1 = e2 = 0, and 1 = 2 = 90. Recall that 1 = 2 = 0, that i1 = 90, i2 = 97.8, and that
1 = 51.2, 2 = 52.6. Let us assume that 1 = 0, 2 = 10, which gives us our = 10.
According to Eq 5.37:

(Vuvw)1 = V1 (-sin 1, cos 1, 0)

and, according to Eq 5.39:

sin 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 sin 1

(Vxyz)1 = V1 0 1 0  0 0 1  0 1 0  cos 1 = V1 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

cos

Let us test the validity of this equation by setting 1 to 0 and to 90, as in the figures below.

The left figure shows 1 = 0, and therefore (Vxyx)1 = V1 (0, 0, 1) , as expected. In the rightT
hand figure we have 1 = 90, which gives us (Vxyx)1 = V1 (-1, 0, 0) , again as expected.
Inserting the true value 1 = 51.2 yields:

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5 / Orbit Management

0.78 5.89

Vxyz = V1
0 = 0 , with V1 = V2 = 7.56 km/s.
1
0.63 4.74

olo
gy
.

We may now proceed with calculating (Vxyx)2.

(Vxyz )

0
0
cos 10 sin 10 0 1
1 0 0 sin 52.6

= V2 sin 10 cos 10 0  0 cos 97.8 sin 97.8  0 1 0  cos 52.6

0
0
1 0 sin 97.8 cos 97.8 0 0 1

V1
V2
y

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0.77 5.81

ec

52.6

fT

51.2

(Vxyz )

hn

= V2 0.22 = 1.66

0.60 4.55

Lastly:

0.08

V = V2 V1 = 1.66

0.19

Check:

V =

Check:

= cos (V1V2) = 12.68 (same as in the earlier example).

V x

+ V y

+ V z

= 1.67 km/s (same as in the earlier example).

-1

5.4.4. Propellant Consumption

Newtons Second Law states that the force acting on a moving body equals the time
derivative of its linear momentum, i.e.
F=

d (mV )
dV
dm
=m
+V
dt
dt
dt

(5.40)

If we apply this equation to a burning rocket and imagine ourselves sitting astride it, we
observe two things: the expulsion of propellant mass through the nozzle at a constant
velocity Ve (action), and an acceleration of the rocket a = m dV/dt (reaction). Seen
from where we are sitting, the action and reaction forces are in balance. Returning to Eq
5.40:

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5 / Orbit Management

F =m

dV
dm
+ Ve
= 0;
dt
dt

dV
dm
= Ve
;
dt
dt

dV = Ve

dm
m

m 0 m

V = Ve

m0

m0
dm
m 0 m

= Ve [ln m]m 0
= Ve ln
m
m0 m

olo
gy
.

After integration:
(5.41)

hn

This is known as the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation. Here m0 is the total rocket mass before
the burn, and m is the amount of propellant consumed during the burn to achieve the
velocity increment V. Note that we have assumed the velocity Ve of the expelled
propellant mass to be constant, which is approximately true in real life.

g Isp

= m0 1 e

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fT

m = m0 1 e Ve

m = m0 1 e g Isp

m0 m
= e Ve ;
m0

ec

Moving along, Eq 5.41 can be written as follows:

(5.42)

Here we have introduced Isp which is known as the specific impulse of the rocket motor.
The specific impulse is defined as:

I sp =

F dt Ve
F
=
=
g dm / dt g dm g

(5.43)

where F is the thrust, dm/dt is the (constant) propellant consumption, and g is the mean
acceleration of gravity (= 9.81 m/s2). Isp is measured in seconds and is an indication of the
motors efficiency, i.e. how much thrust the motor delivers in relation to the propellant
consumption. It is basically dependent on the choice of propellant and of the altitude
(Chapter 6). Note that, in some literature, the g is omitted in the definition of Isp, with
the result that the values of Isp are almost 10 times greater, and the unit becomes Ns/kg.
Given the rocket motors Isp, Eq 5.42 yields the propellant mass m in kg needed to
achieve a certain V. Note that V must be expressed in metres per second (rather than
km/s), so as to be compatible with the unit of g.
Figure 5-21 shows the propellant consumption of a satellite with m0 = 1000 kg for various
values of V and Isp. Since m is directly proportional to m0, it is easy to find the
propellant consumption for other initial satellite mass figures.

202

hn

olo
gy
.

5 / Orbit Management

ec

Figure 5-21 Propellant consumption as a function of V and Isp


for a satellite mass m0 = 1000 kg.

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For example, if we were to perform the manoeuvre in the above example using a
conventional hydrazine thruster (Isp ~300 s), we would require m = 433 kg to impart a
V of 1.67 km/s on a satellite weighing m0 = 1000 kg before the burn. This illustrates
how propellant-guzzling orbital manoeuvres can be, even when their magnitudes are
modest.

Q: Since the acceleration of gravity g decreases with the square of the distance from the
earth, must I take that into account when using Eq 5.42?

A: No, because here g is purely a form factor to convert the thrust force F from Newton to
kilogrammes. Note that Isp has the unit seconds, which may seem curious for a measure of
efficiency. This is an artefact of the definition of Isp and bears no intuitive relationship to time.

5.4.5. Orbit Control Strategies

Because orbit control manoeuvres consume a great deal of onboard propellant, many
amateur satellite missions (e.g. CubeSats) avoid them altogether. Carrying propellant not
only increases the complexity and cost of the satellite itself, but the extra propellant mass
also influences the launch cost. There are, however, many scenarios where active orbit
control is unavoidable, e.g.:

when the launch vehicle is unable to deliver the satellite to its operational orbit;

to maintain a GEO satellite at its designated orbital location;

to move a GEO satellite to a different orbital location;

to maintain the relative phasing between LEO satellites in a constellation;

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5 / Orbit Management

to maintain correct phasing of sun-synchronous orbits; and

to remove a satellite from orbit before the end-of-life.

5.4.5.1.

olo
gy
.

Each of these scenarios will be analysed in the following.

Transfer from GTO to GEO

GEO

ec

hn

Many of the current commercial launch vehicles leave their GEO payloads stranded in a
highly elliptic geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The apogee height of the GTO is
usually at GEO altitude (35,786 km), while the perigee stays in the region of 250 500
km. It is therefore up to the satellite to carry its own apogee motor to circularize the GTO
at apogee to form a GEO see Figure 5-22.

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fT

GTO

Figure 5-22 Simple transfer from GTO to GEO.

If the GTO and the GEO are in the same plane, the magnitude of V is simply the
difference between the velocity at GEO less the velocity at GTO apogee, i.e.

V = VGEO VGTO = 3.07 1.61 = 1.46 km/s

assuming a GTO perigee height of 300 km. Note, however, that the GTO inclination is at
least as high as the latitude of the launch site (Section 11.4), whereas the required GEO
inclination is near zero. It is therefore necessary to have the apogee motor perform a
combined circularizing and inclination-reducing manoeuvre. The latter component is
known as a dog-leg manoeuvre because of the way the orbit is kinked like the hind leg of
a dog.

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5 / Orbit Management

Figure 5-23 Dog-leg manoeuvre.

hn

olo
gy
.

Dog-leg
manoeuvre

fT

ec

The manoeuvre shown in Figure 5-22 is typical for a solid-propellant apogee kick motor
(AKM) with its short, powerful thrust. The difficulty with this type of motor is that the
slightest error in attitude, thrust level or thrust duration translates into GEO imperfections
which will subsequently have to be corrected using the satellites micropropulsion system
(i.e. small thrusters for attitude and orbit adjustments) a process which is both
inefficient and time-consuming.

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A better solution is to use a restartable liquid-propellant motor, also known as a liquid


apogee engine (LAE). Such an engine allows the GTO to be raised to GEO in stages, so
that operators have time to make careful interim assessments before commencing the next
stage Figure 5-24.
GEO

V1,2,3

GTO3

GTO2

GTO1

Figure 5-24 Staged transfer from GTO to GEO.

5.4.5.2.

GEO Station-Keeping

Section 2.5.1.2 described the perturbations that strive to dislodge a GEO satellite from its
designated orbital position. The main perturbations are of two kinds: the ones that pull the
satellite in an east-west direction along the equator (E/W drift), and the ones that make

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5 / Orbit Management
the inclination grow (N/S drift). Both kinds have to be controlled using the onboard
propulsion system.

olo
gy
.

In the case of E/W drift, the radio frequency licensing rules require each GEO satellite
operator to maintain the spacecraft within a longitude window of 0.1 (or in some cases
0.05), so as to avoid radio interference and possibly collision with adjacent satellites.

Any N/S drift complicates the ground segment, in that TT&C stations and user terminals
require steerable antennas to follow the satellites diurnal figure-8 movement. Most
communications satellites in GEO are therefore maintained within 0.1 on either side of
the equator, which is the same as saying that the inclination i is < 0.1.

hn

East-West Station-Keeping

ec

The rate of natural E/W drift depends on where the satellite is located, i.e. on its
longitudinal distance from the stable and unstable points along the equator. Figure
2-78 is reproduced here for convenience.

fT

20

10

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E/W drift acceleration x 10 -4


(deg/day 2 )

15

Stable

Unstable

Stable

Unstable

-5

60

120

180

240

300

360

-10
-15
-20
-25

East longitude (deg)

Figure 5-25 GEO satellite east/west acceleration.

If = 0, the satellite will experience no E/W drift, and no action is required. However,
in the worst case the satellite is positioned at 45, with angular accelerations in the
region of 15 20 10-4 degrees per day2. The most efficient remedy is to inject the
satellite at, say, the -0.1 end of the E/W window and give it a nudge towards the +0.1
end, but only enough to make the satellite turn around and head back to the -0.1 end,
where the process is repeated (Figure 5-26).

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5 / Orbit Management
Longitude
+0.1

time

-0.1
Nudge

Nudge

Nudge

olo
gy
.

Nominal

Nudge

Figure 5-26 E/W station-keeping strategy.



(days)

(5.44)

fT

t = 4

ec

hn

 . It can be shown
Let us denote the window half-size and the angular acceleration
that the time t needed for the satellite to complete a round-trip within the window (width
= 2 ) is:

and the corresponding velocity increment V for the manoeuvre is given by:

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 = 45.44 (m/s)
V = 11.36
t

(5.45)

 = 20 10-4 deg/day2 (satellite at 120E),


For example, with a worst case acceleration of
and with = 0.1, it will take 28 days before this particular satellite needs another
nudge. The manoeuvre is performed by temporarily increasing or decreasing the
semimajor axis a in order to generate a westbound or eastbound nudge, respectively. The
corresponding V = 0.16 m/s, and the propellant mass m = 0.05 kg for a 1-ton satellite
with Isp = 300 s.

Figure 5-27 shows the required V per nudge as a function of the satellites longitudinal
position. The frequency, with which the manoeuvres need to be performed to stay within
the window, is shown in Figure 5-28, and the propellant consumption m per year for a
1000-kg satellite is given in Figure 5-29. The latter quantity is calculated by multiplying
the m per manoeuvre by 365.25 days and dividing by t.

207

180
150

olo
gy
.

120
90
60
30
0
0

60

120

180

240

hn

Duration t between manoeuvres (days)

5 / Orbit Management

300

ec

East longitude (deg)

360

fT

0.18
0.16
0.14

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Velocity increment V (m/s)

Figure 5-27 Time t between nudges to correct for E/W drift.

0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00

60

120

180

240

300

360

East longitude (deg)

Propellant mass m per year

Figure 5-28 Delta-V required for E/W correction.

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5

0.4

0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0

60

120

180

240

300

360

East longitude (deg)

Figure 5-29 Propellant consumption m per year for E/W corrections


pertaining to a 1000-kg satellite with Isp = 300 s.

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5 / Orbit Management

North-South Station-Keeping

olo
gy
.

Section 2.5.1.2.2 described the drift of GEO inclination, which translates to a diurnal
north-south oscillation of the satellite around the equator.

N/S station-keeping aims to maintain the GEO satellite within an inclination window. The
polar diagram in Figure 5-31 shows a window of 3 degrees. As in the case of E/W stationkeeping, we can buy time by injecting the satellite at i = -3 and letting it drift to +3.

hn

Purists frown at the mention of negative inclination, since a negative value turns the
defining ascending node into a descending node. By examining Figure 5-30, we realize
that a negative inclination at one node is the same as a positive inclination at the opposite
node.
Ascending node

fT

ec

Ascending node

+i

-i

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+i

Descending node

Figure 5-30 The inclination is defined as the positive angle between the
orbit and the equator to the right of the ascending node.

The i- relationship is illustrated in Figure 5-31 (reproduced from Figure 2-79 for
convenience). Note that the (positive) inclination begins to decrease if the ascending node
is located in the range 180 < < 360, and increases for all other initial values of .
When i is at its closest to zero, abruptly swings around almost 180. This tallies with
Figure 5-30 above.

In the 3 inclination window shown in Figure 5-31, the longest drift trajectory is the one
that begins at = 280, passes through i = 0, and crosses the opposite window boundary
at = 80. In other words, the frequency of N/S station-keeping manoeuvres is
minimized if we launch the satellite into a GEO with = 280. This is precisely the
strategy adopted by some GEO satellite operators. With an inclination window of 3 and
a drift rate di/dt 0.85/year, the satellite will remain within this particular window
during approximately 7 years.

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=180
210

150

120
i = 1

olo
gy
.

240

270

90

60

330

hn

300

30

ec

= 0

fT

Figure 5-31 N/S station-keeping strategy.

At the end of the 7-year period, it is time for the manoeuvre. We have three choices:

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a) Make a pure i = 23 = 6 manoeuvre, in which case the initial new = old +


180 = 260, which is different from the ideal initial value of = 280. The
subsequent drift trajectory will therefore not go through i = 0, and the need for
N/S manoeuvres will become more frequent.

b) Combine the i = 6 with a = 280 - 80 = 200 such that new = 280.


c) Start out with = 270, such that = 90 seven years later, thereby allowing a
return to new = 270 by means of a pure i manoeuvre. However, with this
strategy the inclination will never reach 0.

The three strategies are illustrated in Figure 5-32. Whichever strategy is adopted depends
on factors such as propellant consumption, size of the inclination window, and expected
satellite lifetime.

(a)

(b)

Figure 5-32 Three methods of performing N/S station-keeping.

210

(c)

5 / Orbit Management

To compute the propellant mass consumption, we return to Eq 5.28, 2.14, 5.27 and 5.42:
= cos-1[cos i1 cos i2 + sin i1 sin i2 cos ]

(5.46)

olo
gy
.

V1 = V2 =

(5.47)

a
2

V = V1 + V2 2V1V2 cos

(5.48)

m = m 0 1 e
(5.49)

In Figure 5-33 we have chosen an inclination manoeuvre with i1 = i2 3, = 180, m0


= 1000 kg and Isp = 300 s, i.e. typical values for a small GEO mobile communications
satellite using bipropellant hydrazine. Notice how costly N/S station-keeping is compared
to E/W position maintenance. This is generally true for out-of-plane manoeuvres, in
comparison to in-plane manoeuvres.

ec

fT

120
100
80

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Propellant consumption m (kg)

hn

g Isp

60
40
20

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

Inclination half-window i (deg)

Figure 5-33 Propellant consumption m per manoeuvre for N/S station-keeping


pertaining to a 1000-kg GEO satellite with Isp = 300 s.

The propellant consumption also depends on the size of the inclination half-window i.
Taking the drift rate to be di/dt = 0.85/year, manoeuvres have to be performed at the
following time intervals:
Interval =

2i
2
=
i = 2.35 i (years)
di
0.85
dt

(5.50)

Over a 7-year satellite lifetime it is therefore necessary to perform N manoeuvres, where:


N = 7/Interval

Using the above mass prediction equations, along with the physical data for our sample
GEO satellite, we find that the amount of propellant consumed for the total number of N
manoeuvres is as shown in Figure 5-34.

211

109
108
107
106
105
104
103
102
0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

Inclination half-window i (deg)

2.5

3.0

hn

0.0

olo
gy
.

Propellant mass consumption


m (kg)

5 / Orbit Management

ec

Figure 5-34 Propellant consumption m during 7 years for N/S station-keeping


pertaining to a 1000-kg GEO satellite with Isp = 300 s.

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fT

We observe that there is a modest price to be paid in terms of propellant mass for
maintaining a tight inclination window and this in addition to the operational
inconvenience and reliability hazard. Even so, most GEO satellite operators prefer a tight
window to avoid having steerable ground antennas, or to ensure consistent quality of
earth images.
5.4.5.3.

GEO Satellite Relocation

Some years after launch, GEO satellite operators often move their spacecraft to different
orbital locations. The reason may be a desire to change the service coverage area, or else
to replace a defunct satellite with a new one. The manoeuvres need to be carried out
quickly to minimize service interruptions. If the relocation distance is significant say,
90 or more an angular velocity of up to 3 per day is common. The faster the relocation
speed, the higher the price in terms of propellant consumption. Let us prove this
mathematically.

To achieve an eastbound drift, the angular velocity of the range vector has to be greater
than that of GEO, i.e. the orbital period must be shorter. The opposite is of course true if
we want to accomplish a westbound drift. Changing the period means altering the
semimajor axis a, since = 2a(a/). The strategy outlined in the Section 5.4.1.7 is
preferred, as illustrated in Figure 5-35 below.

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V2

Orbit 2

Orbit 1

V 21

olo
gy
.

V1

V2

Orbit 2
Orbit 1

hn

V1

ec

V 12

fT

Figure 5-35 Satellite westbound relocation strategy (not to scale).

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The relocation takes place in two stages. In stage one, a suitable set of thrusters is fired so
as to achieve a slightly elliptic orbit with a different a. In stage two the process is reversed
to re-establish the original GEO, but with a new true anomaly . The longitudinal drift
rate d/dt is proportional to the difference in orbital period and semimajor axis as
follows:

a 3 / 2
d 1 2
=
360 = 1 2 360
dt
1
a1

deg/day

(5.51)

Recalling that an eastbound drift rate counts as positive, and choosing a westbound drift
rate of -3/day for our example, Eq 5.51 gives us a2 as:

a 2 = a1 1

360

2/3

= 42,398 km

since a1 = 42,164 km for GEO. The corresponding velocities V1 and V2 at the thruster
firing point are:
2 1
2 1
V1 = = =
r a1
a1 a1

= 3.0747 km / s
a1

2 1
2
1
V2 = = = 3.0831 km / s
r a2
a1 a 2

(5.52)

and therefore: V21 = V2 V1 = 8.5 m/s. The same V is required to stop the drift, albeit
in the opposite direction (V12), so the total relocation impulse is Vreloc = V21 + V12 =
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5 / Orbit Management
17 m/s. The corresponding propellant mass expenditure for our 1000-kg sample satellite
is m = 5.4 kg.

Vreloc = 5.66 d/dt

olo
gy
.

By combining Eq 5.51 and 5.52 and doing some elaborate algebra, we arrive at the
following simple and useful equation for GEO satellite relocations:
m/s

(5.53)

with d/dt in degrees per day. As a test, set d/dt = 3/day, which yields Vreloc = 17 m/s,
i.e. the same value as above.

d
dt

days

(5.54)

ec

Treloc =

hn

If the longitudinal distance to be covered is degrees, the time Treloc required to perform
the relocation is:

Satellite Re-Phasing

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5.4.5.4.

fT

For example, a relocation of a GEO satellite from longitude 0 to 90E at 3/day would
take 30 days.

Adjusting the relative phase between satellites is particularly important in constellations.


By constellation we mean a large number of identical satellites in parallel orbits
designed to offer global coverage. Examples are the mobile communication satellite
systems Iridium and Globalstar.

Figure 5-36 Satellite constellation with global coverage.

For the earth coverage to be truly global, it is essential that the relative phasing between
the satellites be maintained. The phasing might be upset by small launch injection errors
or by asymmetric luni-solar perturbations. To re-align the satellites, the same technique is
used as in Section 5.4.1.7 (Changing ). This means that the semimajor axis a of the
target satellites orbit is altered temporarily so as to modify the orbital period . When the
satellite has caught up with its intended phase, the original orbit is restored.

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5 / Orbit Management
5.4.5.5.

Maintaining a Sun-Synchronous Orbit

5.4.5.6.

olo
gy
.

Recall from Sections 2.3.5.1 and 2.5.2 that sun-synchronism depends on three orbital
elements being properly tuned, namely a, e and i. If e changes over time due to solar
pressure on the satellite, the orbital nodes will no longer remain perfectly synchronised
with the apparent movement of the sun vector. In order to rectify the situation, it is
necessary to adjust the nodes periodically, as discussed in Section 5.4.1.5.
Transfer to Graveyard Orbits

ec

hn

When a satellite is approaching the end of its operational life, it is considered good
practice to remove it. In the case of the highly congested GEO, the removal is important
to avoid future collisions with adjacent satellites. Collisions are possible as defunct
satellites lose their E/W station-keeping ability; expelling them to a higher or lower orbit
reduces that risk. LEO satellites can be removed by changing the orbit such that they reenter the earths atmosphere and burn up.

fT

GEO Satellites

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The graveyard orbit (more properly known as the disposal orbit) of choice is a circular
orbit some 300 km higher than GEO (a higher orbit is preferred over a lower orbit to
avoid interference with satellites in GTO and obstructing the RF signals of other GEO
satellites). The corresponding manoeuvre is carried out by firing the onboard thrusters in
several graveyard burns. Since the new orbit should not intersect GEO at any point, it is
necessary to perform two Hohmann transfers, as illustrated in Section 5.4.1.1 and Figure
5-37.
V2

V1

V12

V3

V34

V4

Figure 5-37 Hohmann transfer to graveyard orbit.

Let V1 = 3.075 km/s denote the velocity of GEO and V2 = 3.080 km/s the velocity at the
perigee of the transfer orbit (given that a1 = 42,164 km and a2 = 42,164 + 300 =
42,314 km). Since the transfer is co-planar, we have V21 = V2 V1 = 5.45 m/s.
Similarly, let V3 = 3.058 km/s denote the velocity at the apogee and V4 = 3.064 km/s the
velocity of the circular graveyard orbit (given that a2 = 42,314 km and a3 = 42,464 km).
Then V43 = V4 V3 = 5.44 m/s.

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5 / Orbit Management
The total manoeuvre to the +300 km graveyard orbit requires Vgrave = V21 + V43 =
10.88 m/s, and the corresponding propellant consumption for our 1000-kg satellite is m
= 3.69 kg.

ec

hn

olo
gy
.

An international agreement exists as to how high the graveyard orbit should be for a
given satellite, depending on the propensity of its orbit to become deformed (i.e.
eccentric) over time under the influence of solar pressure (see Section 12.3.9), such that
its perigee touches on GEO. Intuitively, we can accept that this propensity is proportional
to the illuminated surface area of the satellite, and inversely proportional to its mass. Thus
the minimum height H (in km) is obtained from the following equation:
A
H 235 + 1000 Cr
(5.55)
m
with A = projection of surface area exposed to the sun (m2)
m = satellite mass (kg)
Cr = reflectivity coefficient.

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LEO Satellites

fT

Cr is a function of the satellites specular and diffuse reflexion coefficients ( and ) and
has a value between 1 and 2. For example, a large communications satellite at the end of
its propellant life may have the following characteristics: m = 2000 kg, A = 50 m2 and Cr
= 1.5. Eq 5.53 then yields H = 272 km.

Satellites with a semimajor axis a < 6700 km (or h 300 km circular) re-enter the earths
atmosphere within days or weeks. Higher orbits take many months or years to decay see
Section 12.3.3. As in the case of GEO, there exists an international recommendation that
non-GEO satellites be made to re-enter the earth's atmosphere within 25 years from the
date they cease to function.
A satellite in high LEO can be de-orbited forcibly by firing the onboard thrusters to create
a low enough perigee for re-entry. In contrast to GEO, the nominal LEO and the elliptic
graveyard orbits intersect, so we only need to perform a single-step Hohmann transfer
(Figure 5-38).

Figure 5-38 De-orbiting of a LEO satellite through re-entry.


The original orbit may be circular or elliptic.

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5 / Orbit Management

Approximate lifetime (days)

10

20

40

80

140

160

180

200

150

300

500

900

78
76
74
72
70
68
66
64
62
60
220

240

280

300

fT

Perigee height Pe (km)

260

ec

120

1400

hn

Propellant mass m (kg)

80

olo
gy
.

Figure 5-39 shows the propellant mass needed to achieve various perigee heights and
attendant residual lifetimes. In this example we have again used our sample 1000-kg
satellite with its Isp = 300 s, starting out from a 1000 km circular orbit.

Figure 5-39 Propellant mass and lifetime as a function of de-orbit perigee height
for a sample spacecraft weighing 1000 kg in a 1000 km operational orbit.

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To minimize the propellant consumption, there is an incentive to leave the perigee as high
as possible. On the other hand, for a graveyard manoeuvre to make sense, the satellite
should re-enter the atmosphere within a reasonable time. Taking 1 year as an example, the
perigee must be lowered to 240 km in our example (with the apogee at 1000 km see
Figure 12-7). It is then up to the operator of our sample satellite to ensure that at least 66
kg of propellant mass remains when the manoeuvre is initiated.

217

5 / Orbit Management

olo
gy
.

Historical notes: There has been speculation that if two GEO satellites were to collide and
break up, the hundreds of resulting fragments would have enough kinetic energy to blow
apart satellites further along and so forth, until the chain reaction has converted all the
satellites around the globe to a veritable Saturn ring of man-made debris. This prospect is
known as the Kessler Syndrome and was the inspiration for the 2013 movie Gravity starring
Tom Hanks and Sandra Bullock.

ec

5.4.6. Sample Propellant Budget

hn

In the period 1997 1999, nearly 100 Iridium satellites for mobile communications were
launched into 780-km circular orbits. After the company went bankrupt, preparations were
made to de-orbit all the satellites using the technique described above. At the eleventh hour
the company was rescued, and the satellites were allowed to continue operating in their
orbits.

fT

The aim of the propellant budget is to establish whether the satellites lift-off mass (i.e.
the dry mass plus the propellant mass) is within the lift capability of the favoured launch
vehicle(s), and whether the intended operational lifetime is in fact achievable.

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Let us assume that our sample GEO satellite (m = 1000 kg, Isp = 300 s) is to be launched
into GTO (Pe = 300 km, Ap = 35,786 km), from where it will use its own apogee motor
to reach GEO. The satellite will be positioned initially at longitude 78E. Five years later
it is to be relocated to longitude 75E in a manoeuvre that must take no longer than 3
days. After another 5 years the satellite is expected to be running low on propellant and
should therefore be expelled into a circular graveyard orbit with a radius 300 km higher
than GEO. The propellant consumption for attitude control is expected to be 4 kg over the
10-year lifetime.
The E/W station-keeping half-window is 0.1, and the N/S half-window is 3. Our sample
satellite is initially placed at the start of both windows, as discussed earlier. The satellite
is lucky to be located near one of the stable points along the equator (longitude 75E).
Consequently, at the initial location of 78E an E/W correction is required only every 90
days, and no correction at all is required at the final location. The inclination is allowed to
drift freely for 7 years within the 3 deg limits.
The following propellant budget gives a breakdown of the corresponding V and m for
the sample satellite. Note that the satellite mass at the start of each manoeuvre is reduced
as a result of the propellant consumption during the previous manoeuvre. Nearly half the
lift-off mass (393 kg) is made up of the propellant needed to perform the transfer from
GTO to GEO. This is typical for GEO satellites launched into GTO.

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5 / Orbit Management

m0 (kg) =
Isp (s) =
(km3/s2) =

GTO

GEO

1000

Ap (km) =

35786

a (km) =

42164

300
398601

Pe (km) =

300

V (m/s) =

3074.7

ra (km) =

42164

1 (deg) =

78.0

olo
gy
.

Constants

R (km) =

6378

rp (km) =

6678

2 (deg) =

g (m/s2) =

9.81

a (km) =

24421

(s) =

Vap (m/s) =

1607.8

(h) =

Vpe (m/s) =

Graveyard

75.0

86163.5
23.93

EW d 1/dt =

10151.6

-0.0002

ra (km) =

42464

(s) =

37980.1

EW d 2/dt =

rp (km) =

42164

(h) =

10.55

EW (deg) =

0.1

a (km) =

42314

V (m/s) =

1466.8

EW t1 (days) =

90.05

Vap (m/s) =

3058.3

Vpe (m/s) =

3080.1

Relocation

V (m/s) =

10.89

d/dt (deg/day)

1.0

V (m/s) =

5.66

m0 (kg)

m (kg)

0.003

hn
EW V1 (m/s) =

EW V2 (m/s) =
NS i (deg) =

ec

V (m/s)

0.05

NS t (years) =

7.06

NS V (m/s) =

321.8

Comment

fT

Quarter

EW t2 (days) =

GTO - GEO

1466.84

1000

392.51

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.49

0.01

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.48

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0.01

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.47

0.01

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.46

0.01

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.45

0.01

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.44

0.01

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.43

0.01

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.42

0.01

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.41

0.01

10

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.40

0.01

11

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.39

0.01

12

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.38

0.01

13

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.37

0.01

14

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.36

0.01

15

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.35

0.01

16

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.34

0.01

17

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.33

0.01

18

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.31

0.01

19

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.30

0.01

20

E/W st.-keeping

0.05

607.29

0.01

No E/W station-keeping

21

Relocation

5.66

607.28

1.17

at long. 75E.

28

N/S st.-keeping

321.83

606.12

62.79

N/S station-keeping

40

Graveyard burn

10.89

543.33

2.01

after 7 years.

Attitude control

22

541.32

4.03

Spread over 10 years.

Total:

1828.23

Check total:

462.71

462.71

Using total V

Table 5-2 Sample propellant budget.

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5 / Orbit Management
The check total entry at the bottom of the table is interesting, in that the sum total of V
(= 1822.79 m/s) has been inserted directly in Eq 5.42 to yield m = 461.71 kg. This
suggests that, when calculating the total m over the satellites lifetime:

olo
gy
.

a) there is no need to calculate m at each step along the way; and

b) it makes no difference for the total m in which order the manoeuvres are
performed.

ec

hn

Note, however, that these statements are only true if the Isp is identical during all the
manoeuvres. This is not strictly the case in most satellite missions, partly because some
manoeuvres are performed in pulsed rather than continuous thrust mode, and partly
because the pressure in the propellant tanks decreases as propellant is expelled. But if the
Isp does not vary too much, the two statements are good enough for making initial
propellant consumption estimates.

fT

Q: Statement (b) above seems to go against intuition, since one would assume that
performing a large manoeuvre towards the end, when the satellite is lighter, is more
economical overall.

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A: Here is the mathematical proof that statement (b) is correct. Assume that we wish to
undertake two manoeuvres in sequence, namely
-V1/(g Isp)

and

a1

m1 = m1 [1 e
] = m1 [1 e ]
-V2/(g Isp)
a2
m2 = m2 [1 e
] = m2 [1 e ]

a1+a2

with m2 = m1 m1. If we can prove that mtot = m1 + m2 = m1 [1 e


-(V1+ V2)/(g Isp)
= m1 [1 e
], then clearly the order is unimportant.
For the 1st manoeuvre:
For the 2nd manoeuvre:

a1

m1 = m1 [1 e ]
a2
m2 = (m1 - m1) [1 e ]
a1

a2

a1

a2

Therefore: mtot = m1 + m2 = m1 [1 - e ] + m1 [1 - e ] - m1 [1 - e ] [1 - e ]
a1
a2
a1
a2
a1 a2
a1 a2
= m1 [1 - e + 1 - e - 1 + e + e - e e ] = m1 [1 - e e ]
a1+a2
= m1 [1 - e
]
which is the proof we are after. By extension, for n manoeuvres we have:
-(V1 + V2 + V3 + .... + Vn)/(g Isp)

mtot = m1 [1 e

Here again, the order of the various V is unimportant for mtot .

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5 / Orbit Management

5.5.

Solved Problems

See Appendix C for solutions.

r = (4000, 0, 6000)T km;

V = (-6, 0, 4)T km/s.

Calculate the apogee and perigee heights.

olo
gy
.

5.5.1 Through ranging and range rate measurements, a ground station has computed the
following values for the radius vector and the velocity vector of a satellite at a certain
moment in time:

fT

ec

hn

5.5.2 A satellite with a mass m = 500 kg is travelling in a circular polar orbit (i = 90) at
an altitude h = 600 km above the earths surface. Without changing the altitude or the
inclination, the orbit is to be modified by initially rotating the nodes 2 degrees eastward
(i.e. = 2). Subsequently, the inclination i is to be altered to make the orbit sunsynchronous, without any further rotation of the nodes. What is the total propellant
consumption mtot for these two manoeuvres? The earths radius R = 6371 km, the
gravitational parameter = 398601 km3/s2, and the thruster onboard the satellite has a
specific impulse Isp = 300 s.

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5.5.3 Returning to Problem 5.5.2, how much propellant would be saved if both
manoeuvres were performed simultaneously?
5.5.4 The thruster in Problem 5.5.3 develops 10 N of thrust. What is its propellant
consumption rate dm/dt, and how long will the manoeuvre take, expressed in cumulative
burn time?
5.5.5 A geostationary satellite with a mass m = 4000 kg is located at longitude 120W
and is to be maintained at that position within a longitude window of 0.1. How
frequently must an east-west correction be performed, and how much propellant does the
first such correction consume? The specific impulse Isp = 300 s.

5.5.6 What is the worst-case V per year required for east-west station-keeping of a
GEO satellite within the statutory 0.1 longitude window? Same question for northsouth station-keeping?

221

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ec

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6 / Propulsion

6. Propulsion
Introduction

olo
gy
.

6.1.

The propulsion subsystem allows the satellite to change its attitude and orbit. It is made
up of thrusters (large and small rocket motors) and associated propellant storage, feed,
filters and valves.

ec

hn

The subsystem is responsible for a substantial portion of the satellites lift-off mass, and
hence its launch cost. As demonstrated in Section 5.4.6, nearly half of the mass of a GEO
satellite consists of propellant needed to take it from the geostationary transfer orbit to the
geostationary orbit. The remaining propellant is spent over a number of years on out-ofplane and in-plane orbital manoeuvres, and to a lesser degree on attitude control.

fT

More than any other spacecraft constituent, the propulsion subsystem defines the
satellites operational lifetime. When the onboard propellant is nearing depletion, steps
are taken to terminate the mission in an orderly fashion.

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Satellite engineering employs two different propulsion technologies, namely


thermodynamic and electrodynamic propulsion. Each technology has several subcategories (Figure 6-1). Sometimes more than one category exists onboard a single
spacecraft.

Propulsion

Thermo-dynamic

Cold gas

Compressed
Vaporizing
liquid

Electro-dynamic

Chemical

Solid propellant
Liquid monopropellant
Liquid bipropellant

Electrothermal

Resistojet
Arcjet

Electromagnetic
MPT
PIT
PPT

Electrostatic
Ion
HET
FET

Figure 6-1 Propulsion technologies for satellite applications.

In the following sections we will examine design and operational aspects of the most
common propulsion variants. We will conclude with suggestions for thruster layout
possibilities to gain optimum cost-effectiveness.
223

6 / Propulsion

The dynamics of attitude and orbit control are dealt with in Chapters 4 and 5.

Thermodynamic Propulsion

olo
gy
.

6.2.

Most thermodynamic propulsion relies on the compression of cold gas or the expansion
of heated gas to develop thrust. By contrast, electrodynamic thrust is generated by
accelerating charged atoms or molecules, with the exception of electrothermal thrusters
which combine thermodynamic and electrodynamic technologies (see Section 6.3).

hn

6.2.1. Propellant Characteristics

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Propellant

fT

ec

A chemical bi-propellant has two constituent parts: fuel and oxidizer. The fuel is the
component that provides most of the propulsive energy, while the oxidizer enables the
fuel to combust. Frequently the word fuel is used synonymously with propellant,
probably because what we put in our automobiles is indeed fuel (i.e. petrol), while the
engine draws the oxidizer (oxygen) from the ambient atmosphere. A rocket which
operates in vacuum has to carry its own oxidizer along with the fuel, so it is helpful to
make the distinction between propellant, fuel and oxidizer:

Fuel

Oxidizer

Figure 6-2 Propellant and its parts.

Chemical monopropellants, cold gas and electrodynamic propellants only contain a single
propulsive component, i.e. they do not require an oxidizer to combust or accelerate.

The most important figure of merit of a particular propellant is its specific impulse Isp,
defined as the impulse per kg of expended propellant (Eq 5.43):

I sp =

Ve
F t
F
=
=
g
g m g m

(seconds)

(6.1)

where Ve is the exit velocity of the combusted propellant (in m/s), F is the thrust
(Newton), m = m/t is the propellant mass flow (kg/s) and g is the acceleration of the
earths gravitation (= 9.81 m/s2). The fact that Isp is measured in seconds is an artefact of
its definition (ratio of kg and kg/s), and it offers no intuitive relationship to time.
Assuming that the thrust F is reasonably constant during a burn (which is usually the
case), the total impulse It imparted on the satellite is:

224

6 / Propulsion

I t = F t = gI sp m

(6.2)

olo
gy
.

with t being the burn time and m the propellant mass consumed. Isp can be thought of
as a measure of the rocket motor's fuel consumption, with the difference that it
measures the thrust per spent kilogramme rather than miles per gallon. The higher the Isp,
the more thrust we get out of a given quantity of propellant (Eq 6.1), or the less propellant
we have to carry onboard for a given impulse requirement (Eq 6.2).
The velocity increment resulting from a given impulse may be derived from Eq 5.49:

hn

(6.3)

ec

m0
m0
= Ve ln
V = Ve ln

Ft
m0 m
m0
Ve

fT

Solid propellant rockets are often referred to as motors, while liquid propellant and
electric rockets are called engines.

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Table 6-1 gives some typical Isp values for different types of propellant, along with some
other characteristics that influence the designers choice.

Cold gas
Monopropellants
Solid propellants

Isp in
vacuum
30

Thrust
(N)
0.1 - 250

Handling
hazard
Low

Ease of
storability
Very easy

250 290

100 - 106

High

Easy

Hydrazine

200 - 250

<1

High

Easy

Kerosene + O2

300 - 350

10 - 106

Very high

Difficult

UDMH + N2O4

300 - 350

10 - 106

High

Difficult

MMH + N2O4

300 - 350

0.1 - 500

High

Difficult

H2 + O2

440 - 460

10 - 106

Very high

Very
difficult

Electrothermal

< 1500

<2

Very low

Very easy

Electrostatic

< 6000

<1

Very low

Very easy

Electromagnetic

< 5000

< 200

Very low

Very easy

Propellant category

Comment
Inexpensive
Not restartable
Needs catalyst for
combustion

Bipropellants

Cryogenic,
suitable for
launchers
Storable, for
launchers
Storable, suitable
for satellites
Cryogenic, for
launchers

Electric Propulsion

High power
consumption
High power
consumption
Very high power
consumption

Table 6-1 Comparison of various types of propellant.

From the Table it is evident that no single propellant is the perfect choice for all
applications. For example, the low thrust of most electric propulsion technologies (< 2 N)
restricts its use to manoeuvres that are not urgent, such as slow flywheel momentum
dumping or GEO station-keeping. As for bipropellants, the fuel and the oxidizer have to
225

6 / Propulsion

olo
gy
.

be kept well apart during launch preparations, as they are hypergolic, i.e. they combust on
contact with each other. Liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen are not only hypergolic, but
they are also cryogenic, i.e. they must be kept refrigerated below their vapour
temperatures to remain liquid all of which makes for difficult storage and handling.
Liquid monopropellants are easier to store and handle, because the fuel needs only a
catalyst to combust. Solid propellants are very reliable but have the great disadvantage of
not being re-startable, which precludes stepwise execution of orbital manoeuvres.

hn

As indicated in Table 6-1, the high thrust of UDMH makes it most suitable for launch
vehicles. H2 and O2 must be stored in liquid form at cryogenic temperatures, so the
kerosene + O2 and H2 + O2 alternatives are also reserved for launchers. Solid propellants
are most commonly found on launch vehicles, but sometimes this technology is also
chosen for apogee kick motors (AKM) onboard satellites.

fT

ec

Monopropellant hydrazine and bipropellant MMH are the propellants of choice for
satellites, as they can be stored at satellite room temperature and are suitable for a wide
range of thrust levels (0.1 500 N). For this reason it is possible to serve both the attitude
and orbit control functions with a single unified propulsion subsystem (UPS). Electric
propulsion technologies, with their attractive Isp, are undergoing intensive development to
improve their thrust level and reliability. At the present time they mostly complement
chemical propulsion, but there is a growing interest in "all-electric" satellites.

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Other propulsion technologies are on the drawingboard (e.g. nuclear), but they are more
relevant for long-duration interplanetary missions where the solar flux density decreases
exponentially with increasing distance from the sun, thereby starving the power-hungry
electric thrusters.
Figure 6-3 illustrates how the molecular structures of pure hydrazine, monomethyl
hydrazine (MMH) and unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine (UDMH) differ, and offers a
clue to why they are called thus.
H

CH3

CH3

CH3

Hydrazine
N2H4

Monomethyl
Unsymmetrical dimethyl
hydrazine (MMH) hydrazine (UDMH)
CH3NHNH2
(CH3)2NNH2

Figure 6-3 Three forms of hydrazine.

The solid propellant used in apogee kick motors is composed of a fuel, an oxidizer and a
binding agent, which are baked together as a composite. Carboxy- or hydroxy-terminated
polybutadiene with an aluminium powder additive is a common fuel, while ammonium
perchlorate (NH4ClO4) is a frequently used oxidizer. The binder is usually a polymer,
which gives the propellant its characteristic rubbery consistency. The relative proportions
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6 / Propulsion
of fuel, oxidizer and binder are approximately 70%, 15% and 15%. By comparison, the
fuel/oxidizer ratio in hydrazine bipropellants is approximately 1:2.

olo
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.

6.2.2. Subsystem Architecture


Figure 6-4 shows a typical layout of a unified propulsion subsystem using bipropellant
MMH onboard a 3-axis stabilized satellite. A monopropellant hydrazine system differs
mainly in that the oxidizer tank and associated plumbing are absent.

Figure 6-5 outlines a typical propulsion subsystem for a spin-stabilized satellite using
monopropellant hydrazine and a solid-propellant AKM.

He

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Pressure gauge

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ec

hn

In Figure 6-4, the fuel and the oxidizer are pressurized by helium. The two components
are fed separately to the combustion chambers of the liquid apogee engine (LAE) and the
thrusters, where they ignite spontaneously. The thrusters are used in various combinations
for orbit control as well as attitude control. Only one set of thrusters is used, the other set
being redundant.

Fill-and-drain valve

Pressure regulator

Valve

Non-return valve

Non-return valve

Valve

Pressure
gauge

MMH

Valve
N 2 O4

Pressure
gauge

Filter

Filter

Valve

Valves

Thrusters

LAE

Valves

Thrusters

Figure 6-4 Bipropellant propulsion architecture for a three-axis stabilized satellite.

227

6 / Propulsion
Fill-and-drain
valves

N 2H 4

olo
gy
.

N 2H 4

Filter

Filter
Arm/disarm lever

Valves

hn

AKM

Thrusters

ec

Thrusters

Valves

6.2.3. Propellant Storage


Liquid Propellants

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6.2.3.1.

fT

Figure 6-5 Monopropellant propulsion architecture


with centrifugal tank drainage and solid-propellant AKM for a spin-stabilized satellite.

Feeding liquid propellants from satellite storage tanks is complicated by the


weightlessness of space. Where spin-stabilized satellites are concerned, the centrifugal
force creates an artificial gravity which is exploited as shown to the left in Figure 6-6.

Figure 6-6 Propellant feed with and without centrifugal force.

The figure to the right illustrates the dilemma with a body-stabilized spacecraft, where the
liquids surface tension causes it to form lumps that hover inside the tank in an
uncontrolled manner. Pressurizing the tank does not solve the problem, since the
pressurant fills all empty spaces equally.
There are two common methods of forcing the propellant into the drain (Figure 6-7). One
is to install an elastic membrane which acts as a bladder. This solution works reasonably
well until the membrane is flat and the remaining propellant is trapped.

228

6 / Propulsion

Vane

Propellant
PMD

olo
gy
.

Membrane

hn

Figure 6-7 Propellant management using bladder and vanes.

fT

ec

The second method allows nearly all the propellant to be drained in weightlessness.
Vanes are attached to the inside wall of the tank. Surface tension causes the liquid to
adhere to the vanes and work its way down to the propellant management device (PMD)
at one end of the tank. The PMD is basically a piece of wire mesh shaped like a
clamshell, which allows liquid to filter through.

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The membrane solution works well with monopropellant hydrazine but is prone to
corrosion damage by the oxidizer in bipropellant hydrazine systems. The PMD is
therefore the norm for the MMH + N2O4 combination.
6.2.3.2.

Solid Propellants

Figure 6-8 shows a cross-section of a typical solid propellant AKM.

Nozzle

Propellant

Figure 6-8 Solid propellant apogee kick motor.

Before a solid propellant AKM is filled, the inside wall of the casing is coated with a
rubber-like liner which improves the adhesion of propellant to the wall and serves as
thermal insulation. The propellant is cast such that a hollow core results. The hollow
provides a larger burning surface, and hence greater thrust, than a solid casting. The shape
of the hollow determines the thrust profile, as illustrated in Figure 6-9.

229

6 / Propulsion

Thrust

Time

Thrust

olo
gy
.

Thrust

Time

Time

hn

Figure 6-9 Thrust profiles as a function of core geometry, as seen from the nozzle end.
The dotted contours show the core shape at some intermediate stage of burn.

fT

ec

A solid casting will give approximately constant thrust, which is preferred in most
missions (see left figure), but the exposed surface may be too small to yield adequate
thrust level. By drilling or casting a cylindrical hole through the centre, we achieve a
larger burning area and therefore greater thrust. But as the combustion erodes the walls of
the hole, the burning area becomes larger, and the thrust grows with time (see dotted
contour of the middle figure). This may or may not be a desirable side effect.

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A better way of generating high but constant thrust is to create a star-shaped hollow. Here
the burning area is even bigger than in the cylindrical case. The burning process gradually
blunts the sharp tongues of the star (see dotted contour of the right figure), with the effect
that the burning area remains almost constant.
There are many other core geometries (some tapered) to tailor the thrust to particular
mission requirements.
When casting solid propellant, care must be taken to avoid internal cracks. If the
combustion front were to encounter a crack, it would experience a sudden increase in the
burning area, and an explosion might result. Sometimes cavities form between the
propellant and the internal wall lining, causing wall burn-through. For these reasons, solid
propellant AKMs are X-rayed after casting, and also before launch.
Most solid-propellant motors use pyrotechnic igniters, though catalytic, hypergolic and
electrical igniters are also available. For safety reasons, the igniters are de-activated by
means of an electromechanical arm/disarm device until shortly before lift-off.

6.2.4. Propellant Distribution

The valves are of either the pyrotechnic or the latch variety. Latch valves can be opened
and closed many times via telecommand, whereas pyro valves may be actuated only once.
Pyro valves use an explosive charge inside a squib to either open or close, and are used
whenever low weight and high reliability are of utmost importance (Figure 6-10). A
normally closed pyro valve (a) is launched in a closed state and is opened by
telecommand after injection. The opposite holds true for a normally open pyro valve, as
in (b). In both cases a punch is pushed downward inside a cylinder when the squibs are
fired electrically.

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6 / Propulsion

Squib

Squib

Squib

Upperbody
body
Upper

Tube

Hole

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Tube

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ec

Punch

Punch
Hole

Tube

Squib

hn

Upper body

(a)

olo
gy
.

In the above architecture (Figure 6-4), a normally closed pyro valve might be justified
in the helium feed line just below the pressure regulator, since the satellite is launched
with unpressurized propellant tanks for safety reasons, and because the subsystem will
not function without pressurization once in orbit. A normally open pyro valve could
also be added to seal off the LAE after use, thereby preventing the risk of future
propellant leaks through the LAEs latch valve.

Tube

(b)

Figure 6-10 Normally closed and normally open pyro valves.

The non-return valve keeps the fuel and the oxidizer from blending and combusting in the
pressurizing feed pipe.
Filters prevent propellant impurities from reaching the thruster latch valves, the risk being
a leaky valve if a foreign particle gets stuck in the valve seat. These impurities may be
resident in the propellant itself, or be residues from tank or pipe manufacturing.
Pressure transducers enable spacecraft controllers to estimate the amount of remaining
propellant via telemetry. Temperature variations in the tanks make pressure a somewhat
unreliable measurement parameter. Spacecraft controllers therefore also keep track of
actual propellant consumption during previous manoeuvres by solving Eq 6.1 for m.
This method is known as dead reckoning. Recently a more accurate method has been
developed called thermal propellant gauging (TPG), whereby the remaining propellant
mass is derived from the thermal inertia of the propellant tanks, obtained by temporarily
heating the tanks and analyzing the heat-up and cool-down curves.
The fill-and-drain valve is only used during manufacturing and launch preparations.
Drainage may be necessary e.g. after flushing the system during assembly, or following a
last-moment launch abort and a subsequent need to dismount the satellite.

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6 / Propulsion

6.2.5. Thrusters

6.2.5.1.

olo
gy
.

A thruster is a small rocket, with thrust levels typically less than 1 Newton. Thrusters on
earth-orbiting satellites are typically of the engine (i.e. liquid propellant) category.
Monopropellant Thrusters

hn

Combustion of monopropellant hydrazine occurs as it passes across a catalyst bed inside


the thruster. The catalyst consists of iridium deposited on porous ceramic pellets made of
aluminium oxide. Hydrazine decomposes into ammonia, hydrogen and nitrogen. The
specific impulse can be increased substantially (from 200 s to almost 300 s) by heating
the thruster electrically to around 1000C cf. the Resistojet in Section 6.3.1.

fT

ec

Monopropellant thrusters are relatively simple and therefore reliable (Figure 6-11).
However, the need to pass monopropellant hydrazine through a catalyst severely limits
the achievable propellant mass flow rate, and hence the thrust (Eq 6.1). This technology is
therefore only suitable for attitude and station-keeping thrusters, whereas AKMs and
LAEs require solid propellant or bipropellant, respectively. For example, the early
meteorological satellites in GEO used monopropellant hydrazine for their low-thrust
needs along with solid-propellant AKMs.

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Power Supply
Heater

Nozzle

Catalyst

Propellant

Figure 6-11 Heated monopropellant hydrazine thruster.

6.2.5.2.

Bipropellant Thrusters

In a bipropellant satellite thruster, the hypergolic fuel and oxidizer combust on contact in
the combustion chamber (Figure 6-12). This type of thruster becomes very hot in the
process, to the detriment of both the thruster integrity and nearby satellite equipment.
Sometimes intermittent thrust is preferred over continuous thrust to keep the temperature
within acceptable limits.

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6 / Propulsion

MMH

N2O4

Figure 6-12 Bipropellant hydrazine thruster.

6.2.5.3.

Dual-Mode Thrusters

olo
gy
.

Nozzle

fT

ec

hn

The choice between bipropellant and monopropellant hydrazine systems relies partly on a
trade-off between high efficiency and high manoeuvering precision. The bipropellant
technique is a sledgehammer solution to the problem of attitude control, since this type of
precision manoeuvre requires low thrust and very little propellant. Conversely, an AKM
consumes vast quantities of propellant, and high efficiency is therefore essential. Stationkeeping manoeuvres fall somewhere in between attitude control and GTO-GEO transfer
in terms of propellant consumption.

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To meet these divergent requirements with a single, unified propulsion subsystem, a dualmode thruster has been developed which can operate both in monopropellant and
bipropellant mode for attitude and station-keeping control. The thruster combines the
features of catalytic decomposition, heating and hypergolic combustion, depending on
whether it is fed hydrazine with or without the oxidizer (Figure 6-13). In the bipropellant
mode, the hydrazine is pre-combusted in the catalyst bed and undergoes secondary
combustion when mixed with the oxidizer.
Power Supply

Heater

Catalyst

Nozzle

N2H4
N2O4

Figure 6-13 Dual-mode hydrazine thruster.

233

6 / Propulsion

6.3.

Electrodynamic Propulsion (EP)

olo
gy
.

Several electrodynamic thruster technologies have been developed over the last 30 years,
inspired by the promise of extremely low propellant consumption for a given total
impulse compared to the thermodynamic alternatives.

There are three classes of electric thrusters: electrothermal, electrostatic and


electromagnetic. In the electrothermal variety, thrust is generated by electrically superheating neutral gases. In electrostatic and electromagnetic thrusters, a neutral gas or solid
is electrically ionized, and thrust is created by accelerating the ions by means of an
electrostatic or electromagnetic field.

Propellant
choices

Vacuum
Isp (s)

Thrust (N)

Electrothermal
Resistojet
Arcjet

Power per
thruster
(W)

Development
status

300-1000

< 0.5

60 - 90

> 300

Very
mature

700-1500

<2

30

> 300

Mature

< 5000

<1

90

500-5000

Mature

< 2500
< 6000

<1
<1

60
50 - 60

1500
20 - 120

Mature
Mature

1000-4000

10 - 200

10 - 40

Several
hundred
kW

Immature

3000-5000

1 - 150

20 - 40

Several kW

Immature

800-1200

<1

< 20

200 - 400

Fairly
mature

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N 2, H 2,
N2H4, NH3
H 2, N 2H 4,
NH3

Power/
thrust
conversion
efficiency
(%)

fT

Category

ec

hn

Each type of EP thruster is divided into sub-groups depending on the adopted design
solution. Table 6-2 summarizes the main characteristics of the various solutions. Not all
of these are, or ever will be, suitable for earth-orbiting satellites. They are nevertheless
included for the sake of completeness.

Electrostatic
GIE

HET
FET
Electromagnetic
MPD

PIT

PPT

Ar, Cs, Hg,


Xe
Xe
Cs

Ar, Ne, Xe,


NH3, N2H4,
H2, N2, Li,
K, Na
N2H4, NH3,
CO2, Ar
Teflon

Table 6-2 Overview of electric propulsion thrusters.


GIE = Gridded Ion Engine; HET = Hall Effect Thruster; FET = Field Effect Thruster;
MPD = Magnetoplasmadynamic; PIT = Pulsed Inductive Thruster; PPT = Pulsed Plasma Thruster

As mentioned earlier, the main advantage of electric propulsion (EP) over chemical ditto
is the high Isp, which means that a substantially greater impulse It can be generated for a
given propellant mass m (Eq 6.2). Worded differently, the thrust-to-propellant
consumption ratio is more favourable. The high Isp is the direct result of the increase in
the exit velocity Ve of EP molecules (>> 10 km/s) compared to chemical thrusters (~ 3
km/s) see Eq 6.1. In EP, the exit velocity is proportional to the applied voltage and, at
least in theory, only the sky is the limit. In chemical propulsion, on the other hand, the

234

6 / Propulsion
reactants have a finite amount of energy per unit mass, which ultimately limits the
achievable exit velocity.

olo
gy
.

The kinetic energy of a propellant ion is equal to the work done by the electric field that
accelerates it. Thus:
mVe2 = qU

(6.4)

where m is the mass, Ve is the exit velocity and q is the charge of the ion, while U is the
accelerating voltage.

fT

ec

hn

Numerical example: The atomic mass of xenon relative to 1 Atomic Mass Unit (AMU) is
12
-27
131.29. The mass of 1 AMU (1/12 of C ) equals 1.660531 10 kg. Therefore, the mass of
-27
-27
a xenon atom m = 131.293 x 1.6605402 10 218 10 kg. The charge q of the xenon
-19
ion is that of the stripped-off electron = 1.6022 10 Coulomb, and therefore the charge-to5
mass ratio of xenon q/m = 7.35 10 Coulomb/kg. If we accelerate a xenon ion with U = 800
V, we obtain an exit velocity Ve = 34,300 m/s from Eq 6.4, while Eq 6.1 yields the equivalent
Isp = 3500 s. Assuming an achievable constant mass flow rate dm/dt = 0.7 mg/s, the thrust
becomes F = gIspdm/dt = 24 mN.

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Other advantages of EP are the wide choice of usable propellants, and the relative
operational safety and ease of handling of EP hardware.
As always, however, there is a price to pay for these advantages. The low thrust levels (<
2 N) of mature EP engines make the technology unsuitable for rocket launches from the
earth. The only useful applications in earth orbit are manoeuvres that lack urgency, e.g.
E/W and N/S station-keeping in GEO, along with attitude maintenance (notably
continuous flywheel momentum dumping). Because most EP systems require significant
power supplies (> 1 kW per thruster), the saving in chemical propellant mass is to some
degree forfeited by the increased mass of additional solar panels, batteries and power
conditioning units, the more so since the energy/thrust conversion efficiency is limited to
less than 90% for most designs.
Many EP engines require a power converter to transform the low DC voltage from the
solar arrays to the very high DC or AC voltages needed to activate the thrusters. These
converters represent a drawback from the point of view of mass and reliability.
That said, certain types of EP have been used more or less successfully on many earthorbiting satellites since 1972, not to mention numerous deep space missions. Intensive
research is underway to eliminate some of the above disadvantages, so that EP may
become the primary means of attitude and orbit control onboard future spacecraft.
6.3.1. Electrothermal Thrusters

In a resistojet, the propellant is superheated to create thrust through adiabatic expansion


(Figure 6-14). Almost any type of propellant can be used, the most favoured alternatives
being nitrogen, hydrogen, hydrazine and ammonia.

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6 / Propulsion
Power Supply

Propellant

olo
gy
.

Nozzle

hn

Figure 6-14 Schematic of a resistojet thruster.

ec

Arcjets heat the propellant by passing it through a continuous electric arc (Figure 6-15).
They are 2 3 times more efficient than resistojets, but the need for power conditioning
equipment makes them twice as heavy.

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Anode

fT

Power Supply

Nozzle

Propellant

Cathode

Figure 6-15 Schematic of an arcjet thruster.

6.3.2. Electrostatic Thrusters

The gridded ion engine (GIE) is a textbook ionizer. The neutral propellant molecules
(e.g. xenon gas) are stripped of outer layer electrons through electron bombardment
(Figure 6-17). The resulting positive ions are accelerated by a grid-induced electrostatic
field. Following expulsion, the ions are blended with neutralizing electrons to prevent
them from settling on the spacecrafts surface. In the absence of a neutralizer, the
returning ions would create a voltage differential on the skin of the satellite, which might
eventually give rise to electrostatic discharge (Chapter 12). Several other ion thruster
technologies are at various stages of development, notably the contact ion engine,
microwave ion engine, radio frequency ion engine, plasma separator ion engine, and
radio isotope ion engine.

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6 / Propulsion
Power Supply
Grid
-+
+
+
-

+
+

+
+
-

+
+

+
-

+
+

Cathode
- - -

olo
gy
.

Propellant

+
+
-

hn

Beam
neutralizer

Figure 6-16 Schematic of a gridded ion engine.

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fT

ec

The Hall-effect thruster (HET) exploits the fact that positive ions within a neutral plasma
can be accelerated if subjected to a transverse magnetic field. As in the case of the
gridded ion engine, the propellant gas is ionized by a stream of electrons flowing between
a cathode and an anode. When accelerated by the magnetic field, the ions provide thrust
by virtue of the Lorentz force. Xenon is the propellant of choice because it ionizes easily
and yields reasonably heavy particles. HET technology has been used for many years
onboard Russian GEO satellites for station-keeping purposes. Two types of HETs have
been developed, namely the Stationary Plasma Thruster (SPT) and the Thruster with
Anode Layer (TAL).

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6 / Propulsion

Q: What are the Hall effect and the Lorentz force?

olo
gy
.

A: When an electron travels in a direction perpendicular to an applied magnetic field, it


experiences a force acting normal to both directions. This is the Lorentz force F. The
electron is displaced by this force and the force created by the internal electric field. For an
n-type, bar-shaped semiconductor as shown below, the carriers are predominately electrons
of bulk density n (= number of elementary charges q per unit volume).

V = VH

I
F

ec

fT

V=0

hn

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We assume that a constant current I flows along the x-axis from left to right in the presence
of a z-directed magnetic field B. (Recall that electrons move in the opposite direction to the
current, with the particle velocity v.) Electrons subject to the Lorentz force F initially drift
away from the current line toward the negative y-axis, resulting in an excess surface
electrical charge on that side of the bar. The charge causes a potential drop across the two
sides of the bar. This transverse voltage is the Hall voltage VH and its magnitude is equal to:

VH =

IB
qnd

-19

where I is the current, B is the magnetic field, d is the bar thickness, and q (1.602 10
Coulomb) is the elementary charge. The Lorentz force vector F is equal to:
F = qv B

A field emission thruster (FET) is any engine that uses an electric field to extract atomic
ions from the surface of a metal. The most common source of ions is metallic liquid, e.g.
cesium with its low melting point (29C). The atoms are accelerated by the same electric
field that produced them. A charge neutralizer is mounted at the exhaust to maintain
charge neutrality of the system.
6.3.3. Electromagnetic Thrusters

The mangetoplasmadynamic thruster (MPD), also known as the Lorentz force


accelerator (LFA), uses an electron arc to ionize the propellant. The resulting plasma is
accelerated through a combination of heating and a self-induced magnetic field, thereby
providing thrust. In theory, thrusts of 100 N or more are possible, but a power supply in
the megawatt range would be required.

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6 / Propulsion

olo
gy
.

In the pulsed inductive thruster (PIT), a gaseous propellant is injected into an induction
coil. A strong current is delivered to the coil by a bank of high-voltage, high-energy
storage capacitors, causing the propellant to be ionized. The same current accelerates the
ionized gas through the core of the coil to an exit, where it manifests itself as a thrust.

hn

In a pulsed plasma thruster (PPT), a pulsating electric arc peels off and ionizes molecules
from the surface of a solid propellant such as Teflon (Figure 6-17). In the ablation
process, an electromagnetic field and an associated Lorentz force are created which
accelerate the ions to generate thrust. This is currently the only electromagnetic
technology with in-orbit flight pedigree. One of its main advantages is its modularity, i.e.
the ease with which it is integrated into satellites, since it requires no separate propellant
storage and feed.

ec

Power Supply

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fT

Teflon

Igniter

Figure 6-17 Schematic of a pulsed plasma thruster.

6.4.

Thruster Layout

A satellite requires two sets of thrusters, one for orbit control and the other for attitude
control. Since orbit control means imparting a translation movement, the corresponding
thrusters must be mounted and aligned in such a way that their combined thrust vectors
act on the satellites centre of mass. Attitude control, on the other hand, involves rotation
movements, so the corresponding thrust vectors should act as far away as possible from
the centre of mass to achieve maximum moment (Figure 6-18).

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6 / Propulsion
Orbit control
Attitude
Attitude control
control

olo
gy
.

Attitude
control

CoG

hn

Orbit
control

Orbit control

ec

Figure 6-18 Thruster placement for attitude and orbit control.

Spin stabilization

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6.4.1.1.

fT

A strategy that leads to an optimum thruster layout is presented in the following, the aim
being to achieve full manoeuverability with a minimum number of thrusters.

Spin-stabilized satellites offer limited scope for thruster placement. A GEO spinner is a
good example (Figure 6-19). The satellites spin axis is aligned with that of the earth.
Four types of manoeuvre must be supported: N/S station-keeping, E/W station-keeping,
attitude control and spin rate control.

AKM

Figure 6-19 Thruster layout on a spin-stabilized GEO satellite.

N/S station-keeping requires a thrust along the spin axis through the centre of mass.
Ideally, this manoeuvre should be performed by a single thruster mounted in the centre of
an end panel. However, the end surfaces may already be occupied by an AKM (as in the
picture) or by a despun antenna. The alternative is therefore to mount two thrusters (No. 1
and 2) along the periphery 180 apart, and to fire them continuously for as long as it takes
to achieve the desired V.

This axial thruster arrangement is also suitable for attitude control, whereby one of the
thrusters is fired in a pulsed mode at a given spin phase angle from some fixed reference
e.g. the sun vector (see Section 4.5.1).
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6 / Propulsion

olo
gy
.

For E/W station-keeping, a radial thruster (No. 3) is mounted and aligned so as to act
through the satellites centre of mass. The thruster fires a short pulse once per spin cycle
in a manner similar to the attitude thrust.
The tangential vernier thrusters 4 and 5 provide spin-up and spin-down. (The term
vernier describes low-force thrusters intended for fine-tuning an attitude or a spin rate.)
6.4.1.2.

Body stabilization

hn

For full attitude control, the attitude control thrusters must be mounted in such a manner
that the satellite may be rotated in both the left-hand and the right-hand direction around
the axes x, y and z.

ec

Similarly, for complete orbit control, the satellite must be able to be propelled along the
axes x, y and z, as well as in the opposite directions -x, -y and -z.

Thruster No.
4
1
9
6
3
7

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Attitude control
(rotation) axis
x
y
z
-x
-y
-z
Orbit control
(translation)
axis
x
y
z
-x
-y
-z

fT

The thruster layout in Figure 6-20 would achieve this, as listed in the Table.

3
2

11

4
5

Thruster No.
10
11
12
8
5
2

10

y
9
6

12

Figure 6-20 Thruster layout for 6 degrees of freedom.

This layout implies that 12 thrusters are needed, to which must be added another 12
thrusters for redundancy, i.e. 24 thrusters in total. As we shall see, such design profligacy
is neither acceptable nor necessary.
Let us examine what is needed for orbit control. We can do away with thrusters 2, 5 and
8, since their functions can be performed by simultaneous firing of the thruster pairs 1+3,
4+6 and 7+9, respectively. We are down to 9 thrusters (plus 9 redundant ones).
Other savings maybe found depending on the mission. For example, a geostationary
satellite might dispense with thruster No.12 in Figure 6-20, because in the GEO context
its only purpose would be to eliminate the eccentricity of the orbit, and this can be done
more efficiently using thrusters No. 10 or 7 + 9 in Hohmann transfers. The point of the
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6 / Propulsion
above discussion is to highlight the fact that significant thruster savings are possible by
carefully analyzing the operational needs of the satellite. Such savings are important to
improve the cost, mass and reliability budgets of the spacecraft design.

hn

olo
gy
.

In practice, the thrusters may have to be canted (i.e. tilted away from the ideal thrust axis)
to avoid thruster plume impingement on appendages such as solar panels and antenna
reflectors. This is so because chemical propellant plumes might contaminate the surfaces,
and electric propulsion plumes might cause local heating, sputtering (similar to sand
blasting) and surface erosion. A canted thruster is of course less efficient than a straight
one, since the thrust vector is misaligned and produces potentially undesirable
components in other directions. These factors must be included when studying the
optimum thruster layout.

Solar
panel

fT

Particle flux density


contours

ec

North

Thruster 2

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Thruster 1

West

Antennas

Satellite
body

Thruster 3

Antenna

East

Thruster 4

Solar
panel

South

Figure 6-21 Thruster canting to avoid plume impingement.

The need for thruster canting is illustrated in Figure 6-21 for a geostationary satellite. The
four thrusters are intended for north-south station-keeping. Their thrust vectors are canted
approximately 45 degrees to avoid plume impingement on the solar panels, and go
through the satellite CoM to avoid attitude disturbances. Depending on the choice of
nodes, Thrusters 1 + 2 or Thrusters 3 + 4 will be used. The particle flux density within
their plumes is indicated as shaded bands emanating from the thruster nozzles. If the
outermost contour represents the maximum allowable flux density for impingement, then
Thruster 3 still runs the risk of damaging one of the antenna dishes and may have to be
canted more drastically. The efficiency of the thrust in terms of propellant consumption
deteriorates in proportion to the cosine of the canting angle.
However, by employing only one of the four thrusters (e.g. Thruster 1) for N/S stationkeeping, the unintended (east) component of the thrust may be utilized for E/W stationkeeping, thus saving the need for separate east-west manoeuvres - at least in part. These

242

6 / Propulsion

6.5.

Performance Summary

olo
gy
.

are the kind of considerations that the spacecraft designers and operators should take into
account.

Figure 6-22 offers a graphical overview of the performance and utilisation of various
propulsion technologies.
1,000,000
Solid
&
UDMH

100

MMH
Cold
gas

10

ec

1,000

fT

Thrust F (N)

10,000

H2 O2

hn

100,000

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Electric propulsion

Launch
vehicles

Apogee
engines
Attitude
& orbit
control
Stationkeeping

10

100

1,000

10,000

Specific Impulse I sp (s)

Figure 6-22 Thrust versus specific impulse for various propellants.

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6 / Propulsion

6.6.

Solved Problems

See Appendix C for solutions.

olo
gy
.

6.6.1 An E/W manoeuvre in GEO requires a velocity increment V = 11.8 m/s and must
be performed with a single thruster burn lasting 10 minutes. How much thrust F does the
manoeuvre require? The mass of the satellite m0 = 1000 kg at the start of the manoeuvre.
The thrusters specific impulse Isp = 300 s.

ec

hn

6.6.2 A satellite weighs m0 = 4000 kg at lift-off and is placed in a geostationary transfer


orbit whose perigee height Pe = 200 km and whose apogee height Ap = 35,782 km. The
orbital inclination i = 38. How much propellant is required to reduce the inclination to 0
without disturbing any of the other orbital parameters? The line of apsides lies in the
equatorial plane. The thrusters specific impulse Isp = 300 s, the earths radius R = 6371
km, and the gravitational parameter = 398,601 km3/s2.

fT

6.6.3 In Problem 6.6.2, demonstrate that firing the thruster at the perigee requires more
propellant than at the apogee, and explain why.

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6.6.4 A satellite with a mass of 1000 kg carries a xenon-propelled Hall effect thruster.
Its specific impulse Isp = 1500 s.
a) How high should the accelerating voltage U be for the thruster to yield 0.1 N of
thrust?
b) What V does the thruster produce if fired continuously for 1 hour tangetially to
the orbit?

The mass m of a xenon atom is 218 10-27 kg. The charge q of the ion is 1.6022 10-19
Coulomb.
6.6.5 An astronaut is undertaking extravehicular activity around the International Space
Station (ISS) using his manned maneuvering unit (MMU). The MMU is basically an
armchair equipped with thrusters that allow the astronaut to move in space along all 6
degrees of freedom. At a given moment our astronaut wants to propel himself from the
rear of the ISS to the front, i.e. in the direction of
the space stations velocity vector. Unfortunately,
after the first forward thrust, the MMU runs out of
fuel. The astronaut drifts into space and vanishes.
Sketch the trajectory along which the astronaut
disappears, as seen from the ISS, using two
perpendicular axes to show cross-track and alongtrack distances from the ISS. (Hint: You may wish
to draw the orbits first.)

7. Tracking, Telemetry and


Command (TT&C)

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

7.1.

Introduction

olo
gy
.

Operating a satellite in orbit has many similarities to piloting an airliner. Just like the
pilot, the spacecraft controller must maintain the crafts height and orientation, and also
conduct a number of routine chores to keep the payload happy. Most of the time the craft
is flying on autopilot and nothing much happens, but if an unusual situation arises, the
pilot or the spacecraft controller must intervene quickly and accurately. In so doing, he
draws on his detailed understanding of the crafts construction and of predefined recovery
procedures.

ec

hn

One big difference between piloting an aircraft and operating a spacecraft is that the
airline pilot may assume hands-on control of the aircraft, while the spacecraft controller
has to rely on remote control via radio links. To complicate matters further, a satellite
may take several orbital turns - each lasting upwards of 90 minutes - before being in
contact with a ground station. Even then, the contact might only last a few minutes, so
spacecraft controllers constitute a rapid reaction force par excellence.

fT

The present chapter describes the tools available in the spacecraft controllers cockpit
to monitor the health of a spacecraft (via telemetry), to influence its behaviour (via
telecommand), and to enable its position to be determined (via ranging).

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The principal subsystem elements involved are illustrated in Figure 7-1.


RF Portion

Satellite

Telemetry
Transmitter

Digital Portion

Telemetry
Formatter

Diplexer

Ranging

Telecommand
Receiver

Signal +
Noise

Ground Station

Telemetry
Receiver

Central
Processor

Telecommand
Decoder

Control Centre
Telemetry
Decoder

Diplexer

Telecommand
Transmitter

Distrib.

Central
Processor

Telecommand
Encoder

Figure 7-1 TT&C elements.

A TT&C system consists of:

A satellite with the ability to

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

collect data from all functionally important parts of the various subsystems and
relay these to the ground;
receive telecommands from the ground and distribute these for execution; and
relay ranging tones from the ground back to the ground.

olo
gy
.

A ground segment comprising

hn

a ground station which is the functional mirror image of the satellite as far as
TT&C is concerned.
a control centre where spacecraft controllers, assisted by powerful computers,
analyze the received telemetry, prepare telecommands for uplink, and use tracking
and ranging data for orbit determination.

fT

ec

The TT&C subsystem onboard the satellite is made up of a digital portion and a radio
frequency (RF) portion. The digital portion is in fact a separate but closely linked
subsystem known as the onboard computer (Chapter 8). It collects and converts telemetry
data, and it also routes telecommands to the appropriate equipment for execution. The RF
portion is the TT&C subsystem proper, i.e. the modem that allows the digital section to
communicate with the ground.

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Within the ground segment, it is important to make the distinction between the ground
station and the control centre.
The ground station is the RF window between the control centre and the satellite. It is
usually unmanned (apart from maintenance staff) and may be located far away from the
control centre, to which it is connected by data links. Its primary building blocks are the
antenna, the telemetry receiver/demodulator, the telecommand modulator/transmitter, and
the two-way data link interface with the control centre.
The control centre oversees and configures the satellite as well as the ground station via
remote control. While most routine monitoring and control tasks are performed by the
control centres computers, humans are present around the clock to prepare special
operations and handle abnormal situations. The staff are made up of spacecraft controllers
who interact online with the satellite using a variety of displays and keyboards, and of
operations engineers in charge of offline tasks such as preparing schedules, attitude &
orbit manoeuvres, payload reconfigurations, and recovery procedures.

246

fT

ec

hn

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.

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

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Figure 7-2 Spacecraft control centre.

7.2.

Telemetry and Telecommand Structuring

In this Subsection we will examine the formation of telemetry (TM) and telecommand
(TC) data streams. The routing of TM and TC onboard the satellite is dealt with in
Chapter 8: Onboard Data Handling.
7.2.1. Telemetry

The word telemetry means measurement from a distance. Strictly speaking, all signals
arriving from a satellite constitute telemetry, whether they originate in the satellite
payload or in the platform. In everyday space-speak, the word telemetry usually refers
specifically to the platform. To emphasize its distinction from payload telemetry, we may
call it housekeeping telemetry.
The physical parameters of interest to spacecraft controllers and operations engineers are
typically voltages, currents, temperatures, and on/off states associated with satellite
equipment. Other parameters of interest may include pressure, position, register contents,
and timing information. For example, a medium-sized communications satellite in GEO
may have 1000 or more telemetry points.
To relay the telemetry to the ground station, one could allocate one radio channel to each
parameter and transmit them all in parallel. This approach is known as frequency division
multiplex (FDM) and is used sparingly on some satellites to satisfy special needs. The
problem with extensive use of FDM is that it wastes precious radio bandwidth and
complicates the design of the transmitters. A more economical approach is to let the

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)


parameters time-share a single radio channel in what is known as time division multiplex
(TDM), as described in the following.
The Old Approach

olo
gy
.

7.2.1.1.

To understand how TDM works in the context of telemetry, it is useful to go back in time
and study how telemetry was packaged in the 1960s. Figure 7-3 illustrates how telemetry
parameters used to be sampled. For clarity we show an electromechanical commutator as
used in telephone exchanges many decades ago, though in satellites the commutation has
always been performed electronically.
Sync

hn

A13
A12

Fra me ID

A11
SIW

Frame ID

A10

A1

A1

ec

Sync

SIW

A2

fT

A9
A8
A7

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A6

A3
A4
A5

Figure 7-3 Principle of parameter sampling.

For each complete turn of the commutator, we obtain in our example a set of 16 telemetry
parameters, or telemetry words, also known as telemetry channels. For compactness, we
may display the sampled words during four turns of the commutator in a 4 x 16 matrix, as
in Figure 7-4:
1

Sync

Sync

Sync

Sync

2
Frame
ID =0
Frame
ID =1
Frame
ID =2
Frame
ID =3

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

SIW

A1

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

A8

A9

A10

A11

A12

A13

SIW

A1

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

A8

A9

A10

A11

A12

A13

SIW

A1

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

A8

A9

A10

A11

A12

A13

SIW

A1

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

A8

A9

A10

A11

A12

A13

Figure 7-4 Sample telemetry format.

The matrix is called a format (or sometimes, misleadingly, a subframe). Each row within
the matrix is a frame. In this example we have arbitrarily defined the format as four
consecutive frames, i.e. four turns of the commutator in Figure 7-3. A frame begins with
a synchronization word, allowing the ground station receiver to sense the beat. The
frame ID word is a frame counter, while the synchronization and identification word
(SIW) tells the ground station the identity of the originating satellite. A few telemetry
words are usually designated as a format counter for archiving and retrieval purposes.
Traditionally, a telemetry word consists of 8 bits, and sometimes the term octet is used
instead of word. The reason for this word size is that 8 bits provide a measurement
resolution of 1/28 = 0.0039, i.e. better than 0.5%, of whatever is to be measured. For

248

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)


example, suppose the temperature of an equipment is expected to vary between 0 and 100
degrees C. After A/D conversion, the telemetry will relay the actual temperature with a
resolution better than 0.5 degrees, which is usually deemed more than adequate.

olo
gy
.

In addition to the measurement resolution, it is important to establish the speed with


which the telemetry is sent to the ground, i.e. the bit rate, since it determines the time
resolution of each word. Suppose we have chosen a bit rate of 800 bits per second (bps).
This means that the 8-bit telemetry words arrive at the ground station at a rate of 800:8 =
100 words per second. There are 16 words per frame, so the ground station receives a
complete frame every 16:100 = 0.16 seconds. If each word is represented only once per
frame, the time resolution of each word is also 0.16 seconds.

ec

hn

Now assume that the values in word A5 change more frequently than in the other words,
so that we want to sample it maybe four times as often as the other words. This procress
is called supercommutation, in contrast to the previous structure which is known as frame
commutation. The commutator in Figure 7-3 must then be rewired as in Figure 7-5:
A13

A11
SIW

Frame ID

A10

A1

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Sync

Frame ID

fT

A12

Sync

SIW
A1

A9

A2

A8

A3

A7

A4

A6

A5

Figure 7-5 Supercommutation of word A5.

The resulting telemetry format now looks like in Figure 7-6:


1

Sync

Sync

Sync

Sync

2
Frame
ID =0
Frame
ID =1
Frame
ID =2
Frame
ID =3

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

SIW

A5

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

A8

A5

A10

A11

A12

A5

SIW

A5

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

A8

A5

A10

A11

A12

A5

SIW

A5

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

A8

A5

A10

A11

A12

A5

SIW

A5

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

A8

A5

A10

A11

A12

A5

Figure 7-6 Telemetry format after supercommutation of word A5.

which allows us to monitor word A5 every 0.16:4 = 0.04 seconds. In the example shown,
we have supercommutated word A5 at the expense of words A1, A9 and A13, which are
no longer sampled. This may or may not be acceptable.

249

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

Sync

Sync

Sync

Sync

2
Frame
ID =0
Frame
ID =1
Frame
ID =2
Frame
ID =3

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

SIW

A4

A5

A6

A10

A11

A12

A13

A17

A19

A5

A23

A10

A11

A1

A4

A5

A7

A10

A11

A12

A14

A18

A20

A5

A24

A10

A11

A2

A4

A5

A8

A10

A11

A12

A15

A17

A21

A5

A23

A10

A11

A3

A4

A5

A9

A10

A11

A12

A16

A18

A22

A5

A24

A10

A11

hn

olo
gy
.

Yet another form of commutation exists, namely subcommutation, where a particular


telemetry word is sampled only once per format, rather than once per frame, so the time
resolution in our example is 0.16 x 4 = 0.64 seconds. Now we have a clear idea why the
concept of format is important: It is the data matrix within which any one of the satellites
telemetry words appears at least once. In Figure 7-7 we illustrate all three types of
commutation.

fT

ec

Figure 7-7 Telemetry format with mixed commutation.


Words A4, A12.
Frame commutated:
Supercommutated:
Words A5, A10, A11
Subcommutated, once per format: Words A1 A3, A6 A9, A13 A16, A19 A22
Subcommutated, twice per format: Words A17 A18, A23 A24

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In the 1970s, some satellites carried a telecommandable switch that allowed selective
super- and subcommutation, as well as dwelling on a single parameter (i.e. filling the
entire telemetry format with a single word).
Most satellites in the 1960s and 1970s featured telemetry formats that were much larger
than the 4 x 16 words shown, some moving as high as 128 x 256 words. There were
different classes of words (Figure 7-8).

Analogue
words

Digital
serial
words

Sync

Frame ID

Digital
parallel
words

SIW

Analogue
words

Format counter

Figure 7-8 Example of a large telemetry format.

The analogue words contained analogue readouts such as voltages, currents and
temperatures which were digitized in an A/D converter. The digital serial words held
digital values contained in onboard counters and registers, while the digital parallel
250

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)


words were an assembly of single-bit on/off states from several different equipments (8
per word).

Binary

olo
gy
.

To facilitate TDM, the serial data stream formed by the digits were coded according to
one of several pulse code modulation (PCM) schemes. Examples of PCM schemes are
shown in Figure 7-9.

Traditional.
NRZ-L

hn

A change of level for every bit.


Facilitates bit synchronization in
the receiver.

SP-L

ec

0 = do not change to the


opposite state; 1 = change to the
opposite state. Longer bits
lower bit rates.

fT

NRZ-M

Figure 7-9 Examples of PCM schemes.

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Schemes like NRZ-M lead to longer bits, hence to lower bit rates, and therefore smaller
bandwidths a desirable feature in the early days. Modern standards use packet telemetry
and telecommand (Section 7.2.1.2) which have a tendency to generate long strings of
ones or zeros, e.g. when dumping a memory. Using NRZ-M would create very long
bits, to the point where the receiver might lose sync. To restore the beat, SP-L
(pronounced Split-phase-L) is preferred with its level change once every bit period.
Modulating a pseudo-random sequence offers even higher sync reliability.
Measurements that require greater data resolution than 8 bits (i.e. better than 1:28 = 0.5%
of full scale) were allocated two or more words. For example, the format counter in
Figure 7-8 had 4 words, which meant that 232 4.3 x 109 formats would be downloaded
before the counter restarted from zero. If the bit rate was, say, 1,600 bps, then
downloading one format would have lasted 8 16 32/1600 = 2.56 seconds, and therefore
a complete counter cycle would have required 2.56 4.3 109 seconds 350 years i.e.
far longer than the expected satellite lifetime.
7.2.1.2.

The New Approach

Though the principles of modern telemetering are the same as described above, there are
at least two serious problems with the old fixed-format approach. One problem is the high
percentage of unproductive overhead data, namely the words allocated to Sync, Frame
ID, SIW, and the Format Counter. In the example shown in Figure 7-8, forty-one out of
the 288 words are wasted due to the overhead. The fraction of useful telemetry is
therefore only 1-41/288 = 0.86, or 86%. Another problem is the difficulty to foresee at the
design stage what the need for time and data resolution is going to be for each parameter.
The method described earlier of having telecommandable switches to sub- or
supercommutate selected channels is operationally cumbersome and might not yield the
desired result in every situation.
251

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

The sequence of events is as follows (Figure 7-10).


Packet 3

VCA 0, Frame 0

Source 1

Packet 1

Packet 2

Packet 5

Packet 6

VCA 0, Frame 1

Packet 3

VCA 1, Frame 0

Source 2

Packet 4

VCA 0, Frame 2

Packet 4

VCA 1, Frame 1

Packet 1

VCA 2, Frame 1

Packet 5

Packet 6

VCA 1, Frame 2

Packet 2

VCA 2, Frame 0

Packet 7

hn

Packet 2

ec

Packet 1

fT

Source 0

olo
gy
.

A better solution is to have dynamically variable commutations and word sizes, whereby
each parameter claims as much of the overall data capacity (bandwidth) as it thinks it
needs at any particular time. This is the modern approach. In a nutshell, each telemetry
source goes knocking on the door of a central processor and presents its demand. The
processor looks at the current telemetry traffic from all the other sources and decides
whether or not to accommodate the demand. Underlying that decision is a preprogrammed table of priorities known as a bandwidth allocation table (BAT).

Packet 3

VCA 2, Frame 2

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which, if the BAT stipulates VCA 0, 1, 0, 2, ..., may yield the following TDM data stream:
VCA 0
Frame 0

VCA 1
Frame 0

VCA 0
Frame 1

VCA 2
Frame 0

VCA 0
Frame 2

VCA 1
Frame 1

VCA 2
Frame 1

VCA m
Frame n

Figure 7-10 Modern packet telemetry protocol.


(Source: T. Hult, Ruag Sweden.)

Looking at Figure 7-10, we notice that the various telemetry data sources are sampled by
local data collectors which assemble measurement data packets for example all the
temperatures collected during the most recent time interval. A virtual channel assembler
(VCA) collects packets from several sources. When enough packets have been collected,
the VCA generates a telemetry transfer frame and places it in a queue. Each VCA has its
own queue. A virtual channel multiplexer then decides which VCA queue may proceed
down the line on the basis of the above-mentioned BAT (Figure 7-11).
Sensor
Sensor

Packet
source 0

Virtual
Channel
Assembler 0

Packet
source 1

Virtual
Channel
Assembler 1

Packet
source 2

Virtual
Channel
Assembler 2

Bandwidth
Allocation
Table

Sensor
Sensor

Virtual
Channel
Multiplexer

Sensor

Sensor

Figure 7-11 Assembly of telemetry transfer frames.


(Source: T. Hult, Ruag Sweden.)

252

Coding and
modulation

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

olo
gy
.

If a VCA contains no data for the moment, the processor picks the next VCA, and if all
the VCAs are empty, their outputs are replaced by empty transfer frames called idle
frames.
The VCAs reside in the telemetry formatter (see Figure 7-1). A modern satellite will
typically employ three or four VCAs, namely:

hn

VCA 0 for real-time data from the central processor.


VCA 1 for real-time data from instruments with high bandwidth requirements.
VCA 2 for application data stored in memory.
VCA 3 for housekeeping data stored in memory.

ec

Each source packet may have a time tag appended to it, so that analysts can determine at
what time the packet was sampled. The time reference is usually the onboard time
generated by the central processor, and there are means to correlate this onboard time
with ground station time (e.g. GMT).

7.2.2.1.

fT

7.2.2. Telecommand
The Old Approach

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We will again begin by looking at the 1960s methodology of generating telecommands,


and then move on to modern techniques.
Like telemetry words, telecommands were basically made up of 8 bits, which limited the
number of available on/off commands to 28 = 256. In the ESA standard of the day, up to
three on/off commands could be packaged into a 96-bit command frame that also
included a number of repeats and codes to reduce the risk of error (Figure 7-12).
Word length (bits):
16
4

ASW

Mode

1st
data
word

Mode
repeated

1st
word
repeat

2nd
data
word

2nd
word
repeat

8
3rd
data
word

4 = 96 bits

3rd
word
repeat

Hamming
code

Figure 7-12 Basic telecommand frame.

ASW stood for address & synchronization word, which served the triple purpose of
synchronizing the satellites telecommand receiver, determining the polarity of the
incoming signal, and addressing the correct satellite (rather like the SIW in telemetry).
The option existed to send 16-bit memory load or 24-bit computer load commands, but
these had to be divided into 8-bit fragments in order to fit inside the 96-bit frame with all
its repeats. Memory load and computer load commands were used to set digital registers
onboard the satellite e.g. the spin phase angle between the solar sensor output and
thruster activation. A memory load command could also be used as a time tag to indicate
when the subsequent command should be executed according to the onboard clock. The

253

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)


purpose of the Mode word was to indicate whether the command was intended as on/off,
memory load, computer load, or time tag.

olo
gy
.

A fairly high degree of bit error protection was achieved by sending each 8-bit data word
twice, the more so if the 2nd data word was transmitted in the opposite polarization from
data words 1 and 3. Even so, it was felt necessary to add a 4-bit Hamming code which
was able to detect up to two bit errors in the preceding word, and to correct one of them
(see Section 7.2.3.2).

7.2.2.2.

The New Approach

fT

ec

hn

Note that only 3 8 = 24 bits per command frame contained productive telecommand
data, while the remaining 9624 = 72 bits represented overhead, leaving an efficiency of
only 24/96 = 25%. Another difficulty was that the number of available ASW was running
out, so that satellites in development had difficulty obtaining an allocation. It is true that
the 16 bits of the ASW could in theory accommodate 216 = 65,536 satellites, which might
seem more than adequate for many years to come. However, a single bit error might
result in the wrong satellite being addressed, and therefore the pseudo-random ASWs had
to be reasonably orthogonal, i.e. their bit patterns had to be sufficiently different to
minimize the risk of confusion. This reduced the number of assignable ASWs to a few
hundred.

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Modern packet telecommand standards reduce the overhead significantly, so that the
available bandwidth is devoted mostly to usable command content. Hence, more
command data may be sent to more onboard users. The limit on available ASWs is
largely removed. In outline, the telecommand protocol is illustrated in Figure 7-13,
whereby the packaging, multiplexing and addition of headers take place in the ground
station, while the unpacking, demultiplexing and removal of headers occur onboard the
satellite.

254

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)


Ground station

Satellite
Telecommands are (un)packed
into a variable length data field.
A header is added with packet
management information.

Packetization layer

Segmentation
layer

Several variable length packets


are (de)multiplexed to form a
virtual data channel.

Segmentation
layer

Transfer layer

Data is added/removed for


satellite identification, error
control, sequence control, and
abnormal condition recovery.

Transfer layer

hn

olo
gy
.

Packetization layer

Error correction and


synchronization codes are
added/removed.

Coding layer

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Radio link

Physical layer

fT

This is the physical radio link


including modulation or
demodulation.

Physical layer

ec

Coding layer

Figure 7-13 Modern packet telecommand protocol.


(Source: T. Hult, Ruag Sweden.)

The old ESA telecommand categories On/Off, Memory Load, Computer Load, and Time
Tag have been replaced by low-level commands for activating electronic switches, highlevel commands for switching electro-mechanical relays, and proportional commands that
encompass the functions of the old memory load, computer load and time-tag
instructions.
7.2.3. Bit Rates and Error Coding
7.2.3.1.

Bit Rates

In telemetry, the bit rate should be high enough to yield sufficient time resolution of
measurements. This statement is so broad as to be almost useless, and human judgment is
required to find the optimum value. For example, suppose a satellite is equipped with an
accelerometer to measure nutation. The analogue output of the accelerometer might
appear as the thick curve in the diagram below:

255

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0

30 60

90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360


Tim e (m illiseconds)

hn

Figure 7-14 Infrequent sampling.

olo
gy
.

Nutation Amplitude (V)

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

ec

fT

2.0
1.5
1.0

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Nutation Amplitude (V)

Sampling the curve every 90 ms, as shown by the white dots, is clearly unsatisfactory,
since the reconstitution after D/A conversion is ambiguous (like the thin curve). A better
result would be obtained by sampling the accelerometer output 3 times as often, i.e. every
30 ms:

0.5
0.0

30 60

90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360


Tim e (m illiseconds)

Figure 7-15 Frequent sampling.

Now assume that each sample consists of 8 bits. If we wish to receive a complete nutation
cycle every 360 milliseconds, it follows that the bit rate in the first case with only 4
samples should be 4 8/0.36 = 89 bps. In the second example we have 3 times as many
samples (i.e. 12 samples), and therefore the bit rate has to increase to 267 bps. But, as we
shall see in Section 7.3, a high bit rate has to be paid for with bandwidth, transmitter
power or antenna gain at the level of the satellite or the ground station. We must therefore
find a happy medium between the minimum bit rate that gives us adequate time resolution
and the maximum bit rate that is affordable.
Most modern satellites transmit telemetry at bit rates ranging from 1000 bps to several
megabits per second. The amount of data uplinked via telecommand is much smaller than
for telemetry, and their execution is usually not time critical, so telecommand bit rates
range from 500 bps to a few thousand bps. In cases where the timing of telecommand
execution is indeed critical (e.g. to fire the apogee kick motor), the solution is to time-tag
the command, uplink it ahead of time, store it in the onboard memory, and use the
onboard clock to accurately time the execution. Some satellites allow certain critical
telecommands to bypass the onboard data handling system altogether for immediate
execution.

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)


7.2.3.2.

Error Coding

olo
gy
.

All radio transmissions are corrupted by various kinds of noise and fading phenomena. In
the case of analogue transmissions, such as voice, the link quality is quantified by the
signal-to-noise ratio (S/N), and the quality may be improved by increasing the signal
power S. For example, for a telephone call to be deemed intelligible, the S/N should be >
10.

fT

ec

hn

Similarly, in digital transmissions the quality is specified in terms of the bit error rate
(BER). In satellite telemetry, the BER should be at least 10-5, i.e. in many missions we
might tolerate one bit in 100,000 to be erroneous, knowing that the faulty word will be
repeated correctly in the near future. As concerns telecommand, our BER requirements
need to be much stricter, because a faulty command might cause havoc onboard the
satellite, and a value of better than 10-7 is usually specified. As in the case of analogue
transmissions, we can improve the BER by increasing the bandwidth, the transmitter
power or the antenna gain, but there is a more elegant method of achieving the same
improvement, namely the use of digital error coding. With a suitable choice of codes, a
bit error rate of 10-10 is readily achievable in the TT&C context.

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Error coding is a vast and highly specialized subject, and we will only deal with it here in
outline. Some error codes involve the addition of one or more bits to the operative data
word, be it in telemetry or telecommand. The simplest method of error detection is the
parity bit (Figure 7-16).
At the
transmit
end:

Parity bit

Input 1
0
1

Input 2

Output

XOR truth table

Figure 7-16 Error detection using a parity bit.

In the Figure, a 9th parity bit has been added on to the 8-bit word. The parity bit in our
example shows a 1 if the number of ones in the data word is odd, and a 0 if the number
of ones is even. By tracing our way through the circuit of exclusive OR-gates (XOR),
we can convince ourselves that this is so. When the data word arrives at its destination,
the receiving processor can easily compare the word content with the parity bit and
establish whether a bit error exists.
The parity bit in our example is only able to detect a bit error, but is unable to correct it,
since the error may exist anywhere within the data word or, indeed, in the parity bit itself.
(The parity bit method is also useless if there are two bit errors.) It can be shown that, by
adding 4 parity bits instead of one to the 8-bit data word, we may detect two errors and
even correct one of them.
257

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

hn

in the present book. Interested


to gain an understanding of the
how many check bits must be
error detection and correction

ec

The underlying algorithms are too complex to describe


readers are referred to the Internet. However, it is useful
efficiency of the most commonly used error codes, i.e.
added to the useful data in order to achieve a given
objective.

olo
gy
.

Error detection and correction has become a science in its own right, and new,
sophisticated schemes are being developed all the time. The schemes fall into two main
categories, namely block codes and convolutional codes; sometimes these are used
sequentially. Block codes scrutinize each data packet in isolation (like the parity bit),
whereas convolutional codes assess the validity of packets in the context of what was
transmitted before. Hence convolutional codes (convolute = roll together) have a
memory and are more powerful than block codes, but they are also more complicated to
implement. The block codes most commonly used in TT&C are those developed by
Hamming and Reed-Solomon, while Viterbi is a name associated with convolutional
decoding.

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fT

To some extent, error codes are self-defeating, because they represent a digital overhead
by making the telemetry or telecommand packets longer. In order to relay the same data
content in a given time frame, it is necessary to increase the bit rate. But increasing the bit
rate also means augmenting the bandwidth, which in turn means inviting more noise. For
this reason, error coding analysts strive to keep the overhead (i.e. the number of extra
bits) to a minimum. The different codes mentioned in the previous paragraph are more or
less efficient depending on the length of the data words, and whether the bit errors are
expected to form randomly (Gaussian distribution) or in long bursts. These are factors
that dictate the choice of code.

The implementation of block coding is illustrated in the following. In the Hamming code,
the efficiency increases with increasing block length n, as illustrated in the following.
Suppose the aim is to detect two bit errors and correct one of them in each block. k check
bits (analogous to "parity bits") are added to the block of m information bits, such that a
total block length of n = m + k results (Figure 7-17). We refer to a Hamming(n, m) code.

k (number of check bits)

m (number of data bits)

n (block length)

Figure 7-17 Principle of block error coding.

To achieve the above goal, the number of check bits k to be added depends on the
numberof data bits m (Table 7-1). The ratio R = k/n is called the code rate and is an
indicator of the coding efficiency, in the sense that the relative number of required check
bits (i.e. the overhead) decreases with growing data length. One may therefore conclude
that the block length - and hence the number of useful data bits - should be as large as
possible. The only difficulty with this reasoning is that, the longer the block length, the
greater the chance of encountering more than two bit errors, in which case the above goal

258

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)


is no longer met. A compromise must therefore be found between efficiency and
likelihood to achieve the stated goal.
Check bits

Total bits

4
11
26

3
4
5

7
15
31

2m - m - 1

2m - 1

Rate
(= efficiency)

Name
Hamming (3,1)
(Triple repetition code)
Hamming (7,4)
Hamming (11/15)
Hamming (31/26)

olo
gy
.

Data bits

1/3 0.333

4/7 0.571
11/15 0.733
26/31 0.839

Hamming (2m-1, 2m-m-1)

1- m/(2m-1)

hn

Table 7-1 Hamming code efficiency depending on block length.

fT

ec

The inverse of the code rate, 1/R = n/m, tells us how much the overall bit rate (called the
symbol rate) has to be increased in relation to the original information bit rate. For
example, in Hamming(31,26) coding, the ratio n/m is 31/26 = 1.14, so if the intent is to
transmit useful information at 100 kbps, we must now increase the rate to 114 kbps an
overhead of 14%.

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In the Reed-Solomon case we refer to a RS(n, m) code. Frequently used codes are
RS(255,239), RS(255,235), R(255,223) and RS(255,205). Each of these code blocks thus
consists of 255 bits, of which m = 239, 235, etc., are useful information bits; the
remainder (k = 16 bits, 20 bits, etc.) are check bits which, at the receiving end, help detect
and correct information bits that have been corrupted during transmission. The more
check bits, the more corrupted information bits they are able to rectify, for the benefit of
the overall data reception quality. For example, in RS(255,223) coding, the symbol rate
n/m is 255/223 = 1.19, so if the intent is to transmit useful information at 100 kbps, we
must now increase the rate to 119 kbps an overhead of 19%.
Viterbi decoding works according to a completely different principle. Here, the
information bits are split three ways (Figure 7-18). One stream is fed into a shift register,
while the other two streams are XOR-ed with bits taken out through taps in the register.

Input
data

o
o
o

Output
data

Figure 7-18 Principle of Viterbi error coding.

259

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

olo
gy
.

In the above example, the number of input lines m = 1, and the number of output lines n =
2. To catch up with the rate of input data, the two output lines must be sampled at twice
the rate by the switch shown on the right, and consequently the output data rate is twice
the input rate in this example. The ratio R = m/n is called the code rate (similar to ReedSolomon). In the above example, R = 1/2, while the output symbol rate = 1/R = 2, so an
intended information bit rate of, say, 100 kbps will grow to 200 kbps after convolutional
coding an overhead of 100%.

hn

Two more concepts are central to convolutional coding, namely the length of the shift
register S and the constraint length K = (S+1)m. In the above example, S = 7 and K = 8.
Further improvement in FEC may be obtained by increasing the number of input lines to,
say, 2, such that the number of output lines becomes 3. In this case, if S stays at 7, we
have K = 16. And so forth.

fT

ec

The Reed-Solomon and Viterbi decoders at the receiving end perform the arithmetic
needed to detect and correct any corrupted information or coding bits. Each FEC method
may be used alone or in combination. Reed-Solomon coding is ideal for long error bursts,
while Viterbi works best on errors with a random, Gaussian distribution.

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The Reed-Solomon and Viterbi coding methods are often "concatenated", i.e. used in
series, resulting in a particularly powerful FEC tool as illustrated in Figure 7-33 further
along.

7.3.

RF Portion

The radio frequency (RF) portion is the modem for communicating with the ground
station. Much of the theory presented is the following is also applicable to satellite
telecommunications in general.
Section 7.3 consists of four main parts.
Section 7.3.1 deals with the RF aspects of tracking the satellite.
Section 7.3.2 discusses the factors that determine the choice of radio frequency for
TT&C.
Section 7.3.3 defines the quality requirements for the radio link in terms of S/N
(for analogue signals) and BER (for digital data).
Section 7.3.4 describes how these requirements are met by trading off transmitter
power, antenna gains, orbital height, and background noise levels.
7.3.1. Tracking and Ranging

Tracking and ranging are two different methods of determining a satellites orbital
elements. Angle tracking measures the azimuth and elevation angles from the ground
station to the satellite. Ranging measures the distance. These subjects are dealt with
extensively in Section 5.2: Orbit Measurement, and will not be repeated here. The reason
why these functions traditionally appear as part of the TT&C subsystem is that angle
tracking relies on a radio beacon onboard the satellite, e.g. the telemetry carrier signal,
while ranging often uses a direct link between the telecommand receiver and the
telemetry transmitter (Figure 7-19).

260

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

Rx

Radio
beacon

olo
gy
.

Tx
Tx

Ranging

hn

Angle tracking

fT

7.3.2. Choice of Radio Frequency

ec

Figure 7-19 Angle tracking and ranging.

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Radio frequencies are a scarce commodity, with many different operators (e.g. radio, TV,
mobile phones, satellites) competing for the available spectrum. Satellites use frequencies
primarily in the gigahertz region (1 GHz = 109 Hz).
Low frequencies (a few GHz) penetrate cloud cover, rain and snow very well but require
large, heavy radio equipment (antennas, transmitters, receivers, cables), which is a
problem onboard satellites. High frequencies (tens of GHz) are partially blocked by cloud
cover, rain and snow, but use smaller and lighter radio equipment.
Because of the congestion in the radio spectrum (i.e. too many users), the allocation of
frequencies is coordinated by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).
Broadly speaking, the following allocations apply for the space sector:

1 2 GHz (L-band): Mobile communications.


2 4 GHz (S-band): TT&C on a temporary basis.
4 8 GHz (C-band): TV, voice and data communications.
8 12 GHz (X-band): Military communications.
12 18 GHz (Ku-band): TV, voice and data communications.
26 40 GHz (Ka-band): TV, voice and data communications.

In reality, each band is subdivided into many different allocations.


Hence the choice of radio frequencies for TT&C requires a trade-off between service
continuity, equipment size, power demand, and availability of frequencies. For example, a
geostationary satellite might use S-band temporarily in the geostationary transfer orbit
(GTO) and the payload frequency in geostationary orbit.
So why not use the payload frequency for TT&C from the outset? For the GTO phase, a
global Launch and Early Orbit Phase (LEOP) ground station network is needed for
TT&C. Historically, S-band ground stations have been readily available worldwide,
which is why LEOP was conducted in S-band. But since S-band frequencies are
261

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

olo
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.

nowadays in high demand and are therefore difficult to coordinate, there is a trend to
move LEOP TT&C across to payload frequencies, to the extent that worldwide ground
station networks are available for those frequencies. Currently they exist for C-, X- and
Ku-band, and will soon also be available for Ka-band, such that reliance on S-band will
no longer be necessary for frequency coordination reasons.

7.3.3.1.

Analogue Modulation

fT

7.3.3. Signal Quality Requirements

ec

hn

However, when using payload frequencies, one has to remember that omnidirectional
antenna coverage is needed not only for GTO operations in LEOP, but also for safe mode
in GEO. (The "safe mode" is entered if the satellite experiences serious anomalies,
prompting the onboard computer to place the satellite in a sun-pointing attitude to ensure
continued power supply and a safe thermal environment.) To receive these
omnidirectional signals (where the energy is mainly wasted on the universe), a ground
station with relatively large antenna diameter is needed, so as to better capture the weak
satellite signal. Not many satellite operators have such large antennas that can suddenly
be diverted from payload traffic to safe mode recovery. Hence the continued preference
for S-band in LEOP as well as safe mode, and for the payload frequency in GEO.

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Imagine that you are talking to another person at a party where there is a lot of
background noise. The two of you experience difficulties understanding each other.
Intuitively, you will resort to one or more of the following techniques to improve the
communication.

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

Speak louder.
Cup your hands around your mouth, like a megaphone.
Cup your hands behind your ears.
Move closer.
Tell the other people in the room to lower their voices.
Speak more clearly.

Each of the above solutions is designed to make the conversation rise above the noise. In
(a), the speaker turns up the volume of his voice; in (b) he concentrates the sound of his
voice onto the listener. The listener cooperates in (c) by screening out much of the

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

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.

surrounding noise, so as to hear the speakers voice better. In (d), they take advantage of
the fact that the volume is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Another
solution is to turn down the noise level, as in (e). Bottom line: The aim of (a) through (e)
is to improve the ratio between the power received, Pr, and the noise power, N. We write
this ratio as Pr/N, or more commonly as C/N, where C stands for received carrier power.
A high value of C/N (pronounced carrier-to-noise ratio) is a necessary condition for the
conversation to succeed, but it is not sufficient. So what is missing?

ec

hn

C is simply the speakers voice, as if he were saying Aaaaaah! But there is no signal
(message) in Aaaaaah! To generate intelligible words, the speaker has to move his
tongue and lips, i.e. he has to modulate his voice (the carrier). In so doing, he may slur his
speech (low signal content) or articulate very precisely (high signal content). Solution (f)
above is designed to improve the communication by increasing the articulation (i.e. the
modulation index). We call the signal power S, and the ultimate link quality criterion the
signal-to-noise ratio (S/N).

S/N = m2 C/N

fT

Note that S/N is not the same as C/N. For example, in amplitude modulation (AM), the
two quantities are related through the identity:
(7.1)

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where m is the depth of modulation, also known as the AM modulation index.


In the case of frequency modulation (FM), the equivalent relationship is:
S/N = 32(1+) C/N for wideband FM
S/N = 32 C/N
for narrowband FM ( < 0.6).

(7.2)
(7.3)

where is called the FM modulation index.

As we said earlier, the depth of modulation in AM, as well as the modulation index in FM
(and PM), can be likened to the degree of articulation in speech. The greater the index (up
to a point), the easier it is to understand the message. Looking at it another way, C is the
voice level (the carrier power) at the receiver input, while S is the message content (the
signal). No matter how much we raise our voice, our listener will hear no intelligible
message unless we modulate our voice with words. The clearer we articulate those words,
the better the chances are that we will be understood. Unfortunately, as we shall see in the
following, the price of articulation is an increase in the required bandwidth, so a
compromise is called for.
Analogue Modulation and Bandwidth

A signal carrier is a sinusoidal energy wave which on an oscilloscope takes the form
vc(t) = A cos (2fct + )

(7.4)

in the time domain. Here, A is the carrier amplitude, fc is the carrier frequency, t is the
time, is the phase of the carrier in relation to some reference, and vc(t) is the output in
volts. Figure 7-20 shows a carrier with A = 1 volt, fc = 20 kHz and = 0. The carrier is
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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)


just that, i.e. it contains no information in itself, but is provided to carry other waveforms
which do contain information, such as speech or data.
Amplitude (volts)

1.5

olo
gy
.

1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Time (seconds)

ec

Figure 7-20 Signal carrier in the time domain.

1.0

hn

0.0

fT

Transferring the 20 kHz carrier in Figure 7-20 to the frequency domain yields the
following diagram:
Amplitude (V)

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Frequency (kHz)

18

19

20

21

Figure 7-21 Signal carrier in the frequency domain.

We are free to impose an information-carrying waveform on the carrier by varying A


(amplitude modulation, or AM), fc (frequency modulation, or FM) or (phase
modulation, or PM). The process of imposition is called modulation. The choice of
modulation technique will affect the bandwidth, the immunity of the modulated signal to
noise, and the complexity of the modulator and the demodulator. As always, advantages
gained in one parameter must be paid for in another parameter. For example, the relative
noise immunity of FM over AM comes at a cost of a larger bandwidth requirement.
In its simplest form, the modulating signal is another sinusoidal waveform:
vm(t) = a cos (2fmt)

Figure 7-22 shows a sample signal with a = 0.5 and fm = 1 kHz.

264

(7.5)

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

olo
gy
.

Amplitude (volts)

1.0

1.0

Time (milliseconds)

hn

Figure 7-22 Modulating signal in the time domain.

ec

Let us now examine what happens when we modulate the carrier with the signal using
AM, FM and PM.
Amplitude Modulation (AM)

fT

AM implies that the amplitude A in Eq 7.4 is replaced by Eq 7.5, such that A = K + vm(t),
where K is the amplitude of the carrier.

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vAM(t) = [K + a cos (2fmt)] cos (2fct)


or:

vAM(t) = K[1 + m cos (2fmt)] cos (2fct)

(7.6)

Amplitude (volts)

where m = a/K is the depth of modulation (Figure 7-23).


2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

A1

A2

1.0

Time (seconds)

Figure 7-23 Amplitude-modulated carrier with m = 0.5.

Alternatively, the depth of modulation may be calculated as m =

A2 A1
,
A2 + A1

or m = (3 1)/(3 + 1) = 0.5 in our case.

Figure 7-24 illustrates the extreme cases where m = 0 and m = 1:

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
0.0

1.0

Time (seconds)

0.2

olo
gy
.

Amplitude (volts)

Amplitude (volts)

1.5

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Time (seconds)

Figure 7-24 AM modulation with m = 0 (left figure) and m = 1 (right figure).

ec

hn

It is clear from Figure 7-24 that m = 0 represents no modulation at all, while m = 1


borders on over-modulation as the sinusoidal signal comes close to d.c. The modulation
depth can therefore be likened to clarity of speech, whereby m stands for the degree of
articulation.

fT

Returning to Figure 7-23, let us move from the time domain to the frequency domain:
Amplitude (V)

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Frequency (kHz)

18

19

20

fm

21

fm

Figure 7-25 AM modulated carrier in the frequency domain.

Figure 7-25 shows how the modulation has created two sidebands on either side of the
carrier frequency, namely one at fc - fm = 20 1 = 19 kHz, and the other at fc + fm = 20 + 1
= 21 kHz. This must indeed be true, as we recall from elementary trigonometry that:
cos cos = cos( + ) + cos( - ),

such that Eq 7.6 becomes:

m
m

v AM (t ) = K cos(2f c t ) + cos[2( f c + f m )t ] + cos[2( f c f m )t ]


2
2

(7.7)

The bandwidth required to relay the carrier as well as its two side tones is therefore B = 2
fm. In our example, B = 2 kHz.

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

Amplitude

olo
gy
.

The purely sinusoidal signal fm in our example obviously lacks information in the same
way as fc, and was chosen only to illustrate how sidebands are generated. An informationcarrying signal, such as voice, would contain many more frequency components, and
Figure 7-23 would therefore appear as in Figure 7-26:
Amplitude

Frequency

ec

hn

Time

Figure 7-26 AM using complex information signal.

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fT

The bandwidth need not encompass the most outlying regions of the sidebands, since
their amplitude is small. Where to cut off without incurring signal distortion is a matter of
judgment based on experience. There are other ways of reducing the AM bandwidth more
dramatically, and the reader is referred to Dunlop & Smith [5] for a more complete
discussion.
Frequency Modulation (FM)

In FM it is the carrier frequency fc, rather than the amplitude, that is modulated by the
signal frequency fm. To illustrate the process, we will once again represent fm with a single
tone. The resulting waveform is modelled by Eq 7.8:
v FM (t ) = A cos[2f c t + sin( 2f m t )]

(7.8)

where = f/fm is the modulation index, and f is the frequency swing around fc. The
meaning of frequency swing is best understood by studying Figure 7-27, where the 20
kHz carrier in Figure 7-20 has been frequency modulated by the 1 kHz signal in Figure
7-22.
Amplitude (volts)

1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0

-0.5
-1.0
-1.5

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Time (seconds)

Figure 7-27 FM signal in the time domain with = 10.

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

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.

We see how the carrier frequency is made to change through an infinite number of
frequencies within certain boundaries. It is these same boundaries that are defined by f.
In our example, f = 10 kHz, whereby = f /fm = 10/1 = 10. Moving to the frequency
domain, we obtain a profile like the one in Figure 7-28:

hn

Amplitude

Frequency

ec

fc

fm fm

fT

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Figure 7-28 FM signal in the frequency domain.

1.5

1.5

1.0

1.0

Amplitude (volts)

Amplitude (volts)

Figure 7-29 shows in the time domain what happens in the more extreme cases where =
0 and = 20.

0.5
0.0

-0.5
-1.0

0.5
0.0

-0.5
-1.0
-1.5

-1.5

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

0.0

Time (seconds)

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Time (seconds)

Figure 7-29 FM modulation with = 0 (left figure) and = 20 (right figure).

As in the case of AM, the FM bandwidth need not encompass the remotest corners of the
sidebands, and a judgment is made where to cut off without introducing unacceptable
signal distortions. According to a convention known as Carsons Rule, the FM bandwidth
is deemed to be B = 2 (fm + f) = 2 fm (1 + ). Strictly speaking, Carsons Rule is only
valid for very large or very small values of . For a more detailed discussion, see Dunlop
& Smith [5].
Phase Modulation (PM)

In PM we modulate the phase in Eq 7.4, as follows:

v PM (t ) = A cos[2f c t + PM cos(2f m t )]

268

(7.9)

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

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.

where PM = fp/fm, fp = - fm, and is maximum phase shift in radians. Eq 7.9 bears
a strong resemblance to the FM case in Eq 7.8, as does the corresponding diagram in the
time domain, except that the sine function within the argument in FM is replaced by a
cosine in PM:

Phase shift: The dotted


waveform is shifted in phase
relative to the solid waveform.
1.5

hn

0.5

ec

0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
0.0

0.2

0.4

fT

Amplitude (volts)

1.0

0.6

0.8

1.0

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Time (seconds)

Figure 7-30 PM signal in the time domain with PM = 10.

Note that the PM signal is shifted in phase by 90 relative to the FM signal. The PM
bandwidth in narrowband transmissions such as TT&C is approximately the same as for
FM.
7.3.3.2.

Digital Communication

To transmit digital 1s and 0s, we must modulate a carrier. Conceptually, digital


modulation is simpler than analogue modulation, since only two levels need to be
imposed. The two levels are accounted for in AM by shifting (changing) the amplitude, in
FM by shifting between two different frequencies, and in PM by shifting between two
different phases. The process of shifting is called shift keying, and we therefore have the
option between amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK) and phase
shift keying (PSK).
Figure 7-31 illustrates the three modulation methods and stipulates the corresponding
transmission bandwidth B as a function of the bit rate . Clearly, from a bandwidth point
of view, PSK is the most efficient and FSK is the least efficient modulation method, with
ASK somewhere in between.

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

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.

Binary
Bit rate = R

ASK
B = 2R
FSK
B =2R(1+)
= f/fm
f = (f1 - f0)

f0

hn

f1

ec

PSK
B = 1.2 R

Figure 7-31 Digital modulation schemes.

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fT

In Figure 7-31 we note that ASK entails a shift between a carrier and d.c., while in FSK
the shift is between two carrier frequencies f1 and f0. In PSK, a phase shift of 180 takes
place at each binary transition. All these waveforms subsequently modify a main carrier.
ASK is rarely used for TT&C because of the sensitivity of the amplitude to noise
interference, making the scheme prone to bit interpretation errors. FSK is preferred for
low bit rates, such as those frequently employed in telecommanding, because FSK
receiver detectors are easier to build than those used for PSK. Higher bit rates mean
higher subcarrier frequencies and broader bandwidths. With PSK requiring less
bandwidth than FSK [BPSK = 1.2 versus BFSK = 2 (1 + )], it is preferable to choose
PSK for high-speed telemetry.
As always, system designers try to minimize the bandwidth, and several methods have
been devised. For example, in FSK it is possible to combine pairs of bits in a data stream
and to employ four rather than two subcarriers, as illustrated in Figure 7-32. There are
four possible bit pair combinations, namely 00, 01, 10 and 11. The scheme is called
quadrature FSK, or QFSK, and reduces the bandwidth almost by half compared to FSK.
1

f3

f1

f0

f2

Figure 7-32 Quadrature FSK.

One may go further and associate three bits with 8 subcarriers, thereby saving additional
bandwidth, at the expense of a more complicated FSK detector.
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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

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.

The same bandwidth-saving technique is used in PSK. The simplest PSK shown in Figure
7-31 is referred to as binary PSK (BPSK) to distinguish it from quadrature PSK (QPSK)
in which the subcarrier is made to change phase in four steps (by 45, 135, 225 and
315, corresponding to the bit pairs 01, 11, 10 and 00). While the bandwidth in BPSK =
1.2 , the QPSK bandwidth is reduced to 0.6 . Similarly, an 8-PSK modulation is
possible using 8 steps 45 apart, with a corresponding saving in bandwidth, but at the
expense of an increased risk of intersymbol interference.

hn

Quadrature and higher-order PSK are particularly useful for remote sensing satellites
whose payload data rates lie in the range 150 Mbps, and where saving bandwidth is of
paramount importance.
Signal quality

fT

ec

In digital communications, the bit error rate (BER) is our primary quality criterion. We
may accept intuitively that the C/N of our link is a function of the amount of energy Eb we
manage to pack into each bit in a digital data stream. If a transmitter does not talk loud
enough in relation to the surrounding noise i.e. if the ratio Eb/N is inadequate then the
receiver will struggle.

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Let denote the bit rate in bits per second. The following identity shows the dependency
of C/N on Eb, N and in PSK modulation (see below):
BER = e

Eb B
N

(7.10)

For our purposes is it convenient to invert Eq 7.10:

Moreover:

Eb 1 1
= ln

N
B 2 BER

(7.11)

E
1
C C
= = b = ln

N N req
N
B 2 BER

(7.12)

In link calculations it is often convenient to normalize the noise power with respect to the
bandwidth, such that N0 = N/B. Eq 7.11 may then be written as follows:

Eb
1
= ln

N0
2 BER

(7.13)

Eq 7.13 states that the lower the BER, the better the link quality. The equation is plotted
in Figure 7-33 as BPSK & QPSK uncoded. The question is now whether a given BER can
be achieved even with a lower Eb/N0, which would greatly facilitate the system design.
The answer is found in the chosen modulation and forward error correction scheme.
Forward error correction was discussed in Section 7.2.3.2, and modulation will be dealt
with in the following.

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

1.E-02
FSK
uncoded

1.E-04

QPSK Viterbi
R = 1/2, K =
2, 4, 6, 8

BPSK &
QPSK
uncoded

1.E-05

hn

Bit error rate

1.E-03

olo
gy
.

ReedSolomon
(255,223)

BPSK concatenated Reed-Solomon


(255,223) & Viterbi R = 1/2, K = 7

1.E-07
3

10

11

12

fT

ec

1.E-06

Eb/N0 (dB)

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Figure 7-33 Required Eb/N0 to achieve a given BER.

It is already clear from Figure 7-33 that a considerable coding gain is achieved by
adopting FEC. For example, given a BER requirement of 10-5, a coding gain of 3.7 dB is
obtained by applying a RS(255,223) code to the original, uncoded BPSK (the difference
between 10 dB and 6.3 dB). If we adopt a Viterbi technique with R = 1/2 and K = 8
instead of the RS code, the coding gain is better still, namely 10 3.6 = 6.4 dB. And if we
go all out with a concatenated code, the coding gain rises to 10 2.4 = 7.6 dB. In other
words, FEC acts as a virtual amplifier in the transmission link.

7.3.4. Satisfying the Quality Requirements

In Section 7.3.3 we outlined criteria for the radio link to be of acceptable quality. Let
(C/N)req be the required carrier-to-noise ratio. We will now proceed to trade off various
subsystem design parameters to match (C/N)req with an achieved C/N, which we will call
(C/N)ach. Our RF design is complete when we have (C/N)ach (C/N)req.
Recall the two individuals who struggled to make themselves understood over the din of
background noise. The solutions they tried out were:

a) Speaking louder,
b) Cupping hands around the mouth, like a megaphone,
c) Cupping hands behind the ears,
d) Moving closer,
e) Telling the other people in the room to speak more softly,
f) Speaking more clearly.
To this list we might add an absurd but illustrative method:
g) Making a hand signal to indicate whether we intend a compliment or an insult.

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

Increase the transmitter power level Pt,


Increase the transmit antenna gain Gt,
Increase the receive antenna gain Gr,
Decrease the distance d between the satellite and the ground station,
Reduce the noise temperature at the receiver T.
Increase the modulation index m or .
Insert check bits in the digital data stream.

hn

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

olo
gy
.

Equivalent techniques are used in satellite telecommunications to satisfy the quality


requirements on the radio link. TT&C is a subset of the general communications
challenge. Let the two persons at the party be represented by a satellite and a ground
station. The mouth is the transmitter, and the ears are the receiver. We may now rephrase
(a) through (g) in radio terms as follows:

Link Budget

fT

7.3.4.1.

ec

These factors will be considered in the context of link budgets between satellites and
ground stations.

It stands to reason that the received power level Pr should be proportional to Pt, Gt and
Gr, and inversely proportional to d. Indeed, the following identity applies:
2

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Pr = Pt Gt Gr

4d

[Watts]

(7.14)

where is the wavelength. Eq 7.14 applies to both the telemetry downlink and the
telecommand uplink, but we must deal with the two links separately, since Pt in the
downlink refers to the satellites transmitter, whereas Pt in the uplink relates to the ground
stations transmitter, etc.
The meaning of antenna gain G will be explained shortly. Suffice it to say that it
quantifies the ability of the antenna to focus the incoming or outgoing radio signal. The
higher the gain, the better the focus.

Eq 7.14 allows us to compute how much power Pr arrives at the receiver. As we shall see
in the sample link budget below, Pr is typically in the order of 10-15 W, and one of the
miracles of satellite communications is that such a weak signal can be interpreted at all.
But Pr by itself is not a very useful quantity. Of greater interest is the extent to which the
weak received signal can be heard over the background noise, i.e. the quality of the link.
If we replace the received power Pr with the carrier power C, and introduce the noise
power N, we may quantify the achieved link quality with the help of the carrier-to-noise
ratio C/N:
2

Pr C Pt Gt Gr
G 1
=
=

= EIRP r

N N
kTB 4d
T kB 4d

(7.15)

In Eq 7.15 we have introduced a range of parameters which require detailed explanation


and mathematical definition.
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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

D
Gt = t

olo
gy
.

Gt = is the directivity, or gain, of the transmit antenna. The gain is a measure of the extent
to which the radiation is focussed in a particular direction, as compared to an
omnidirectional or isotropic antenna that radiates equally in all directions. Generally
speaking, the gain improves as the antenna grows larger or as the wavelength decreases.
For a circular, parabolic dish antenna, the gain is found to be:
2

(7.16)

hn

where Dt is the diameter of the dish, is the wavelength, and 0.65 is the efficiency of
the parabolic antenna. Other equations apply for different antennas see Section 7.3.4.3.
Recall that the wavelength is related to frequency f through the equation:
f=c
where c = 310-8 m/s is the speed of light.

ec

(7.17)

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D
Gr = r

fT

The gain of the receive antenna is calculated in exactly the same way as for the transmit
antenna:
(7.18)

Next we have the equivalent isotropic radiated power, or EIRP, which is simply the
transmit power Pt multiplied by the transmit antenna gain Gt. Communications engineers
prefer to deal with the EIRP rather than with its constituent parts, because it encapsulates
the amount of power flowing in the direction of interest.

The noise temperature T, measured in Kelvin, is a catch-all term for various sources of
radio disturbances. Some are genuine temperatures. For example, a satellite receive
antenna looking down at the earth will pick up thermal noise equivalent to the earths
average surface temperature, namely 20C or 293 K. Other sources, such as radio
interference from other satellites or ground stations, may be translated to equivalent
thermal noise. The various noise sources are additive see Section 7.3.5.

The ratio Gr/T (pronounced G over T) is called the receivers figure of merit, a
parameter often provided by antenna manufacturers after measuring how much thermal
noise is picked up by the antenna sidelobes (see Figure 7-35).

The frequency bandwidth B of the radio link contributes to the overall noise level. With
noise being spread more or less equally across the bandwidth, a channel with broad
bandwidth will invite more noise than a narrow bandwidth channel.
Boltzmanns constant k = 1.38 10-23 Joules/Kelvin (or Ws/K) establishes the
proportionality between the noise power N on the one hand, and B and T on the other,
such that:
N = kTB

274

(7.19)

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

olo
gy
.

(Note that Boltzmanns constant k is not the same as Stefan-Boltzmanns constant used
in thermal calculations see Chapter 10.) To predict the noise temperature T accurately
and hence N is relatively complicated, and the reader is referred to Fortescue et al. [6]
for a detailed discussion. In the following we will rely on some rules-of-thumb see
Section 7.3.5.

d
d
h

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fT

ec

hn

Lastly, in Eq 7.15 we have the distance d between the satellite and the ground station. The
distance depends on the orbital altitude h and varies with time as the satellite passes over
the ground station. To simplify the system design, it is common practice to only consider
the worst case scenario where the satellite touches the horizon or, alternatively, when
the ground station is at the edge of the satellites antenna coverage. Figure 7-34
reproduces Figure 2-70:

Figure 7-34 Worst-case distances between the satellite and the ground station.

We have:

d = ( R + h) 2 R 2 = h( 2 R + h)

(7.20)

for the case that the antennas beamwidth = 2 embraces the whole of the earths disc.
If, on the other hand, the antenna has a beamwidth < , then the worst-case distance is
reduced as follows.
Applying the cosine rule to Figure 7-34: R2 = d2 + (R+h)2 2d(R+h) cos

or, from Eq 2.44:

R
2
d ' = ( R + h)cos '

sin

'

R+h

R + h 2

2
d ' = R
cos sin
R

(7.21)

Let us take a closer look at the antennas beamwidth = 2, or = 2. A directional


antenna radiates and receives through a main lobe and several side lobes, as depicted in
the following polar diagram:

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)


Half of max power flux
= 3 dB down
Gmax

olo
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.

Side lobes

3dB

hn

Boresight

ec

Figure 7-35 Definition of antenna beamwidth 3dB.

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fT

The side lobes are usually undesirable, as they waste transmitted energy and attract
spurious noise. Efforts are therefore made through the antenna design to suppress them.
The difficulty remains how to establish a meaningful definition of the beamwidth of a
lobe. If we draw the two lines that intersect the lobe at the half-power point from the peak
at boresight (Figure 7-35), then, by convention, the beamwidth is the angle between those
two lines. Since in decibel terms is equal to 10 log10() = -3 dB, and since telecom
engineers love decibels, the beamwidth is called the three deebee angle and is written
3dB.
It can be shown that, for a parabolic dish antenna:

3dB 70

[degrees]

(7.22)

where D is the antenna dish diameter. (Other expressions apply to other types of antenna
see Section 7.3.4.3.) Note that the beamwidth decreases with increased diameter, i.e.
the larger the antenna, the narrower the beam. Looking at Eq 7.16 and 7.18, we may
rephrase this to say that the beam becomes narrower the more we increase the antenna
gain. This fact has important consequences when we establish link budgets.
The quantity {/(4d)}2 in Eq 7.14 and 7.15 is known as the free space loss. As the name
suggests, it is a measure of how much of the radio signal is dispersed in free space.
Evidently the signal power increases with the square of the wavelength and diminishes
with the square of the distance d.

Returning to Eq 7.15, we have now achieved a certain C/N, which we will call (C/N)ach,
and which should match the required (C/N)req in Eq 7.12. Let us put theory into practice
in the following preliminary link budget.
A GEO satellite is to downlink telemetry to a ground station on a 2.2 GHz carrier at 5,000
bps modulated in QPSK. A BER of 10-5 is deemed acceptable. Assume that the noise
temperature T = 80 K at the ground station receiver input. Experiment with different
values of Pt, Gt, Gr. Calculate (C/N)req and (C/N)ach, making sure that a link margin of at
least 3 dB exists to cover unexpected link losses.

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

9
10

Bandwidth B (Hz)
Eb/N
Eb/N0
C/N0
(C/N)req

2.2
0.65
0.65

21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Max distance d (km)


Wavelength (m)
Max free space loss
SC antenna diam. Dt (m)
SC antenna beamwidth 3dB
(deg)
SC antenna gain Gt
SC transmit power Pt (W)
GS antenna diam. Dr (m)
GS antenna beamwidth 3dB
(deg)
GS antenna gain Gr
GS received power Pr (W)
GS noise power N (W)
C/N0
(C/N)ach

Result:

Link margin:
(C/N)ach / (C/N)req

Footnote:

SC = Spacecraft,
GS = Ground Station

37.0
-50.0

80

1.3810-23

7.11
7.13

3,000
33,000
11
55,000
18.03

7.12

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11
(C/N)req
12
13
14
15
16
(C/N)ach
17
18
19
20

10

dB

olo
gy
.

Linear value
35,783
42,164
5,000
10-5
QPSK

hn

Equation

ec

Parameter
GEO altitude h (km)
Radial distance r (km)
Bit rate (bps)
Bit error rate
Modulation method
Ground station minimum
elevation angle (deg)
Link frequency f (GHz)
Satellite transmit antenna
efficiency SC
Ground station receive
antenna efficiency GS
Noise temperature T at
ground station antenna (K)
Boltzmanns constant

fT

Given:
1
2
3
4
5

34.8
45.2
10.3
47.3
12.6

7.21
7.17
7.14

40,588
0.136
7.1410-20
0.2

7.22

47.7

7.16

13.82
0.5
2.0

7.22

4.77

7.18
7.14
7.19

1382
6.8210-16
3.3110-18
617,078
205.69

31.4
-151.7
-174.8
57.9
23.1

205.69/18.03 =
= 11.41

23.1 12.6
= 10.6

7.15

-191.5

11.4
-3.0

Table 7-2 Preliminary link budget.

Note the right-hand column with the heading dB, which stands for decibel. When it
comes to the quantities in Eq 7.15, satellite communications engineers prefer using
decibels (dB) rather than linear quantities for two reasons:
277

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

Very large and very small quantities are made more manageable as logarithms;

ii.

Because linear multiplication becomes logarithmic additions, and linear division


becomes logarithmic subtractions, the link budget equation 7.15 may be solved
more or less on the back of an envelope.

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.

i.

Let us see whether statements (i) and (ii) are true. To express a linear value A (shown in
square brackets) as dB, we have:
[A] = 10 log10 A

hn

[A B] = 10 log10 A + 10 log10 B

Examples related to statements (i) and (ii):

dB
0
3
6 (= 3+3)
9 (= 33)
10
13 (= 3+10)
16
19
20
23
30
60
90
90.92

Linear < 1
1
0.5 (= )
0.25 (= )
0.125 (= 1/8)
0.1 (= 1/10)
0.05
0.025
0.0125
0.01
0.005
0.001
10-6
10-9
0.123456789

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Linear > 1
1
2
4 (= 22)
8 (= 23)
10
20 (= 210)
40
80
100
200
1000
1,000,000
1,000,000,000
1,234,567,890

fT

[Ab] = blog10 A

ec

[A / B] = 10 log10 A - 10 log10 B

dB
0
-3
-6
-9
-10
-13
-16
-19
-20
-23
-30
-60
-90
-9.09

Table 7-3 Examples of conversions from linear values to dB.

Since talking in decibels is the norm, we had better get used to it, and we will practice it
by analyzing the preliminary link budget in Table 7-2 above. Entries 20, 23 and 24 are
the only ones we are free to manipulate in Eq 7.15 to achieve an acceptable link margin of
at least 10 dB, since all the other parameters are given. We have opted for Pt = 0.5 W, Dt
= 0.2 m and Dr = 2 m, from which we are able to calculate Gt and Gr. Working in decibel,
Eq 7.15 looks as follows:
[C/N]ach = [Pt] + [Gt] + [Gr] + 2[/(4d)] [k] [T] [B]

or:

278

[C/N]ach = 3.0 + 11.4 + 31.4 191.5 + 228.6 19 34.8 = 23.1 dB

(7.23)

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

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.

which is indeed the answer in entry 30. One might argue that, while addition and
subtraction are easy enough, the initial effort in converting all the linear quantities to
logarithms cancels the purported advantage. Not so, however, because satcom engineers
make the conversion readily in their heads, at least down to the first decimal.
Looking at Eq 7.12 and 7.15, we find that both equations have the bandwidth B in the
denominator. Therefore, when comparing [C/N]ach and [C/N]ach, we may eliminate B
altogether. In so doing, we have also removed B from Eq 7.19, such that the noise power
N (Watts) becomes the noise spectral density N0 (W/Hz), whereby:
N0 = N/B = kT

(7.24)

fT

ec

hn

The advantage of dealing with [C/N0]ach and [C/N0]req instead of [C/N]ach and [C/N]req is
that we may forgo the chores of establishing B when sizing the TT&C subsystem. From
the above link budget it is clear that the link margin may be calculated directly from
[C/N0]ach minus [C/N0]req, since 57.9 dB 47.3 dB = 10.6 dB. Incidentally, the same value
is obtained if we take [Eb/N0]ach minus [Eb/N0]req = 20.9 dB 10.3 dB = 10.6 dB, because
Eb = C/ on both sides of the equal sign.
That said, computing B is still necessary to properly design the transmitters and receivers
onboard the satellite as well as in the ground station.

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We have already referred to the factor {/(4d)}2 as the free space loss. Additional losses
are caused by the weather, antenna pointing errors, any polarization mismatch between
the transmitting and the receiving antennas, and various losses internal to the RF
hardware of the satellite and the ground station. These can be quite significant and are
dealt with in Section 7.3.5. For the moment we will introduce the losses in Eq 7.15 as a
placeholder factor L:
Pr C Pt Gt Gr 1
=
=

N N
kTB L 4d

where:

L = L1L2 .... (etc.)

or, in dB:

[L] =[L1] + [L2] + ... (etc.)

(7.25)

To conclude the RF Section of Chapter 7, we will address the interrelated subjects of


frequencies, antennas, link losses and thermal noise.
7.3.4.2.

Frequencies

The radio spectrum in common use by satellites ranges from 1 GHz to 30 GHz. The lower
limit is defined by galactic noise and by competing demands from terrestrial users, while
technology and atmospheric attenuation set the upper limit.
Signal attenuation in the atmosphere is a major concern when selecting frequencies for a
particular mission (Figure 7-36).

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

10
1

olo
gy
.

Attenuation Latm (dB/km)

100

0.1

O2
0.01
0.001

H2O

0.1

10
Frequency f (GHz)

100

hn

0.0001

fT

ec

Figure 7-36 Clear sky radio signal attenuation


due to oxygen and water vapour in the atmosphere.
Thickness of O2 layer ~ 5 km, of H2O layer ~ 2 km.

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The absorption curves in Figure 7-36 suggest that lower frequencies are to be preferred
over higher ones, and partly for that reason the lower portion of the frequency spectrum is
particularly congested. Note that the vertical axis shows absorption in dB per kilometer.
To arrive at the worst-case absorption level, it is necessary to multiply the loss values per
km by the actual signal path distance through the O2 and H2O layers at the lowest
expected elevation. For example, the O2 attenuation loss Latm with the antenna boresight
at zenith ( = 90) at 2 GHz equals 5 km x 0.01 dB = 0.05 dB. At = 10, the signal path
through the O2 layer equals

R + 5 2

2


hatm (10  ) = R

cos
10

sin
10

= 28 km
R

according to Eq 7.21, and therefore Latm = 28 km x 0.01 dB = 0.3 dB.


To make the competition for radio spectrum manageable, the international community has
established a scheme of frequency allocation and coordination. The scheme is managed
by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), an establishment of the United
Nations.
As outlined in Section 7.3.2, several frequency bands have been allocated specifically for
TT&C. The band most commonly used is in the 2.0 2.3 GHz region. On
communications satellites, TT&C gets a free ride within the frequency band used by the
communications payload, which usually operates in the 46 GHz or the 1114 GHz
bands. This is all very well as long as the payload is in good working order, but it is in
case of malfunction that access to telemetry and telecommands is particularly crucial. For
this reason, many communications satellites offer backup TT&C in the 2 GHz band using
dedicated low-gain antennas, i.e. antennas with a very wide beamwidth to ensure TT&C
access even if the satellite has lost its attitude control.

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

7.3.4.3.

olo
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.

The 2 GHz region of the radio spectrum is referred to as S-band. To be more specific, the
ITU has set aside the band 2025 2120 MHz for telecommand uplink and 2200 2300
MHz for telemetry downlink. To avoid overcrowding, the S-band is to be used only
sparingly while the satellite is brought to its definitive orbit after launch, or in case of an
operational emergency in the final orbit.
Antennas

hn

When an antenna is in the receive mode, the incoming radiation energy induces a weak
electric current on the exposed surface of the antenna. The current gives rise to an equally
feeble voltage across the waveguide or the coaxial cable that connects the antenna with
the receiver. By amplifying the voltage, the receiver allows the carrier as well as the
modulated signal overlay to be reconstituted. In a transmitting antenna, the process is
reversed.

fT

ec

An antenna is at its most sensitive when it is in electromagnetic resonance with the


incoming or outgoing RF frequency. Different antenna designs are more or less forgiving
when it comes to accepting frequencies above and below the resonant frequency. The
degree of forgiveness defines the antenna bandwidth. It is therefore important that an
antenna is chosen such that its bandwidth corresponds to the bandwidth of the modulated
signal.

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In the above link budget, we have assumed that the antenna is a parabolic reflector with a
diameter of 0.2 m and a beamwidth of 47.7. This choice of antenna is adequate for
routine operations from GEO and leaves some margin for attitude errors, since the earth
only subtends 17.4 from GEO. However, as mentioned in the previous Section, TT&C
must be accessible also in the case of a serious satellite malfunction. For example, if the
attitude management subsystem loses control over the satellite and it begins to tumble at
random, the spacecraft controllers must still be able to receive telemetry and execute
telecommands so as to recover the satellite. Ideally, therefore, the TT&C antenna should
be isotropic (also known as omnidirectional), i.e. its gain should be 0 dB.

Eq 7.22 states that 3dB 70/D. A beamwidth of 360 is therefore achievable in theory
by making the parabolic antenna diameter D = 70 /360 = 0.2 . However, for a
parabolic antenna to be reasonably efficient (i.e. > 0.5), the diameter must be greater
than the wavelength. It therefore makes sense to look for other antenna types which are
inherently less directional than the parabolic reflector.
Table 7-4 provides an inventory of the most common antenna types for TT&C.

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

3dB (deg)

Max gain

D = diameter

Helix (endfire)

15.3

Nd D

16.5



Nd D

ec

hn

N = number of turns
d = distance between turns
D = diameter

olo
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.


70
D

Parabolic reflector


70
D

Circular horn
D = aperture diameter
a = horn length

D2
3

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fT

a=

Quarter-wavelength dipole

2 dB

~ 60 x 360

h = height = /4

Table 7-4 Antenna types for TT&C.

The first three antenna types feature a pear-shaped radiation pattern, as in Figure 7-35.
The dipole produces a kidney-shaped pattern. There are many other antenna types whose
patterns suit particular applications, such as the toroidal pattern antenna (Figure 7-37).
The shape represents the wavefront contour at a particular moment in time.

Figure 7-37 Toroidal antenna radiation pattern.

At the risk of over-simplifying, one can say that the parabolic reflector (whose feed is
typically a small horn) is best suited for narrow beams (i.e. high gain) over a wide range
of frequencies. The helix offers a fairly wide beam and is more compact than the parabola
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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

7.3.4.4.

olo
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.

and the horn below 4 GHz. The horn complements the helix by being the most compact at
frequencies above 4 GHz. The dipole antenna pattern is almost hemispherical, so with
two dipoles mounted diagonally opposite each other on the satellite's body, it is possible
to create something resembling an omnidirectional antenna pattern.
Antenna Polarization

hn

A radio signal carrier travels through the atmosphere and free space in the form of two
plane, sinusoidal waves, one representing the electric field (the E-field) and the other the
magnetic field (the H-field); hence the term electromagnetic radiation. The electric and
magnetic field planes are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of travel. The
two are inseparable, so in the following discussion regarding polarization we will focus
on the E-field and ignore the H-field.

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fT

ec

We all know about polarized sunglasses and how they reduce the glare from sunlight
reflexions against water surfaces. Before striking the water, the light is unpolarized or,
rather, it may be represented by sinusoidal light waves embedded in an infinite number of
different planes. When the light is reflected against the water (assuming that the surface is
smooth), all the planes except the horizontal one are dispersed, so that the reflected light
becomes horizontally polarized. Since the lenses of the sunglasses are polarized
vertically, they filter out the horizontally polarized light, thereby eliminating most of the
annoying glare. (But check what happens if you tilt your head 90 degrees!)
A steadily increasing number of people want to transmit and receive radio signals, to the
point where the radio spectrum is becoming very crowded. If it were possible for two
users to share the same frequency without interfering with each other, the usable size of
the radio spectrum would double. There are in fact several frequency sharing techniques.
One of them is called polarization discrimination, i.e. sharing is possible by having two
users employ opposite polarization, whereby the glare of one transmission is ignored by
the other. It is the task of the two transmitting antennas to generate the opposing
polarizations, and of the two receive antennas to discriminate between the two.

A typical satellite antenna feed is capable of producing two perpendicular E-fields, and to
vary the relative phase and amplitude between the two sine waves. Their projections are
shown in Figure 7-38, borrowed from www.wikipedia.com. If their phase and amplitude
remain the same, the resultant of the two tracing vectors grows and contracts along a
straight line, whereas if the phase of one component is shifted by 90 degrees relative to
the other, the resultant vector describes a circle (Figure 7-39). In the first example we
have linear polarization, while in the second case we talk about circular polarization. (In
the latter mode, we can also achieve elliptic polarization by giving the two components
different amplitudes, or by choosing a phase angle other than 90 degrees.)

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

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fT

Polarizers

ec

Figure 7-38 Linear, circular and elliptic polarization.

Orthogonal waveforms
in phase

Orthogonal waveforms
out of phase

Figure 7-39 Creating linear and circular polarization through waveform phase shift.
The fat arrows are the resultant vectors of the
thin phase vector pairs in the two perpendicular E-planes.

Linear polarization can be either horizontal (HP) or vertical (VP), while circular
polarization is either left-handed (LHCP) or right-handed (RHCP).
Figure 7-40 illustrates horizontal and vertical linear polarization in separate radio signals
radiating towards a satellite on the same frequency from two transmitters on the earth.
Because the polarization is perpendicular, the two signals do not interfere with each other
at the satellite receiver, provided the receiving antenna is able to discriminate between the
two polarizations. By convention, the horizontal polarization plane is parallel with the
equatorial plane, while the vertical polarization plane contains the earths spin axis.

284

Figure 7-40 Linear polarization.

hn

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

fT

ec

Alternatively, if one satellite is only interested in the horizontally polarized signal, it will
make sure that its receive antenna is also horizontally polarized. Another satellite may
then be tuned into receiving the signal with vertical polarization. Here again, there will be
no interference even if both signals use the same frequency.

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The only problem with linear polarization is that, by geometrical necessity, the relative
tilt of a given E-plane changes as the satellite passes overhead. Unless the transmit and
receive antennas track each others polarization accurately (e.g. by slowly rotating the
receiving antennas feed), the latter antenna will also pick up part of the other signal, i.e.
there will be radio interference. The advantage of circular polarization is that polarization
tracking is not necessary, as long as the antennas at both ends are tuned in to the same
orientation (RHCP or LHCP). For this reason, circular polarization is more common than
linear in radio links for TT&C.
7.3.5. Noise and Attenuation
7.3.5.1.

Signal Noise

In the above preliminary link budget for telemetry, the noise temperature T was set at 80
K without further justification, and was converted to noise power via Eq 7.19: N = kTB.
Since N is a determining factor for the quality of the link, and hence for the design of the
TT&C subsystem, it deserves more careful attention.
An in-depth analysis is offered by Gordon & Morgan [7], from where Figure 7-41 has
been adapted. The figure illustrates how the various sources of radio noise are viewed by
the ground station antennas main lobe and side-lobes. The main sources are the sun, the
moon, precipitation, surrounding ground objects and the ground itself. The noise is
additive and has the effect of corrupting the telemetry signal from the satellite, as
represented by the ratio C/N in Eq 7.15.

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

fT

Figure 7-41 Sources of noise.


(Adapted from Gordon & Morgan [7]
by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

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Let us now examine the case of the telecommand uplink, as perceived by the satellite
receiver. A high-gain satellite antenna looking down at the earth sees the earths disc
and perhaps some surrounding space. The earth radiates at a temperature T 293 K,
while the cosmic radiation from the surrounding space is negligible. The corresponding
noise power N is distributed fairly evenly across the radio spectrum. Let us call this
temperature Tant, since the antenna is the collector of radiation from the earth.
Add to this a resistive noise contribution from the signal line (coax or waveguide)
between the antenna and the receiver, as well as from the receiver itself, and we obtain
the system noise temperature at the output from the telecommand receiver as:

Tsys =

Tant
L 1
+ 290 line
+ Trx
Lline
Lline

(7.26)

Lline 1 and is close to 1 if the line is short, making the middle term negligible, so there is
an incentive to keep the signal line as short as possible. Trx depends on the chosen
frequency and on the receiver technology used (Figure 7-43). In the 2.0 2.3 GHz TT&C
band, Tsys lies typically in the range 500 1000 K in the telecommand uplink, and around
100 200 K in the telemetry downlink.
The received noise analysis of the telemetry downlink is more complicated, as evidenced
by Figure 7-41. While antenna designers work hard to suppress side lobes, some
inevitably remain, and these pick up noise from the sun, the moon, outer space, the
ionosphere, the troposphere, precipitation, the surrounding topography (buildings, forests,
etc.), and from the earth itself.
The detailed breakdown and weighting of these components is beyond the scope of this
book, but Figure 7-42 offers an indication of the galactic and tropospheric noise

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

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.

temperatures at various frequencies and elevations above the local horizon. The curves
ignore the influence of the sun in Figure 7-41, since the receive antenna on the ground is
likely to be large with a high gain and narrow beamwidth, and the operator will therefore
avoid using the antenna when the sun is just behind the satellite.
Ttrop (K)

10

10
30
60
90

ec

=
0

fT

100

hn

1,000

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Noise temperature T sys (K)

10,000

0.1

10

100

Frequency f (GHz)

Figure 7-42 Galactic and tropospheric noise temperatures


at various ground antenna elevations .

From Figure 7-42 we may conclude that T = 80 K at = 10 worst case was too
conservative a selection in the above preliminary link budget. A more accurate value
would have been 25 K at the 2 GHz frequency.
Noise contributions from the sun and the moon must be considered if the antenna
beamwidth is large, since one can no longer afford to be as selective with its usage as
with a narrow-beam antenna. The suns surface temperature is T0 = 5,805 K, while the
moons temperature is T0 200 K. The noise components are proportional to the square
of the fraction that the heat source occupies within the antennas beamwidth 3dB, i.e.
Thotbody


= T0
3dB

(7.27)

where T0 is the temperature of the source (sun = moon = 0.53). For example, an antenna
2

0.53
with 3dB = 10 will attract Tsun = 5805
= 16.3 K. The equivalent value from the
10
moon is Tmoon = 0.5 K, i.e. negligible in this example.

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)


By comparison, a low-gain antenna with 3dB = 30 would only pick up 2 K from the sun,
which is to say that low-gain antennas are more or less immune from solar and lunar
noise influences.

olo
gy
.

Ground station receivers contribute noise depending on the technology used and whether
or not the receiver is cooled. Figure 7-43 illustrates the magnitudes involved.

Tunnel diode
FET

hn

Bipolar
Uncooled
parametric

fT

ec

Cooled
parametric

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Figure 7-43 Ground station receiver noise.

7.3.5.2.

Noise and Attenuation due to Rain

In Eq 7.25 we included a loss factor L to Eq 7.15 to account for the weakening of the
received carrier power C due to rain, mismatched polarization, inaccurate antenna
pointing, etc. Figure 7-36 showed the atmospheric attenuation in clear sky conditions.
Rain is in a class by itself, in that it both attenuates the carrier (reflected in C) and
contributes to the noise temperature (included in N), according to the equation:
Lrain =

270
270 Train

(7.28)

with Train measured in Kelvin. Figure 7-44 shows how the attenuation loss Lrain and the
corresponding noise temperature Train depend on the rain rate measured in mm/h, on the
assumption that the cloud temperature is 290 K and that the antenna boresight elevation is
= 30 above the local horizon.

288

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

100

f
GHz

olo
gy
.

10

250
200

10

100

8
1

50

hn

Attenuation Lrain (dB)

Train (K)

14
12

0.1
20

30

40

50

60

Rain Rate (mm/h)

70

80

90

10

100

fT

10

ec

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Figure 7-44 Attenuation Lrain and noise temperature due to rainfall


at 30 elevation above the local horizon.

The thickness at zenith hrain(90) of the rainy part of the atmosphere is approximately 3
km (i.e. = 90). The elevation-dependent thickness is obtained from Eq 7.21:

R + 3 2

2
hrain ( ) = R
cos sin
R

(7.29)

with hrain() in km. For example, hrain(30) = 6 km. Therefore, to obtain the attenuation at
other elevation angles, it is sufficient to divide the attenuation values in Figure 7-44 by 6
(which gives the attenuation in dB/km), and then multiply the result by hrain() at the
desired elevation . Thus:

[Lrain ( )]dB

7.3.5.3.

[Lrain (30)]dB
6

hrain ( )

(7.30)

Line Noise and Attenuation

At frequencies below 4 GHz, coaxial cables are used to link the transmitter and the
transmit antenna, as well as to link the receive antenna and the receiver. Waveguides
(rectangular tubes without central conductor) are preferred at higher frequencies, given
that their cross-sectional dimensions are proportional to the wavelength.
A typical coaxial cable causes a signal loss of 0.5 dB per metre of cable. A 100 cm cable
therefore represents a loss [Lline] = 0.5 dB, corresponding to Lline = 1.1. This loss also
gives rise to an equivalent noise temperature, whereby

289

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

Tline 2901
L
line

olo
gy
.

7.3.5.4.

(7.31)

Polarization Loss

Lpol = cos2, or

[Lpol]dB = 20 log (cos)

hn

If the transmitting and the receiving antennas have their polarization perfectly aligned,
there will be no polarization loss, i.e. Lpol = 1, or [Lpol] = 0 dB. If, on the other hand, the
polarization of the two antennas is orthogonal, there will be no communication at all, with
Lpol = . Mathematically, the loss may be expressed as a function of the misalignment
angle :
(7.32)

= 17/f 2

fT

ec

Even if the transmitting and receiving antennas are geometrically aligned, a certain
misaligment may occur due to so-called Farady rotation in the ionosphere. The
phenomenon is most severe during the local daytime. The average daytime Faraday
rotation may be estimated from the following equation:
(7.33)

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with the frequency f expressed in GHz. For example, a 2 GHz telecommand signal with
vertical polarization at the transmitter may suffer a rotation of up to 4 by the time it has
travelled through the ionosphere and reached the receiver, resulting in a loss of usable
power flux Lpol according to Eq 7.32. Occasionally, rotations as high as 30 are measured.
Circular polarization eliminates this problem and is therefore used at the lower GHz
frequencies. At higher frequencies, Faraday rotation is no longer an issue, and linear
polarization is therefore preferred, because linearly polarized antenna feeds are easier to
build.
As discussed in Section 7.3.4.4, circular polarization is achieved by combining
orthogonal E-field waveforms with a relative phase shift of +90 or -90. One phase shift
yields RHCP, while the other shift produces LHCP. Here again, a transmitting and a
receiving antenna will communicate perfectly if both adhere to the same sense of circular
polarization, and not at all if their polarization is in the opposite sense.
In practice, the polarizations at both ends of the radio link are seldom perfectly aligned.
One reason is that the relative orientation of the satellite and the ground station changes
as the satellite passes overhead, causing a time-dependent misalignment between linear
polarizations, and elliptic deformations of circular polarizations. Another reason is the
Faraday rotation of linear polarization planes mentioned earlier. As a result, an
attenuation Lpol due to polarization mismatch may occur and must be estimated. For
example, a worst-case 30 Faraday rotation of a signal in linear polarization would cause
a loss of 1.25 dB.
The polarization isolation between an antenna with linear polarization and one with
circular polarization is 3 dB. In plain language, this is to say that if an antenna transmits
in linear polarization and another antenna receives in circular polarization, only half the
signal power is received as compared to a perfect polarization match.

290

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

Returning to Eq 7.25, we are now in a better position to estimate three important loss
factors:

or, in dB:

olo
gy
.

L = LatmLrainLpol
[L] =[Latm] + [Lrain] + [Lpol]

as it relates to our particular TT&C frequencies and circumstances. Recall that these
losses are in addition to the free space loss {/(4d)}2 which is already accounted for in
Eq 7.25.
Antenna Pointing Loss

hn

7.3.5.5.

3dB 70

[L ]

(7.34)

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po int dB


= 12
3dB

fT

(in degrees)
D
An antenna pointing error will lead to a signal loss:

ec

Equation 7.22 gave us the antenna beamwidth as

For example, we know from Eq 7.22 that a parabolic dish receive antenna with a diameter
Dr = 3 m, operating at 2 GHz, has a half-power beamwidth 3dB = 3.5. If such an antenna
were to be mispointed by the same amount ( = 3.5), it would experience a signal loss of
12 dB. The signal does not disappear completely, because there is still some antenna
coverage left beyond the half-power beamwidth.
7.3.5.6.

Implementation Losses

Losses in the range 0.5 3 dB are encountered in various hardware onboard the satellite
as well as on the ground. Examples are switches and filters, which should be avoided
whenever practicable. These losses are frequency-dependent. Figure 7-45 shows losses in
a typical satellite S-band circuit where telemetry and telecommand signals are routed to
and from redundant transmitters and receivers.

291

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

Telemetry
transmitter 2

0.3 dB

0.8 dB

Diplexer
(filter)
Telecommand
receiver 1

olo
gy
.

Telemetry
transmitter 1

1.2 dB

0.3 dB

hn

Telecommand
receiver 2

Summary of Sources of Noise and Losses

fT

7.3.5.7.

ec

Figure 7-45 Losses in switches, diplexers and antenna signal lines.

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We are now in a positon to restate Eq 7.25 as follows, taking into account the various
sources of noise and attenuation discussed earlier:
Pr C Pt Gt G r
1

=
=

N N
kTs B Latm Lrain L pol Lline1 Lline 2 L point1 L point 2 4d

(7.35)

Here, Ts is the sum of all noise temperature contributions. Lline1 refers to losses in the coax
or waveguide that links the transmitter with the transmit antenna, while Lline2 is the
equivalent loss on the receiver side. Similarly, Lpoint has to be accounted for on both the
transmit and receive side relative to the range vector.

Figure 7-46 gives an overview of all the noise and loss sources that should be accounted
for in a comprehensive link budget. This figure also suggests the existence of other noise
and loss factors that apply in special cases.
The preliminary link budget in Table 7-2 is updated in the following, using Eq 7.35 with
the various noise and loss elements filled in from Table 7-5 below. The transmit power Pt
is boosted from 0.5 W to 5 W to avoid arriving at a negative link margin.
The loss and noise temperature values in Table 7-5 are representative of a geostationary
S-band telemetry system using a 0.2 m satellite telemetry antenna and a 2 m ground
station receive antenna at 10 elevation.

292

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

TLO
Lmod
Lline1
Tline1
Lpoint1
Lpol
Latm

Atomspheric loss

Galactic & tropospheric noise temperature

Ttrop

Eq 7.31
Eq 7.34
Eq 7.32
Figure
7-36
Figure
7-44

3.0

0.3
0.0

Eq 7.27

Lpoint2
Lline2
Tline2

Eq 7.34

0.2

Eq 7.31

0.5

22

32
30

Receiver phase jitter noise


Subcarrier & demodulator losses
Carrier circuit loss
Waveform distorsion loss

Tphase
Lsub
Lcirc
Lwave

Implementation loss (switches, etc.)

Limpl

Ranging interference1)

Lrang

4.0

Ls, Ts

14.5

1)

0
3

100

Figure
7-43

Figure
7-45

160

0.0

Thotbody

Trec

Receiver noise

3.5

Figure
7-42

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Hot body noise (sun, moon and


surroundings)
Receive antenna pointing loss (0.5 deg)
Receive antenna circuit (feed or line)
loss/temp

Noise
temp
(K)
0

0.0

fT

Cosmic noise temperature

Lrain
Train
Tcosm

Rain loss/temp

Loss
(dB)

olo
gy
.

Local oscillator phase noise


Modulation loss
Transmit antenna circuit (feed or line)
loss/temp
Transmit antenna pointing loss (0.5 deg)
Polarization loss (alignment and Faraday
combined)

Fig or
Eq

hn

Param

ec

Source

0
1.0
0.0
0.0
2.0

Loss due to power-robbing when telemetry


transmission and ranging occur simultaneously.

Total:

347

Table 7-5 Overview of sources of S-band TT&C losses and noise temperatures.

293

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.
hn
Polarization loss

Legend:

ec

Transmit
antenna
Antenna
circuit loss

Modulation
loss

Power
amplifier

Carrier

Square/sine
wave
subcarrier

Atmospheric
loss;
Scintillation
fades;
Rain loss

Loss

Noise

fT

Pointing loss

Local oscillator
phase noise

Phase
modulator

Subcarrier
modulator

Free
space loss

Both

Receive
antenna

Feeder loss

Signal
interference

Pointing loss

Receiver

Waveform
distortion loss

Carrier circuit
loss

Receiver
noise

Phase jitter
loss

Demodulator

Ranging
inteference

Subcarrier &
demodulator
losses

Bit
synchronizer
and detector

INFORMATION SINK

Cosmic noise;
Hot body noise;
Weather noise
& losses

294

Local oscillator
phase noise

INFORMATION SOURCE

Figure 7-46 Typical causes of RF loss and noise.


(Source: CCSDS 401.0-B)

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7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

olo
gy
.

34.8

10.3
2.4
7.9
dB

7.0
-3.5

160.0
0.2

Link margin

How?
Input
Input
Figure 7-31
Input
Input
Eq 7.13
Input
Figure 7-33
How?
Input
Eq 7.17
Input
Eq 7.21
Input
Input
Eq 7.31
Input
Eq 7.16
Eq 7.34
Input
Figure 7-36
Figure 7-44
Figure 7-44
[/(4d)]2
Input
Figure 7-42
Eq 7.27
Input
Eq 7.18
Eq 7.34
Input
Eq 7.31
Figure 7-43
Figure 7-45
Input
dB: (13..34)-(17)-(28)
Linear: (15..32)-(16)-(27)
Input
(36)+(37)
(35)-(38)
(39)-(1)
(39)-(3)
(40)-(7)

hn

Linear
2200.0
0.136
10.0
40586.0
5.0

dB
37.0

ec

Linear
5000
QPSK
3000
1.00E-05
Concatenated

11.4
0.0
-3.0
-0.3
0.0

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(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
(31)
(32)
(33)
(34)
(35)
(36)
(37)
(38)
(39)
(40)
(41)

Required signal quality


(bps)
Modulation
B (Hz)
BER
Coding
Req Eb/N0 PSK
Req Eb/N0 Concatenated
Coding gain
Achieved signal quality
f (kHz)
(m)
(deg)
d (km)
Pt (W)
Lline1
Tline1 (K)
Dt (m)
Gt
Lpoint1
Lpol
Latm
Lrain
Train (K)
Lfreespace
Tcosm (K)
Ttrop (K)
Thotbody (K)
Dr (m)
Gr
Lpoint2
Lline2
Tline2 (K)
TRx (K)
Limpl
Lrang
C = Pr (W)
Total noise temp Ts (K)
Boltzmann constant
N0 (W)
Ach C/N0
Ach Eb/N0
Ach C/N

fT

No.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)

0.0

-191.5

3.0
22.0
100.0
2.0

31.4
-0.2
-0.5

32.0
30.0

3.04E-16
347.0
1.38E-23

-2.0
-4.0
-155.2
25.4
-228.6
-203.2
48.0
11.0
13.3
8.6

Table 7-6 Complete link budget.

The link margin of 8.6 dB well exceeds the minimum recommended margin of 3 dB.

295

7 / Tracking, Telemetry and Command (TT&C)

7.4.

Solved Problems

See Appendix C for solutions.

olo
gy
.

7.4.1 With what accuracy (expressed in percent of full scale) is it possible to interpret
an analogue telemetry read-out after A/D conversion using 8 bits?
7.4.2 Modern satellites contain an onboard clock consisting of a 48-bit digital counter
driven by a 65,536 Hz oscillator. If the clock is set to zero on 1 January 2000, what date
and year will it restart from zero? A year has 365.25 days.

ec

hn

7.4.3 A satellite in a 600 km circular orbit is specified to transmit telemetry to the


ground in BPSK at a bit rate = 10,000 bps with a bit error rate BER = 10-6. The carrier
frequency f = 2 GHz. Determine the EIRP of the satellites transmitter, assuming a
ground station G/T of -10 dB. Allow a 6 dB link margin to account for atmospheric and
circuit losses.

fT

The earths radius R = 6371 km. The Boltzmann constant k = 1.38 10-23 J/K.

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7.4.4 What should the gain Gt of a telemetry transmit antenna be on a GEO satellite if it
is to cover the entire earths disc? The frequency is 2 GHz, and the antenna efficiency =
0.65.
7.4.5 What is the coding gain for a QPSK signal that undergoes concatenated forward
error correction? The chosen Reed-Solomon code rate R = 223/255, and the Viterbi
coding has a code rate R = 1/2 with a constraint length K = 7.

7.4.6 Estimate the noise temperature and the signal losses experienced by a ground
station that receives telemetry at 12 GHz from a geostationary satellite appearing 30 deg
above the local horizon. The beamwidth of the ground station antenna is 2 deg. The
maximum rain rate in the region is 70 mm/h. Assume that the satellites antenna is
accurately pointed towards the ground station, that the ground stations antenna is
mispointed by 1 deg, and that both the satellite and the ground station use horizontal
linear polarization. Disregard all losses behind the respective antennas.

296

8 / Onboard Data Handling (OBDH)

8.1.

olo
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.

8. Onboard Data Handling (OBDH)


Introduction

hn

Up until the late 1970s, satellites possessed only a rudimentary data handling capability,
while most complex operations were planned and executed from the ground. A degree of
attitude control autonomy was then introduced, telemetry formatting became more
adaptive to operational needs, and high-capacity electronic mass memories became
available.

ec

As the satellites grew larger and more complex, so did the wire harnesses that relayed
electric power and electronic signals between all the corners of the spacecraft. As a rule
of thumb, the wire harness represented up to 10% of the satellites entire dry mass. The
sheer bulk of the harness posed additional problems, as did its serviceability.

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fT

In this environment it became increasingly urgent to revisit the division of executive


authority between the ground and the satellite, as well as the methods of onboard data
handling. The result is the onboard data handling (OBDH) subsystem, made possible by
the development of ever increasing computing power within a given weight and volume
constraint.

The OBDH subsystem is the signal mastermind. At the heart of the OBDH is a central
processing unit (CPU) and an associated mass memory; together they constitute the brain
of the satellite. In the distributed bus configuration (Section 8.4), the CPU is served by a
number of remote terminal units (RTU) a set of mini-processors out in the field that
perform local housekeeping tasks to make the dialogue run smoothly between the
functional units and the CPU. By functional units we mean instruments, sensors, relays,
actuators, storage devices, etc.
An intensive debate took place all through the 1970s and 80s whether it was wiser to keep
the primary operational authority on the ground or to transfer it to the satellite. The
hesitation was natural, given the relatively high mass, limited intelligence, low capacity
and poor reliability of computers at the time. Meanwhile, these problems have been
largely resolved, and the spacecraft designers appetite to make satellites almost fully
autonomous is growing fast.
There are several good reasons for shifting operating responsibility from the ground to the
satellite. As highlighted in Chapter 7, the OBDH makes optimum use of onboard
resources during routine collection, forwarding and interchange of data between the
satellite and the ground, as well as within the satellite itself. It provides a quicker
response time in critical situations, e.g. switching over to backup equipment when a
primary unit fails, or placing the satellite in a safe mode pending detailed anomaly
investigations. It also translates into cost savings by reducing the number of spacecraft
controllers needed on the ground to monitor and control the satellite around the clock.

297

8 / Onboard Data Handling (OBDH)

8.2.

Onboard Computer

olo
gy
.

The onboard computer has a similar architecture to that of a PC. It typically consists of a
CPU, a memory bank and an input/output (I/O) inteface.
The CPU is in charge of
boot-up and initialization of application software
execution of application software supported by the operating system
interrupt management
error detection and alarm signal generation.

CPU

fT

ec

hn

The CPU is made up of an arithmetic & logic unit (ALU), a control unit and a set of data
registers. In a nutshell, the ALU performs both arithmetic (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, trigonometry, square roots, etc.) and logic operations (type AND,
OR, XOR and NOT). The Control Unit interprets software code into basic instructions
that the ALU can process. The data registers serve as temporary "scratch pads" for the
ALU; they contain limited amounts of data needed by the ALU for frequent and rapid
retrieval.

Arithmetic & Logic


Unit (ALU)

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Control
Unit

Registers

Telemetry
Telecommand
Payload data

Input /
Output
Controller

Mass
Memory

RAM

EEPROM

Memory Bank

Figure 8-1 Onboard coputer architecture.

The main customers of the CPU are the payload, the TT&C, the attitude and orbit
management, the power management and the thermal management subsystems. Some
common applications:

298

Steering phased array antennas;


Re-allocating payload transponder channels and power levels to different spotbeam antennas;
Initiating the deployment of antennas and solar panels;
Keeping the solar panels pointed at the sun;
Regulating power by switching solar cell strings;
Managing battery charge and discharge rates;
Activating local heaters as needed in the payload, battery and propulsion
subsystems;

8 / Onboard Data Handling (OBDH)

Executing attitude and orbit manoeuvres according to instructions preloaded from


the ground;
Performing autonomous attitude and orbit determination based on received GPS
signals;
Switching between redundant units in case one of them fails;
Interrupting the mission in case of major onboard anomalies and placing the
satellite in a safe attitude and configuration, pending diagnostic analysis and
remedial action from the ground;
Receiving, unpackaging and executing telecommands;
Collecting, packaging and relaying telemetry data to the RF portion of the TT&C
subsystem.

olo
gy
.

fT

ec

hn

In addition, the CPU provides an onboard clock and synchronization reference. The clock
is typically a 48-bit counter driven by a crystal oscillator at 65,536 Hz (= 216 Hz). The
clock thus completes a complete cycle every 248/216 = 232 seconds 136 years, which is
well beyond the expected lifetime of any satellite. The correlation between the onboard
clock count and UTC is known on the ground from telemetry, thereby allowing spacecraft
controllers to instruct the processor to execute certain functions at a given time (i.e. a
given counter reading).

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Synchronization pulses are issued at frequencies of the order 1 Hz, 8 Hz, 256 Hz, etc.,
and are used to trigger recurring events onboard the satellite. Examples include turning
the solar panel stepper motor and taking scientific samples.
Although computers act quickly and accurately, they only do what they are told, and that
remains a lingering weakness. The modus operandi of the CPU is pre-defined in the
operating system and application software. This pre-definition is only as good as the
ability of its designers to predict every conceivable operational scenario. Inevitably
situations arise which the designers did not foresee, and it is at such times that human
judgment becomes indispensable.
Human judgment may be introduced by making the onboard computers reprogrammable
by telecommand. This approach has great potential, though it is too time-consuming to be
used in emergency situations.
There are ways to improve the tolerance of computers against failure. One approach is to
install two or three identical processors. With two processors, it is possible for one of
them to take over if the other one fails. For this to work, the redundant processor must
intervene in the proper operational context, i.e. it has to mimic the performance of the
primary processor at all times a programming challenge with many pitfalls. The
redundant processor can work either in hot redundancy, or else in cold redundancy under
the authority of a small watchdog computer that acts as a memory of the main context.

With three redundant computers it is possible to introduce a majority vote scheme,


whereby two processors in agreement will prevail over a disagreement with the third
processor.

299

Historical note: The Space Shuttle orbiter employed four identical,


redundant main processors with a sophisticated majority vote
scheme. Three processors can out-vote the fourth processor, and two
can even override the third if the fourth processor is manifestly
malfunctioning and the third is in disagreement. At the limit, the crew
could mobilize a fifth processor equipped with different software for
independent analysis of the situation.

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8 / Onboard Data Handling (OBDH)

Data Storage

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8.3.

fT

ec

hn

Nowadays many computer operations are performed by operational control procedures


(OCP). These procedures are small pieces of code expressed in a high-level language,
often called spacecraft control language (SCL), that are interpreted by the onboard
software, allowing the OCPs to access a limited amount of the computer functions and
interfaces. The OCPs typically execute routine tasks like battery monitoring or
temperature control. They can also be used to handle spacecraft emergency cases and
anomalies. If we compare with a typical PC, an OCP may be compared to a Java applet.
The applet can execute rather advanced tasks, but the Java language prevents the applet
from accessing vital computer resources.

As in the case of personal computers, a satellite CPU relies on a variety of memory chips
to perform its calculations. These come in volatile and non-volatile versions. A volatile
memory is erased - i.e. it loses all its data content - if the electric power supply is
switched off for whatever reason, so it is only used for temporary data storage. Essential
software, such as the operation system and application programs, must not be erased if
power is lost and are therefore stored in non-volatile memory chips.
A random access memory (RAM) is volatile and is used for rapid storage and retrieval of
large amounts of data. A read-only memory (ROM) is non-volatile and is preprogrammed during manufacturing. A programmable ROM is called a PROM and may be
programmed after manufacturing, but only once. Hence the operating system of a satellite
computer is typically stored in a PROM which has been programmed before launch. The
contents of an erasable PROM (EPROM) may be removed and then reprogrammed using
an external programming device. This may seem lika a contradiction in terms, since a
PROM is supposed to be read-only, but it is still non-volatile. Lastly there is the
electrically erasable PROM, or EEPROM, which combines the advantages of nonvolatility and ability to be re-programmed in situ, e.g. by telecommand. EEPROMs
therefore allow satellite operators to uplink new application programs to a satellite in
order to rectify programming errors or change the spacecraft's modus operandi, but the
data remains permanent in case of power loss.
To make a (somewhat flawed) analogy with consumer electronics, the RAM is what
determines how fast a home computer executes a program; a CD-R is a PROM while a
CD-RW is an EPROM; and a USB memory stick is an EEPROM.

300

8 / Onboard Data Handling (OBDH)

olo
gy
.

So-called mass memories typically use RAM technology for storing large quantities of
ephemeral data before transmission to the ground. In the early days of spacecraft
engineering, satellites that collected large amounts of data used onboard tape recorders
for storage. Whenever the satellites passed above designated ground stations, the tape
recorders were played back in high-speed mode, and the data was archived on the ground.
There were several difficulties with this technology. The tape recorders were heavy,
power-hungry and unreliable (e.g. due to bearing seizure in vacuum), their storage
capacity was limited, and they offered no random access to stored data.

ec

hn

The modern RAM eliminates the drawbacks of tape recorders. The earliest electronic
memories found uses not only in scientific missions with high data volumes, but also in
commercial store-and-forward applications. In store-and-forward, short messages in the
field are uplinked to LEO satellites and subsequently downloaded over suitable ground
stations for onward land transmission to the intended recipients a kind of space-based
email.

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fT

Nowadays, satellite mass memories come with storage capacities of 100 Gbits or more,
and data may be dumped at rate of several hundred Mbps. They are used for holding
high-volume scientific and remote sensing data onboard satellites in LEO until the next
available ground station pass.

Historical note: The spin-stabilized Meteosat weather satellites of the 1970s and 80s
operated in GEO with a spin rate of 1 rps. Each satellite used an electronic mass memory to
reduce the transmission bit rate, and hence the bandwidth, of images to the ground. The
onboard radiometer swept across the earths disc once per spin revolution while recording
10,000 picture elements (pixels). Each pixel consisted of 8 bits, so a total of 80,000 bits was
stored in a mass memory. Since the earths disc subtends 17.4 from GEO, the sweep took
place during 17.4/360 = 1/20 of a spin period. During the remaining 19/20 of the spin
period, the stored pixels were transmitted to the ground. This stretched transmission bit
rate therefore amounted to only 1/20 of what it would have been in a real-time mode,
resulting in a massive saving of RF bandwidth.

8.4.

Data Distribution

As for data interfaces, there are two basic signal distribution architectures in common use,
namely centralized and distributed.
In the centralized layout, each functional unit is linked directly to the CPU, as illustrated
in Figure 8-2. On a small scale, the centralized architecture is simple, reliable and easy to
test, but it is also inflexible. The different functional units may require different
interfaces, and adding another functional unit necessitates some reprogramming of the
CPU. To communicate with each other, the units must take the detour via the central
processor. This layout is mainly found on small satellites.

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8 / Onboard Data Handling (OBDH)

Payload

Transmitters

CPU

Mass memory

Receivers

hn

Actuators

olo
gy
.

Sensors

ec

Figure 8-2 Centralized architecture.


(Source: T. Hult, Ruag Sweden.)

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fT

In larger and more complex satellites, the amount of wire harness between the various
functional units becomes an issue, as mentioned in the Introduction. They therefore
favour a distributed layout, where units share a common data bus to communicate with
the CPU and with each other (Figure 8-3). RTUs compile data to and from the various
subsystems and interact with the CPU to ensure optimum prioritizing and packaging of
two-way, high-speed data on the bus (typically 500 1000 kbps) along the lines
described in Sections 7.2.1.2 and 7.2.2.2.
The distributed layout is highly modular. With the functional interfaces being
standardized, it allows units to be added or removed with relative ease. Most of the wire
harness in the centralized layout is eliminated, allowing mass to be saved and reliability
to be increased. Integration and test are also facilitated, though it is sometimes difficult to
isolate a unit that is intent on disturbing the data flow.
Mass
Memory

Telemetry

CPU

Payload
1

Payload
2

Payload
3

RTU

RTU

RTU

RTU

RTU

RTU

Thermal
Mgt

Power
Supply

Central bus

Telecommand

Standard I/O
Interfaces

Actuators

Figure 8-3 Distributed architecture.


(Source: T. Hult, Ruag Sweden.)

302

Attitude
Processor

Sensors

8 / Onboard Data Handling (OBDH)

olo
gy
.

Note that a functional unit may be yet another processor, as in the case of the dedicated
attitude processor in Figure 8-3. Attitude management is often the subsystem that places
the greatest demand on computer capacity, so a separate processor may be justified on the
grounds that the data processing is highly specialized and should enjoy a degree of
autonomy.

fT

ec

hn

To take full advantage of the distributed architecture, it is essential that the participating
units speak the same language, i.e. that they transmit and receive data according to an
agreed protocol. Several different protocols have been invented, and the unit
manufacturers have had to make a guess which one might be the most profitable to be
compatible with. In the 1970s, the US Department of Defence established the so-called
MIL-STD-1553B protocol which remains the most frequently used even today. A decade
later, the German automotive industry developed the Controller Area Network (CAN)
protocol, which is slowly finding favour among some European satellite builders. The
two standards are basically incompatible. To make matters worse, there are yet more
protocols being promoted on the market, each with its own advantages. There are two
solutions to this dilemma: either build protocol translation circuits, or exclude
incompatible units from participating in the data bus traffic.

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The telemetry and telecommand interface to the left of the CPU in Figure 8-3 deserves
elaboration (Figure 8-4; see also Figure 7-1).

Transmitter

Telemetry
Formatter

Diplexer

Mass
Memory

CPU

Receiver

Telecommand
Decoder

Standard I/O
Interfaces

Command
Pulse
Generator

Payload
data

Central bus
Telemetry
inputs

Telecommands

Figure 8-4 TT&C Data Handling.


(Source: T. Hult, Ruag Sweden.)

In the above example we observe how data from the payload bypasses the central bus,
because the data volume as well as the bit rate exceed its capacity. This is typical for
some scientific and remote-sensing satellites that collect large quantities of data. The
presence of a mass memory for storing a part of payload data suggests that the satellite
travels in LEO rather than in GEO, so as to preserve collected data between passes over
designated ground stations. The memory bypass link to the telemetry formatter indicates
that some of the payload data is needed in real time.
The bulk of platform subsystem data is routed to and from the CPU on the distributed
data bus (the thick black line). Platform telemetry, as well as low-level on/off and
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8 / Onboard Data Handling (OBDH)

proportional telecommands, are orchestrated by the CPU assisted by the standard I/O
interface, while high-level on/off commands are energized by the command pulse
generator (see also Section 7.2.2.2).

hn

ec

What volumes of data are to be transferred (average and peak values)?


What types of interfaces are provided by the most common sensors and actuators?
How many nodes (users) will require their own addresses?
Will the nodes communicate via a central processor and/or with each other?
Will the data be formatted as single words, as large data blocks, or as a mix of the
two?
What types of disturbance may be expected on the bus, and how are they to be
diagnosed?
How much power will the bus and the nodes draw?
What requirements are there with regard to electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
between the bus and the surrounding satellite electronics (Chapter 14)?
Are there any suitable communication circuits and drivers available on the
market?

fT

olo
gy
.

When deciding on the choice between a centralized and a distributed architecture, the
OBDH designer should ask himself the following questions:

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Technology advancements in the field of electronics are making the distributed


architecture more accessible than before, and future small satellites are therefore likely to
move from the centralized to the distributed architecture.

8.5.

Remote Terminal Unit

One might say that the CPU is the conductor of a symphony orchestra, the RTUs are the
musicians, and the functional units are their instruments. The conductor is guided by a
musical score (the operating system) to prompt the musicians in matters of pitch, rhythm,
dynamics, timbre and texture (the application). He listens carefully to the quality of the
performance and makes split-second decisions on subsequent measures.
The RTUs have been instituted as local signal hubs for functional units, as well as for
switching relays, thermistors and similar components scattered throughout the satellite.
The aim is to reduce the length of signal cables and improve access for integration and
repair. For example, an RTU might be mounted on the inside of a side wall. When folding
open the wall, the technician only has to deal with the data bus and some power supply
wiring, rather than a mass of fragile signal wires.
RTUs come in many different guises and carry different names, depending on the mission
requirements and the traditions of particular manufacturers. Some RTUs are stand-alone
units while others are integrated into subsystems. Some are more intelligent than others.
In its simplest form, an RTU may be viewed as a local telemetry encoder and
telecommand decoder. As such, it performs A/D conversions and data (de)multiplexing.
More advanced designs participate in the (un)packaging and execution of data in the
wider context of packaged telemetry and telecommand described in Chapter 7.

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8 / Onboard Data Handling (OBDH)

8.6.

OBDH Design Aspects

hn

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ec

What tasks will the subsystem perform?


What is the expected nature and rate of the data flow?
What is the most suitable architecture?
Which tasks are to be executed in real time and deferred time?
Which tasks are to be programmed in hardware, software and firmware?
What operating system and programming language is to be used?
How much processing and memory capacity will be needed, and what margins are
prudent?
How fast must the processors work?
How will the processors handle predicted radiation, vibration and temperature
extremes?
Ditto regarding random fault events due to defective parts, single event upsets, or
EMC transients?
What are the volume, mass, power consumption and reliability constraints for the
various OBDH units?
How will the OBDH subsystem be tested?
Which units exist off-the-shelf, how much do they cost, and what are the delivery
times?

fT

olo
gy
.

When defining the OBDH, it is essential to get it right from the start, as last-moment
modifications can be extremely costly and time-consuming. A short definition checklist
might look like this:

305

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.

hn

ec

fT

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9 / Structures & Mechanisms

9. Structures and Mechanisms


Introduction

olo
gy
.

9.1.

The structure is the satellites backbone, and the mechanisms are its moving parts.
Together they define the overall geometry of the satellite.

hn

In contrast to aircraft, which are immediately recognizeable, satellites come in every


shape and size. This is not to say that there are no geometric constraints; quite on the
contrary, the laws of physics impose restrictions on the spacecraft designer that are at
least as severe as those affecting the aircraft builder.

ec

For starters, the satellite has to fit inside the available heatshield volume of the chosen
launch vehicle. Consequently solar panels, antennas and other appendages often have to
be stowed, i.e. folded up against the main structure of the satellite for later deployment.

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fT

The static and dynamic launch loads, though well documented, are quite severe and
represent a challenge for the designers of both the structure and the mechanisms. The
temptation might be to resort to structural reinforcements, but the pressure is on the
designers to do the exact opposite, namely to make the structure and the mechanisms as
light as possible to save on launch cost.
Once in orbit, the solar panels are expected to track the sun while the antennas are aimed
at the earth. Given the complicated relative movements of the sun and the earth as seen
from earth orbit, the satellite may have to be something of a contortionist to keep its
appendages pointed correctly 24 hours a day (Figure 9-1). Daily transitions through the
earths shadow give rise to sharp temperature gradients which cause thermal expansion
and contraction, yet the structure must not deform to the point where scientific
instruments, attitude sensors and narrow-beam antennas become misaligned.

Figure 9-1 Example of contortionist design of a hypothetical satellite in polar orbit.


In this design, the solar panel is mounted at the end
of a boom equipped with a steerable universal joint.

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9 / Structures & Mechanisms

The purpose of the structure is therefore to provide a sturdy mounting platform for the
satellites functional units. It also serves as a common grounding reference for electrical
equipment.

olo
gy
.

The most common examples of mechanisms are separation systems, relays, valves,
deployable solar panels and antennas, and electric motors for steering solar panels and
antennas. Statistically, mechanisms are more prone to failures than most other satellite
equipment, and special attention is therefore given to their reliability and testing.

ec

hn

As mentioned earlier, much effort is devoted to making structures and mechanisms


compact and lightweight, so as to keep launch costs down. This effort is anathema to
achieving high reliability, since compactness is partly achieved by adding more
mechanisms, and light structures are of course less sturdy and durable than reinforced
ones. The paradox is resolved by employing a combination of advanced materials, careful
mathematical modelling, and extensive testing.

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fT

The former Soviet Union excelled in rocketry, and their launch vehicles
Historical note:
were among the most powerful and reliable in the world. The cost of launching was a moot
point due to the arcane accounting methods used in the centralized economy. The lift-off
weight of Soviet spacecraft was therefore not a critical design issue, which is why their
satellites often appeared heavy and clumsy in Western eyes. In fact, the absence of
Western-style mass constraints allowed Soviet designers to build satellites speedily and
cheaply, in part because they could forgo most of the costly structural prototyping and
qualification testing common in the West. It is true that Soviet satellites were not particularly
reliable, but building and launching replacements was quick and inexpensive. There have
been proponents in the West for adopting the Soviet approach to build big, dumb
satellites, but our predilection for gold-plated solutions continues to make Western
spacecraft and rockets exorbitantly expensive.

9.2.

Structures

9.2.1. Mechanical Configuration

As discussed in Chapter 4, most earth-satellites are either spin-stabilized or bodystabilized. The stabilization method has a major influence on the structural layout.
A fast-spinning satellite is likely to have a cylindrical shape, with the solar panels
forming the cylindrical skin. To mount the solar panels on a despun platform would not
be practicable due to their large size. Attaching them to the walls of a spinning polygon
rather than a cylinder might produce unacceptable modulation of the electric power
output.
A body-stabilized satellite is usually rectangular in shape. The antennas are fixed,
deployed and/or steerable; the same is true for the solar panels.
Monocoque (box) construction is widely employed to achieve structural strength and
stiffness. Strength and stiffness are two different things. Strength is a measure of the
structures ability to withstand a load condition without suffering a failure. Stiffness is
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9 / Structures & Mechanisms

what makes a structure resist deflections when loaded. A design may be stiff but not
strong (e.g. a window pane), or it may be strong but not stiff (e.g. a mechanical spring).

olo
gy
.

A distinction is made between the primary structure and the secondary structure. The
primary structure absorbs the main external loads (acceleration, vibration, thermal, etc.),
and is usually made up of a central cylinder (the spine) in combination with flat panels.
The secondary structure consists mainly of thermal closure panels.
Figure 9-2 illustrates the above concepts in the case of a body-stabilized satellite.

hn

Antenna
tower

Shear
panels

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Core
Structure

fT

Payload
module

ec

Equipment
platform

Equipment
platform

Platform
module

Figure 9-2 Typical structure of a body-stabilized satellite.

The central cylinder is usually referred to as the central tube. In the example shown, the
central tube constitutes the primary load-bearing structure, along with the shear panels. In
a geostationary satellite, the tube encapsulates the apogee kick motor, whose nozzle
protrudes through the hole in the platform module.
Inside the tube there are helium tanks for pressurizing the propellant tanks if the latter are
mounted outside of the central tube. Another variant is to have one fuel tank and one
oxidizer tank stacked in tandem inside the tube, with the pressurant tanks mounted on the
outside.
The separation of the equipment platforms into a payload module and a platform module
has the advantage that they may be manufactured and tested independently by two
different contractors. When assembled, the modules form a box that contributes to the
monocoque strength and stiffness. The payloads functional units are mounted on the
inside walls of the payload module which is sometimes crowned by an antenna support
structure. Similarly, the platform units are attached to the inside of the walls and floors of
the platform module.
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9 / Structures & Mechanisms

olo
gy
.

While the load-bearing properties of a structure are of primary concern, the problems of
access and handling also affect the satellites geometry and must not be overlooked.
Access is important both to facilitate integration and to enable functional units to be
replaced if necessary. As for handling, it must be possible to lift and rotate the satellite
safely. Lifting and rotating occur during transport and testing, and also when measuring
the satellites physical properties, notably its mass, centre of gravity and moments of
inertia.

fT

9.2.2. Shapes and Materials

ec

hn

So far, we have discussed the overall structure of the satellite. Each functional unit also
offers structural challenges. Propulsion tanks must withstand internal pressure. Pipes have
to be sized to prevent hydrodynamic resonance and be strapped down to mitigate
vibration during launch. Electronic circuits need to be housed in a way to shield against
vibration as well as radiation. Sensors require an unobstructed field of view and a solid
foothold to prevent misalignment due to external loads. And the total assembly must meet
system requirements in regard to volume, mass, centre of mass, and moments of inertia.

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The simultaneous requirements for structural strength and light mass limit the choice of
materials. Panels, cylinders and cones are usually made of aluminium honeycomb
sandwiched between thin aluminium or composite face sheets.

Figure 9-3 Cross-section of a honeycomb panel.

Supporting struts are also made of composite materials. By composites we mean polymer
fibres (usually carbon) embedded in an epoxy, resulting in a light, stiff, directionally
strong medium with minimal thermal expansion.
Other materials in common use include aluminium, titanium, beryllium, steel,
magnesium, and certain ceramics. The choice depends on the particular materials
strength-to-density ratio, stiffness, hardness, brittleness, thermal expansion coefficient,
thermal and electric conductivity, toxicity, ease of manufacturing, and cost.

The strength and stiffness aspects deserve elaboration, because they provide a foretaste of
the complexities of mathematical modelling. A strut or a panel subjected to compression
may buckle (i.e. collapse). Buckling is, in most cases, catastrophic, because the
structures resistance to the offending load diminishes at the onset of buckling. The
propensity to buckle depends on the chosen material and the geometry of the article, and
of course on the amount of force applied. The relevant parameters have been tabulated in
various handbooks. For example, a straight rod will buckle when subjected to a critical
buckling load Fc, defined by:
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9 / Structures & Mechanisms

Fc =

2 EI
Le

(9.1)

olo
gy
.

where E is the material-dependent modulus of elasticity, or Youngs modulus;


I is the area moment of inertia; and
Le is the effective length.

The modulus of elasticity E is a material constant that defines the elastic relationship
between stress and strain according to Hookes Law:
=E

hn

(9.2)

= F/A

(N/m2)

= L/L

(dimensionless)

ec

Now we need to define stress and strain:

(9.3)

fT

(9.4)

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where F is the applied compressive force, A is the cross-sectional area of the article, L is
the articles initial length, and L is the amount of deformation under the influence of
(Figure 9-4).

Figure 9-4 Elastic deformation


under the influence of a compressive force (left) and a tensile force (right).

Note the difference between area moment of inertia, defined as I = x 2 dA , and mass
moment of inertia defined as I = x 2 dm . (It is unfortunate that in most texts, both types

are given the symbol I.) The effective length Le is related to the actual length L of the rod
but is scaled depending on the rods end attachments (Figure 9-5):

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9 / Structures & Mechanisms

olo
gy
.

F
Le = L

F
Le = 0.7 L

F
Le = 0.5 L

ec

F
Le = 2L

hn

fT

Figure 9-5 Effective length Le depending on end attachments.

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The same article will behave quite differently when subjected to tensile forces. There are
three stages of tensile deformation, namely the elastic phase, the yield phase and the
moment of rupture. These phases are illustrated in Figure 9-6 for three different materials
exposed to a given stress level .
Stress (N/m2)
Y= U

Strain

Figure 9-6 Stressstrain curves for three different materials.

Stage P is known as the proportional or elastic phase. As the names suggest, the article
will return to its original length once the force F is removed. Stage Y is the yield phase,
during which the article undergoes plastic deformation. If the article is stretched to this
extent and the force is removed, a permanent deformation will remain. At point U the
article breaks, and we have the ultimate failure point.
The steep curve to the left typifies brittle materials with its minimal strain under the
influence of stress, and with its almost non-existent yield phase. For example, porcelain is
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9 / Structures & Mechanisms

olo
gy
.

brittle and will break with no noticeable yield. The middle curve is typical of soft metals
like aluminium which will yield a fair degree before it breaks. Such materials are called
ductile (as opposed to brittle). The flattened curve to the right could be representative of
chewing-gum. If we pull at a piece of gum, it seems elastic at first but begins to yield if
we pull harder. Pull harder still, and it tears apart.
Materials notably metals contract and expand with changes in temperature. If a
structural member is attached at both ends, it is appropriate to consider thermal strains
and stresses, and the effect they may have on the integrity of the surrounding structures.

hn

In the case of a strut or beam, the thermal deformation L is related to the change in
temperature T according to:
L = L T

(9.5)

fT

ec

where is the thermal expansion coefficient, L is the struts initial length, and T is
measured in Kelvin. Having calculated L, and knowing the geometry L and A and the
elasticity modulus E for the strut, we are able to compute the strain from Eq 9.4, the
stress from Eq 9.2, and the corresponding force F from Eq 9.3.

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Equations 9.2 through 9.5 apply equally to tension and compression while the material is
in the elastic phase. Buckling under compression usually occurs at the elastic stage.

9.2.3. Quasi-Static and Dynamic Loads

The structural engineer is concerned about buckling, yield and failure in the context of
quasi-static loads, such as those intermittent static loads experienced during handling on
the ground and during the launch phase (Chapter 12). Ground handling includes
suspending the satellite from cranes and other lifting devices, and tensile stress becomes
an issue. Launch accelerations inflict significant compressive forces, with load factors of
4 g and up. A load factor is the multiple of the satellites weight on the ground, so if a
satellite weighs 1000 kg before lift-off, it may experience loads corresponding to a weight
of 4000 kg and beyond due to launch acceleration. (Fighter pilots experience considerable
load factors when banking sharply at high speeds, and wear so-called g-suits to mitigate
the discomfort.)
While quasi-static loads are fairly easy to quantify analytically, dynamic loads are more
complex and therefore more problematic for the structural engineer. The different kinds
of dynamic launch loads are discussed extensively in Section 12.2 and will not be
repeated here. We will therefore focus on one of the most hazardous phenomena in a
spacecrafts lifetime, namely vibration resonance between the launch vehicle and the
satellite.

All objects manifest natural frequencies. We are all familiar with the natural frequencies
of guitar strings that give rise to musical tones, but there are more subtle examples in our
everyday life. For example, if we place a portion of jelly on a plate and shake it gently
sideways, the substance will wobble. At a given frequency of shaking, the substance
appears to wobble more violently than when shaken more quickly or more slowly, to the
point where it risks flying off the plate and landing on the floor.
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olo
gy
.

The Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge in the United States collapsed on November 7,
1940 (you can watch it on YouTube). One theory suggests that the collapse was caused
by structural fatigue after the wind that blew through the strait induced so-called Krmn
vortex shedding. The shedding phenomenon is periodic, and on that particular day the
vortex shedding frequency happened to coincide with the bridges lowest natural
frequency.

hn

An objects lowest natural frequency is known as the fundamental frequency and is


usually the most severe in terms of structural loading. In the case of complex
constructions such as a satellite, each element has its own fundamental frequency. To
make matters worse, these frequencies are altered by the manner in which the element is
attached, and by the mounting platforms own dynamic behaviour.

ec

In the above examples involving the jelly and the suspension bridge, disaster strikes when
the induced frequency coincides with the fundamental frequency. This is what is known
as resonance. If left undamped, the vibration amplitude of a resonating object will reach
infinity.

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fT

Resonance is easy to illustrate mathematically. Lay a toy car with mass m on a table and
attach it to the end of a wall-mounted spring with the spring constant k. Pull the object
and let go. If there is no damping (either in the spring itself or due to friction), the body
will oscillate forever at constant amplitude, and with a frequency corresponding to the
systems fundamental frequency. We have:
mx + kx = 0

(9.6)

Eq 9.6 describes a balance of forces, namely between the inertial force mx due to the
bodys cyclic acceleration and deceleration, and the spring force whose magnitude and
direction are proportional to the cyclic extension and compression of the spring.
k
2
x = 0 , or x + n x = 0 , where n is the
m
angular velocity of the natural frequency fn, such that n = 2fn and
Eq 9.6 may be rewritten as follows: x +

fn =

1
2

k
m

(9.7)

The solution to Eq 9.6 for the fundamental frequency is:


x = A sin(nt + )

(9.8)

where A and are integration constants (A may be set to 1 and to 0 when studying the
general case). Eq 9.8 is illustrated in Figure 9-7.

314

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0

10

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Time

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Amplitude

9 / Structures & Mechanisms

Figure 9-7 Undamped oscillation (fn = 1 Hz).

ec

In mechanical systems there is usually an element of damping due to internal or external


friction. The damping force Fdamp is, in the idealized viscous case, proportional to the
translation velocity x , and Eq 9.6. now reads as follows:

fT

mx + cx + kx = 0

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where c is called the damping constant.

(9.9)

2
Eq 9.9 may be rewritten as x + 2 n x + n x = 0 , where 2n = c/m, and therefore the
damping ratio is found to be:

and:

2 km

x = Be nt sin n 1 2 t +

(9.10)

(9.11)

If the damping coefficient c is zero, then = 0, and Eq 9.11 reverts to the undamped
solution in Eq 9.8.
Eq 9.11 is plotted in Figure 9-8, with = 0.05 and the integration constants B = 1 and =
0.

315

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
0

10

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Time

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Amplitude

9 / Structures & Mechanisms

Figure 9-8 Damped oscillation with fn = 1 Hz and = 0.05.

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fT

ec

So far we have studied the oscillating systems in equilibrium, i.e. without any external
influences. This is paramount to pulling out the object m, letting it go, and watching it
oscillate in a damped or undamped manner. Making a more drastic analogy, it would be
like kicking a satellite hard and then listening to its fading death rattle. A scenario of
greater interest to the structure engineer is the one where the launch vehicle generates
vibrations, propagates them through the interface with the satellite, and causes the
satellite to resonate. The question is whether the resonance will cause the satellite to
break up during launch.
To illustrate this point, we make the assumption that the vibration emanating from the
launch vehicle is a simple sinusoidal force FLV(t) = K sin t. How will the satellite with
its (simplified) n respond to ?

We may modify Eq 9.9 as follows:

mx + cx + kx = K sin( t )

(9.12)

The analytical solution is laborious, but the resonant amplitude Ar is shown to be:

Ar =

2 2

+ (2 n )

m n

(1 q ) + (2 q )
2 2

(9.13)

where q = /n. Eq 9.13 is plotted in Figure 9-9 with K/mn2 normalized to 1.

316

0
0.2

0.4

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Resonant amplitude

9 / Structures & Mechanisms

0.6

0.8

0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

hn

Ratio z = / n

3.0

ec

Figure 9-9 Resonant amplitude response to a forced sinusoidal stimulus.

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fT

Figure 9-9 illustrates how the resonant amplitude in an undamped system moves towards
infinity as the frequency of the rockets forcing function approaches the fundamental
frequency n of the satellite (i.e. /n 1). To prevent the satellite from being destroyed
during launch, we must either achieve substantial vibration damping or remove the
satellites fundamental frequency n a safe distance from the launchers induced
frequency . Introducing a vibration damper at the satellite/launcher interface has been
tried on Ariane, but the preferred solution is to separate n from . It is usually easier to
find design measures that raise n rather than lower it, namely by stiffening the satellites
structure. However, introducing stiffeners will make the satellite heavier, so there is a
strong incentive to select a structural layout that inherently possesses the required
stiffness.
Typical values of vibration frequencies f induced by the launch vehicle are shown in
Table 9-1, remembering that = 2f. The preferred satellite fundamental resonance
frequencies fn are also tabulated for comparison, whereby n = 2fn.

Launcher
Satellite
induced f (Hz) fundamental fn (Hz)
Axial
30
>40
Lateral
10
>15

Table 9-1 Typical launcher induced vibration and preferred satellite fundamental frequency.
Axial vibrations occur along the thrust axis. Lateral vibrations are induced by load asymmetries due small
differences in the timing of strap-on booster ignition, and by wind gusts during the ascent.

Here is some terminology used in satellite structural engineering, especially in the context
of testing:

The limit load is the predicted maximum load the structure will encounter at any
stage during its lifetime within a probability of 99%.

The allowable load is the highest load a structure can survive without suffering
failure in the form of buckling, yield or rupture.
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9 / Structures & Mechanisms

The design load is the limit load plus a factor of safety (FS) against buckling,
yield or rupture. The FS is typically 10 - 25% for yield and 50 100% for rupture.
The design load must obviously be less than the allowable load; the ratio serves to
define
allowable load
1 . For a valid structural design, the
The margin of safety (MS) =
design load
MS must be greater than 0. Compared to the FS, the MS may be viewed as an
additional reserve of structural strength.

olo
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.

Figure 9-10 offers a graphical comparison between the different concepts.

hn

Permanent
Elastic phase or buckling
Allowable load

MS

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Design load

FS

fT

Limit load

ec

damage

Figure 9-10 Relationship between load types and load margins.

9.2.4. Mathematical Modelling

So far we have only scratched the surface of structural analysis. In addition to struts, there
are panels, shells and closed contours of every conceivable geometry and manner of
attachment. Apart from tensile and compression forces acting axially, there are lateral
forces, shear forces, torques and bending moments. The forcing functions from the launch
vehicle to the satellite are not pure sinusoids but a composite of more or less random
vibrations and shocks covering a wide band of frequencies and amplitudes. Moreover,
connected objects interact with each other.
Structural modelling by analytical means is possible for only the very simplest
geometries, such as beams, enclosed contours, or structures with few members. The
actual layout of a satellite is obviously far more complex. Analytical solutions become
too cumbersome, and it is necessary to resort to numerical methods.
The advantage of analytical modelling is that the solutions are valid at any point along or
within the structure being analyzed. Analytical modelling also facilitates the
understanding of the physics involved. However, as the geometric complexity increases,
the analytical equations become very difficult and time-consuming to solve. Moreover,
when dynamics are involved, the equations are predominantly differential rather than
algebraic, in which case analytical solutions are even more elusive.
Numerical solutions overcome these difficulties in part by turning differential equations
back to algebraic, which are solved in an iterative process. The first step is to approximate
the structure by a multitude of nodes, e.g. distinct elements with simple geometries such
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9 / Structures & Mechanisms

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fT

ec

hn

olo
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.

as flat plates or cylindrical, spherical and conical contours. Each node is attributed a set of
plausible physical properties (e.g. mass, moment of inertia, elasticity, degrees of freedom
of displacement) which are made to interact with adjacent nodes in a realistic manner. A
set of parallel algebraic equations results, which are formed into matrices and are readily
solved by computer. Two of the best-known numerical techniques are the finite element
method and the finite difference method.

Figure 9-11 Example of finite element modelling.

These methods have the added advantage that the structural behaviour of the launch
vehicle and the satellite may be modelled independently and then combined in a coupled
loads analysis which reveals the static and dynamic load patterns in the satellite due to
the launcher, and vice versa.
The main difficulty with numerical methods is that the number of nodes must be neither
too small nor too large for the problem at hand. In the former case, the modelling density
and accuracy may be unsatisfactory, and in the latter case the processing time increases
exponentially with no corresponding gain in realism. Also the accuracy is only as good as
the attribution of properties to the nodes. Mastering the attribution task well requires a
good understanding of the physics involved; hence the need for engineers to be familiar
with basic analytical theory.

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9 / Structures & Mechanisms

Is testing of the real article not more

olo
gy
.

Q: Why bother with mathematical modelling?


realistic?

A: There are three answers. Firstly, we cannot test an object until we have built it.
Mathematical modelling allows us to make an intelligent guess as to what the object should
look like to survive the expected load conditions.

ec

hn

Secondly, testing is very expensive, especially when it comes to large structures like
satellites and rockets. Rather than testing for every conceivable load condition, it is more
cost-effective to test a few cases, compare with equivalent runs of the math model, adjust
the model where necessary, and then use it to simulate all the other cases of interest. The
philosophy here is to calibrate the model against a few real tests, and then assume that the
model is highly representative of the physical article. The same philosophy is used in aircraft
design, where wind-tunnel tests serve as reality checks for mathematical models used to
analyze aerodynamic flow as well as structural integrity.

Mechanisms

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9.3.

fT

Thirdly, many load conditions are impracticable or downright impossible to test on earth.
One example is the load coupling between the satellite and the launch vehicle; another
example is weightlessness.

As mentioned in the Introduction, moving parts are inherently unreliable, especially in the
severe environment of outer space. Most of them are also mission critical, i.e. if any one
of them fails, the entire mission may be jeopardized. Many spacecraft designers therefore
see mechanisms as a liability to be avoided at almost any cost. That said, they provide as
fascinating an engineering challenge as any other part of the satellite.
Figure 9-12 illustrates the types of mechanism commonly found onboard a satellite.

Thruster
latch valves

Reaction
wheels

Deployment
mechanism

Hinge

BAPTA

Figure 9-12 Examples of satellite mechanisms.

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9 / Structures & Mechanisms

olo
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.

In the above example, only two solar subpanels are shown, but the solar array wings on
GEO satellites often feature between four and six hinged subpanels each, and these
constitute flimsy and delicate assemblies. The solar array deployment mechanism may
consist of redundant pyro cutters to initiate deployment, spring-loaded hinges to unfold
the subpanels, and an elaborate set of wires, pulleys and brakes to ensure that the
affirmative deployment ends with a gentle lock-up without backlash.

hn

The bearing and power transfer assembly (BAPTA) is an electric step motor with
redundant slip rings and brushes for rotating the solar panels and transferring electric
energy from the cells to the power management subsystem. In addition to power, the
BAPTA may also transfer signals, e.g. from wing-mounted sun sensors used for
autonomous panel sun-pointing. The BAPTA is sometimes known as a solar array drive
mechanism (SADM).

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ec

The antenna deployment mechanism in Figure 9-12 is a simpler version of the solar panel
ditto, given that the antenna shown is not articulated. A few communications satellites in
GEO (notably Thuraya and Alphasat) feature 12 15 m trussed parabolic antennas whose
deployment mechanisms represent cutting edge technology.

Figure 9-13 Alphasat.


(Credit Inmarsat)

Mechanisms may be divided into three classes, each with its own technological
challenges:
a) Once-only devices, such as deployment mechanisms, separation cutters and pyro
valves.
b) Intermittently operating mechanisms, for example antenna pointing devices,
retractable gravity gradient booms, and latch valves.
c) Continuously operating motors, including BAPTAs, antenna despin motors,
gyroscopes and momentum wheels.
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9 / Structures & Mechanisms

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.

One would have thought that the design of once-only devices should be trivial, but a
depressing number of category (a) deployment mechanisms have failed in the past,
leading to partial or total loss of the mission shortly after a successful launch. Many of
these failures have involved solar panels. The difficulty has often been to estimate the
deployment forces necessary to overcome friction, keeping in mind that cold welding and
evaporation of lubricants may occur in the vacuum of outer space (see Chapter 12).
Blindly oversizing the forces is not a solution, since latch-up backlash might damage the
structure and upset the attitude control. Large structures are also prone to warp due to
thermal strains. Getting the design right is further complicated by the notorious difficulty
to simulate weightlessness while testing large, flimsy structures on the ground.

ec

hn

Category (b) devices present many of the same challenges as those in category (a) but
may be less mission critical. For example, the failure of an antenna pointing mechanism
might be partially overcome by changing the satellites attitude, or by using another
antenna with lower gain.

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fT

In category (c), the problem of wear-out is the predominant concern. Examples are ball
bearings, which become pitted over time, or lubricants that change their chemical
properties under the influence of temperature, space radiation or vacuum. R&D efforts
continue to build friction-free bearings based on magnetic suspension.
The key to successful implementation of mechanisms is imaginative design, careful
materials selection, rigorous quality assurance during manufacturing, and exhaustive
testing within realistic limits. These subjects are dealt with at some length by Fortescue &
Stark [6].

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9 / Structures & Mechanisms

9.4.

Solved Problems

olo
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.

See Appendix C for solutions.

hn

9.4.1 A circular, solid aluminium beam is variously cooled and heated in relation to its
equilibrium temperature as the satellite moves in and out of eclipse. The temperature
excursions amount to T = 30C = 30 K. The strut is bolted at both ends to walls
with negligible relative movement. Its length is L = 1 m, and its diameter D = 10 cm.
Calculate the strain , the stress , the resulting compression and tensile forces Fc and Ft,
and establish whether the beam will yield, break or buckle.

9.4.2

fT

L=1m

ec

What happens if we choose a thinner strut with D = 1 cm instead of 10 cm?

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9.4.3 A satellite weighing m = 100 kg is attached to a rocket via an adapter with a


spring constant k = 104 N/m. At the moment of rocket engine burn-out, the satellite
experiences a sudden shock. What is the natural frequency fn of the satellite/adapter
assembly if the rockets mass is much greater than that of the satellite, and if there is no
damping?
9.4.4 Now introduce a damping constant c = 5200 Ns/m. What is the value of the
damping ratio ?

9.4.5 During lift-off, the rocket exposes the above satellite to a constant acceleration a =
4g, where g = 9.81 m/s2. What is the response of the satellite/adapter assembly in terms of
x(t)? Outline the response in a diagram.

323

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.

hn

ec

fT

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10 / Thermal Management

10. Thermal Management

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.

10.1. Introduction

hn

Most of the materials and components used in a satellite have been developed for
applications on earth, and their resilience to temperatures not found on earth is limited.
The thermal engineers primary task is therefore to recreate an earth-like temperature
regime inside the satellite. This is no trivial task, considering the extreme cold in space
and the brutal, unfiltered illumination of the sun. Matters are made worse by temperature
gradients as the sun moves within the satellites reference frame, or as the satellite travels
in and out of the earths shadow.

fT

ec

Onboard propellants and batteries are examples of equipment that are particularly
temperature sensitive. Hydrazine freezes at around +2C, and subsequent thawing can
cause pipes to burst. Battery performance and lifetime are also severely affected by
temperatures beyond the recommended operating range. For most other equipments, an
out-of-limit temperature will affect the performance in the first instance (e.g. infrared
sensors), and to a lesser degree the units survival.

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Thermal monitoring via telemetry is therefore an essential tool for spacecraft controllers
to ascertain the health of a satellite, the same way a physician relies on a thermometer to
assess a patients health.
Thermal control is performed automatically by passive means as far as possible, but
active control is sometimes necessary. On unmanned spacecraft, active control usually
involves heating rather than cooling, and is triggered by onboard logic or via
telecommand.
Figure 10-1 shows some typical thermal boundaries for the good operation of satellite
equipment.
Hydrazine tanks & pipes
Travelling wave tubes
Batteries
General electronics
Electric motors
Solar cells
IR sensors

-200 -150 -100

-50

50

100 deg C

Figure 10-1 Typical equipment temperature operating limits.

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10 / Thermal Management

10.2. Thermodynamic Principles

olo
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.

Back on earth, thermal energy is transported in three ways: through radiation, conduction
and convection. For example, the warming of an object by the sun is the result of energy
transfer by radiation. Heat conduction takes place inside solid substances, e.g. from the
inside of a wall to the outside. Convection occurs in moving liquids and gases. The
movement is the result of either thermal gradients within the medium, or of the medium
being pumped.

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hn

In a typical household, thermal energy is transported through convection in water from


the boiler to the radiators. The energy is then conducted through the radiators metal
manifold, and is finally radiated into the rooms.

Figure 10-2 Examples of convection, conduction and radiation.

Out in space, there is no convection in the absence of an atmosphere, so the temperature


of a satellite is primarily the result of external radiation and conduction (though, as we
shall see, convection exists in so-called heatpipes and is sometimes introduced
artificially). The primary source of radiation energy is the sun, closely followed by albedo
and earthshine. But heat sources within the spacecraft, such as radio transmitters, also
contribute to its temperature balance. Conduction is used primarily to dissipate excess
heat from the inside of the spacecraft to the outside, i.e. into space.
One of the challenges of spacecraft design is to ensure that the satellite's thermal radiator
areas are large enough to dissipate the waste heat from internal equipment into space, or
else parts of the satellite might overheat. The size of the radiators also contributes to the
overall size of the satellite, so it is essential that they are neither under- nor overdimensioned. As a rule of thumb, a space-facing wall of the satellite body can dissipate
up to 350 W of waste heat energy per square meter. This value holds true if the radiator is
constantly in shadow, as is (more or less) the case of the north and south panels of a GEO
satellite. If the radiator is illuminated by the sun, the figure will be lower, since.the
dissipation is curtailed by simultaneous energy absorption.

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10 / Thermal Management

10.3. Radiation

olo
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.

10.3.1. Thermal Equilibrium

ec

hn

A spacecraft in earth orbit is subjected to heat-generating radiation from three different


sources:
direct solar radiation (sunshine) primarily in the visible spectrum;
solar radiation reflected by the earths surface in the visible spectrum (albedo);
and
thermal radiation from the earth (earthshine) in the infrared (IR) spectrum.

S 1367 W/m2

fT

Max albedo
0.25 S

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Max IR 0.15 S

Figure 10-3 Radiation contributions from sunshine, earthshine and albedo.

Only the IR earthshine is relatively constant throughout the day, although it is height
dependent. The direct solar radiation power density S ranges from 1321 W/m2 in early
July to 1413 W/m2 in early January, with an annual average at 1367 W/m2. From a
satellites viewpoint, S goes to zero in the earths shadow, although there are orbits (such
as GEO and certain SSO) where eclipse transits are rare or nonexistent. Albedo radiation
originates from the daytime side of the earth and depends on the orbital height as well as
on the degree of light diffusion occurring over land, oceans and the atmosphere.
In the following we will concentrate on the predominant source of radiation, namely the
sun. The thermal prediction techniques are also applicable to the other sources of
radiation. The present Section deals with the equilibrium situation where the illumination
of the satellite is presumed constant.
Most of the suns radiation is confined to the visible part of the spectrum (0.40 0.76
m), i.e. the rainbow part that we can see with our eyes. A proportion of this energy is
absorbed by the satellite, while the remainder is reflected back into space. A small portion
of the sunlight extends into the near-infrared region ( > 0.76 m) and the near-ultraviolet
region ( < 0.40 m).

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10 / Thermal Management

VIS

IR

0.25
0.20

olo
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.

Solar Radiation I (W/cm2/


m)

UV

0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
1

10

hn

0.1

Wavelength (
m)

ec

Figure 10-4 Spectral distribution of solar radiation.

fT

Incoming light is either absorbed or reflected by the illuminated surface, or else


transmitted if the surface is transparent. The corresponding fractions are denoted for
absorption, for reflection and for transmission. It follows that + + = 1.

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Figure 10-5 Absorption, reflexion and transmission of incoming sunlight.

Transparent surfaces are unusual on satellites; we shall therefore assume in the following
that = 0, such that + = 1. In the case of a perfectly black body, = 1 and = 0. A
perfect mirror has the opposite properties: = 0 and = 1.
The proportion of S absorbed by the satellite depends on the surface colour and treatment,
and is characterized by the absorption constant mentioned above, also known as the
absorbivity. The absorbed energy per second is:
qa = AaS

(W)

(10.1)

where Aa is the absorbing surface area, calculated as described at the end of Section 3.2.3.
As we have seen, 0 1.
The absorbed energy has the effect of heating up the satellite. Some of this heat energy is
emitted into space in the infrared spectrum according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law of
radiation:
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10 / Thermal Management

qe = AeT4

(W)

(10.2)

olo
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.

where is the emissivity constant, Ae is the emitting surface area, T is the body
temperature in Kelvin, and is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.6710-8 W/m2K4. Here
again, 0 1, the actual value being dependent on the satellites colour and surface
treatment. Ae is the total emitting surface area, not just the illuminated area.

hn

Note that the values of and are the same for any given wavelength. For example, in
the case of earthshine, the radiation into and out of the spacecraft occurs at approximately
the same IR wavelengths, in which case . However, the sun shines mainly in the
visible spectrum while the satellite emits in IR, so is usually different from in the
corresponding equations.

ec

By equating Eq. 10.1 and 10.2, we obtain the equilibrium temperature of the satellite,
assuming that there are no internal heat sources.
(Kelvin)

fT

1/ 4

Aa S

T =

A
e

(10.3)

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Table 10-1 gives approximate values for and for commonly used paints and polishes.
The true values depend on the surface treatment and can be found in numerous textbooks
and handbooks.

White paint
Black paint
Aluminium
(unpolished)
Aluminium
(polished)
Gold
Graphite epoxy
Glass fibre
Aluminized kapton
Optical solar
reflector (OSR)
Second surface
mirror (SSM)
Solar cells, Si,
filtered

(VIS)

(IR)

0.20
0.95

0.90
0.90

0.22
1.05

0.25

0.25

1.00

0.20

0.05

4.00

0.25
0.95
0.90
0.50

0.05
0.75
0.90
0.60

5.00
1.25
1.00
0.83

0.08

0.80

0.10

0.15

0.80

0.19

0.80

0.90

0.90

Table 10-1 Typical and values.

It is worth repeating that and assume the same value for any given radiation
wavelength. Therefore, whenever Eq 10.1 is used to evaluate the effect of incoming IR
radiation from the earth, is often replaced by the surfaces .

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olo
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.

The / ratio alone does not fully characterize the thermal behaviour of the surface in
question. For example, an ideal black body has = = 1, and hence / = 1. In the case
of unpolished aluminium, = = 0.25, and also in this case / = 1. But whereas the
black body absorbs and emits radiation without delay, aluminium with its low and is
more reluctant to absorb and emit, and therefore offers greater thermal inertia. So even
though the equilibrium temperature is the same in both cases, the latter is more resistant
to rapid thermal variations. See Figure 10-6 and Eq 10.6 below.
Black
body

Low
inertia

hn

COLD

0.8

0.4

/ > 1
High
inertia

0.2

ec

0.6

fT

Emissivity

/ < 1

WARM

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0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Absorbivity

Figure 10-6 Thermal balance based on the /


/ ratio.

To illustrate the calculation of Aa and Ae, we will take the simple case of a sphere with
radius r. Here Aa = r2 is the projected area in the direction of the sun (i.e. the shadow),
while Ae = 4r2 is the total area. The ratio Aa/Ae in Eq. 10.3 is then = 1/4. The greater the
Aa/Ae ratio, the higher the equilibrium temperature which is hardly surprising when the
heat-absorbing area is large in relation to the heat-emitting area. Similarly, the
equilibrium temperature is proportional to the / ratio (Figure 10-7). Eq. 10.3 is plotted
in Figure 10-7 for a sphere with the / ratio as the variable.

Figure 10-7 Equilibrium temperature of a sphere as a function of /.


/

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10 / Thermal Management

olo
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.

As another example, let us take a cylinder having radius r and height h. If the cylindrical
wall is turned towards the sun, then Aa = 2rh. The emitting area Ae is made up of the two
end surfaces plus the area of the cylindrical mantle, i.e. Ae = 2r2 + 2rh = 2r(r + h).
The ratio Aa/Ae in Eq. 10.3 now becomes

Aa
h
=
Ae (r + h)

hn

If, on the other hand, the cylinder is turned such that the top or the bottom faces the sun,
then Aa = r2, while Ae = 2r(r + h) as before. The new ratio is:

ec

Aa
r
=
Ae 2(r + h)

qa = AaS + qs

(W)

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and Eq. 10.3 now reads:

fT

If the satellite contains a heat energy source qs of its own (e.g. a power amplifier), Eq.
10.1 ismodified as follows:

1/ 4

A S + qs

T = a
Ae

(Kelvin)

(10.4)

10.3.2. Thermal Gradients

Note that the equilibrium temperature depends solely on the satellites shape, surface
treatment and internal heat dissipators. It is independent of the satellites mass and
construction material. The situation changes if we now look at thermal gradients, e.g.
those occurring as the satellite enters and exits the earths shadow. The rate of heating or
cooling is clearly a function of the satellites thermal inertia, which is defined as the
product of the satellites mass m and its specific heat c. The value of c depends on the
materials used and can be found in standard handbooks. For example, for the most
common aluminium alloys, c 900 J/kg K.

For a satellite experiencing a change in illumination, the following relationship applies:


mc

dT
= Aa S + q s AeT 4
dt

(10.5)

We may rewrite Eq 10.5 as follows:

qs
dT

4
=
Aa S AeT +
dt mc
mc

(10.6)

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10 / Thermal Management

olo
gy
.

from which we deduce that the thermal inertia (i.e. the magnitude of dT/dt) is influenced
by mc as well as . This makes intuitive sense: The greater the spacecraft mass, or the
greater the specific heat, the smaller the magnitude of dT/dt, and the longer it takes for the
body to heat up or cool down. Similarly, low emissivity slows down the ejection of
body heat, thereby increasing the thermal inertia.

In a steady-state thermal situation (e.g. in the absence of eclipse), dT/dt = 0, and we are
back to Eq. 10.4. If the body enters the earths shadow, then S = 0 in Eq 10.5, and the
temperature drops in accordance with the differential equation
dT
= q s AeT 4
dt

(10.7)

hn

mc

(10.8)

fT

1
1 3Ae
= 3+
t
3
mc
T
T0

ec

If also qs = 0, we have the solution

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where T0 is the initial temperature at the start of eclipse. For example, a 30 kg satellite
with a body shell of unpolished aluminium alloy (c = 900 J/kg K, = 0.25, Ae = 24 m2)
will experience the temperature drop shown in Figure 10-8 for various initial
temperatures T0 (recall that T is in Kelvin in the above equations).

Figure 10-8 Satellite temperature drop in eclipse at different initial temperatures.

The temperature curves converge as they approach the equilibrium temperature in eclipse
(3 Kelvin, or 270C). If the mass is increased tenfold from 30 kg to 300 kg, the thermal
inertia increases, as one would expect (Figure 10-9):

332

T0 C

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30

0
30

10

20

30

40

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.

60

50

Time from eclipse entry t (min)

60

70

hn

Temperature T (C)

10 / Thermal Management

ec

Figure 10-9 Same situation as in Figure 10-8 for a heavier satellite.

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T
= 1 e 0.4( t / +C )
Teq

fT

Returning to the general case in Eq. 10.5, this differential equation is more difficult to
solve. Moreover, it can only be solved for the elapse time t as a function of the
temperature T, whereas in real life it is usually the inverse relationship that is of interest,
i.e. T = f(t). To overcome this problem, we have resorted to the solution of fitting curves.
It transpires that radiative heating can be modelled by the equation
(10.9)

where Teq is the equilibrium temperature in sunlight as per Eq. 10.4, is a time constant,
and C is an integration constant. The time constant is a measure of how quickly the
temperature changes and is found to be:

mc

4AeTeq

(10.10)

The integration constant C is obtained by setting t = 0 and T = T0, where T0 is the initial
temperature at the exit of each eclipse cycle::
Teq

C = 2.5 ln
T T
0
eq

(10.11)

The equivalent curve-fit equation for radiative cooling is:

T
= 1 + 1.3e 2(t / +C )
Teq

(10.12)

Here, Teq is the equilibrium temperature in eclipse a value >> 0 K if the satellite
contains heat-dissipating equipment. As before, the value of the integration constant C is
obtained by solving for T = T0 at t = 0, where T0 is the initial temperature at the start of
each eclipse cycle:

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10 / Thermal Management

Teq

C = 0.1312 + 0.5 ln
T T
0 eq

(10.13)

olo
gy
.

1.2
1.0

hn

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1

2
3
4
Relative time t/ + C

fT

ec

Relative temperature T/Tq

Eq. 10.9 and 10.12 are plotted in Figure 10-10 and Figure 10-11, respectively. The curvefit is accurate to within 5% of the analytical solutions. For the precise solution, refer to
Gordon & Morgan [7].

Relative temperature T/Tq

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Figure 10-10 Radiative heating in sunlight.

1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

Relative time t/
+C

Figure 10-11 Radiative cooling in eclipse.

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1.4

10 / Thermal Management

olo
gy
.

Numerical example: A spherical satellite is launched into a 600 km sun-synchronous noonmidnight orbit. It has a radius r = 1 m, weighs 100 kg and is made of unpolished aluminium
( = 0.25, = 0.25, c = 900 J/kg K). An amplifier inside the spacecraft radiates heat at qs =
200 W. Calculate the temperature of the spacecraft as it enters eclipse, returns to sunlight,
and goes through eclipse one more time. The initial temperature at the start of the sequence
-8
2 4
T0 = 10C (283 K). The Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.6710 W/m K . The earths mean
radius R = 6371 km.

hn

Solution: First we calculate the orbital period from Eq 2.12: = 2a(a/) = 5792 s. The
eclipse duration is obtained from the figure as
tecl = 2/360 = 2126 s, since
-1
= sin [R/(R+h)] = 66. Consequently the time in sunlight tsun = - tecl = 3666 s.

ec

fT

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Moving on: Aa = r = 3.14 m ; Ae = 4r = 12.57 m .

Aa S + q s
Teq =
Ae

qs

Teq =

e
=

(a) Cooling (Eq 10.12):

1/ 4

= 290 K in sunlight

1/ 4

mc

4Ae Teq

Teq

= 183 K in eclipse (since S = 0)

= 5171 s in sunlight, = 20593 s in eclipse.

= 1 + 1.3e

2 (t / + C )

Replacing T with T0 = 283 K at t = 0 yields the integration constant C = 0.433. With t = tecl in
Eq 10.10 we have Texit = 264.7 K, which now becomes the new T0.
(b) Heating (Eq 10.9):

Teq

= 1 e

0.4 ( t / + C )

Proceeding as before, the new integration constant C = 6.082. After tsun = 3666 seconds we
reach the temperature T = 270.9 K, which becomes the T0 for the subsequent eclipse transit
and so forth. The temperature history is plotted below (converted to minutes and Celsius
for ease of interpretation).

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10 / Thermal Management

10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 110

120

130

hn

Time t (minutes)

olo
gy
.

Temperature T (C)

15

10.3.3. Thermal Interaction

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ec

So far we have studied the thermal behavior of a single irradiated body, namely a satellite
exposed to sunlight in space. But recall from Figure 10-1 that different types of
equipment manifest different degrees of tolerance to temperature extremes, and that most
prefer room temperature. Spacecraft equipment designers are therefore less interested in
the thermal behaviour of the spacecraft as a whole, and are more concerned with the
temperatures that their individual units will experience. These temperatures are the result
not only of external radiation, if any, but also of thermal radiation among spacecraft
equipments.

Let us illustrate this point by examining the interaction between two parallel surfaces
having the same area A (Figure 10-12). The surfaces are assumed to be opaque ( = 0),
have the absorbivity coefficients 1 and 2, and the reflectivity coefficients 1 and 2. It
follows that = 1 ,
2q1 +

212q1

21222q1 + .....

Plane 2

12q1

q1

2q1

1222q1
1n 2n q1
122q1

Plane 1

Figure 10-12 Thermal reflexion between two parallel surfaces.

The total heat energy absorbed by Plane 2 is:

q1 2 = 2 q1 (1 2 ) =
n= 0

2 q1
, since
1 1 2

Inserting = 1 and q1 = 1AT14 gives us:

336

( )

n= 0

1
for < 1.
1 1 2

10 / Thermal Management
4

q1 2

1 2 AT1
=
1 + 2 1 2

q1 2 =

olo
gy
.

Since the radiation between the two surfaces occurs on the same IR wavelength, we have
= , and therefore:
4

1 2 AT1
AT1
4
= e AT1
=
1
1
1 + 2 1 2
+
1
1 2

and the net energy flow from Panel 1 to Panel 2 is:


4

fT

q12 = q1 2 q 21 = e A T1 T2

ec

q 21 = e AT2

hn

where e is called the effective emissivity. Similarly, the radiation absorbed by Panel 1
from Panel 2 is:

(10.14)

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Consequently, the effective emissivity between two parallel planes is:


1
1
1
1
= +
e 1 2

(10.15)

It can be shown that the effective emissivity for two concentric spheres with radii r1
(inner) and r2 (outer) is:

r
1
1 1
= + 1 1
e 1 2
r2

(10.16)

and for two long, concentric cylinders:

r
1
1 1
= + 1 1
e 1 2
r2

r2

(10.17)

r2

r1

r1

Figure 10-13 Concentric spheres and concentric cylinders.

337

10 / Thermal Management

olo
gy
.

Note, however, that Eq 10.16 and 10.17 are only applicable for radiation from the inner
core to the outer shell, where all the emitted radiation is absorbed. We cannot use Eq
10.14 to calculate q21, since part of the radiation from surface 2 misses 1 and is reabsorbed by 2 on the opposite side. The next Section deals with that particular case.
Other expressions for e may be found in the literature for additional shapes, such as
concentric cubes, pyramids, etc.

10.3.4. Local Spacecraft Thermal Modelling

View Factors

ec

10.3.4.1.

hn

In the general case, two parameters are needed to analyze the flow of thermal energy
between two arbitrary surfaces, namely the view factor F and the radiation coupling
factor R.

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fT

The view factor Fij, or Fij for short, quantifies the fraction of radiation from surface i
that is intercepted by surface j. Similarly, Fji symbolises the fraction in the opposite
direction. It follows that 0 F 1. For example, in the case of a radiating sphere 1
contained inside an outer sphere 2, F12 = 1, because all the radiation from the inner
sphere impinges on the outer sphere (Figure 10-14). On the other hand, F21 1 because
some of the radiation from the inside wall of sphere 2 misses sphere 1 and falls on the
opposite wall of sphere 2.

Generally speaking, if a concave surface is divided into two halves labelled 1 and 2,
then F12 adopts some value between 0 and 1, because part 1 can see part 2. A similarly
divided flat or convex surface has F12 = 0, because no radiation flows from one part to
the other.

F12 = 0

F12 = 0

2
1
2

0 < F12 <1

F12 = 1

Figure 10-14 View factors for some simple geometries.

In the general two-body case, F12 is obtained from the following equation:
A1 F12 =

cos 1 cos 2
dA2 dA1
A2
d2


A1

(10.18)

where A1 is the total area of the emitting surface; dA1 and dA2 are infinitesimal sub-areas
in the emitting and receiving areas, respectively; 1 and 2 are the angles between the line
of sight between dA1 and dA2 and their respective normals, and d is the distance between
dA1 and dA2.

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10 / Thermal Management
dA1
d1
d2

olo
gy
.

dA2

Figure 10-15 Geometry for general two-body view factor determination.

Solving Eq 10.18 analytically is not trivial even for a simple pair of perpendicular planes
as shown below, since it must be applied to each and every pair of dA1 and dA2.

hn

ec

A2

A1

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Figure 10-16 Thermal flow between two orthogonal planes.

To illustrate the point, the analytical solution is as follows:


F12 =

1
Y

1
1
Y tan 1 + X tan 1 X 2 + Y 2 tan 1

Y
X

1
X 2 +Y 2

Y
X
X 2 (1 + Y 2 + X 2 )
1 (1 + Y 2 )(1 + X 2 ) Y 2 (1 + Y 2 + X 2 )
+ ln

4 (1 + Y 2 + X 2 ) (1 + Y 2 )(Y 2 + X 2 )
(1 + X 2 )(Y 2 + X 2 )

where X = b/a and Y = c/a. In Figure 10-17 the equation has been plotted for various
values of X and Y.

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10 / Thermal Management

hn

olo
gy
.

Ratio Y = c/a

ec

Figure 10-17 View factors F12 for two joined perpendicular planes.

fT

Compilations of similar diagrams exist in handbooks for numerous other two-body


configurations involving plane, convex and concave shapes. These diagrams may be used
when defining nodes to be used in numerical models.

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The analysts task of finding view factors for simple geometries is facilitated by certain
mathematical rules.
The reciprocity rule states that AiFij = AjFji. Assume that Fij is easier to calculate than Fji,
and that both the areas Ai and Aj are known. The reciprocity rule then allows us to find the
more difficult Fji as:
F ji =

Ai
Fij
Aj

The summation rule stipulates that, for a given surface i, the sum of all view factors
within a closed volume must be unity:
N

ij

=1

j =1

This rule works well alongside the reciprocity rule to find remaining view factors. Take
the example of two concentric spheres in Figure 10-14. Assume that the inner sphere has
the known radius r1, and the outer sphere has the radius r2. Then A1 = 4r12 and A2 =
4r22. We also know that F12 = 1 (enclosed surface) and F11 = 0 (convex surface). The
reciprocity rule gives us:

r
A
F21 = 1 F12 = 1
A2
r2

and the summation rule for surface 2 yields F22 as:

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10 / Thermal Management
r
F22 = 1 F21 = 1 1
r2

Due to symmetry, F12 = F13 = F14. The summation rule tell us that
F12 + F13 + F14 = 1

olo
gy
.

The symmetry rule supports the intuitive perception that view factors are the same around
an axis of symmetry. Take, for example, a pyramid with four identical surfaces (left
picture in Figure 10-18):

hn

Therefore 3F12 = 1, i.e. F12 = F13 = F14 = 1/3 = 0.333 and, for symmetry reasons, the same
value applies to all the other Fij.

fT

ec

The superposition rule allows us to find analytically unobtainable view factors by


subtracting one obtainable view factor from another. It can also be thought of as a
subtraction rule. For example, let us calculate F13 in the following geometry. Assume that
this view factor cannot be found through analysis or with the help of standard diagrams.
a

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A4
A3

A3
b3
A2

b2

A2

A1

A1

Figure 10-18 Symmetry rule (left) and superposition rule (right).

By forming the ratios c/a and b2/a, we find F12 from Figure 10-17. The same figure gives
us F1(2+3) after computing b3/a. The desired view factor is then obtained from the
superposition rule as
F13 = F1(2+3) F12.

Taking the apparent relative proportions between a, b and c in the figure, we estimate b2/a
= 0.5, b3/a = 1 and c/a = 0,7. From Figure 10-17:
F12 = 0.18, F1(2+3) = 0.25 F13 = 0.25 0.18 = 0.07

10.3.4.2.

Radiation Coupling Factors

While view factors help quantify direct, line-of-sight radiation between surfaces, they do
not take into account secondary radiation through reflexion from adjacent surfaces.
According to engel [3], the radiation coupling factor Rki between any two surfaces k and
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10 / Thermal Management

i has to consider reflexions from the n adjacent surfaces j, and is obtained from the
equation
n

Rki = k Ak Fkj [ ij (1 i ) Fij ] 1 i

j =1

olo
gy
.

(10.19)

where ij is the identity matrix. If the body is concave in all directions (e.g. the inner
surfaces of a satellite in space), the viewing factors are all = 1, and Eq 10.19 is reduced
to:
Rk = k Ak

hn

(10.20)

ec

The net flow q of thermal energy between two bodies i and k is the difference between
the energies qik and qki flowing in each direction. Thus, from Eq 10.2 and 10.19:

qki = qki qik = Rki (Tk4 - Ti4)

(10.21)

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fT

This equation illustrates the true meaning of the radiation coupling factor, in that it
correlates the thermal energy flow between all bodies involved, including their areas,
emissivities and view factors.
The heat balance equation for the mth body then becomes:

mm c m

p
n
dTm
4
4
= ( im m Am Rim )Ti + Rmw Tw + q sm
dt
i =1
w =1

(10.22)

The second summation accounts for external radiation on enclosure wall number w of the
assembly, such as sunlight on the outside of a satellite body (assuming a truly convex
satellite with no external reflexions). qsm is a thermal dissipator within the surface m, e.g.
a power amplifier cf. Eq 10.4.

The differential equation 10.22 thus allows the thermal variation of any surface m to be
analyzed using a numerical method. The corresponding equilibrium temperature can be
found after setting dTm/dt = 0.
10.3.4.3.

Example: Simple Cyclindrical Satellite

Equations 10.19 and 10.22 are not immediately useful as they stand for manual problem
solving, but are included to illustrate the fact that the temperature distribution within a
spacecraft can be modelled mathematically as long as the view factors F and the radiation
coupling factors R are known, along with the values of m, c, , A and qs for each node.
To give the reader a more intuitive understanding of these two equations, we will solve
them analytically for a simple spacecraft geometry, namely a straight, hollow, closed
cylinder with radius r and height h. The aim is to find out the equilibrium temperature for
each wall. The view factors F will be calculated using the rules enumerated in Section
10.3.4.1, and for the corresponding radiation coupling factors R we will use Eq 10.19
above. We will, for good measure, allow the sun to illuminate the outside of the cylinder,
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10 / Thermal Management
and we will also install two power-dissipating units inside. Lastly we will draw on Eq
10.22 to compute the equilibrium temperatures for the top, bottom and side of the
cylinder.

1
0
0

F11
0 F21

3 A3
F31

2 A2
0
0

2
0

F12
F22

F13 1 (1 1 ) F11 0 (1 1 ) F12


F23 0 (1 2 ) F21 1 (1 2 ) F22

F32

0 (1 3 ) F32

F33
0 (1 3 ) F31

0 (1 2 ) F23
1 (1 3 ) F33

0 (1 1 ) F13

hn

R ki

1 A1
= 0
0

olo
gy
.

The cylinder has three walls: the top, the mantle and the bottom, which we will number 1,
2 and 3. Eq 10.19 becomes a set of 3 x 3 matrices to be multiplied as follows:

ec

With the help of Eq 10.21, Eq 10.22 may be restructured:


dT1
= q1w1 + q 21 + q31 + q s1
dt
dT
m2 c 2 2 = q1 2 + q 2 w 2 + q 3 2 + q s 2
dt
dT3
m3 c 3
= q1 3 + q 23 + q3 w3 + q s 3
dt

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fT

m1c1

Replacing the various q with their temperature functions as per Eq 10.21, we have:
dT1
4
4
4
4
4
= R1w T1w T1 + R21 T2 T1 + R31 T3 T1 + q s1
dt
dT
4
4
4
4
4
m2 c 2 2 = R12 T1 T2 + R2 w T2 w T2 + R32 T3 T2 + q s 2
dt
dT
4
4
4
4
4
m3 c3 3 = R13 T1 T3 + R23 T2 T3 + R3w T3 w T3 + q s 3
dt

m1c1

where Riw and Tiw refer to the external wall i, and qsi is the thermal dissipation of the unit
mounted on the inside of wall i (i = 1, 2, 3).
Let us limit our ambition in this example to the equilibrium case where dTi/dt = 0. Then:

A
4
4
4
4
4
0 = R1w 1w a1 S cos(90 ) T1 + R21 T2 T1 + R31 T3 T1 + q s1
1w Ae1

A
4
4
4
4
4
0 = R12 T1 T2 + R2 w 2 w a 2 S cos s T2 + R32 T3 T2 + q s 2
2 w Ae 2

A
4
4
4
4
4
0 = R13 T1 T3 + R23 T2 T3 + R3 w 3 w a 3 S cos(90 s ) T3 + q s 3
3w Ae 3

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10 / Thermal Management

olo
gy
.

Here we have expressed the various Tw in terms of w, Aa and Ae as per Eq 10.3, and we
have also introduced the sun angle s to account for the fraction of S that is perpendicular
to the surface in question (Figure 10-19). In our case the sun is assumed to be
illuminating the mantle and the bottom of the cylinder hence the cosine in the above
three equations (cos 90 in the first equation serves to bring the illumination to zero).

R1w + R21 + R31

R12

R13

R21
R12 + R2 w + R32
R 23

4
T1
T 4
2 =
4
R13 + R23 + R3w T3

R31
R32

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ec

A
R1w 1w a1 S cos(90) + q s1
1w Ae1

2 w Aa 2
= R2 w
S cos( s ) + q s 2
2 w Ae 2

3 w Aa 3
R3w A S cos(90 s ) + q s 3
3w e3

hn

The easiest way to solve these three equations for T1, T2 and T3 is to single out Ti4 in
each equation and solve them by matrix techniques. After some manipulation, we find
that:

In shorthand: [R][T4] = [R.H.], and therefore: [T4] = [R]-1[R.H.], from which the
temperatures T1, T2 and T3 are readily obtainable. (See Appendix B regarding matrix
inversion.) In our example, T1 = 0.2C, T2 = 6.8C, T3 = 23.1C, as computed in the
following numerical example.
The chosen values for the various parameters are:
r=1m
h=1m
s = 45
S = 1367 W/m2
= 5.67 10-8 W/m2 K4
qs1 = 50 W (assume very small box, no conduction)
qs2 = 0 W
qs3 = 100 W (assume very small box, no conduction)
A
F13 = 1 2r 2 + h 2 h 4r 2 + h 2
2
(view factor between two parallel
circular plates)

External
1w = 0.2
1w = 0.3
2w = 0.8
2w = 0.9
3w = 0.6
3w = 0.3

344

Internal
1 = 0.7
2 = 0.2
3 = 0.7
A1 = Ae1 (thin wall)
A2 = Ae2 (thin wall)
A3 = Ae3 (thin wall)

10 / Thermal Management

hn

100 W

olo
gy
.

50 W

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Figure 10-19 Sample cylinder for thermal modelling.

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10 / Thermal Management

Numerical example:

1. Top
2. Side
3. Bottom

kAk k=
matrix 1
2
3

k=

Radius

Height

Heat

area Ae

area Aa

r (m)

h (m)

dissip

(m)

(m)

qs (W)

1.00

50
0
100

(m )

0.20
0.80
0.60

0.30
0.90
0.30

3.14
6.28
3.14

1
2.20
0.00
0.00

2
0.00
1.26
0.00

3
0.00
0.00
2.20

View factors
F13 =
0.38
F31 =
0.38
F12 =
0.62
F21 =
0.31
F23 =
0.31
F32 =
0.62
F22 =
0.38
F11 =
0.00
F33 =
0.00

3.14
2.00
3.14

1.00
1.00

olo
gy
.

0.70
0.20
0.70

Absorb

hn

Internal External External

Emiss

ec

Cylinder characteristics

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fT

Between two plane, parallel, circular surfaces:


F13 = A1*/2*[2r2 + h2 - h*sqrt(4r2 + h2)]
Reciprocity rule: F31 = A1/A3*F13
Summation rule: F12 = 1 - F13
Reciprocity rule: F21 = A1/A2*F12
Symmetry rule: F23 = F21
Symmetry rule: F32 = F12
Summation rule: F22 = 1 - F21 - F23
Plane surface.
Plane surface.

Radiation coupling factors


j=

Fkj

k=

j=

matrix 1

0.00

0.62

0.38

2
3

0.31
0.38

0.38
0.62

0.31
0.00

kAk * 1
Fkj 2
matrix 3

k=

0.00

1.36

0.84

0.39
0.84

0.48
1.36

0.39
0.00

[....] i=
matrix 1
2
3

j=

1
1.00
-0.25
-0.11

2
-0.19
0.69
-0.19

3
-0.11
-0.25
1.00

[....]-1 i=
matrix 1
2
3

j=

1
1.11
0.47
0.22

2
0.35
1.69
0.35

3
0.22
0.47
1.11

j=

k=

i=

0.82

2.60

1.58

i=
i
matrix 1

0.70

0.00

0.00

Fkj* [...] 2
matrix 3

0.74

1.09

0.74

0.00

0.20

0.00

1.58

2.60

0.82

0.00

0.00

0.70

kAk *

-1

i=
Rki
matrix 1
2
3

346

k=

1
0.58
0.52
1.10

2
0.52
0.22
0.52

3
1.10
0.52
0.58

10 / Thermal Management

Temperatures

s (deg) =

45.00

R1w =

0.63

cos s =

0.71

T1w = 0.00

R2w =

5.03

sin s =

0.71

T2w = 342.60

1.88

S(W/m ) 1367.00

T3w = 478.36

olo
gy
.

R3w =

2 4

(W/m T ) 5.7E-08
1
2.25
-0.52
-1.10

2
-0.52
6.07
-0.52

[R.H.] i=
vector 1
2
3

j=

1
50.00
1722.09
1001.68

[R]-1 i=
matrix 1
2
3

3
-1.10
-0.52
3.51

T4
vector

Result
273.38

T2 =

279.99

T3 =

296.26

2
0.06
0.17
0.05

3
0.18
0.05
0.35

i=
1
2
3

316.70
348.45
436.77

Celsius
0.23
6.84

23.11

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T1 =

1
0.55
0.06
0.18

fT

Kelvin

j=

hn

j=

ec

i=
[R]
matrix 1
2
3

The above computation is worth reprogramming to study what happens to the three
temperatures when the boundary conditions change. In our example, the temperatures rise
only marginally if the heat dissipation from the two units is doubled (T1 = 10C, T2 = 8C,
T3 = 30C), whereas a doubling of the external on the bottom surface has a more
dramatic effect (T1 = 30C, T2 = 15C, T3 = 66C). The reader is invited to contemplate
why this is so.
Given the complexity of predicting the equilibrium temperatures of our simple cylinder,
modelling a more realistic satellite geometry is clearly beyond the possibilities of
analytical arithmetic, the more so if temperature gradients are to be included. A numerical
approach is therefore necessary, as described in Section 9.2.4.

10.4. Conduction

The thermal flow q through a flat, solid wall of thickness dx, area A and thermal
conductivity k is calculated from the equation

q = kA

T T2
dT
= kab 1
dx
c

(10.23)

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10 / Thermal Management

T2

olo
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.

T1
c
b

Figure 10-20 Conductive block.

q = 238 x 0.01 x 20/0.01 = 4760 W

fT

ec

hn

where dT is the temperature difference between the two wall surfaces. The negative sign
indicates that if dT/dx is positive i.e. the temperature increases from T1 to T2 then the
energy flows in the opposite direction (from warm to cold). The thermal conductivity k is
a material constant and can be found in standard look-up tables. For example, take a
satellite equipment wall made of aluminium, whose area A = 0.01 m2, thickness dx = 0.01
m and temperature difference dT = T1 T2 = 20 K. The thermal conductivity for
aluminium k = 238 W/m K. Then:

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Conversely, Eq 10.23 can be used to predict the temperature difference between the outer
and inner surface temperatures of a spacecraft wall if the energy influx is known, e.g.
from the sun.

We have seen earlier that the energy flow between two plane radiating surfaces is
proportional to T4, i.e. the temperature raised to the power of 4. Compare this equation
with Eq 10.23 for the conduction case, where the temperatures remain at the power of 1.
The comparison suggests that, for a given temperature difference, radiation has a much
greater effect than conduction on the energy flow and hence on the temperature
distribution within a satellite. Moreover, satellite and equipment walls tend to be thin
for weight-saving reasons, such that the temperature change from the outer to the inner
surface is of relatively minor importance in the overall thermal modelling.
The conductive energy flow for other geometrical shapes is shown in the following.

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10 / Thermal Management

Disc: radial

Disc: tangential
R2
R1

T2

T1
T2

ln

R2

R1

q = k

(T1 T2 )

(T1 T2 ) ln

Sphere: Equatorial

fT

Sphere: Meridional

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T1

T1

T2

q = k

R2
R1

hn

ec

q = k

T1

olo
gy
.

R2
R1

1
T2

d
(T T )
tan(0.5 2 )
1 2
ln
tan(0.51 )

q = k

tan(0.52 )

(T1 T2 ) ln
tan(0.51 )

Block: Varying width

T1

T2

q = k

2 d
(T1 T2 )
ln b
a

ba
= tan 1

2c

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10 / Thermal Management

T1

T2

r1
r2

T1 T2
ln r2
r1

hn

q = 2k L

olo
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.

Cylinder: Radial

fT

R12
C12

ec

To calculate the heat flow q across several connected bodies, it is possible to make
analogies with electrical resistance R as follows.

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where R12 = resistance between nodes 1 and 2


C12 = 1/R12 = conductance between nodes 1 and 2
q = -C12(T1 T2)

For example, for a flat plate, C12 = kab/c, according to Eq 10.23 above.

Series connection

R1
C1

R2
C2

R3
C3

1
1
1
1
=
+
+
C12 C1 C 2 C 3

R12 = R1 + R2 + R3;

Parallel connection

R1
C1
R2
C2

R3
C3

1
1
1
1
=
+
+
;
R12 R1 R2 R3

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10 / Thermal Management

In the electrical analogy, voltage is analogous to the temperature difference T1 - T2, while
current corresponds to thermal flow.

10.5. Hardware Implementation

olo
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.

In thermal modelling, this analogy is exploited by the so-called lumped parameter


method, whereby a complex body is divided up into a large number of elements, each
with its own geometry and conductance. The method bears some resemblance to the finite
element method described in Section 9.2.4 for structures, and offers similar advantages.

ec

hn

Thermal monitoring relies on thermistors mounted on critical units. In its most primitive
form, a thermistor is nothing but a temperature-sensitive electric resistor, whose ohmic
resistance is directly proportional to its temperature. The thermistor adopts the
temperature of its mounting surface. A current is fed through the thermistor, and the
voltage is telemetered to the ground via telemetry.

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fT

Thermal control comes in two parts: passive control and active control. Passive control is
achieved with the help of paints, anodizing surface treatments or internal convection,
while active control employs moving parts or electric heating. Passive control is usually
the preferred solution for reasons of weight, power consumption and reliability. However,
there are situations when analysis shows passive methods to be inadequate, giving rise to
the need for more drastic measures.

10.5.1. Passive Thermal Control

Recall from Section 10.3.1 that the equilibrium temperature of a body is determined by its
geometry as well as by its surface absorbivity and emissivity . Table 10-1 offered
some examples of surface treatments with varying / ratios, whereby low and high ratios
led to low and high equipment equilibrium temperatures, respectively.
In Section 10.3.2 we went further and studied the rate of temperature changes, which
depended on both the hot and cold equilibrium temperatures, and on the thermal inertia of
the chosen material.
Let us look at some practical examples. A satellite battery works best when kept within
the temperature range 5C to +30C, yet it may well exceed the upper limit during
charge and discharge. It is therefore customary to mount the battery on a cool surface,
such as one of the external panels of the spacecraft body. To expedite the dissipation of
thermal energy from the battery into space, it is desirable for the outside wall to have a
low / ratio. Table 10-1 suggests the use of mirrors in the form of optical solar
reflectors (OSR) or second surface mirrors (SSM), whose / 0.15.
Most of the other equipment onboard the satellite notably the electronics and the
propellants prefer to operate in room temperature. Much of the satellite body is
therefore covered with multilayer insulation (MLI) blankets (/ > 1) with their golden
appearance. Photographs of satellites often show blanket-covered satellites with cut-outs
for mirror surfaces. MLI blankets are also used for local thermal shielding. The blankets
consist of layers of aluminized Mylar or Kapton film. The layers are either separated
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10 / Thermal Management

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.

by a Dacron mesh to avoid conduction through contact, or else they are crinkled such
that contact only occurs sparingly. The outermost layer is coated with indium tin oxide
(ITO) to make it electrically conductive; this is to prevent electrostatic discharge and
associated EMI problems.
To avoid hot or cold spots inside the spacecraft, most electronic equipment has black
surfaces (high and ), since black facilitates the interchange of thermal energy. The rear
sides of solar panels are painted or treated with low / agents to keep the solar cells cool
for maximum efficiency.

MLI
White
paint

White
paint

fT

ec

MLI

hn

OSR

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Figure 10-21 Examples of MLI, OSR and white paint cover.

Black
paint

MLI

Black paint

Figure 10-22 Examples of MLI and black paint cover.

When using paints on surfaces exposed to sunlight, care must be taken to select products
that do not change colour over time, particularly under the influence of the suns
ultraviolet radiation. It is not uncommon for white surfaces on earth to turn yellow and
even brown. The same discoloration is even more likely to happen in space where the UV
radiation is unfiltered, causing an undesirable change in and .
Radio receivers onboard satellites must be kept at very low temperatures to prevent selfgenerated thermal noise from drowning out the weak incoming radio signal. Radio
transmitters, on the other hand, generate a considerable amount of heat and must be
installed away from the receivers. They are usually mounted inside an external wall
whose space-facing surface is covered with mirrors. Heat pipes (Figure 10-23) are
mobilized to spread concentrated equipment heat sources evenly across the inside of the
radiator to improve the dissipation efficiency.

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10 / Thermal Management

Condensate

Satellite
wall

olo
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.

Vapour

Heat source

Heat sink
Figure 10-23 Heat pipe.

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Heat pipes work on the same principle as convection refrigerators. A medium (e.g. water
or ammonia) is sealed inside a pipe and is kept near saturation pressure, allowing it to
evaporate as well as condense within the intended temperature range. The heat source
(e.g. a radio amplifier) is mounted at one end of the pipe and causes the medium to
evaporate. The evaporation process removes thermal energy from the amplifier, thereby
lowering its temperature. The internal vapour pressure forces the medium to travel to the
other end of the pipe which terminates in a space radiator and therefore constitutes a heat
sink. There the gas condenses into liquid form, giving off heat energy. Capillary action in
a wick or in grooves along the inside wall send the liquid back to the heat source end of
the tube, where it evaporates once more and so forth. The heat pipe is an excellent
dissipator of excess heat energy from inside the spacecraft to the outside. Figure 10-24
shows the range of temperatures that can be dissipated using different media.
Lithium
Sodium
Cesium
Mercury
Water
Ammonia
Methane
Nitrogen
Neon
Hydrogen
Helium

-600 -400 -200

200

400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600


Temperature (C)

Figure 10-24 Energy transport media and corresponding temperature ranges for heat pipes.

In practice, heat pipes are more often used to distribute heat from several dissipating units
across the inside of a radiator panel (Figure 10-25), thereby improving the amount of
thermal energy that can be dissipated per m2 of panel surrface. Sometimes, heat pipes also
connect opposing radiator panels so as to equalize their temperatures.

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10 / Thermal Management

ec

Figure 10-25 Interlinked heat pipes for spreading thermal energy.

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fT

Heat pipes are either surface mounted or embedded in the radiator panel. The left picture
in Figure 10-26 shows a heat-dissipating equipment mounted on a surface-mounted heat
pipe, while the right figure illustrates the embedded approach. Surface mounting is less
expensive in manufacturing and allows the routing of heat pipes to be changed in the
course of satellite integration. Embedded heatpipes offer a shorter heat conduction path
from the equipment to the radiator and is therefore more efficient.

Dissipating equipment

Dissipating equipment

Heat pipes

Honeycomb
panel

Heat radiation

Heat pipes
embedded in
honeycomb
panel

Heat radiation

Figure 10-26 Surface-mounted and embedded heat pipes.

Conduction is sometimes used to passively dissipate heat. The equipment to be cooled is


mounted on a spreader, also known as a doubler, which is typically a flat, bevelled
aluminimum plate (Figure 10-27) mounted on the inside of a radiator. With its wide
footprint, the spreader ensures improved redistribution and eventual dissipation of the
heat energy.

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.

10 / Thermal Management

hn

Figure 10-27 Equipment mounted on a thermal spreader.

10.5.2. Active Thermal Control

fT

ec

The most straightforward method of active heating is to attach small electric heaters to
relevant units, notably hydrazine tanks and pipes to prevent the propellant from freezing
solid. Adjacent radio amplifiers keep each other within acceptable operating temperatures
as long as they are all operating. But if one of the amplifiers is idle (e.g. because it is a
spare unit), it may be necessary to activate an electric substitution heater in its place.

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Active cooling devices include pumped-loop systems, cryogenic coolers and


thermoelectric coolers, although these are more common onboard large manned
spacecraft than on unmanned satellites.
Thermistor

Heater

Heater

Figure 10-28 Propellant tank equipped with thermistor and electric heaters.

Another method of active heating as well as cooling is to use louvres whose external or
differs from that of the cavity floor (Figure 10-29). The equipment to be temperature
controlled is attached to the underside of the cavity. The louvres are opened and closed
automatically either by a bimetal spring arrangement, or by a thermostat acting in a
feedback loop, to ensure that the correct equipment temperature is maintained at all times.
When used to regulate energy dissipation, the effective emissivity e = f(1, 2, ).
Louvres are then used on the shaded side of the satellite, since direct solar illumination
would make the thermal performance erratic due to partial shadowing inside the cavity.
Conversely, louvres may be used to regulate the amount of solar absorption. The main
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10 / Thermal Management

advantage of louvres over electric heaters is that they draw little or no current, but a price
must be paid in terms of added mass.

olo
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.

hn

Equipment

ec

Figure 10-29 Louvres for regulating thermal dissipation.

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fT

We mentioned in the beginning of this chapter that convection is rarely used in spacecraft
applications, with the exception of heat pipes. Convection is actually a powerful means of
heat removal on a large scale, and is therefore widely used onboard large structures such
as the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station. Energy from a heat-dissipating
unit is conferred to a liquid, which is subsequently pumped to a radiator, where it is
ejected into space. In the former Soviet Union, many communications satellites used a
similar technique. The dissipating unit was placed inside a gas-filled chamber. An electric
fan made the gas circulate past the unit and across a heat exchanger, from where the heat
was transported to a suitable space radiator. Spherical or cylindrical pressure vessels were
needed to contain the pressurized gas; hence the lumpy appearance of many Soviet
spacecraft.

10.5.3. Layout Summary

Figure 10-30 shows a cross-section of a typical geostationary satellite body with various
structural and thermal elements outlined.
OSR

Aluminium honeycomb

Spreader

Heat
pipe

CFRP

Black surfaces for


internal radiative
heat transfer

CFRP

White paint for


minimum
thermo-elastic
deformation

Heater

MLI

Aluminium honeycomb

OSR

Figure 10-30 Typical satellite cross-section.

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MLI

White paint for


minimum
thermo-elastic
deformation

10 / Thermal Management

10.6. Solved Problems


See Appendix C for solutions.

olo
gy
.

10.6.1 A cylindrical satellite with no internal heat dissipation has a radius r = 1 m and a
height h = 1 m. At the beginning of the mission it is orientated such that one end surface
faces the sun, while at the end of the mission the cylindrical wall faces the sun. All the
surfaces have an absorbivity coefficient = 0.6 and an emissivity coefficient = 0.4.
Calculate the satellites equilibrium temperature TBOL in sunlight at the beginning of life
and TEOL at the end of life. The solar power density S = 1367 W/m2, and the StefanBoltzmann constant = 5.67 10-8 W/m2K4.

hn

BOL:

ec

EOL:

fT

10.6.2 Returning to Problem 10.6.1, how much internal energy dissipation qs is required
at EOL to bring the satellites temperature up to +20C?

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10.6.3 A spherical satellite with radius r = 1 m, mass m = 100 kg and specific heat c =
900 J/kg K is launched into a noon-midnight orbit at 200 km altitude. The satellites
surface coefficients = 0.8 and = 0.3. A transmitter inside the satellite dissipates qs =
100 W. Calculate its temperature at each eclipse entry and exit during four successive
orbits. The initial temperature at the first eclipse entry T0 = 10C.

10.6.4 A satellite made of aluminium has reached a temperature T0 = 20C when it enters
the earths shadow. The eclipse duration te = 35 minutes. The satellite is a sphere with the
radius r = 50 cm, the mass m = 100 kg, and the emissivity = 0,3. Its only internal heat
source is a radio transmitter whose RF output power is 300 W, and whose efficiency =
66,7%. Calculate the satellites temperature when exiting the earths shadow.

10.6.5 The six sides of a hollow, rectangular box are sized and numbered as shown in the
figure. Find the view factor F15, i.e. from the bottom panel to the top. (Note: Panel 4 is at
the front; panel 6 is at the rear.)
6

b=3m

a=1m

c=6m

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11 / Launch Vehicle Selection

11. Launch Vehicle Selection

ec

hn

Payload
section

3rd stage

Oxidizer

2nd stage

Fuel

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The complexities of detailed launch vehicle


design do not fall within the scope of the
present book. However, the design of satellites
is intimately linked to that of launchers in
terms of physical compatibility and orbital
parameters, so it is worth spending a chapter on
the general layout and performance of launch
vehicles. In order for the satellite design work
to proceed smoothly, it is important that the
satellite manufacturer and his customer agree
at an early stage about the preferred vehicle
and one or maybe two back-ups. The
agreement will be based on the evaluation of
certain criteria which are explained in the
following.

Tandem
adapter &
heatshield

fT

Rockets seem to possess a romantic aura that


satellites lack, even though the satellite is the
sole reason for building and launching the
rocket in the first place. Several well-heeled
private individuals in the West have entered the
costly and risky business of building launch
vehicles, and few have succeeded. Most
successful launchers are designed and built by
large corporations with decades of experience
in missile technology.

olo
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.

11.1. Introduction

Strap-on
boosters

1st stage

Most expendable launch vehicles are


constructed along similar lines. The core
vehicle consists of 2 4 rocket stages. The first stage is always the most powerful to
overcome the earths gravity, and is frequently assisted by a set of 2 9 strap-on boosters.
These boosters are jettisoned after burnout while the first stage is still operating. The last
stage is the most efficient in terms of propellant consumption, so as to maximize the
kinetic energy of the orbit.
In line with this philosophy, the lower stages typically burn UDMH or kerosene because
of their high thrust yield. The thrust is 1.5 3 times the lift-off weight of the overall
vehicle. The upper stage is frequently designed around cryogenic H2 / O2, whose thrust is
insufficient to even lift the stage itself off the ground, but whose high Isp ( 450 s) ensures
adequate powered flight efficiency in weightlessness. The total propellant mass represents
around 80% of the launch vehicles lift-off mass.
Launcher people refer to the satellite as the launch vehicle's payload, since it is literally
the load that pays for the launch (not to be confused with the satellite's own payload). The
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11 / LaunchVehicle Selection

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.

payload is housed inside a protective heatshield, sometimes called a fairing or a shroud.


By injecting clean, dry and temperate air inside the heatshield, the satellite is maintained
in a clean-room environment up until launch. During the ascent, the shield protects the
satellite from damage due to excessive aerodynamic heating and dynamic pressure. It is
made up of two bullet-shaped half-shells which split open and separate from the rocket as
soon as the outside conditions permit, usually during the second stage burn.

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From the satellites point of view, one of the most important rocket elements is the
separation system (Figure 11-1). The system forms part of the interface adapter between
the vehicle and the satellite. The adapter consists of a hollow, truncated cone structure
with flanges at both ends. The bottom flange is bolted to the upper stage of the launch
vehicle, while the upper flange is mated to a similar flange on the satellite. These two
flanges are held together by means of a Marman clamp band. (In everyday plumbing, we
are familiar with Marman clamps as those metal screw collars that tighten a hose around a
pipe with the help of a screwdriver.) At the moment of satellite injection, the clamp band
is released by means of explosive bolts, and the satellite is pushed into space by
compressed springs.

Release

Satellite
flange

Interface
adapter

Clamp band

Launcher
flange

Figure 11-1 Conical interface adapter with Marman separation clamp.

The conical adapter also serves as a conduit for power and signal cables between the
rocket and the satellite. The signal cables carry telemetry and command signals necessary
to monitor the satellites health during launch, and to configure the satellite correctly.
A few large launch vehicles come equipped with tandem adapters (tandem meaning
one behind the other) or other adapter arrangements for accommodating several
satellites at once. The satellites are separated in a timed sequence to avoid collision.

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11 / Launch Vehicle Selection

11.2. Rocket Engine Architecture

Fuel

Turbine

olo
gy
.

Figure 11-2 shows the typical layout of a chemical bipropellant rocket engine.

Gas generator
Oxidizer

Pump

ec

Pump

hn

Igniter

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Nozzle

fT

Combustion chamber

Figure 11-2 Bipropellant rocket engine.

In the example shown, the primary elements are the two propellant tanks and the thruster.
One tank holds the fuel, the other contains the oxidizer. Pumps withdraw propellant from
the tanks and feed it under pressure to the combustion chamber. Before entering the
chamber, the propellant passes through injectors which diffuse the liquids to a fine mist.
If combustion occurs spontaneously, the propellant is said to be hypergolic. Nonhypergolic propellants have to be lit by an igniter.
The fuel and oxidizer pumps are driven by a turbine, which runs on the same propellant
as the rocket. Some engines have both pumps mounted on a common shaft which is either
coupled directly to the turbine drive shaft or connected via a gearbox. Other engines
employ independent pump drives for the fuel and the oxidizer. Combustion takes place in
a gas generator which is a miniature version of the main combustion chamber. A charge
of solid propellant inside the gas generator is ignited to start up the turbine.
Exhaust from the turbine is either released through a duct into the atmosphere (open
cycle) or fed to the thrust chamber where it participates in the main combustion (closed
cycle). Closed-cycle operation improves the efficiency of the engine but complicates the
design.
Whereas liquid-propellant engines can be stopped and re-started in flight, solid-propellant
motors burn continuously until all the propellant is consumed. The latter are used
primarily where a high thrust level and simplicity are more important factors than
operational flexibility, as in certain strap-on boosters.

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11 / LaunchVehicle Selection

11.3. Ascent and Injection

olo
gy
.

A typical launch vehicles journey from the launch pad to the point of satellite injection is
illustrated in Figure 11-3.
3rd stage burnout & satellite
injection into GTO.

4000 km

300 km
200 km
100 km
6000 km 0 km

hn

2000 km

0 km

ec

2nd stage
burnout
Heatshield
jettison
1st stage
burnout

Figure 11-3 Launch vehicle ascent trajectory.

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During the 1st stage burn, the launch vehicle rises vertically to pass through the dense
atmosphere as quickly as possible. Thereafter, the vehicle gradually pitches over to a
horizontal trajectory through a combination of active guidance and passive gravity turn.
The latter results naturally due to the earths gravitational pull. It is a trajectory
optimization method that uses gravity to steer the vehicle onto its desired trajectory with
minimal angle of attack, so as to conserve propellant and minimize aerodynamic stress on
the structure.
Figure 11-4 shows a typical acceleration profile experienced by the satellite during the
ascent.
6

Acceleration (g)

5
4

3
2
1

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Flight duration (sek)

Figure 11-4 Accelerations during ascent.

Given that rocket engines are designed for constant propellant mass expulsion, and hence
constant thrust, one would expect the acceleration to be constant as well according to
Newtons law F = ma. There are two reasons why the acceleration actually increases
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11 / Launch Vehicle Selection

F = Vedm/dt + Ae (pe pa)

olo
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.

during the burn of each stage. The main reason is that the rocket mass m decreases with
time as propellant is consumed, so if F is to remain constant, the acceleration must
increase. A secondary reason is that F is not truly constant despite the constant propellant
mass flow dm/dt. The equation for rocket engine thrust is:
(11.1)

where Ve is the velocity of propellant exhaust at the nozzle exit;

hn

Ae is the surface area of the nozzle exit;


pe is the combustion pressure at the nozzle exit; and
pa is the ambient pressure.

pa

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pe

fT

Ve

ec

Eq 11.1 states that the pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the nozzle
exit contributes to the thrust see Figure 11-5. Since the ambient pressure pa decreases
with altitude (i.e. the pressure differential increases), the thrust F experiences a
corresponding increase.

Figure 11-5 Engine exit velocity and pressure differential.

It also follows from the definition of specific impulse (Eq 6.1) that Isp improves with
altitude, since:
I sp =

F dt
g dm

(11.2)

For a large launch vehicle, the ascent from lift-off until satellite separation lasts anywhere
from 20 minutes to 9 hours, depending on whether the injection is direct, or the upper
stage performs multiple orbit tailoring manoeuvres to achieve a particular set of COE.
Injection of the satellite into earth orbit usually occurs within seconds or minutes after the
final burn of the upper stage. The relative separation velocity between the satellite and the
rocket is typically 0.5 m/s. Any force asymmetry between the separation springs will
cause the satellite to tumble randomly in orbit. This may be acceptable to some satellites
whose attitude control subsystems are designed for automatic attitude recovery. Other
satellites prefer a clearer definition of injection attitude by being temporarily spinstabilized. Certain launch vehicles therefore come equipped with a spin-up facility which
is activated after upper stage burnout but before satellite separation.

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11 / LaunchVehicle Selection

11.4. Choice of Launch Sites

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.

Satellite builders and operators do not have a choice of launch sites, because the site is
predefined by the chosen launch service. The present Section therefore deals with how the
launch sites were chosen by the launch service providers.
Figure 11-6 shows the locations of major launch sites in the world. Some of the most
active sites are Cape Canaveral and Vandenberg in the USA, Kourou in French Guiana,
Baikonur in Kazakhstan, and Plesetsk in Russia.

hn

Plesetsk

Svobodny

Kourou

Baikonur

Xichang

Sriharikota

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Sea Launch

Cape
Canaveral

fT

Vandenberg

ec

Jiuquan Taiyuan Tanegashima

Figure 11-6 Geographical locations of major launch sites.

The sites have been chosen on the basis of several criteria, notably:
a) Proximity to the equator in order to achieve full orbital inclination flexibility, and
to take maximum advantage of the earths eastward surface velocity.
b) Absence of populated areas down-range from the launch site, for safety reasons.
c) Political stability and autonomy to mitigate the consequences of popular unrest or
injunctions by foreign jurisdictions.
d) A stable physical environment devoid of earthquakes, hurricanes, flooding, etc.

These criteria can seldom be met in their entirety. For example, Cape Canaveral may be
situated in the southernmost corner of the USA, but at latitude 28.5N it is still a long way
from the equator. Vandenberg is further north still, which is one of the reasons why that
site is used exclusively for high-inclination launches. A similar situation exists in Russia
in regard to Baikonur and Plesetsk. Baikonur has the added disadvantage of being located
in another country, and rockets launched from either site overfly (sparsely) populated
areas. Only Kourou satisfies all the criteria (a) through (d), recalling that politically and
economically, French Guiana forms an integral part of France.

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Other solutions have been contemplated to satisfy all four criteria. For example, Sea
Launch has succeeded by launching from a converted oil platform in the middle of the
Pacific Ocean.

olo
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Let us examine criterion (a) more closely. Looking at Figure 11-7, it is evident that the
inclination of the satellite orbit can never be lower than the latitude of the site from which
the launch takes place at least not without the rocket or the satellite performing complex
and propellant-consuming dog-leg manoeuvres (see Section 5.4.5.1).

ec

hn

For example, the minimum achievable inclination following a direct easterly injection
from Cape Canaveral is 28.5. GEO satellites launched on Atlas or Delta vehicles must
therefore use their apogee engines to not only circularize the GTO, but also remove a
substantial inclination. The latter manoeuvre costs propellant which could otherwise have
been better used to extend the satellites lifetime, or else be traded for a higher dry mass.
A launch by Ariane from Kourou or by Sea Launch from their equatorial ocean platform
avoids this problem.

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fT

i3 = i2

i1

180-i3

180-i1

180-i2

Figure 11-7 Orbital inclination i as a function of launch site latitude


in the case of a direct launch injection.

In practice, population clusters down-range prevent most launch sites from exploiting the
full range of direct injection inclination possibilities. For example, Kourou is restricted to
an inclination interval of 5.2 100.5 degrees. The corresponding sector for Cape
Canaveral is 29 57 degrees, and for Vandenberg it is 56 104 degrees (Figure 11-8).

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11 / LaunchVehicle Selection

57
100.5 90

5.2

39

104

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28.5

56

90

Cape Canaveral

Vandenberg

hn

Kourou

Figure 11-8 Allowable launch sectors and their corresponding orbital inclination limits.

ec

11.5. Launch Vehicle Profiles

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fT

Launch vehicles come in every size and shape, ranging from modified ICBMs and
winged cruise missiles to eardrum-shattering ballistic behemoths. Some are
manufactured in small numbers, while others are mass-produced in modular
configurations to best suit each particular satellite customer. The following inventory is
not exhaustive, but has been selected to illustrate the multitude of existing design
concepts, some of which are more imaginative than others. The profiles highlight vehicles
available on the commercial market.
The lift-off mass (in metric tons) is given for each vehicle to offer an impression of its
size. The inventory is limited to vehicles that are fully operational at the time of writing.
Half a dozen others are still in development; the most promising of these are included in
the performance tables in Figure 11-12.
More detailed launch vehicle and launch site information can be found via the Internet
links contained in Annex F.
11.5.1. Small Vehicles

Launch vehicles designed to lift satellites weighing less than 2,500 kg to LEO are
classified as small. Several of these are former ICBMs, which have been converted to
space launchers as part of arms limitation treaties.
During the 1990s, when half a dozen satellite constellations were being planned to serve
the mobile communications market from LEO, business analysts foresaw a bright future
for small vehicles. Meanwhile, most of these constellations are either faltering or have
disappeared altogether. Those that entered service (notably Iridium and Globalstar) were
usually clustered onboard medium-sized launch vehicles, leaving the multitude of small
launchers to compete for less lucrative payloads.
Cosmos 65M (Ukraine): This two-stage Ukrainian vehicle, also known as Cosmos 3M,
dates back to 1967. The second stage is restartable and steerable for improved orbital

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targetting. Both stages are propelled by UDMH in combination with nitric acid. Lift-off
mass: 109 tons.

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Pegasus XL (USA): Pegasus is one of the few purpose-built space launchers in the small
vehicle class, most of the others having military missile origins. It is also the only winged
vehicle. It is attached to the belly of a modified passenger jet and is lifted up to cruising
altitude before being jettisoned and ignited. The three rocket stages use solid propellants.
Mass at ignition: 24 tons.

Rockot (Russia): A three-stage vehicle derived from the ICBM code-named SS-19 in the
West. All three stages use UDMH for fuel and N2O4 for oxidizer. Lift-off mass: 107 tons.

ec

hn

Start-1 (Russia): This modified ICBM (SL-19) with its 4 solid-propellant stages offers a
real fireworks display when launched from its transporter on wheels. Lift-off mass: 47
tons.

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fT

Vega (Europe): Together with Ariane 5 and Soyuz, the new 4-stage Vega vehicle
completes Europe's family of launchers for satellites weighing 1 - 10 tons at lift-off from
Kourou. Vega typically launches satellites weighing 1.5 tons to a 700 km orbit. The first
three stages employ solid propellant. The 4th stage uses liquid propellant and is
restartable, so that multiple satellites can be jettisoned into different orbits. Lift-off mass:
137 tons.
11.5.2. Medium Vehicles

Mid-sized vehicles are those with a lift capacity between 2,500 kg and 10,000 kg to LEO.
They are also capable of placing GEO satellites weighing less than 4,000 kg in GTO.
Antares (USA): Launched from Wallops Island on the U.S. East Coast, this new vehicle
is highly modular, featuring a liquid propellant first stage, a choice of various solidpropellant second stages, and an optional bi-propellant third stage. It is capable of
launching satellites weighing around 5,000 kg into LEO or 1,800 kg into GTO, depending
on the chosen stage mix. Lift-off mass: 240 tons.
Delta II 7900 series (USA): Like the Atlas vehicle, the Delta II has been a workhorse
in the U.S. launcher stable for many years and has undergone many modifications. It is
unclear whether production of this vehicle will continue. The 7900 series has three core
stages and up to 9 strap-on boosters, 6 of which are fired and jettisoned before the
remaining three. The first stage operates on a kerosene / liquid O2 mix, while the second
stage uses Aerozine-50 in conjunction with N2O4. The third stage as well as the boosters
burn solid propellants. Lift-off mass with 9 boosters: 232 tons.
Dnepr (Russia): This is yet another Russian former ICBM (SS-18) which has been
converted to a civilian space launcher. The three rocket stages use UDMH / N2O4. Lift-off
mass: 268 tons.
Soyuz ST (Russia): The history of the Soyuz vehicle goes back to the legendary ICBM
called R7 Semyorka, which launched Sputnik in 1957. Since then, approximately 1700
Soyuz rockets have been launched in a multitude of configurations, albeit not without
accidents. The vehicle remains Russias workhorse for transporting cosmonauts and

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provisions to the International Space Station. A Russian-French company called Starsem


markets it commercially in the West. The two core stages as well as the four strap-on
boosters use kerosene in combination with liquid O2. Lift-off mass: 310 tons. The
European equatorial launch site at Kourou has been prepared for launching an almost
identical version of Soyuz, thereby enhancing its payload performance significantly
compared to a Baikonur or Plesetsk launch.

hn

Tsiklon-4 (Ukraine): The maiden flight of this modernized version of the earlier
successful Tsiklon series of vehicles is planned for 2015 from the Alcantara launch site in
Northern Brazil, taking advantage of the site's proximity to the equator. Launches are also
planned from Baikonur and Plesetsk. All three stages use UDMH / N2O4. The vehicle is
capable of carrying satellites weighing 5,500 kg to a 500 km LEO and 1,700 kg to GTO.
Lift-off mass: 193 tons.

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11.5.3. Heavy Vehicles

fT

Heavy vehicles are capable of injecting satellites weighing more than 10,000 kg into
LEO, or more than 4,000 kg into GTO.

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Angara-A3, A5 (Russia): A highly modular design that has been under development for
many years and has yet to fly. It is intended as a future replacement for several existing
vehicles, notably Cosmos-3M, Rockot, Zenith and Proton.
Ariane 5 (Europe): In 2003, the last of the world-leading Ariane 4 vehicles was
launched, following a policy decision in Europe to henceforth rely entirely on the more
powerful Ariane 5. This drastic departure from the proven to the unproven is reminiscent
of NASAs premature decision in the mid-1980s to forgo the highly reliable Atlas and
Delta vehicles in favour of the Space Shuttle. Ariane 5 is a two-stage vehicle flanked by
two solid-propellant strap-on boosters. The first core stage uses cryogenic H2 / O2, while
the second stage employs MMH together with N2O4. Lift-off mass: 746 tons.
Atlas V-500 series (USA): Version 551 is the most powerful of the new Atlas V-500
series vehicles and features 5 solid-propellant strap-on boosters. The first digit shows the
diameter of the fairing in meters; the second digit indicates the number of boosters; and
the third digit is the number of engines of the Centaur upper stage. The core vehicle
consists of two stages, the first of which is propelled by a Russian kerosene / O2 engine.
The second stage (Centaur) uses cryogenic H2 / O2. Lift-off mass of Version 551: 547
tons.
Delta IV Heavy (USA): The development of Boeings Delta IV series has run in parallel
with that of Lockheed Martins Atlas V, and has been the latters most important
competitor for US Government launch business. Paradoxically, or perhaps naturally, the
two manufacturers have joined forces to form United Launch Alliance. Delta IV Heavy is
the most powerful version of the Delta IV series. The vehicle features two core stages and
two strap-on boosters, all of which use cryogenic H2 / O2. Lift-off mass: 733 tons.
Falcon 9 (USA): If this new, two-stage, privately financed vehicle meets its stated
performance, reliability and price targets, it is likely to revolutionize the commercial
launcher market, mainly because its stated price is at least 30 percent below that of its
closest competitors. The economies are achieved, in part, by performing the design,

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.

development and manufacturing in-house at SpaceX, rather than farming it out to dozens
of subcontractors. The first stage is made up of a cluster of Merlin engines, while the
upper stage uses a single engine of the same type. All the engines use kerosene and liquid
oxygen. Lift-off mass: 333 tons (version v1.0) or 505 tons (v1.1). Version v1.1 is for
launching satellites into GTO and is designed to allow soft ocean landing of the first stage
for recovery and re-use.
Land Launch (Russia): This vehicle is a land-based version of Sea Launch (see below)
and is launched from Baikonur.

hn

Long March 3B (China): This member the extended Long March family takes its first
two UDMH / N2O4 stages from the earlier Long March 2C vehicle, and comes with an
added hi-tech cryogenic H2 / O2 third stage. Lift-off mass: 204 tons.

fT

ec

Proton (Russia): The four-stage Proton is the only operational launch vehicle that
routinely takes payloads (< 3 tons) directly into GEO, thereby obviating the need for the
satellites to carry apogee engines. The two and three stage versions are also used for
lifting heavy space station elements into LEO. The vehicle exists in two basic versions
Proton K with a Block DM fourth stage and the more powerful Proton M with a Breeze
fourth stage. All four rocket stages use a combination of UDMH and N2O4. Lift-off mass:
713 tons.

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Zenit 2 (Ukraine): This two-stage launch vehicle was the first attempt by the USSR to
develop a dedicated space launcher, in contrast to the ICBM heritage of the other rockets
in the countrys stable. In the event, the Zenit development became long and difficult, and
matters were not helped by the slow disintegration of the USSR itself. Finally, in 1985,
the maiden flight took place from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. The Zenith vehicle
constitutes the core of Sea Launch and Land Launch. Both rocket stages use kerosene /
liquid O2. Lift-off mass: 459 tons.
Sea Launch (Misc.): During the 1980s, several launch service providers came up with
creative solutions to finding launch sites near the equator. One of these consisted of a
modified supertanker that would serve as both rocket transporter and equatorial launch
pad. Sea Launch is an evolution of that idea, and a model of international cooperation.
The Ukraine provides the two core stages of the Zenit 2 launcher, Russia adds the Block
DM third stage, and Norway has supplied the launch pad (a self-propelled, converted oil
exploration platform) as well as the command vessel. A launch campaign begins at the
Sea Launch home port in San Diego, where the satellite is fuelled and integrated with the
launch vehicle onboard the command ship. The assembly is stored horizontally in a
hangar onboard the platform which travels to a point on the equator in the Pacific Ocean.
Upon arrival, the rocket is erected, fuelled and launched. All three rocket stages operate
on a kerosene / liquid O2 combination. Lift-off mass: 471 tons.

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11 / LaunchVehicle Selection

Figure 11-9 Sea Launch being readied for launch from its floating platform.

Historical note: The launch of the last American Space Shuttle took place in 2011. During
the heyday of the space race between the superpowers, the USSR decided to compete with
the USA by building its own space shuttle. The Soviet
version was called Buran and flew only once,
unmanned, by remote control. It was subsequently
mothballed for cost reasons as the Soviet Union
disintegrated in 1991. The stored orbiter was finally
destroyed in 2002 when the hangar that housed it in
Baikonur collapsed.

Though the Buran orbiter was almost identical to that


of the Space Shuttle, the two launch systems featured
some conceptual differences. While the American
designers chose to install the main engines in the
orbiter, the Russians opted to mount them at the
bottom of the external tank. In fact, that tank with its
integral engines constituted the immensely powerful
Energia launch vehicle.

Space Shuttle and Buran.

The advantage of the Soviet solution was that Energia


could be used independently as a heavy launch vehicle, for which Buran was only one of
many possible payloads. The disadvantage was that the very costly engines could not be
recovered after launch. By contrast, the American approach allowed the engines to be reused during follow-on missions, but the Space Shuttle configuration lacked the versatility of
the Buran/Energia combination.

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11 / Launch Vehicle Selection

11.6. Launch Vehicle Performance


11.6.1. Overview

olo
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The choice of launch vehicle is of course a major preoccupation among satellite builders,
since the spacecraft design has to fit the rocket in terms of physical accommodation,
launch environment and orbital performance, not to mention the budget.

ec

hn

A launch vehicles performance is measured by how big a satellite (in terms of mass and
volume) it is able to lift into a given orbit. The performance depends on a number of
parameters, notably the propulsive power of the rocket engines, the rockets lift-off mass,
the number of stages, the chosen orbital parameters, and the latitude of the launch site.
We will quantify these parameters in the following, but let us first take an overview of the
key performance parameters of all major launch vehicles currently in operation or in the
final stages of development.

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Most launch service providers publish the performance parameters in user manuals which
are readily available on their Internet sites (see Appendix F). The format of their
performance diagrams varies but, one way or another, they convey the information
illustrated in Figure 11-10. The family of curves indicates the perigee altitude in
ascending order, as per the arrow. The higher the desired perigee, the more effort is
demanded of the launcher, and a price must be paid by lowering the admissible satellite
payload mass. The same argument applies to the apogee altitude. Not shown in Figure
11-10 is the performance loss if the rocket is also required to perform a dog-leg
manoeuvre to alter the orbital inclination (e.g. to go from an inclined GTO to a GEO with
zero inclination). In fact, most launch service providers break down their performance
diagrams into several sub-diagrams: one each for LEO, SSO, GTO, HEO, another for
deep space trajectories, and yet another for direct injection into GEO, with altitude and
inclination shown as independent parameters.
Payload mass (kg)

Perigee altitude (km)

Circular
orbit

Standard GTO

Apogee altitude (km)

Figure 11-10 Typical launch vehicle performance diagram.

Providers of launch services to GTO often present payload lift capacities using a perigee
in the 200 400 km range and the apogee at GEO altitude, with i = as before. These
may be the optimum conditions for the launch vehicles performance, but not for the
satellite, which must perform the necessary dog-leg manoeuvre from i = to i = 0 deg
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11 / LaunchVehicle Selection

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.

either on its own or with the help of the rocket. In the first scenario, the extra apogee
engine propellant to be carried for the purpose raises the satellites lift-off mass,
necessitating a corresponding reduction in its useful mass. In the second scenario, the
rocket must carry the extra propellant, and its payload lift capacity is reduced
accordingly.

fT

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hn

Figure 11-12 summarizes the payload lift performance of all GTO and direct-to-GEO
launchers available today or in the near future. To make their GTO performance data
comparable from the satellite builders viewpoint, the performance has been normalized
to the V = 1500 m/s point. This happens to be the V required of an apogee engine to
eliminate the satellites inclination of 6 deg and to circularize the orbit when launched by
Ariane 5. Clearly, if a satellite is to be compatible with several launch vehicles, and if one
of these is Ariane 5, then it will want to use the same apogee engine on all of them.
Therefore, the satellite owner is likely to request those other launchers to achieve the V
= 1500 m/s point before ejecting the satellite into GTO. This they can usually do, but
since their launch site latitudes and hence their favoured GTO inclination is nearly
always higher than 6 deg, they will have to perform a dog-leg manoeuvre to reach the V
= 1500 m/s point for the satellite, losing lift performance in the process. This is why the
actual payload lift capacity may be lower than reported in their user manuals, and it is this
normalized value that is shown in Figure 11-12.

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Obviously, other V points may be more optimal for satellites whose inventory of
compatible GTO launchers does not include Ariane 5. In fact, since the achievable V is a
function of the mass carried, according to Eq 6.3, it can be shown that less propellant is
needed for the satellite to perform the dog-leg manoeuvre on its own, rather than having
the rockets upper stage do it. This is so because the apogee engine only has to carry the
satellites mass, whereas the upper stage must carry both the satellite and its own mass.
Available volume under the heatshield is another important parameter to be considered
when selecting a launch vehicle. Many vehicles come with a choice of heatshield lengths
and diameters. The satellite must fit within the usable volume (dotted contour in Figure
11-11). The margin between the physical and usable volumes allows the satellite and the
heatshield to flex under the influence of launch vibrations. Launch service user manuals
contain detailed drawings of applicable heatshields and the usable volumes

Figure 11-11 Usable volume within a heatshield.

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11 / Launch Vehicle Selection

Atlas V 551
Atlas V 541
Atlas V 531

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Atlas V 521
Atlas V 511
Atlas V 501
Atlas V 431
Atlas V 421
Delta IV Medium (5,4)

Atlas V 411

Delta IV Medium (5,2)

Atlas V 401

Delta IV Medium (4,2)

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

hn

Payload mass (kg) to V=1500 m/s point

Delta IV Medium
Delta IV Heavy
Delta II 7925
Delta II 7920

ec

Proton-M; KVRB

Delta II 7420

Proton-M; Breeze M

Delta II 7320

Angara A5; KVRB

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000
12,000
Angara A5; Breeze-M

Payload mass (kg) to V=1500 m/s point

fT

Angara A3; Breeze-M

Soyuz ST; Fregat

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Kourou launch

Soyuz ST; Fregat

1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000

Payload mass (kg) to V=1500 m/s point

Baikonur launch

Land Launch 3SLB

Falcon 9 S9

Sea Launch 3SL

Falcon 9 S5

Ariane 5; EPS-V

Falcon 9

Ariane 5; ECA

Falcon 5

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

Payload mass (kg) to V=1500 m/s point

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

Payload m ass (kg) to V=1500 m /s point

PSLV

Long March CZ-3C


Long March CZ-3B
Long March CZ-3A

Long March CZ-3


H-II A202

GSLV Mk III

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

Payload mass (kg) to V=1500 m/s point

Figure 11-12 Lift capacity of heavy launch vehicles to GTO (lower bar)
and directly to GEO (upper bar).

11.6.2. GTO or Direct Injection into GEO

Proton is capable of injecting satellites directly into GEO. As indicated in Figure 11-12,
several other launch vehicles offer the same capability, at least in their user manuals. In
theory, this is a great service, because the satellite can dispense with the mass, cost and

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11 / LaunchVehicle Selection

risk associated with apogee engines. However, there are three disadvantages with direct
injection:

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Without an apogee engine, the satellite cannot fly on other launch vehicles that do not
provide direct injection capability, thereby depriving itself of some back-up launchers. It
is true that Atlas V, Delta IV, Sea Launch and Long March CZ-3B also offer direct
injection, but they have little or no track record in doing so. Soyuz and Land Launch also
purport to offer direct injection, but these vehicles have neither the lift capability nor the
track record expected by Proton-class satellites (i.e. 2000 kg and above). As for Angara,
the development has been very slow, and it remains to be seen when it becomes
operational.

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hn

As mentioned earlier, it is less efficient to have the rockets upper stage perform the
necessary dog-leg manoeuvre than using the apogee engine. The attendant loss of launch
vehicle performance limits the satellites useful mass rather severely, even if the apogee
engine has been removed.

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For a given satellite design, flying with an apogee engine on one rocket and removing the
engine when using a different rocket is far from trivial. The tanks and the plumbing must
be removed or re-installed. The volume that is freed up after the tanks are removed is
probably wasted, because it is difficult to mount equipment on the cylindrical walls of the
central tube (Figure 9-2). The OBDH computer must be reprogrammed to account for the
altered dynamic behaviour of the satellite due to the changed mass distribution. Lastly,
the satellite will have been qualification-tested (Chapter 14) based on a certain mass
distribution. If the distribution changes dramatically due to the presence or absence of the
apogee engine, the satellite will need to be re-qualified a very expensive and timeconsuming proposition.
For these reasons, the choice between GTO and direct-to-GEO injection requires careful
analysis at the earliest design stages of a geostationary satellite.
11.6.3. Computation of Performance

To understand how launch vehicle manufacturers arrive at the above performance curves,
let us analyze the velocities involved (Figure 11-13).

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11 / Launch Vehicle Selection


Vkin

Az
v (North)

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v
Vpot
Vearth

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Figure 11-13 Definition of ascent velocity components


in a topocentric uvw coordinate system centered on the launch site.

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Before going into detail, we notice immediately that the following vector addition
applies:
Vearth + V = Vpot + Vkin

or:

V = Vpot + Vkin -Vearth

(11.3)

Here, V is the total velocity increase that the launch vehicle has to produce from lift-off
until burnout of the last stage. It remains to define the three vector components Vpot , Vkin
and Vearth.
The launch vehicle has to perform two separate tasks: overcome earths gravity, and
acquire the requisite orbital velocity. The first task amounts to building up potential
energy, while the second task involves acquisition of kinetic energy.
From classical mechanics we have the expression for potential energy:
Epot = mgh

(11.4)

where m is the mass of the object, g is the gravitational acceleration, and h is the height
above the earths surface. In our case the matter is complicated by the fact that the height
is so substantial that the decrease of g must be taken into account. According to Eq 2.16:
E pot = mg (r )r =

and therefore: g (r ) =

r2

m
r

(11.5)

(11.6)

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11 / LaunchVehicle Selection
where is the earths gravitational parameter = 398,601 km3/s2, and r is the radial
distance from the earths centre.

mV pot

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A rocket may gain potential energy by lifting itself against gravity to a height h. To do so,
it must generate kinetic energy, which is converted to potential energy. The launch
vehicle therefore has to produce enough kinetic energy to bridge the gap in potential
energy between the earths surface (r = R) and the orbital height (r = R + h):

m
m

R R+h

2h
R ( R + h)

(11.7)

ec

V pot =

hn

or:

2h
w
R ( R + h)

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Vpot =

fT

Since the force of gravity acts solely along the w-axis, we may write the velocity as a
vector:

or:

Vpot

0
= V pot 0
1

(11.8)

with w being the unit vector towards zenith, as per Figure 11-13.
Having built up the potential energy necessary to overcome earths gravity, the launch
vehicle must now acquire kinetic energy to maintain an orbit:
Ekin = mVkin2

(11.9)

According to Eq 2.13:

1
2 1
2
Vkin = =

r a
R+h a

(11.10)

with h and the semimajor axis a being elements of the specified orbit. In order for us to
write Vkin in vector form, the mission analysts also have to specify the orbital inclination i
and the flight path angle at the burnout point. The inclination gives us the azimuth Az
(Figure 11-14) of Vkin from the cosine law of spherical triangles:

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11 / Launch Vehicle Selection

Launch

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.

Az
site

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Figure 11-14 Relationship between launch azimuth Az and inclination i.

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cos i
Az = sin 1

cos

fT

cos i = -cos 90 cos Az + sin 90 sin Az cos

(11.11)

where is the latitude of the launch site. Note that Az = 0 deg when injecting the satellite
into a polar orbit (since i = 90), and Az = 90 deg when injecting straight East (since i =
according to Section 11.4 and Figure 11-7). Eq 11.11 applies to a scenario where the
launch site is near the ascending node, as shown in Figure 11-14. If the launch site is near
the descending node, Eq 11.11 is modified as follow:
cos i
Az = 180 sin 1

cos

(11.12)

If also the flight path angle is specified, we may now express Vkin as a vector (Figure
11-13):
sin sin Az
Vkin = Vkin sin cos Az
cos

(11.13)

The Vkin vector is the same as the satellite injection vector. The flight path angle is
defined in Section 2.3.4.3 as the angle between V and the radius vector r. Thus, = 90
on injection at perigee or into a circular orbit.
It remains to determine the eastward velocity contribution Vearth from the earths rotation.
Knowing that the earths angular velocity is 360 in 23 hr 56 min 4 s, or 2/86164
rad/s, we have:

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11 / LaunchVehicle Selection

olo
gy
.

hn

2 6371
cos = 0.464 cos (km/s)
86164

1
Vearth = Vearth 0
0

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In vector form:

(11.14)

fT

Vearth = = R cos =

ec

Figure 11-15 Computing the earths eastward surface rotation velocity.

(11.15)

Returning to Eq 11.3, we arrive at a complete vector equation for V:

Vkin sin sin Az Vearth Vu

V = Vkin sin cos Az = Vv


Vkin cos + V pot
Vw

and

V = Vu + Vv + Vw

(11.16)

To this V it is necessary to add a Vloss to account for various losses during the ascent.
These losses are due to atmospheric drag, and to a less than optimum ascent trajectory as
the guidance system makes corrections en route. The atmospheric backpressure into the
engine nozzle (Eq 11.1) also contributes to the losses. Hence:
2

Vtot = Vu + Vv + Vw + Vloss

(11.17)

where Vloss typically amounts to 0.7 1.5 km/s.

As we shall see in the following, Vtot is the guiding light for the design of launch
vehicles, and in particular for the dimensioning of their individual rocket stages.

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11 / Launch Vehicle Selection

olo
gy
.

Numerical examples: What V does a launch vehicle have to generate when launching
from Cape Canaveral ( = 28.5) and injecting a satellite in a 185 km circular orbit at an
inclination i = = 28.5?
km/s
6371

Vpot =

1.879

(km /s )=

398601

Vkin =

7.797

Ap (km) =
Pe (km) =

185
185

Vearth =

0.408

ra (km) =

6556

Vu =

rp (km) =

6556

Vv =

a (km) =
i (deg) =

6556
28.5

Vw =

hn

R (km) =

(deg) =
(deg) =

28.5
90

Vloss =

Az (deg) =

90

7.389

0.000

1.879

ec

fT

Vtot =

1.500
9.124

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The answer is Vtot = 9.124 km/s, assuming a Vloss = 1.5 km/s. Note that the flight path
angle = 90 and the launch azimuth Az = 90, as one would expect when injecting straight
eastward into a circular orbit.
What would happen to Vtot if instead we launched into a polar orbit (i = 90)? In this
scenario, the launch vehicle no longer receives the benefit of the earths eastward velocity
component Vearth, so we should expect Vtot to increase.

R (km) =

km/s

6371

Vpot =

1.879

(km /s )=

398601

Vkin =

7.797

Ap (km) =
Pe (km) =

185
185

Vearth =

0.408

ra (km) =

6556

Vu =

-0.408

rp (km) =

6556

Vv =

7.797

a (km) =
i (deg) =

6556
90

Vw =

1.879

(deg) =
(deg) =

28.5
90

Vloss =

1.500

Az (deg) =

Vtot =

9.531

And that is precisely what happens. Note also that the launch azimuth has gone to zero,
since we are launching straight north.

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11 / LaunchVehicle Selection

11.7. Designing a Launch Vehicle


11.7.1. Vehicles Without Strap-On Boosters

olo
gy
.

Let us say that NASA or ESA has issued a request for proposals (RFP) to several
competing launch vehicle manufacturers. The RFP specifies a vehicle that can lift a
satellite weighing 2000 kg to a 185 km circular orbit with an inclination of 28.5. The
manufacturer who offers the best product for the best price will win the contract.

ec

hn

We are one of those competing manufacturers. In Section 11.6 we established that the
rocket has to produce a total V of 9.124 km/s for the satellite to reach the specified orbit.
To make our proposal as cost-effective as possible, we decide to procure existing, off-theshelf rocket motors rather than developing our own designs. The question is therefore
what motors are available on the open market, and how should we stack them to create an
optimized multi-stage design.

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g Isp

m = m0 1 e

fT

Maybe the very first question we should ask ourselves is whether the rocket can be built
as a single stage. Eq 5.43 gave us the propellant mass m as a function of lift-off mass m0
and V:
(11.18)

A tried and tested chemical bipropellant such as UDMH + N2O4 might produce an Isp of
300 s. Eq 11.18 gives us, for a single-stage vehicle:
m/m0 = 0.956

which means that 95.6% of the lift-off mass would have to consist of propellant. But
recall from Section 11.1 above that a more realistic ratio would be 80%, and that figure
does not even include the mass of the satellite payload. Consequently, a single stage is not
feasible in our case.
Accepting that we will need to build a multistage vehicle, we begin by re-arranging Eq
11.18 as follows:

m
m0
= g I sp ln before
V = g I sp ln
mafter
m0 m

(11.19)

Eq 11.19 states that V is a function of the mass of the rocket before ignition and after
burnout. We also know that, in our case Vtotal = V1 + V2 + ... + Vn = 9.124 km/s

(11.20)

where V1 is the velocity increment contributed by the first stage, etc. The rocket motor
manufacturers we contact will declare the gross mass m0 of their stage, along with the Isp,
the amount of propellant m it can carry, and the burn time t (we will use t later).

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11 / Launch Vehicle Selection


Armed with this information, we may use Eq 11.19 to calculate V for that stage. The
challenge is therefore to find a set of motors that satisfy Eq 11.20.

olo
gy
.

Let us now make another working assumption, namely that our launch vehicle requires
three stages. If the first stage has the lift-off mass m1 and carries an amount m1 of
propellant, then:

m1 + m2 + m3 + m sat

V1 = g I sp1 ln
m
+
m
+
m
+
m

m
2
3
sat
1
1

(11.21)

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m3 + msat

V3 = g I sp 3 ln
m3 + m sat m3

(11.22)

ec

Similarly, for the third stage:

fT

m2 + m3 + m sat
V2 = g I sp 2 ln
m2 + m3 + msat m2

hn

since the propellant of the first stage is needed to lift not only the first stage, but all three
stages plus the satellite. After the first stage has burnt out and been jettisoned, we find for
the second stage:

(11.23)

A survey of rocket motors has yielded the following shortlist:

Stage No.
1
2
3

Make

Propellant

Castor 120 Solid


ESBM
Solid
OAM Hydrazine

Stage
gross
mass (kg)
53,000
11,000
700

Stage
propellant
mass (kg)
48,800
10,000
340

Isp (s)

Burn
time (s)

270
290
400

80
150
1,500

Table 11-1 Shortlist of rocket motors for a three-stage launch vehicle.

Let the Castor 120 be the first stage, the ESBM the 2nd stage and the OAM the 3rd stage.
From Eq 11.21 11.23:
53,000 + 11,000 + 700 + 2,000

V1 = 9.81 270 ln
= 3,484 m/s
53,000 + 11,000 + 700 + 2,000 48,800
11,000 + 700 + 2,000

V2 = 9.81 290 ln
= 3,724 m/s
11,000 + 700 + 2,000 10,000

700 + 2,000
V3 = 9.81 400 ln
= 528 m/s
700 + 2,000 340

and consequently Vtot = V1 + V2 + V3 = 7,736 m/s. But the requirement was Vtot =
9,124 m/s, so we are obviously on the wrong track. Or are we? What if we were to add
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11 / LaunchVehicle Selection

another Castor 120 and make it the first stage in a 4-stage configuration? Then Eq 11.21
would read as follows:

olo
gy
.

m1 + m2 + m3 + m4 + msat

V1 = g I sp1 ln
m1 + m2 + m3 + m4 + msat m1

and so forth. Repeating the above calculations, we arrive at the following expanded table:

Castor 120
Solid
Castor 120
Solid
ESBM
Solid
OAM
Hydrazine

Stage
gross
mass (kg)
53,000
53,000
11,000
700
2,000
119,700

Stage
propellant
mass (kg)
48,800
48,800
10,000
340
107,940

Isp Burn
m/t
Thrust (N)
(s) time (s)
(kg/s)

V
(m/s)

270
270
290
400

1,389
3,495
3,781
550

80
80
150
1,500

1,615,707
1,615,707
189,660
889

610
610
66.67
0.23

hn

Propellant

1,810

9,215

fT

1
2
3
4
Payload
Total

Make

ec

Stage No.

Table 11-2 Shortlist of rocket motors for a four-stage launch vehicle.

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With Vtot = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 9,215 m/s, we meet the requirement in Eq 11.20


with some margin (disregarding the fact that we have not accounted for the mass of
interface adapters, navigation electronics and other overheads). By a remarkable
coincidence, we have actually re-invented the old Athena 2 launch vehicle.
Note the additional columns containing the thrust F and the propellant consumption
m/t. If the manufacturers have not already provided these performance parameters in
their data sheets, we can calculate F from Eq 6.1:
I sp =

F t
g m

where t is the burn duration and m is the amount of propellant carried by the stage in
question, as per the table.

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11 / Launch Vehicle Selection

Q: Will adding more stages give the rocket a proportional increase in lift capacity?

olo
gy
.

A: Let us examine Eq 11.19 again. By adding stages, we increase the total mass m0, which
the propellant of the first stage m must lift. Eventually m0 will dominate, such that the
argument of the natural logarithm goes towards 1. Since ln (1) = 0, we end up getting no V
from the first stage. This tallies with our intuition: If the overall mass of the vehicle becomes
greater than the thrust of the first stage, the rocket will not lift off at all, and there will be no
V. In other words, adding more stages leads to diminishing returns in terms of V
performance.

hn

Q: What happens to V if the rockets dry mass (i.e. its structure) is infinitely small, such
that the vehicle consists entirely of propellant? (This is of course nonsense from an
engineering point of view, but let us allow it as an experiment of thought.)

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11.7.2. Vehicles With Strap-On Boosters

fT

ec

A: In this case m0 = m, and Eq 11.19 gives us V = . How is this possible? Obviously


this very wet rocket needs a lot of propellant initially to lift its own weight. As propellant is
consumed, so its weight diminishes, and less propellant is needed to accomplish a given
V. Towards the end, when only a milligram of propellant remains, we still obtain a
considerable V from burning even half a milligram ... and so forth, ad infinitum. So V does
indeed go towards infinity in this hypothetical case.

Computing V for a launch vehicle with strap-on boosters follows the same logic as in
the tandem case. To illustrate the point, let us choose a launch vehicle design similar to
the one on the cover of this book, and simplified in Figure 11-16.

In most cases, the main (first) stage ignites at the same time as the boosters, and continues
to fire after the boosters have burnt out and been ejected. Let V1A denote the velocity
increase of the first stage during the burn time tS of the strap-on boosters. A quantity
m1A of propellant is consumed during this time. Using Eq 6.1:
m1 A =

dm1
F
t S = 1 t s
dt
gI sp1

where F1 is the thrust of the main stage. If our sample rocket has two identical boosters,
each with lift-off mass mS, we may visualize the vehicle as having, in effect, four stages.

Stage 1A consists of the two boosters and the main 1st stage.
Stage 1B consists of the 1st stage, less the propellant m1A consumed up to the
point where the boosters are jettisoned.
Stage 2: As shown in Figure 11-16.
Stage 3: As shown in Figure 11-16.

383

11 / LaunchVehicle Selection

S
S

Returning to Eq 11.21:

(11.24)

ec

(m1 m1 A ) + m2 + m3 + m sat

V1B = g I sp1 ln
(m1 m1 A ) + m2 + m3 + msat m1B )

hn

2mS + m1 + m2 + m3 + msat

V1 A = g I sp1 ln
2mS + m1 + m2 + m3 + msat (2mS + m1 A )

olo
gy
.

Sat

1B

1A

Figure 11-16 Launcher with strap-on boosters

fT

(11.25)

whereby m1A + m1B = m1, i.e. the total propellant mass of the main 1st stage.

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The V for the remaining stages is computed as before, using Eq 11.22 and 11.23. From
Eq 11.20:
Vtotal = V1A + V1B + V2 + V3

When calculating V1A from Eq 11.24 above, we assumed that the boosters and the main
1st stage share the same Isp. This may hold true if the boosters use the same propellant as
the main 1st stage. If they do not, we must calculate an equivalent specific impulse IspE.
For estimation purposes, IspE may be taken as the average value of the participating
specific impulses. Hence, for the above sample vehicle:
I spE =

2 I spS + I sp1
3

(11.26)

For example, if the main 1st stage consumes H2 + O2 (Isp1 = 400 s) and the two boosters
burn solid propellant (IspS = 270 s), the equivalent specific impulse IspE = 313 s.
If the vehicle were to have N identical strap-on boosters rather than 2, the coefficient 2 in
Eq 11.24 must of course be replaced by N. The equivalent IspE is then:
I spE =

384

N I spS + I sp1
N +1

(11.27)

11 / Launch Vehicle Selection

11.8. Launch Vehicle Reliability

olo
gy
.

Having spent typically 2 5 years developing, building and testing a new satellite, the
teams involved dread the thought of their creation being destroyed in a launch failure.
Selecting a suitable launch vehicle is therefore a major preoccupation throughout the
project.

hn

Statistically, most of the launch vehicles profiled in Section 11.5 above show a reliability
of 70 100% (to the extent that there has been a statistically significant number of
launches). A reliability of, say, 80% implies that one in five launches fails, which is
unacceptable to most satellite customers. Some customers find even a 95% reliability
worrisome, since it means that one in 20 launches fails. However, reliability figures
should be taken with a grain of salt for the following reasons:
A new vehicle design, which has only flown a few times, does not offer a
statistically meaningful database.

Despite their long heritage, well-established vehicles are subject to regular


modifications which contaminate the reliability statistics.

Even in cases where a launch vehicle design has remained unmodified for a long
time, a different reliability figure is obtained depending on whether the last 5, 10,
20 or 50 launches are counted (Figure 11-17). In their publicity material, launch
service providers often pick the number that gives the most favourable statistic.

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fT

ec

5 attempts, 3 failures, R = 40%

10 attempts, 5failures, R = 50%

20 attempts, 6 failures, R = 75%

Figure 11-17 Example of how a launch service provider might improve the claimed reliability R by
quoting the last 20 launches rather than the last 5 or 10.

For all their flaws, reliability statistics are nonetheless the only tool available to satellite
customers to assess their chances of launch success. Insurance underwriters charge
premiums based partly on the overall reliability statistics for a particular vehicle, and
partly on their loss or profit during the previous year.
It is therefore useful to examine the reliability of individual launch vehicles from the date
of their maiden flight until today's date. If the launch frequency is low compared to some
other vehicles, one has to ask oneself why. One reason could be poor reliability, with long
down-times to remedy the cause of failures. Another reason could be high price, making
the vehicle unattractive at least for commercial satellite customers.
Moreover, the manner in which launch failures are distributed over time could tell us
something about whether the failures were caused by faulty design or poor workmanship.
385

11 / LaunchVehicle Selection

olo
gy
.

Design flaws are usually concentrated to the beginning of the launch programme, while
workmanship problems are typically spread out more evenly over time. In other words,
design flaws tend to recur until they are remedied once and for all, while workmanship
issues are a sign of poor quality management in the rocket manufacturer's organisation
and should be of particular concern for the satellite customer.

hn

The failure history of the European Ariane 5, the Russian Proton and the Indian GSLV
provide interesting examples of the above, as illustrated in Figure 11-18 through Figure
11-20. The diagrams held true at the time of writing (January 2014) and were generated
according to the formula (No.of launch successes) / (No. of launch attempts) x 100 at any
one time. The arrows highlight where in the launch sequence each failure took place.

fT

ec

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

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Reliability %

Ariane 5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

Launch attempt No.

Figure 11-18 Launch failure history of Ariane 5.

The failures are concentrated to the beginning of the Ariane 5 programme and were
indeed caused by fundamental design problems.

Reliability %

Proton/Breeze

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Launch attempt No.

Figure 11-19 Launch failure history of Proton-K & -M/Breeze-M.

Proton suffered several failures at an early stage, suggesting a mixture of design and
workmanship issues. The more recent failures were the result of workmanship problems.

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11 / Launch Vehicle Selection

GSLV Mk.1 & 2


100
90

olo
gy
.

Reliability %

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

10

ec

Launch attempt No.

hn

Figure 11-20 Launch failure history of GSLV.

Flight 1: Stage 3 shut down 10 seconds too early.


Flight 4: Failure in one of the strap-on boosters, rocket diverted from course.
Flight 5: Underperformance of upper stage, lower than planned orbit
Flight 6: Upper stage failed.
Flight 7: Control lost after 47 seconds, disintegrated after 53 seconds.

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fT

The GSLV programme has suffered more failures than successes due to deficiencies that
appear to be primarily of a design nature:

The most recent launch attempt was successful, and it remains to be seen whether the
design problems have now been resolved.
One has to keep in mind that the vehicles in the above statistics may have undergone
relatively minor modifications during their lifetime. Purists might argue that one should
only include identical designs, but this would reduce the size of the statistical population,
thereby adding to the uncertainty. Some launch service provider might also argue that not
all the shown anomalies were complete failures, since the satellite(s) achieved at least
some kind of orbit, even if it was not the specified one. In a few instances involving dual
satellite launches, one of the satellites did achieve the correct orbit, but the other satellite
did not.
The reliability statistics are summarized in Table 11-3 in the context of average launch
frequency per year. Notice how Proton, Long March 3 and Ariane are currently in the
lead as concerns launch frequency, suggesting that these two vehicles offer optimum
ratios in terms of proven reliability, availability and price.

387

11 / LaunchVehicle Selection

Launch vehicle

04/06/1996
21/08/2002
20/11/2002
04/06/2010
20/04/2001
29/08/2001
28/03/1999
29/01/1984
05/07/1999
08/02/2000

29/08/2013
24/01/2014
28/08/2013
06/01/2014
05/01/2014
27/01/2013
31/08/2013
20/12/2013
26/12/2013
19/12/2013

71
43
24
8
8
29
43
72
75
38

Average
Current success
Number of number of
rate
failures
launches per
(January 2014) %
year
4
4.1
94.4
1
3.8
97.7
1
2.2
95.8
1
2.2
87.5
5
0.6
37.5
1
2.5
96.6
4
3.0
90.7
5
2.4
93.1
8
5.2
89.3
2
2.7
94.7

hn

Ariane 5
Atlas V
Delta IV
Falcon 9
GSLV Mk 1 & 2
H-2A
Land & Sea Launch
Long March 3
Proton-K & -M/Breeze-M
Soyuz/Fregat

Number of
launches

olo
gy
.

Most recent
First launch
launch

Table 11-3 Summary of launch vehicle reliability statistics.

fT

ec

Gunter's Space Page (www.skyrocket.de) provides a convenient and up-to-date overview


of launch vehicle flight histories.

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Q: If there is a 1-in-5 chance that a particular launch vehicle will fail, and if four launches
have already taken place successfully, is the failure of the fifth launch a foregone
conclusion?
A: No, a launch has no memory of the previous launches. All one can say is that each
launch has a 1-in-5 chance of failing, no more, no less. It is possible (though unlikely) that
ten such launches will succeed in succession, and it is equally (un)likely that ten launches in
succession will fail.

11.9. Launch Vehicle Availabilisty

From a satellite customer's point of view, launch vehicle availability is measured against
the following criteria:
a) Number of free slots in the launch service provider's manifest (i.e. launch queue)
during the time frame of interest.
b) Stability of the rocket manufacturer's production line (i.e. whether the launch
vehicle production is likely to proceed at the necessary rate).
c) Launch delays caused by reliability issues.
d) Political obstacles (e.g. ITAR, by which the U.S. government prohibits any
satellite containing U.S. components to be sent to China for launch).

Criterion (a) is assessed by direct contacts with the launch service providers of interest.
The most popular vehicles have full manifests during the coming 2 - 3 years, although
free slots may become available on a stand-by basis. Criteria (b) and (c) are evaluated by
reading the trade press such as Space News. Criterion (d), as it relates to ITAR, is
currently a fact of life, although there have been rumours that the U.S. government may
relax the prohibition at some future date.

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11 / Launch Vehicle Selection

11.10. Launch Costs

olo
gy
.

The supply and demand of launch services, and hence the price, vary from year to year.
The price swings are also influenced by the advent of new entrants on the launcher
market, and by the success or otherwise of the launches themselves.

hn

Though most launch service providers publish a sticker price for their services, some
satellite customers are able to negotiate significant discounts through quantity purchases,
or by making their satellites compatible with several different launch vehicles and having
the corresponding providers compete for the launch contract. Significantly lower prices
are also available to satellite customers who are prepared to accept the risk of launching
on the maiden flight of a new rocket.

fT

ec

In any event, the launch price must be seen in the context of the launch vehicles lift
capacity. Using a rockets capacity to the full is obviously more cost-effective than flying
half-empty. In many cases, two or more satellite owners get together to fill the capacity of
a heavy vehicle, thereby saving money as compared to flying separately on smaller
rockets.

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In addition to the cost of building a satellite and procuring a launch service, there is the
significant albeit optional expense of buying launch insurance. Insurance premiums range
from 10 to 20 percent of the insured assets (the launcher alone, the satellite alone, or the
two combined), depending on the vehicles track record. Especially commercial
customers are likely to pay extra for a very reliable launcher, knowing that some of the
extra expense will be offset by the cheaper insurance premium. Most importantly, the
ultimate aim of launching a commercial satellite is not to recover the insurance money,
but to have a satellite in orbit that, over time, earns its owner 5 10 times the original
investment.

11.11. Making the Final Selection

The easiestway of justifying a launch vehicle selection is to establish a matrix as shown in


Table 11-4, and to assign a figure of merit to each combination of criterion and vehicle.
Score "1" could signify that the vehicle is ruled out, while score "5" might represent the
most preferred. By adding up the figures, one arrives at the most preferred vehicle,
followed by potential back-ups.
Launch vehicle

Launcher A
Launcher B
Launcher C
Launcher D
Launcher E
Launcher F
Launcher G

Optimized
performance
5
1
3
4
4
2
1

Reliability

Availability

Cost

Total

Ranking

2
4
5
4
5
4
3

4
3
1
5
5
3
5

4
3
2
5
3
4
5

15
11
11
18
17
13
14

3
6
6
1
2
5
4

Table 11-4 Sample order of preference when selecting launch vehicles.

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11 / LaunchVehicle Selection

olo
gy
.

In the above example, Launcher D with its total count of 18 comes out as the most
preferable, followed by Launchers E and A as potential backup vehicles. Some analysts
might "weight" one criterion - e.g. cost - more heavily than the others, which means that
the numbers in that column are multiplied by a "weighting factor" of, say, 2 or 3. This
will obviously change the relative ranking.

hn

Case study: A satellite customer has paid $300m for a GEO satellite weighing 3,300 kg at
lift-off. The most suitable launch vehicles appear to be the hypothetical rockets A, B and C,
since the satellite fills their lift capacity reasonably well. Any spare capacity can be used up
by filling additional propellant into the satellite, for the benefit of its orbital lifetime. How
much will the customer have to pay to lift his satellite into GTO?
The price per kg for each of the three vehicles is:

Failure rate

510
420
70

2 out of 3
0 out of 25
2 out of 7

$45,000
$26,000
$15,000

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Vehicle A:
Vehicle B:
Vehicle C:

Spare capacity (kg)

fT

Price per kg

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From a pricing point of view, Vehicle A is clearly unattractive, and the rockets reliability
history to date would rule it out once and for all. The temptation would be to sign up a
Vehicle C with its low price per kg, but here again the customer might balk at the poor
reliability statistics. Vehicle B gives the customer a reliable launch as well as sizeable spare
capacity for extra propellant. His capital expenditures would be:
Satellite cost:
Launch price: $26k x (3,300 + 420 kg)
Insurance: 12% of ($300m + $97m)
Total:

$300m
$97m
$48m
$445m

By comparison, costs for the Vehicle C alternative would have been as follows:
Satellite cost:
Launch price: $15k x (3,300 + 70 kg)
Insurance: 20% of ($300m + $50m)
Total:

$300m
$50m
$70m
$420m

From these two examples we conclude that the higher insurance premium for the riskier
Vehicle C makes this alternative only marginally more economical than Vehicle B. If getting
the satellite into orbit is the customers first priority, there is no doubt that he will spend the
extra $25m ($445m - $420m) for the added reliability of Vehicle B.

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11.12. Solved Problems


See Appendix C for solutions.

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11.12.1 A launch vehicle is to inject a satellite from a site located at latitude 60N into a
600 km circular, sun-synchronous orbit with an inclination i = 98. With what azimuth Az
must the vehicle be launched?
11.12.2 A satellite is to be inserted into a 600 km circular orbit. How much propellant
mass will the launch vehicle consume if its lift-off mass is 50 tons (including the payload)
and its Isp = 450 s? Assume that Vloss = 1.0 km/s. The earths radius R = 6371 km.

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11.12.3
A secondary launch site for the Soyuz ST launch vehicle at Kourou
(latitude 5N) has been arranged to give the vehicle greater inclination flexibility and lift
capacity compared to the primary launch facility at Baikonur (latitude 46N). How much
V will the vehicle gain from Kourou compared to Baikonur when launching straight east
into a 400 km circular orbit, and how will this gain translate into added payload lift
performance? Assume that the rocket engines have an average Isp = 300 s, and that orbital
injection occurs horizontally.

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12 / Launch & Space Environment

12. Launch and Space Environment

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12.1. Introduction

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A satellite has to survive in a harsher environment than is usually found in engineering.


During the launch and ascent phase, static and dynamic loads threaten the integrity of the
satellites structure and equipment. Following separation from the launch vehicle, the
spacecraft experiences an extreme thermal regime, as described in Chapter 10. In
addition, it has to cope with unshielded radiation and charged particle bombardment from
the Van Allen belts, the sun, and the deeper realms of space. Low-flying satellites are
subjected to drag friction in the upper layers of the atmosphere. The drag makes the orbit
shrink and may upset the spacecrafts attitude. Lastly, the vacuum of outer space poses its
own problems.

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All these environmental influences have the effect of curtailing the satellites operational
lifetime in the short, medium and long term. The spacecraft designers challenge is to
implement counter-measures using a wide range of available technologies, and to verify
the adequacy of these measures through rigorous testing. The present chapter describes
the environmental challenges. The countermeasures are discussed in Chapter 13.

12.2. Launch Environment

The complex vibration environment during launch may be divided into static loads and
several kinds of dynamic loads. It is useful to do so, because the various structural
elements of a satellite react differently to these loads. The spacecraft designer must be
aware of these differences in order to arrive at an optimum construction in terms of
strength, rigidity and mass.
The static and dynamic loads have axial as well as lateral components. In the case of
ballistic launch vehicles (no wings), the axial loads predominate under the influence of
engine operation, while lateral loads are caused by wind shear and by small but
measurable ignition timing discrepancies between strap-on boosters. Winged vehicles,
such as the Pegasus, manifest axial and lateral loads of almost equal magnitude due to
aerodynamic effects and the horizontal mounting of payloads.
The load profiles illustrated in the following pertain to heavy launch vehicles of the
Ariane-Atlas-Delta class. For more accurate information, refer to the relevant User
Manual (see Appendix F).
12.2.1. Static Loads

As the name implies, static loads manifest no cyclic variation during the ascent from the
moment of lift-off until orbital injection. Their effect on the satellite structure is to cause
buckling and yield phenomena, as opposed to fatigue breakage typical of dynamic loads
(Chapter 9).

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In actual fact, the static loads vary considerably, but their frequency of change is too
slow to cause fatigue problems. They arise as a result of the rocket stages accelerating
during motor burn, and are interspersed by periods of relative weightlessness in the lull
between the burnout and ignition of successive rocket stages.
The acceleration of each rocket stage is not constant. Newtons law states that the
instantaneous thrust force F is a function of the mass m and the velocity V as follows:
F = d(mV)/dt = m dV/dt + (-Ve dm/dt) = ma - Ve dm/dt

(12.1)

ec

hn

Ve is the exit velocity of the expended propellant mass. From Newtonian mechanics we
immediately recognize the component F = ma, but that expression assumes a constant
mass, as in the case of applying a force to accelerate a solid object. In rocketry it is
necessary to account for the change in mass as well; hence the additional term -Ve dm/dt.
The minus sign implies that the mass is diminishing over time.
Rearranging Eq 12.1:
1
dm
F + Ve

dt
m(t )

fT

a (t ) =

(12.2)

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Since rocket motors are designed to produce relatively constant thrust F, propellant
consumption dm/dt and exit velocity Ve, it follows that the acceleration a will increase
over time as the net mass m decreases. This process is illustrated in Figure 12-1 for a
typical three-stage launch vehicle assisted by strap-on boosters. The acceleration is given
as multiples of the gravitational acceleration g = 9.81 m/s2. The digits indicate the rocket
stage number. S is the moment of burnout of solid propellant strap-on boosters, while L
coincides with liquid propellant booster burnout.
Acceleration (g)
6
5
4
3

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Flight duration (seconds)

Figure 12-1 Typical acceleration profile for an Ariane 4SL launch vehicle.

In Eq 11.1 we saw that the acceleration is assisted by the thrust Fp occasioned by the
pressure difference between the inside of the nozzle pe and the ambient pressure pa:

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12 / Launch & Space Environment

F p = A e ( p e - p a )

(12.3)

Ve

pa

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Ae
pe

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Figure 12-2 Thrust force occasioned by combustion and ambient pressure differentials.

F t
g m

(12.4)

fT

I sp =

ec

where Ae is the area of the nozzles mouth. Fp increases as the rocket gains in altitude,
since pa goes towards zero. This is the reason why the specific impulse Isp of a rocket
motor improves with altitude, recalling from Eq 11.2 that

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The maximum acceleration remains in the vicinity of 4 g for heavy rockets, while
payloads onboard small sounding rockets may experience up to 12 g (e.g. Skylark).

12.2.2. Dynamic Loads

The examples of dynamic load profiles given in the following are those contained in a
typical launch vehicle User Manual. They are not true values as measured in flight, since
the levels change over time, and since each flight is different depending on payload
configuration and trajectory. Instead the levels represent generic design envelopes with
which the spacecraft builder is expected to comply.
12.2.2.1.

Sinusoidal Vibration

The low-frequency sinusoidal component of the vibration spectrum is potentially


hazardous. If it coincides with a natural frequency of the spacecraft, the vibration may be
amplified to the point of structural disintegration.
Sinusoidal vibrations have their origins in the launch vehicle structures response to
aerodynamic buffeting and to the operation of rocket engines. They propagate to the
satellite through the interface adapter. The acceleration amplitude rarely exceeds 2 g in
the axial sense and 0.5 g laterally.
The pogo effect refers to a particularly violent flow oscillation in the launch vehicles
propellant feed lines. There are always small variations in the propellant feed rate to the
rocket engines, and hence in the engine thrust. If the frequency of thrust variations comes
anywhere near the launchers natural frequency, the thrust-induced acceleration cycles are
magnified through a vicious closed loop between body accelerations, feed irregularities
and thrust instabilities. The resulting vibrations enter the satellite through the interface
adapter.
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Another propellant instability phenomenon in rockets is called water-hammering. It is


reminiscent of the loud humming noise that is sometimes heard when slowly turning off a
water tap connected to inferior plumbing. Launch vehicle manufacturers go to great
lengths to eliminate both pogo and water-hammering effects in their design.

Random Vibration

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12.2.2.2.

hn

Destructive resonance between the launcher and the satellite can be avoided by installing
a suitable vibration damper at the spacecraft/launcher attachment interface. A more
common approach is to stiffen the spacecrafts structure such that the fundamental
frequencies land above the range of propagated vibrations. This range is typically 15 30
Hz in the axial direction, and 10 15 Hz in the lateral sense. The actual values depend on
the choice of launch vehicle. Consequently, a satellite designed to be vibrationcompatible with a particular vehicle cannot be launched on a different vehicle without
prior analysis and test.

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fT

The combustion process in the rocket motor chambers gives rise to random vibrations,
which reach the satellite through the attachment interface adapter. These vibrations are
typically in the range 20 2000 Hz, depending on the flight phase and the launch vehicle.
Figure 12-3 shows the vibration envelope for a heavy vehicle. It is customary to measure
this type of vibration in terms of energy spectral density (g2/Hz), because the r.m.s. value
quantifies the equivalent acceleration experienced by the satellite.

-3 dB

3 dB

Figure 12-3 Random vibration profile.

To facilitate testing, the slopes of the curve are labelled in decibel per octave, where an
octave is the interval over which the frequency is doubled (25 50 Hz, 50 100 Hz, 100
200 Hz, etc.). For example, in Figure 12-3 the positive slope goes from 0.015 to 0.030
g2/Hz over the octave interval 100 200 Hz, i.e. 10 log10(0.030/0.015) = 3 dB per octave.
Low-frequency random vibration influences the design of core elements of the satellites
primary structure.

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Q: Why is the word octave used for the doubling of frequency intervals? It sounds like
something to do with eight.
A: The term octave comes from music, where eight notes are used in the major (happy)
or minor (sad) diatonic scale to move from one frequency to its doubled value. For
example, Middle A is at 440 Hz, the next A down is at 220 Hz, and the next A up is at 880
Hz.

Acoustic Vibration

hn

12.2.2.3.

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Acoustic noise is a form of random vibration. While the variety described in Section
12.2.2.2 has internal sources and affects the satellites core structure, acoustic noise
arrives from the outside and rattles flimsy external structures such as stowed solar panels
and antenna reflectors. The main origin of acoustic noise is ignition-related sound waves
reflected off the launch pad during lift-off. Another important cause is the disintegration
of the aerodynamic boundary layer on the outside of the heatshield at transonic speeds.
The level of noise affecting the spacecraft can be reduced by cladding the inside of the
heatshield with acoustic blankets.
Figure 12-4 shows a typical acoustic noise profile. Here the acoustic pressure level I is
measured in decibels with reference to a pressure level of 2 10-5 Pascal (or N/m2).
Expressed mathematically:
I = 20 log10

F
(dB)
2 10 5

(12.5)

where F is the linear value of the acoustic field intensity. The levels are represented as
constant for each octave to facilitate testing.

Acoustic pressure I (dB)

140
135
130
125
120
115
110

105
100

10

100

1000

10000

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 12-4 Acoustic noise profile.

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Q: Why make the distinction between random and acoustic vibrations? If both are truly
random, dont they cover the whole audible spectrum?
A: Noise can be random within a limited frequency spectrum. Compare the roar of a jet
taking off (low random frequency) with the hiss of compressed air streaming out of a bottle
(high random frequency).

Shock

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12.2.2.4.

hn

The terminology random and acoustic is used to distinguish between the sources of
vibrations (internal or external), its effect on different structural members (sturdy core or
flimsy appendages), and the corresponding test method (using an electromechanical
vibration table or blasting through horns).

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The satellite experiences mechanical shock in connection with various launch transition
and separation events, e.g. rocket motor ignition or cut-off, rocket stage separation,
heatshield jettison, satellite separation from the rocket, and release of units onboard the
spacecraft itself (perigee or apogee motors; protective covers; solar panels and antenna
dishes). Some of these shocks can be particularly violent, notably those involving
pyrotechnic devices.

Acceleration response (g)

Though the shocks are of short duration (milliseconds), their acceleration amplitude can
be in the thousands of gs and must be accounted for in the design and testing of satellites.
Launch vehicle manufacturers specify shock load envelopes as exemplified in Figure
12-5.
10000

1000

100

10

100

1000

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 12-5 Typical shock spectrum

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12.3. Space Environment

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The two environmental parameters that first come to mind are weightlessness and
vacuum. There are, however, two other categories that are of equal or greater concern to
spacecraft designers, namely charged particle bombardment and electromagnetic
radiation. Particle bombardment involves protons and electrons trapped in the Van Allen
belts, along with a variety of charged particles emanating from our galaxy and beyond.
The electromagnetic radiation of greatest interest in satellite design is ultraviolet light
(UV) and solar pressure.

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12.3.1. Weightlessness

hn

Frequently, charged particle bombardment is also referred to as radiation but, in the


present context, it is useful to define radiation as a transfer of massless energy quanta, as
opposed to particles which clearly have mass.

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The near-total absence of gravity in orbit is a blessing for most moving parts onboard the
satellite, since it allows for a much lighter construction than on earth. The best examples
are deployment mechanisms for solar panels and antenna reflectors. However, the
difficulty of simulating weightlessness during ground verification has sometimes led to
deployment mechanisms being inadequately tested, with dire consequences after launch.
Weightlessness causes propellants to float around haphazardly inside their tanks. An
undesirable side effect is dynamic instability of the entire spacecraft due to sloshing at the
start of attitude manoeuvering. An associated difficulty arises during thruster activation,
since propellant may be absent at the drain end of the tank. Solutions include creating
artificial gravity by spinning the satellite, or else by constraining the propellant inside
elastic bladders within the tank volume (Figure 12-6). See also Chapter 6.

Bladder

Propellant

Figure 12-6 Harnessing propellant using centrifugal force or elastic bladder.

12.3.2. Vacuum

One would have thought that vacuum constitutes an ideal conservation medium for a
spacecraft, in the absence of humidity, pollution and other corroding influences of the
atmosphere. In reality, life in vacuum presents its own unique problems.

One such problem is outgassing, defined as the escape of volatile gases and compounds
inside the satellite. We know from experience on the earth that liquids boil and begin to
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evaporate more readily at higher altitudes (e.g. on top of mountains) than at sea level. The
lower the air pressure, the lower the boiling temperature. In the early days of space
exploration, it happened that lubricants between moving satellite parts turned dry or gritty
as the agent responsible for the viscous consistency evaporated into space. As a result,
momentum wheels and tape recorders seized up.
During the first few hours, days and even weeks after launch, a certain amount of air
remains trapped inside the satellite. The air contains water vapour (moisture). As the air
seeps out, the vapour is attracted to cold surfaces, where it condenses as a thin layer of
ice. The condensate can blur optical lenses and change the emissivity of heat-radiating
surfaces.

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Another problem related to vacuum is cold welding, whereby metal surfaces designed for
unlubricated movement fuse. For example, solar panels that deployed repeatedly during
ground testing would fail to do so a few days later in space. We often overlook the fact
that the atmosphere inserts itself as a thin cushion between moving parts. In outer space,
the absence of this natural and ubiquitous lubricant can give cause to cold welding.

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Historical note: Soon after the first Meteosat satellite was launched in 1977,
meteorologists noticed that the infrared images of the earth were getting pale, i.e. the photo
contrast was fading to the point of rendering the images unusable. Inspection of
housekeeping telemetry revealed that the cameras infrared sensor was too warm, thereby
masking the thermal pictures with its own temperature. To keep the sensor as cool as
possible, it had been mounted at the apex of a conical radiator that opened up into space.
Because trapped water vapour had condensed on the radiator surface and changed its
emissivity, the radiator was no longer able to do its job.
Fortunately, the spacecraft designers had foreseen this eventuality, and had therefore
installed switchable heater coils inside the radiator wall. Infrared imagery was suspended for
a few days to allow the heaters to burn off the ice, much like the rear-window defroster in a
car. Eventually the heaters were disconnected, and infrared imagery resumed with perfect
picture quality.

For all its apparent emptiness, the vacuum in space is not total. It is estimated that, on a
typical day in outer space, approximately one million particles occupy every cm3. Most of
these particles are charged and constitute the plasma in which satellites swim. Plasma
is like superheated vapour, in which the neutral molecules have been stripped apart to
form an energetic brew of ions, protons and electrons.
If the satellite were electrically conductive throughout, there would be no difference in
electric potential between the satellite and the surrounding plasma. In reality it is
impractical to create full conductivity, since the requirements on strength, thermal
behaviour and functionality of the spacecraft call for different materials to be employed.
The interaction of the satellites surfaces with the surrounding plasma is complex, but the
net result is a build-up of voltage differences between some surfaces and the plasma, as
well as between dissimilar surfaces. Whenever these differences exceed the breakdown
voltage, discharge occurs through an arc, similar to a microscopic lightning storm. This
phenomenon is known as electrostatic discharge (ESD). In the worst case, the arc can
destroy electronic components and perforate insulating blankets.
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Satellites in high earth orbits, such as GEO, are particularly prone to ESD during
intermittent magnetic substorms. These storms occur in the magnetotail on the night side
of the earth and have the effect of propelling highly energetic charged particles towards
the earth. The resulting hot plasma exacerbates the charge/discharge phenomena
described above.

fT

12.3.3. Aerodynamic Drag

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Historical note:
The launch of satellites into GEO accelerated in the 1970s. Most of the
satellites carried telecommunications and meteorological payloads. Spacecraft controllers
on the ground were frequently confounded by random switchings onboard the satellites,
many of which led to service interruptions for several hours while the anomalies were being
investigated. The controllers were particularly annoyed by the fact that most of the random
switchings consistently occurred between midnight and 4 a.m. when the control centres had
minimum staffing. It was only in the early 1980s that the physics of ESD became fully
understood, such that corrective action could be taken at the spacecraft design level.

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The earths atmosphere extends far into space, though its density decreases exponentially
with altitude. A satellite travelling in an orbit with a semimajor axis a 7000 km or less
(or < 600 km circular orbit height) will experience orbital decay at a rate which matches
typical operational lifetimes (5 10 years) of LEO satellites.

The most obvious effect of orbital decay is to slow down the satellite, i.e. making the
orbit lose kinetic energy through atmospheric friction. During each satellite passage
through the atmosphere, it is the apogee height that loses height the most. Eventually the
orbit becomes circular, and the satellite begins to spiral its way deeper and deeper into the
atmosphere. By the time it has descended to a circular height of 130 km, re-entry is
imminent.

Figure 12-7 Orbital decay.

Predicting the orbital lifetime, i.e. the rate of decay, is relatively straightforward in
principle but difficult in practice. If the density variation with height were always the
same, and if the satellites attitude with respect to the velocity vector were fixed, the
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1500

Lifetime (days)
900
1100 1300
500 600 700 800
1000 1200
400

1300

1100

hn

1200
300

ec

1000
900
800
700
220

230

240

250

260

fT

Apogee height Ap (km)

1400

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aerodynamic drag coefficient CD would be entirely predictable, as would the decelerating


force. The progression of orbital decay could then be computed by numerical integration.
The satellite would disintegrate when the orbital height fell below 130 km. Figure 12-8
shows theoretical lifetimes of a cylindrical satellite weighing 140 kg as a function of the
chosen initial apogee and perigee height values.

270

280

290

300

310

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Perigee height Pe (km)

Figure 12-8 Theoretical orbital lifetime as a function of apogee and perigee height
for a launch in 2021 (approaching solar minimum).

In reality, the lifetime is influenced by a number of factors, some of which are more
predictable than others:

Changing spacecraft mass (varies over time if propellant mass is expended)


Changing spacecraft attitude relative to the velocity vector (causes CD to vary over
time)
Variations in atmospheric density at given orbital heights (differs between the
day-side and the night-side of the earth, and is also a function of the amplitude and
phase of the 11-year solar cycle).

The last of these is the most significant and the least predictable. As a consequence,
lifetime predictions can easily go wrong by a factor of 5.

To give an idea about the quantities involved, the smoothed solar cycle profile is
illustrated in Figure 12-9, while the corresponding atmospheric density is shown in Figure
12-10. The drag coefficient CD varies between 2 and 4 for most satellite shapes, and the
instantaneous drag force equals
D = AV2CD

(12.6)

where is the air density, A is the surface area confronting the oncoming air molecules,
and V is the orbital velocity.

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Solar flux (x 10-22 W/m2 Hz)

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Figure 12-9 Solar cycle flux profile.

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1.E-09

Density (kg/m 3)

1.E-10

Solar maximum

1.E-11
1.E-12
1.E-13

Solar minimum

1.E-14

1.E-15
200

300

400

500

600

700

Altitude h (km )

Figure 12-10 Atmospheric density as a function of altitude.

Figure 12-11 gives an impression of how orbital decay progresses. The thin curve shows
the ideal case with constant mass, attitude and density. The staircase shape of the fat
curves is the result of density modulation by the 11-year solar cycle. The upper fat curve
shows the progression as a result of an optimistic prediction regarding the amplitude of
the solar cycle. The lower fat curve represents a pessimistic prediction.

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7100
7000
6900

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Semimajor axis a (km)

7200

6800
6700
6600
6500
6400
1

1.5

2.5

3.5

hn

Solar cycle No.

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Figure 12-11 Possible orbital decay of a satellite launched into a 700-km circular orbit.

12.3.4. Atomic Oxygen

fT

In both predictions, the detrimental effect of peak solar activity on orbital lifetime is
clearly in evidence.

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The elements that combine to make up the atmosphere become dissociated by the suns
ultraviolet radiation at altitudes above 100 km. One of the constituents is atomic oxygen,
whose concentration peaks at a height of approximately 170 km, and whose nuclei are
heavy enough to sand-blast the surfaces of a satellite. Kapton film used in thermal
blankets, as well as silver junction leads between solar cells, are prone to oxygen erosion,
as are optical lenses.
The sand-blasting is referred to as sputtering.

Oxygen bombardment also has the effect of oxidizing certain materials, the more so since
atomic oxygen (O) is far more corrosive than oxygen molecules (O2). One well-known
effect is for the and values of exposed surfaces to undergo a change, such that their
thermal control effectiveness is compromised. Certain lubricants have been known to
become gritty for similar reasons.
12.3.5. Van Allen Belts

Protons and electrons emanating from the sun are trapped in the earths magnetic field to
form doughnut-shaped concentration rings along the geomagnetic equator. Figures 12.11
and 12.12 illustrate these so-called Van Allen belts, with the areas of maximum energy
concentration shown as shaded areas. The concentration is measured in terms of particle
flux above a given energy threshold. The boundaries for the shaded areas in Figure 12-12
are 1 proton > 100 MeV per cm2 and second, and 106 electrons > 0.5 MeV per cm2 and
second. These concentration ranges are clearly harmful to satellites.
To facilitate a comparison, the proton and electron belts have been drawn to the left and
the right of the vertical dash-dot line, respectively. In reality, of course, each belt goes all
around the earth. Note that there are two concentric electron belts of peak concentration.

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Altitude 10,000

Electrons
> 0.5 MeV
Earth
LEO

10,000
MEO

20,000

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Protons > 100 MeV

30,000 km
GEO

hn

Figure 12-12 Van Allen belts of high-flux, high-energy protons and electrons.

ec

The Van Allen belts are often referred to as radiation belts. This is a misnomer, since here
we are dealing with charged particles rather than electromagnetic radiation.

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Trapped protons and electrons create a variety of problems in electronics, notably bit flips
in digital circuits, as well as performance degradation of electronic components and solar
cells. In the former case, the remedy consists in making the walls of electronic boxes
thick enough to withstand penetration of high-energy particles. Minimizing damage to
solar cells is a primary concern when deciding the orbit for the satellite. From Figure
12-12 one can conclude that low earth orbits (LEO) below 1500 km, medium earth orbits
(MEO), and geostationary orbits (GEO) offer relatively lenient environments. Inspection
of satellite catalogues reveals that few low-inclination spacecraft travel in the zones of
maximum concentration, i.e. in the height ranges of 1,500 9,000 km and 20,000
30,000 km. Satellites travelling at high inclinations - notably the navigation satellites
GPS, Glonass and Galileo - are less affected by the Van Allen belts, since they only
encounter the high-energy belts at low latitudes.
The highly elliptic but mostly low-inclination geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), with its
perigee height at around 300 km and apogee height at 36,000 km, offers an interesting
operational challenge, since the orbit sweeps through the proton belt as well as both
electron belts. It has been suggested that the solar arrays lose 0.5 - 1% of their
performance for each round in GTO. Consequently there is an incentive to fire the apogee
engine at the first apogee. This leaves only 5 hours from injection to perform the
necessary attitude determination and attitude manoeuvres. The challenge is compounded
by the fact that TT&C contact with ground stations may be intermittent during this critical
time.

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High-energy
electrons

hn

Orbit

olo
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.

Earths
magnetic field

ec

High-energy
protons & electrons

fT

Figure 12-13 Artists impression of the proton and outer electron belts.

12.3.6. Meteorids and Man-Made Debris

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Let us first clear up the confusion between meteorids, meteors and meteorites. A meteorid
is a piece of rock or metal of planetary origin that travels through the solar system. Most
meteorids of interest for earth-orbiting satellites have their origins on the moon, on Mars
or in the asteroid belt.
A meteor is a meteorid in the process of burning up in the atmosphere. A meteorite is a
meteorid that survives the journey through the atmosphere and strikes the ground. The
prefix micro- means that the fragment is particularly small.

Cumulative Flux (Q/km 2 yr)

Clearly, meteorid is the proper term to use in the present context. The occurrence of
meteorids is fairly evenly distributed across the LEO GEO range of altitudes. The
probability of a spacecraft being struck by a meteorid can be surmised from Figure 12-14,
in which the flux is plotted against mass. Here, Q is the quantity of meteorids.
1.E+16
1.E+12
1.E+08
1.E+04
1.E+00
1.E-04
1.E-08
1.E-12

1.E-16
1.E-16

1.E-12

1.E-08

1.E-04

1.E+00

1.E+04

1.E+08

Meteorid Mass m (g)

Figure 12-14 Meteorid flux versus mass.

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1.E+16

12 / Launch & Space Environment

olo
gy
.

As a statistical example, one meteorid with a mass m = 1 gram will traverse an area of 1
km2 once a year. This may not sound like a big threat, but the velocities involved paint a
different picture. Take a 1-gram meteoroid approaching an earth-orbiting satellite at 10
km/s. The unelastic impact energy would be similar to a 100-ton object striking the
satellite at 1 m/s, since
V 2
10,000 2
2
2
= 100,000 kg
m1V1 = m2V2 ; m2 = m1 1 2 = 0.001
1
V

ec

hn

The equivalent statistics for a meteorid with a mass m = 1 milligram is 1000 such
meteorids per km2 per year, corresponding to an equivalent impact of 100 kg at 1 m/s.
Now the probabilities become more worrisome for the satellite designer, and especially
for the designers of large orbiting space stations, the more so since meteoroid velocities
of up to 45 km/s have been measured.

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fT

The density of meteorids in earth orbits varies during the year, as well as from year to
year. The Leonides make up a cluster of meteorids through which the earth travels in
early November each year. The predicted intensity of the meteorid shower has prompted
some satellite operators to temporarily suspend services in order to feather the solar
panels away from the direction of onslaught, thereby reducing the probability of damage
to solar cells.
Man-made debris, consisting mainly of expended solid rocket propellant dust, exploded
rocket stages and jettisoned satellite hardware, is another source of concern for spacecraft
designers and operators. With average velocities of 11 km/s relative to orbiting
spacecraft, the above comparative impact equation yields impressive results. In contrast
to meteorids, man-made debris is mostly confined to specific orbital bands.
Impacting meteorids and debris are of primary concern in manned space flight where loss
of hermeticity can be life-threatening. A common solution is to encapsulate the module
with a double-walled hull, such that an incoming particle is vaporized or fragmented by
the first wall before being deflected by the second.

Historical notes:
Two GEO satellites Westar 6 and Palapa B2 were launched in
August 1984 but finished up in LEO when their perigee kick motors failed to ignite. They
were retrieved by the Space Shuttle in April 1985. After 8 months in low earth orbit, they
showed clearly visible meteorid impact craters in the cover glass of several solar cells.
Examples of collisions in space between man-made objects are the 0.2 mm paint flake that
caused a 4-mm crater in the Space Shuttles wind screen in 1983, the fragment of an Ariane
rocket that knocked off the gravity gradient mast of the Crise spacecraft in July 1996, and
the head-on collision between an expired Cosmos spacecraft and a still active Iridium
satellite in February 2009.

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Many other satellite anomalies (e.g. attitude disturbances, solar panel failures and optical
instrument defects) have been attributed to impacting particles. There is a natural
temptation to reach for this explanation whenever onboard failures seem to defy logic.

olo
gy
.

12.3.7. Galactic Cosmic Radiation

hn

Outer space is criss-crossed by a motley collection of charged particles originating from


stars other than our own sun, and possibly from the Big Bang itself. These particles
consist of hydrogen, oxygen, helium and various other nuclei. Though their density is
extremely low, their energy is sufficient to cause upsets in digital circuits onboard
satellites. They are also blamed for generating background noise in attitude sensors,
causing the sensors output signals to be corrupted.

12.3.8. Solar Wind and Particle Showers

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fT

ec

The sun emits a steady breeze of charged particles, primarily protons and electrons,
known as the solar wind. Many of these become trapped in the Van Allen belts discussed
earlier. Eruptions on the sun occasionally turn the breeze into veritable storms which, like
cosmic radiation, have been known to upset and even cripple satellites.

Single Event Phenomena: High-energy charged particles are capable of penetrating


equipment walls and corrupting digital states. A single particle can cause a bit-flip which is
either temporary (single event upset, or SEU) or more permanent (single event latch-up,
SEL). While a SEU is rectified by subsequent bit traffic and does no permanent damage to
the component in question, the operational consequences can be significant. Examples are
inadvertent thruster activation or mission interruption. SEL is potentially more serious since
the anomaly can cause both functional outage and component damage. The problem is
solved by removing and then restoring power in the entire circuit.

12.3.9. Solar Pressure

While the solar wind is made up of charged particles, solar pressure is caused by pure
electromagnetic radiation. The two concepts are sometimes confused, perhaps because the
radiation acts like a wind.
Any orbiting surface facing the sun experiences a pressure force. If the surface is flat,
perpendicular to the sun vector, and absorbs all the solar energy, then the corresponding
solar force F is obtained as:
F=A

S
c

(12.7)

where A is the area of the surface, S = 1367 W/m2 is the average solar energy flux in earth
orbit, and c 3 108 m/s is the speed of light. (The equation is easier to remember if we
recall that Watts is the same as Newton-meter and make a dimensional analysis, yielding
F in Newton.) Even though the force is miniscule, it is a contributing factor to orbital
perturbations. Moreover, a satellite that manifests geometrical asymmetry, as seen from
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hn

olo
gy
.

the sun, is subject to attitude disturbances (Figure 12-15). Both types of disturbance are
explored further in Chapters 4 and 5.

ec

Figure 12-15 Attitude and orbit perturbations due to solar pressure.

fT

In practice, the illuminated surface may be neither flat nor perpendicular, nor indeed
totally absorbing. We must therefore:
a) calculate the surface that is effectively facing the sun; and

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b) estimate to what extent the surface offers specular reflexion, diffuse reflexion, and
absorption, and compute the force components resulting from each.

To achieve (a), we return to the method described at the end of Section 3.2.3, i.e. we
measure the size of the shadow cast by the surface on an imaginary screen placed
perpendicular to the sun vector:
d

Figure 12-16 Estimating effective illuminated areas.

For example, the area of the shadow behind a sphere A = r2, while behind a cylinder or a
flat panel the area A = dh cos if illuminated at an angle to the normal. The area behind
a tilted box requires a little more skill in trigonometry, as shown in the sketch to the right.
As for (b), let us examine Figure 12-17.

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Absorption:

olo
gy
.

Fa = S/c * A cos

Specular
reflection:

Diffuse
reflection:

ec

hn

Fs = 2 S/c A cos2

Fd = 2/3 S/c A cos

fT

Figure 12-17 Main types of solar illumination.

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The net solar pressure force vector F is the vector sum of the above three components,
suitably weighted with an absorption coefficient , a specular coefficient and a diffuse
coefficient :

F = Fa + Fs + Fd

with

(12.8)

++=1

A S
A S
2 A S
cos s;
Fs = 2
cos2 n;
Fd =
cos n
c
c
3 c
s is the solar unit vector;
n is the panel normal unit vector.

Fa =

and

For example, the solar panel in Figure 12-15 may have = 0.7, = 0.2 and = 0.1
(recalling that the main purpose of a solar panel is to absorb sunlight so as to generate the
maximum amount of electric energy). If we are interested in the torque that disturbs the
satellites attitude, we should look at the component of F that is parallel with the sun
vector s:
F = Fs = Fas + Fss + Fds =
A S
=
cos ( + 2 cos2 + cos )
c

(12.9)

Let us assume that = 0, as in Figure 12-15, and that the panel area A = 1 m2. Then:
F=

1 1353
(0.7 + 20.2 + 0.1) = 5.26 10-6 N
8
3 10

i.e. a very weak force indeed, but sufficient to cause unacceptable attitude disturbances
over time.

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olo
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.

Numerical example: If a solar sail measuring A = 1 km is deployed 1 A.U. from the sun
and is turned to face it, and if the sail absorbs all the sunlight, it will find itself pushed into
deep space with a force F = 4.5 N. This may not seem like much. But suppose the sail
weighs m = 450 kg and starts its journey with near-zero velocity. It will then experience an
2
acceleration a = F/m = 0.001 m/s . After one year (t 30,000,000 seconds) it will have
2
12
covered a linear distance s = at = 450 10 km and be travelling at a speed of V = at
= 30 km/s.

Ultraviolet Radiation

ec

12.3.10.

hn

A solar sail is therefore an excellent solution for interplanetary exploration, at least


conceptually. Practical hurdles include building, launching and deploying the hyper-thin sail,
keeping it on a linear trajectory, maintaining the attitude, and coping with the everweakening sunlight as the distance from the sun grows.

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fT

Ultraviolet light from the sun accelerates the oxidation of oils and resins traditionally
found in plastics, lubricants and paints, causing a deterioration over time in their
functionality. Even on earth, where the atmosphere constitutes a fairly effective UV filter,
we sometimes notice how white-painted surfaces turn yellow and plastic objects become
brittle (e.g. household appliances stored near a window). A satellite in space enjoys no
protection whatsoever from UV radiation, and the designer therefore has to take extra
care in his selection of UV-resistant materials.
The adhesive employed to attach cover glasses to solar cells has been known to become
opaque under the influence of UV radiation; hence the practice of applying a UV filter on
the inner surface of cover glasses (the outer surface is occupied by an anti-reflective
coating).
Anti-reflective
coating

Cover glass

UV filter

Adhesive

Solar cell

Figure 12-18 Solar cell coatings.

12.4. Internal Environment

The environments described above have their origins external to the satellite. It is also
meaningful to talk about internal environments, notably thermal and electromagnetic. The
thermal environment has already been described in Chapter 10, so here we will deal with
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
Any electronic circuit that conducts rapidly changing currents is prone to emit an
electromagnetic wave, and this wave may cause currents in adjacent circuits through
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olo
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.

conduction and radiation. Air travellers are familiar with the cabin crews announcements
before take-off and landing that all electronic equipment must be switched off, be it
laptop computers, mobile phones or electronic games. The reason is that the internal
circuitry conducts modulated carriers, and these seep out of the equipment in the form of
radio waves. In the absence on an antenna, the signals are usually weak, but they are still
capable of causing interference with the aircraft avionics. Activating a power switch
might also give rise to an interfering electromagnetic pulse.

hn

Within the confines of a satellite, electromagnetic interference is a major headache for the
designers. EMI is conveyed in two ways. Low-frequency signals (below 10 MHz) travel
mostly by conduction via the power distribution wiring, and sometimes through the
mounting platform. Higher-frequency signals are predominantly radiated through the
vacuum inside the satellite.

fT

ec

One refers to conducted and radiated emission to quantify an equipments propensity to


emit EMI. At the receiving end, units are classified by their conducted and radiated
susceptibility. For the designer, the remedy against EMI is to accomplish electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) between the units. Methods include internal frequency planning,
relocating or reorientating units, introducing bypass capacitors, shielding cables, and
twisting wires.

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These days, when nearly all electronics is digital, the most common effect of EMI is bit
flips in digital registers. The inverted bits might corrupt transmitted images and other
data. In the worst case, the satellite may suffer irreparable harm. Attempts have been
made to model EMI mathematically for use in simulators, but the results are not always
accurate. A more reliable method is to inject test currents judiciously in an actual satellite.
For the results to be trustworthy, the design of the tested satellite must be as authentic as
possible. It is therefore tempting to use the flight model itself, even if there is some risk of
damaging it, and even if any modifications that arise become prohibitively expensive at
such a late stage.
Note that EMI does not always originate internally, but may sometimes have external
causes. The satellite itself may also be the cause of EMI elsewhere. For example, launch
service providers impose strict EMI limitations on satellite designers to prevent
interference with the launchers destruct system. (The destruct system is basically a
detonator strapped to the rocket. It is ignited by ground command to destroy the rocket if
it veers off course during launch and threatens to impact on the ground.)

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12.5. Solved Problems


See Appendic C for solutions.

olo
gy
.

12.5.1 A geostationary satellite offsets its solar wings by an angle = 10 deg from
normal in a windmill fashion. The aim is to achieve attitude control around the roll and
yaw axes through quarter-orbit coupling. The satellite body is a 2 x 2 x 2 m cube. Each of
the two solar wings is 6 m long and 2 m wide, and is mounted on a 1 m yoke. How long
will it take for the satellite to turn an angle = 1 deg?

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fT

ec

hn

Assume that = 0.7, = 0.2 and = 0.1, and that the moments of inertia Ix = Iz = Ixz =
6,000 kg m2.

413

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.

hn

ec

fT

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13 / Product Assurance

13. Product Assurance

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13.1. Introduction

Once launched, a satellite is beyond reach for repairs, so it has to be designed and built
with the idea in mind that it should last on its own for 5 15 years in a very hostile
environment. The quality requirements are therefore exceedingly strict and account for a
significant portion of a satellites cost. Product assurance (PA) is a somewhat wider
concept than quality assurance, and it is quite specific.

hn

Under PA, satellite components undergo rigorous analysis and test to ascertain that they
will survive in orbit.

ec

Materials such as metals, composites, paints and lubricants are similarly scrutinized, as
are the processes used to combine them.

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fT

A good PA programme leads to high product reliability. As we shall see in the following,
reliable systems may be achieved by combining even unreliable functional in a certain
manner.
Quality control is a subset of PA and involves a number of activities to ascertain that
manufacturing is performed by qualified personnel in a suitable environment.
As designs evolve, it is essential that their mechanical and electrical interfaces remain
compatible a responsibility of configuration management.

Many activities during the manufacturing, testing and launching of satellites are
hazardous. Therefore, elaborate safety measures must be taken to prevent mishaps, and to
protect human beings and facilities if they do occur.

13.2. Parts Engineering

A piece part, also known as a component, is an electrical, electronic or mechanical device


that performs a single function and is made of elements which cannot be separated
without destroying its functionality. Examples are semiconductors, transformers, crystals
and filters.
The design of most electronic components used onboard satellites stem from commercial
product lines, as used in ground-based hi-tech instruments and even in consumer goods.
What makes them different is the environment in which they are manufactured, and their
rigorous testing programme.
Manufacturing takes place under strictly controlled environmental conditions, with
cleanliness and humidity being primary parameters. Once produced, all of the parts are
subjected to non-destructive screening tests aimed at weeding out components prone to

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infant mortality. The test programme may include acceleration, vibration, thermal
cycling, visual and X-ray inspection, and hermeticity.

olo
gy
.

Space-qualified parts are identified in qualified parts lists (QPL) maintained by the PA
departments in major space organisations. Within the QPL there is a preferred parts list
(PPL) containing components with a particularly favourable quality record.
Manufacturers that use PPL components are ensured a smooth ride through the PA parts
scrutiny.

fT

ec

hn

However, a particular PPL part may not always be the component of choice, either
because it is no longer being produced (obsolescence), or because a newer and ostensibly
better component has come on the market but has not yet made it into the QPL and PPL.
The unavailability of obsolescent components may be problematic e.g. when a
manufacturer has been asked to build a follow-up satellite based on the original design. If
he opts to swap the components for new designs, he runs the risk of having to re-qualify
the entire unit in which the components are used. Alternatively he may go shopping
among other manufacturers to see if they still have the old items in stock. If he prefers to
use a new component design, he must have someone qualify it, or else do it himself, in
either case under strict PA surveillance

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Mechanical and electromechanical components include relays, bearings, hinges and


cutters. These usually form part of mechanisms. As discussed in Section 9.3, mechanisms
are inherently unreliable, and PA involvement is sought at an early stage of design.
In contrast to electronic components, mechanical parts often have no design heritage in
the commercial sector and are therefore purpose-built. As a result, there may not be a
meaningful statistical sample for reliability analysis, so a more holistic approach is
necessary. The approach consists in ensuring that enough design margins exist within the
predicted flight envelope, and that these margins are demonstrated through test. Ideally a
prototype should be built of the entire mechanism and be subjected to destructive testing,
in order to establish which part constitutes the most critical link. However, most
manufacturers hesitate to proceed in this manner due to the time and cost implications.

13.3. Materials and Processes

We are all familiar with the tendency of certain painted surfaces to change colour if
exposed to daylight. For example, the top of a white fax machine may turn yellow, or a
piece of coloured fabric may fade. If these materials were used for passive thermal
control onboard a satellite, the colour changes would alter their absorbivity and emissivity
coefficients, with potentially harmful consequences for the units thus covered.
Since the beginning of space exploration, the behaviour of materials under the influence
of vacuum, radiation and extreme temperatures has yielded many surprises, most of them
unpleasant. Lubricants have been known to turn gritty, paints have flaked off, clear
adhesives have become opaque, and synthetic compounds have turned brittle. One of the
most persistent problems has been so-called outgassing, a form of sweating where
certain materials decompose in vacuum and the most volatile components condense on
adjacent surfaces, causing a change in their thermal or optical properties. Outgassing is
discussed further in Section 12.3.2.
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olo
gy
.

Over the years, the above anomalies have been catalogued, and many products have been
banned from use in space. In analogy with approved parts lists, there exist approved
materials lists for easy reference by spacecraft designers. New materials with attractive
properties appear regularly on the market. To make it into the list of approved materials,
they are first subjected to extensive testing to ascertain their immunity against outgassing,
discoloration, embrittlement, etc.

13.4. Reliability

ec

hn

PA is concerned not only with the materials themselves, but also in their manner of
application. Taking one more example from daily life, we know that a wooden window
frame needs to be dry, scraped clean, primed and undercoated before it receives two coats
of gloss paint. This is known as the process of applying materials and must follow
established procedures. Other process examples are welding, soldering, bonding, metal
finishing, encapsulation, and crimping of wires.

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fT

The reliability R of a functional unit is the probability P that it will continue to function
for a given duration t. At that time the unit is assumed to fail, or at least become unusable.
We have 0 P(t) 1 , i.e. P lies in the range 0% 100%. R and P are used
interchangeably in many texts, so in the present Section we will adhere to P throughout.

13.4.1. Mathematical Modelling

As a first approach, we may postulate that the probability takes the following form:
P (t ) = e t

(13.1)

where is a constant failure rate (i.e. failures every so many hours, on average) and t is
the time from the beginning of the units activation. Graphically, Eq 13.1 would appear as
in Figure 13-1:
Probability P(t) of
satisfactory performance
1.0

0.0

Time

Figure 13-1 Probability of satisfactory performance over time.

The curve in Figure 13-1 agrees with our experience from daily life, namely that the
longer we use an appliance or an instrument, the higher the probability that it will fail.
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13 / Product Assurance

Stated differently, the probability that it will continue to function in a satisfactory manner
diminishes over time.

olo
gy
.

In Eq 13.1 we made the assumption that the failure rate is constant. In real life, this may
not be true. Figure 13-2 shows typical failure rates for electronic and mechanical
equipment onboard satellites in space.
Failure rate

Infant
mortality

Random
failures

Wear-out

Wear-out

Mechanical equipment

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Electrical equipment

Infant Random
mortality failures

Time

fT

Time

ec

hn

Failure rate

Figure 13-2 Variable failure rates over the lifetime of an equipment (not to scale).

Here again, the diagrams in Figure 13-2 tally with our everyday experience. For example,
lightbulbs usually work after initial installation but will eventually fail after a few months
or even years. On the other hand, a new automobile may require some warranty repairs
after the first few weeks of purchase and needs ever more frequent and expensive repairs
after 150,000 km. This is to say that most electric appliances seem to enjoy a long period
of constant and low failure rate, whereas complex mechanical equipment have a more
protracted failure incidence at the beginning and end of life.
Satellites, with their complex mix of electrical and mechanical equipment, manifest both
bathtub curves in Figure 13-2. It is not uncommon for satellites to suffer infant
mortality shortly after a successful launch e.g. mechanisms that refuse to deploy or
electronics that cannot be activated. The electronics tend to settle down faster than
continuously running mechanisms, such as electromechanical motors. Statistically, the
latter also show earlier signs of wear-out. For example, increased friction in the bearings
manifests itself in the telemetry as an increase in the amount of current drawn by the
motor.
The most cost-effective way of reducing the risks of infant mortality and wear-out is to
implement a rigorous product assurance programme, notably in the selection of parts and
materials, and in the quality oversight. A well-chosen testing strategy will reduce the risks
further, particularly during the infant mortality and wear-out stages. However, when it
comes to preventing random failures, the randomness itself limits the effectiveness of
quality assurance and testing. A better approach is to either operate the components in a
derated mode, or else to create functional redundancy. Most satellite designers prefer a
combination of both.
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13.4.2. Component Derating

140
120

Loading (%)

hn

Failure rate

olo
gy
.

Most component manufacturers indicate within which physical limits a component may
be operated to achieve full performance. These are the rated limits. For example, the
rated limits for a transistor may be maximum 5 volts at a maximum temperature of 80C.
Some manufacturers also specify the components random failure rate when operated at
full rating as well as in a backed-off (derated) mode. The specification may look like this:

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ec

80
60
40
20

20

40

60

80

100

Temperature C

Figure 13-3 Component rating.

Figure 13-3 illustrates how a dramatic improvement in the random failure rate may be
achieved by operating the component at a lower than operational temperature, or else by
imposing a lower load in terms of volts, amps, watts, Newtons, or whatever. It is not
unusual for certain satellite components to be thus derated to 50% or less of their rated
values.
Derating improves the failure rate not only during the random failure phase, but also
during the infant mortality and wear-out stages.

13.4.3. Redundancy

Redundancy is synonymous with duplication, i.e. we create redundancy by duplicating (or


triplicating, etc.) equipment. Functionally, redundancy is achieved by connecting units in
parallel rather than in series.
Looking at averages, the assumption that random failures occur at a constant rate has
proven to be fairly accurate, as long as the causes of failure are truly independent of each
other. Eq. 13.1 with its constant failure rate is therefore a valid starting point for
designing optimum redundancy into the satellites subsystems. The random failure stage
deserves a thorough analysis in the present text, the more so since it lasts typically 90% of
the satellites lifetime.
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olo
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.

A satellite owners functional specification will stipulate that the satellite shall perform
adequately in orbit for a duration of, say, 10 years with a probability of 0.7, and he
expects the manufacturer to demonstrate through analysis that this requirement will be
met. By adequately he means that the mission objectives are to be met in full,
allowance being made for redundant equipment replacing malfunctioning equipment if
necessary.

hn

Working from the top down, we assume that each of the payload and platform subsystems
is mission critical, i.e. the satellite cannot perform adequately if a subsystem fails. We
must therefore demonstrate that, at the end of the 10-year lifetime, the following identity
applies:
Psat = PpayloadPpowerPattitudePpropulsionPOBDHPS&MPthermal 0.7

(13.2)

fT

ec

In our example, the OBDH includes TT&C, and the subscript S&M stands for Structures
& Mechanisms.

Q: Why are the subsystem probabilities in Eq 13.2 multiplied instead of added together?

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A: In probability theory the word and corresponds to multiplication, while or is


represented by the plus sign. Eq 13.2 therefore states that Ppayload and Ppower and Pattitude and
... must all work. If the requirement had been for exactly one of the subsystems to work, we
would have said Ppayload or Ppower or Pattitude or ..., and Eq 13.2 would have been written:
Psat = Ppayload + Ppower + Pattitude + Ppropulsion + POBDH + PS&M + Pthermal 0.7

Where do these probability figures come from? They are not arbitrary, but have been
compiled and tabulated over the years from ground testing and flight experience. Actually
it is not the probabilities that have been compiled, since they are time-dependent, but
rather the failure rates . For these rates to be trustworthy, they must refer to relatively
simple items that have been built in large quantities in other words, components such as
diodes, transistors, capacitors, inductors, resistors, bearings, etc. The sequence of events
in reliability calculations is therefore to begin with the satellite owners lifetime
requirement, apportion the probability among the subsystems, re-apportion them among
the units within the subsystems, and then use component failure rates to design compliant
units.

The failure rates of components are usually given in FITs, which means Failures in 109
hours. Hence, = FITs 10-9, and the probability P of a unit surviving during t hours
equals e-t, as per Eq 13.1. (The reason for preferring FITs to is that the former
quantities are more manageable.)
FIT values for basic components lie in the range 1 50. In Table 13-1, FIT values have
been tabulated for some typical assembled units, along with their derived probabilities for
a 10-year survival. Thus we have
P(10 years) = exp(-FIT 10-9 10 365 24) = e-0.0000876 FIT

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0.991
0.991
0.957
0.991
0.983
0.983
0.996
0.983
0.974
0.974
0.996
0.991
0.987
0.949

Propellant tank
Thruster
Thruster latch valve
Pyrotechnic valve
Propellant filter
Telecommand antenna
Telecommand receiver
Telecommand decoder
Telemetry formatter
Telemetry transmitter
Telemetry antenna
Central processor
Mass memory
Remote terminal unit

100
400
600
50
0
0
700
800
500
600
0
300
100
25

0.991
0.966
0.949
0.996
1.000
1.000
0.941
0.932
0.957
0.949
1.000
0.974
0.991
0.998

olo
gy
.

100
100
500
100
200
200
50
200
300
300
50
100
150
600

P
FITs 10 yrs

hn

Solar arrays
Array switching regulator
BAPTA
Battery
Battery charge regulator
Battery discharge regulator
Power distribution
Sun sensor
Earth sensor
Star tracker
Gyro
Sensor data converter
Attitude control actuator
Reaction wheel

P
FITs 10 yrs

ec

Lifetime (years): 10

fT

Table 13-1 Typical failure rates for satellite units.

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In Eq 13.2 we have 7 subsystems. For the equation to be satisfied, it is clear that each
subsystem probability should preferably be (Psubsystem)7 > 0.7, or Psubsystem > 0.95. This is
an average, so if one subsystem falls short, one or more of the others will have to make up
for it with a higher probability.
Our top-down approach leads us to the units of each subsystem. If two active units A and
B are connected in series (Figure 13-4), we know that:
PAB = PA PB

(13.3)

Figure 13-4 Two functional units connected in series.

Let us see what happens to their combined probabilities if they are connected in parallel
(Figure 13-5).

A
B

Figure 13-5 Two functional units connected in parallel.

In this case we have:

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13 / Product Assurance

QAB = QA QB

(13.4)

where Q is the unreliability of the unit in question, such that Q = 1 P. Therefore,


(13.5)

olo
gy
.

PAB = 1 QAB = 1 (1 PA)(1 PB) = PA + PB - PAPB

all this under the assumption that units A and B are in hot standby (i.e. both are activated)
and that the switches (shown as diamonds) are perfectly reliable (P = 1).

Serial:
Parallel:

PAB = 0.9 x 0.8 = 0.72


PAB = 1 (1 0.9)(1 0.8) = 0.98

hn

Which of the two configurations is more reliable? Let us take a numerical example with
PA = 0.9 and PB = 0.8. Then:

PAB = 0.7 x 0.5 = 0.35


PAB = 1 (1 0.7)(1 0.5) = 0.85

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Serial:
Parallel:

fT

ec

The parallel connection is clearly much more reliable. The improvement is even more
spectacular, the lower the reliability of the individual units. For example, with PA = 0.7
and PB = 0.5 we have:

These two examples illustrate the fact that two unreliable units are best connected in
parallel, while there is little benefit in doing so with two highly reliable units.
The above discussion is artificial insofar as we are unlikely to want to connect two
dissimilar units in parallel. For instance, it makes no sense to connect the solar panel and
the BAPTA in parallel, because the BAPTA cannot make up for a failed solar panel, and
vice versa. However, we could improve the reliability of the assembly by letting the
BAPTA drive two separate but identical solar panels. If the panels are called A and the
BAPTA B, then Figure 13-5 is modified as follows:

Figure 13-6 Two functional units connected in parallel.

Here again, let us assume that PA = 0.7 and PB = 0.5. Then:

Unit A non-redundant:PAB = PA PB = 0.7 x 0.5 = 0.35


Unit A redundant:
PAB = [1(1PA)(1PA)]PB = [1(10.7)(10.7)] x 0.5 = 0.45

An even better result would have been achieved if we had duplicated the least reliable
unit, namely the BAPTA, instead of the more reliable solar panels:

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Unit B redundant:

PAB = PA [1(1PB)(1PB)] = 0.7 x [1(10.5)(10.5)] = 0.53

olo
gy
.

In practice it is of course engineering nonsense to try to duplicate the solar panels or the
BAPTAs in this manner, so the above examples merely serve to quantify the advantage of
duplicating unreliable units.

hn

So far we have discussed redundant units in hot standby, whereby the spare unit remains
powered on and is immediately available if the primary unit fails. It is therefore assumed
that the lifetime of the spare is being consumed at the same rate as the operational unit. In
cold standby, the spare unit is switched off until such time that it is needed, such that its
body clock (i.e. time t) does not start ticking until it is switched on. The following
identities apply:
Two units A in hot redundancy:
PAA(t) = 1 [1 PA(t)]2
(as per Eq 13.5)

ec

(13.6)

fT

Two units A in cold redundancy:


PAA(t) = PA(t) (1 + t)

(13.7)

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The relative reliability of two units in hot and cold redundancy is illustrated in Figure
13-7.
1.000

Reliability P AA

0.998
0.996

Cold

0.994
0.992
0.990

Hot

0.988
0.986
0.984

10

15

Lifetime t (years)

Figure 13-7 Reliability comparison between hot and cold redundancy


using two identical units A with a failure rate of 1000 FITs each.

Eq 13.7 assumes that the cold unit will never fail while dormant, and therefore cold
redundancy is obviously preferable to hot redundancy. However, the assumption itself is
flawed. Let us take a familiar analogy with two automobiles, one of which is in daily use
while the other is left parked in the street for many months. The active vehicle may
exhibit failures as the months go by, but so may the dormant vehicle due to a variety of
aging processes, like lubricants being contaminated by moisture, or disc brakes becoming
corroded. As a first approximation in spacecraft design, one may assume that the failure
frequency of the dormant spare is 1/10 of that of the active unit, in which case
Two units A in cold redundancy:

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13 / Product Assurance

PAA = PA 1 + (1 e 0.1t )
10

(according to the 1/10 rule)

olo
gy
.

(13.8)

Numerical example: Compute the system reliabilities PAA when two units A are connected
(a) in hot redundancy, (b) in ideal cold redundancy, and (c) in a more realistic cold
redundancy using the 1/10 rule. The nominal FIT rate of each unit is 1000, and the lifetime
is 12 years.
-9

-t

(hot)
(cold, no failures while dormant)
(cold, 1/10 of the failure rate of active unit)

ec

(a) PAA = 0.990


(b) PAA = 0.995
(c) PAA = 0.994

= 0.900.

hn

We have t = 1000 x 10 x 12 x 365.25 x 24 = 0.105, and PA(12 yrs) = e

fT

From Figure 13-7 it is evident that the advantage of cold redundancy over hot ditto
diminishes with shorter lifetimes.

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In addition to the three redundancy cases (a), (b), (c) in the above example, there is a
fourth operational scenario. Suppose we have n power amplifiers configured in active
redundancy, of which k amplifiers must operate at any one time (Figure 13-8).

Figure 13-8 A total of n redundant amplifiers, out of which k amplifiers (shaded) are working.

The probability that exactly k amplifiers will operate (not necessarily the first k, but any
k) is found from the binomial equation
Pk ,n =

n!
k
Pampl (1 Pampl ) n k
k!(n k )!

(13.9)

For example, if Pampl = 0.9, n = 6 and k = 4, then:


P4,6 =

6!
0.9 4 (1 0.9)6 4 = 0.10
4!(6 4)!

This low value may come as a surprise, since intuitively one would expect 4 such reliable
amplifiers to work with a high probability. Let us plot Pn,k for all values of k from 0 to 6
and see what happens.

424

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olo
gy
.

13 / Product Assurance

ec

Figure 13-9 Probability of exactly k amplifiers out of n working.

fT

The graph confirms our calculation, i.e. P4,6 = 0.10. The reason for the low value is that,
because the amplifiers are so reliable, the most likely situation is that all of them work, so
the probability that 4 (and only 4) function is actually lower. That said, the probability
that all 6 amplifiers work is only 0.5 in our example.

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The engineer in charge of designing the amplifier system is probably more interested in
knowing the probability that at least 4 out of 6 amplifiers work, rather than the
probability that exactly 4 out of 6 function. In this case the question may be rephrased as
follows: What is the probability that exactly 4 work, or exactly 5 work, or exactly 6
work. Remember from our earlier discussion that the word or corresponds to the plus
sign in probability theory. Therefore:
P4,6 =

6!
6!
6!
0.9 4 (1 0.9) 6 4 +
0.9 5 (1 0.9) 65 +
0.9 6 (1 0.9) 66 =
4!(6 4)!
5!(6 5)!
6!(6 6)!
= 0.10 + 0.35 + 0.53 = 0.98

given that 0! = 1 and 0.90 = 1. In other words, the probability that at least 4 out of 6
amplifiers operate correctly is 0.98, which in most missions would be an acceptable
value. Generally speaking, the probability that at least k out of n redundant units work is
found from the following identity:
n

Pk ,n =
i =k

n!
P i (1 P ) n i
i!(n i )!

(13.10)

In Figure 13-10 we have plotted Eq 13.10 for various values of unit probability P.

425

1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00

Punit = 0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

hn

Number of attempts k

olo
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.

Cumulative probability of success


Pn,k

13 / Product Assurance

Figure 13-10 Probability of at least k units out of n working.

fT

ec

For example, the probability of at least 5 out of 6 units working is 0.9 if the units
reliability Punit = 0.9. If the units reliability is very poor, say 0.5, then we can only expect
at least 2 units out of 6 to work with a 0.9 probability. And so forth.

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We are now ready to examine the need for redundancy in the various subsystems of a
hypothetical communications satellite shown in Figure 13-11. We will use the reliability
figures from Table 13-1.

Figure 13-11 Hypothetical GEO communications satellite


with deployable solar panels driven by BAPTAs,
a deployable parabolic antenna, a deployable TT&C mast, two thrusters,
and a set of reaction wheels.

At the beginning of this Section we made the assumption that a satellite owner might
stipulate a 10-year lifetime with a probability of 0.7. For this requirement to be met, we
calculated that the average reliability of each of the seven subsystems should be = 0.95,
and that if one subsystem fell below that threshold, the others would have to make up for
it.
Let us begin with the power management subsystem (Figure 13-12).

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Battery
charge
regulator
P5=0.983

Array
switching
regulator
P4=0.991

Battery
P6=0.991

Solar
panel
P3=0.991

Array
switching
regulator
P4=0.991

Battery
discharge
regulator
P7=0.983

Power
distribution
P8=0.996

olo
gy
.

Solar
panel
P1=0.991

Ppower = P1P2P3P4P5P6P7P8 = 0.920

hn

Figure 13-12 Reliability diagram for the power management subsystem.

fT

ec

Note the absence of solar panel deployment mechanisms in Figure 13-12. In Chapter 9 we
stated that mechanisms are notoriously unreliable, so why are they not included? The
reason is that here we are dealing with reliability during the random failure phase that
lasts for years, while deployments take place only once immediately after launch. Failure
of once-only deployments therefore belongs in the infant mortality phase of a satellites
lifetime.

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Also note that we have omitted the readily predictable (i.e. not random) phenomenon of
solar cell degradation due to UV radiation. This phenomenon belongs in the wear-out
phase of the satellites lifetime. However, solar cell failures due to open or short circuits
are random and are therefore included in the reliability figure for solar panels.
Even though the solar panel & array switching regulator pairs are connected in parallel in
the actual satellite, the satellite usually requires the power output from both. This means
that both pairs are mission critical, and they are therefore represented in series in Figure
13-12. The other units are also assumed to be mission critical and are connected in series.
The BAPTAs are found under Mechanisms in Figure 13-16 below.
The reliability diagram for the attitude management subsystem is shown in Figure 13-13.

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Sun sensor
P1=0.983

Earth
sensor
P2=0.974

Star tracker
P3=0.974

Earth
sensor
P2=0.974

Star tracker
P3=0.974

Gyro
P4=0.996

Sensor data
conversion
P5=0.991

Gyro
P4=0.996

olo
gy
.

Sun sensor
P1=0.983

Reaction
wheel 1
P7=0.949

hn

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Reaction
wheel 4
P7=0.949

Thruster
valve 2
P8=0.949

Thruster 1
P9=0.966

ec

Reaction
wheel 3
P7=0.949

Thruster
valve 1
P8=0.949

Thruster 2
P9=0.966

fT

Attitude
controller &
actuator
P6=0.987

Reaction
wheel 2
P7=0.949

Pattitude = [1 (1-P1)2] [1 (1-P2)2] [1 (1-P3)2] [1 (1-P4)2]P5P6


4
4!
i
4 i
[
] [1 (1-P8P9)2] = 0.956
P7 (1 P7 )
i = 3 i ! ( 4 i )!

Figure 13-13 Reliability diagram for the attitude management subsystem.

The first three attitude sensors are not as reliable as one would wish (P < 0.995), so they
have been duplicated. The gyro, which is small, light and inexpensive, has also been
doubled up for good measure. One might argue that the sun sensor, the earth sensor and
the star tracker are not all needed at the same time, i.e. if one of them were to fail, one
might manage with the remaining two after some software modifications on the ground. If
this were the case, there would be a justification for omitting the redundancy.
The four reaction wheels are configured as in Figure 4-55, such that only 3 out of four are
needed; hence the binomial formula applies with n = 4 and k = 3 4.

Only one redundant set of thrusters has been included for simplicity in this example,
whereas a real GEO satellite would have at least six sets.
The propulsion subsystem in Figure 13-14 runs on monopropellant hydrazine. The two
tanks exist not so much for redundancy as to create dynamic balance. For practical
reasons, each branch has its own latch valve and filter.

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13 / Product Assurance

Prop
tank
P4 =991

Latch
valve
P3 =0.96

Prop
tank
P4 =991

Filter
P5 =1.0

Thruster
valve 2
P6 =0.949

Thruster 2
P7 =0.966

hn

Thruster 1
P7 =0.966

Filter
P5 =1.0

fT

Thruster
valve 1
P6 =0.949

olo
gy
.

Pyro valve
P2 =0.996

ec

Pressurant
tank
P1 =0.991

Latch
valve
P3 =0.96

Ppropulsion = P1 P2 [1 (1-P3P4P5)2] [1 (1-P6P7)2] = 0.977

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Figure 13-14 Reliability diagram for the propulsion subsystem.

The two thrusters in Figure 13-14 are intended for orbit control, while those in Figure
13-13 are for attitude control.
One of the most mission-critical parameters is the amount of propellant carried in the
tanks. In fact, propellant depletion is the most common reason for mission termination.
However, propellant depletion is not a random failure but a predictable one unless it is
caused by random failure of the thruster or its valve. Both of those events are covered in
Figure 13-14.
In Figure 13-15 we show the combined TT&C and OBDH subsystems. The telecommand
and telemetry functions are obviously mission critical, and cross-strapping is the norm.
The deployment of antennas does not figure in the diagram for the same reason as that
given above for solar panels. Once deployed, antennas are, for all intents and purposes,
totally reliable.

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13 / Product Assurance

TC| decoder
P3 =0.932

TM
transmitter
P11 = 0.949

TM
formatter
P10 =0.957

TM
transmitter
P11 = 0.949

TM
formatter
P10 =0.957

Propulsion
RTU
P5 =0.998

Central
processor
P9 = 0.974

Mass
memory
P8 = 0.991

Attitude
RTU
P6 =0.998

olo
gy
.

TM
antenna
P12 =1.0

TC
receiver
P2 = 0.941

Thermal
RTU
P4 =0.998

hn

TC
antenna
P1 =1.0

TC| decoder
P3 =0.932

Power RTU
P7 =0.998

ec

TC
receiver
P2 = 0.941

fT

POBDH = P1 [1 (1-P2)2] [1 (1-P3)2] P4P5P6P7P8P9 [1 (1-P10)2] [1 (1-P11)2] P12 = 0.945


Figure 13-15 Reliability diagram for the combined TT&C and OBDH subsystems.

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If the structure is going to fail, it will do so during launch, and the failure therefore
belongs in the infant mortality phase. The BAPTAs are of course mechanisms, but they
differ from deployment mechanisms by running continuously throughout the satellites
operational life. In Figure 13-16 they are shown connected in series, since both are
mission critical.
Structure
P1 =1.0

BAPTA
P2 = 0.957

BAPTA
P2 = 0.957

PS$M = P1 P22 = 0.916

Figure 13-16 Reliability diagram for the combined structure and mechanisms subsystem.

The thermal management subsystem is largely passive, give or take a dozen simple
heaters and an associated driver. Some of these heaters may not even be mission critical.
A survival probability of 0.995 is therefore realistic.
The probability of the satellite surviving for 10 years is obtained by multiplying the
various subsystem probabilities. Thus:
Psat = PpayloadPpowerPattitudePpropulsionPOBDHPS&MPthermal

= 0.960 x 0.920 x 0.956 x 0.977 x 0.945 x 0.916 x 0.995 = 0.710

Our design therefore just barely meets our satellite owners functional specification that
the satellite shall function in a satisfactory manner for 10 years with a probability of
0.700.
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13 / Product Assurance

olo
gy
.

There is no incentive to surpass the requirements of the functional specifications by a


wider margin because, one way or another, the over-compliance will cost weight and/or
money for redundancy or reliability that is not needed. Moreover, unnecessary dry weight
will translate into added propellant mass to operate the satellite in orbit during the
stipulated lifetime. Taken together, the extra dry and propellant mass are likely to trigger
an increase in the launch cost. Few satellite owners are willing to pay extra for an overcompliant spacecraft.

13.5. Quality Assurance

hn

Quality assurance (QA) is a catch-all name for the many tasks of ensuring that satellite
design, development, integration and test occur according to established PA rules.

fT

ec

A typical day in the life of QA may involve a review of proposed parts and materials,
inspection of an assembly line of printed circuit boards, checking that the assembly staff
are certified in skills such as soldering, participating in a change review board to ensure
that proposed design changes are notified to everybody concerned, and attending a failure
review board to help assess the consequences of a test failure.

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The role of QA extends from work carried out at home base to that being performed at the
facilities of subcontractors and suppliers. QA also includes incoming inspection of
delivered equipment, and surveillance of activities associated with handling, packaging,
shipping and storage of satellite equipment at all levels.

13.6. Configuration Management

It goes without saying that the tens or hundreds of functional units onboard a satellite
must function flawlessly together, but this is not a trivial task for two reasons:
1) Each new satellite design is unique and contains a large amount of cutting edge
technology. In the course of a satellites design and development phase, it is only
natural that the design of some units may have to be modified, either because the
contemplated design appears not to meet the specifications, or because the
specifications themselves have been changed. With each modification there is a
possibility that the electrical or mechanical interfaces change in a manner that
affects the design of other functional units.
2) Dozens of manufacturers are involved in the design and development of
individual satellite units. Usually these companies are geographically dispersed
nationally and internationally, so that day-to-day cooperation between the various
engineers is impracticable.

To ensure that everything fits, it is essential to maintain a centralized register of all design
and manufacturing documentation, and to record changes over time. The register must be
readily accessible by engineers throughout the industrial consortium. Maintaining an upto-date documentation database is known as configuration management, and the
responsibility usually falls under PA.
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13 / Product Assurance

13.7. Safety and Risk

olo
gy
.

Many activities during satellite processing are hazardous for the people doing the work,
for the facilities in which they operate, and for the satellite itself. Given the values
involved, an elaborate set of safety rules has been developed for each hazardous
operation. It is the task of PA to ensure that these rules are being followed.

hn

For example, during hydrazine fuelling of the satellite at the launch site, the operators
wear special space suits, called SCAPE suits (SCAPE stands for Self Contained
Atmospheric Protection Ensemble) that protect them from toxic fumes in case of a spill or
a leak. The suits are equipped with radio links for operator communication. All fuelling
activities take place in reinforced and ventilated bunker-style buildings. Non-essential
personnel are barred from entering during hazardous operations.

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fT

ec

Another kind of risk is that of satellite failure, with the attendant loss of the mission. In
the course of spacecraft development, design engineers are made to contribute sections to
a document called Failure Mode Effects and Criticality Analysis (FMECA). The authors
endeavour to identify every plausible failure mode that might affect a component or a
unit, and to hypothesize what the adverse consequences might be. Each failure mode is
classified according to the perceived level of criticality for the mission. For example, if a
TV satellite in GEO experiences abnormal battery capacity degradation, the consequence
might be that eclipse operation is no longer possible, and that the television broadcast
service has to be interrupted for max 72 minutes around local midnight during the 6weekly spring and autumn eclipse seasons.
The aim of producing the FMECA at an early stage is to identify risk factors and mitigate
them as far as possible. In many cases the FMECA may conclude that the cost of
eliminating a particular risk is too great, given the low probability of its occurrence. In
other cases, risks are dealt with by making the OBDH detect, identify and rectify
anomalies on its own. This process is known as failure detection, isolation and recovery
(FDIR) and is implemented in both hardware and software.
Managing the FMECA is a PA responsibility.

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13 / Product Assurance

13.8. Solved Problems


See Appendix C for solutions.

olo
gy
.

13.8.1 The final stage of a satellite transponder consists of five power amplifiers
connected in parallel in hot redundancy. Each amplifier has a reliability Pampl = 0.9. What
is the probability that exactly 3 out of the 5 amplifiers will work?
13.8.2 What is the probability that at least 3 out of the above 5 amplifiers will work?

ec

13.8.4 Write the formula for the subsystems reliability.

hn

13.8.3 The attitude control subsystem of a geostationary satellite consists of three attitude
sensors (earth, sun, star), two redundant A/D converters, a momentum wheel, a nutation
damper, and redundant pairs of thrusters for attitude control in pitch, roll and yaw. Draw
the reliability block diagram.

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fT

13.8.5 Calculate the subsystems reliability, assuming that each unit has a reliability of
0.9.

433

olo
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.

hn

ec

fT

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14 / Development & Test

14. Development and Test

olo
gy
.

14.1. Introduction

Subsystems

Satellite

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Components Units

hn

It takes upwards of three years to design, develop, build and launch a medium-sized
satellite. During the first 2 years, the work described in Chapters 2 through 13 is carried
out. By then, all the satellites flight units should have been delivered by their
manufacturers. These are the satellites building blocks. Figure 14-1 illustrates the
hierarchical levels of satellite hardware and, where applicable, software.

Figure 14-1 Satellite hardware hierarchy.

It is useful to recapitulate the definition of components, units and subsystems.


A component, also known as a piece part, is an electrical, electronic or mechanical device
that performs a single function and is made of elements which cannot be separated
without destroying its functionality. Examples are semiconductors, transformers, crystals
and filters.
A unit is a complex assembly of components mounted in boxes or on substrates which
may be moved around easily. Examples are solar panels, batteries, encoders, decoders,
microprocessors, and attitude sensors. (In some American literature, a unit is referred to
as a component.)
A subsystem is made up of units interconnected by electrical harnesses or structural
members. They perform major functions and are not readily removable from the satellite.
Chapters 3 10 of the present book cover individual subsystems. Within each chapter we
have dealt with the major units that make up the subsystems. In Chapters 12 and 13 we
have also touched on the subject of components. In this chapter we shall focus on the
development and AIT of the completed satellite, while keeping in mind that much of the
discussion is also applicable to the lower levels. The complete range of activities at lower
levels is a vast subject and falls outside the scope of the present book.
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14.2. Satellite Development

Brassboard

Engineering
Model

Qualification
Model

Flight
Model

ec

Breadboard

hn

olo
gy
.

Early in a satellite programme, the satellite owner and his prime contractor agree on a
model philosophy for the satellite down to the unit level. The model philosophy spells out
how many prototypes of each item must be built, as well as their level of authenticity in
regard to the items that are to be flown eventually. The requirements vary depending on a
particular items previous flight heritage, or its similarity with previously flown designs.
A brand new design may call for several prototypes to be built, while no prototyping is
needed for a well-proven design. Figure 14-2 summarizes the classes of prototypes in
common usage.

fT

Protoflight
Model

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Figure 14-2 Prototype models.

The breadboard model is a first attempt to turn a paper design into a functioning piece of
hardware. The expression breadboard stems from the days when electrical components
were nailed or glued to a piece of wood and were interconnected with ordinary wires.
Nowadays a breadboard model consists of a printed circuit board (PCB) with tracks being
cut or wire-connected as required to make the circuit function in a rudimentary fashion.
A brassboard model is a cleaner second iteration of the breadboard model with improved
functionality. It is sometimes referred to as an elegant breadboard.
The engineering model is fully representative of the final product, including the housing
where applicable, but uses commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components.
The qualification model differs from the previous models by using space-qualified
components rather than commercial ditto. It is representative of the flight model in every
respect, but its severe test programme will render it unsuitable for flight.

The flight model, also known as the acceptance model, is the ultimate flight article. It is
also subject to testing, but the test levels are more lenient so as not to impair the
reliability.
Nowadays it is common practice to combine the qualification model and the flight model
into a single protoflight model. This is done to save cost as well as time, but is sometimes
the subject of controversy since it represents a compromise at the expense of design
safety margins.
The breadboard and brassboard models exist only at unit level, while the engineering,
qualification, protoflight and flight models may be found also at subsystem and satellite
level. The latter three models are built and tested under full product assurance scrutiny.

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14.3. Qualification and Acceptance

olo
gy
.

The three most important test concepts in spacecraft engineering are qualification testing,
acceptance testing and protoflight testing.

ec

hn

Qualification testing is intended to verify that the design meets the performance
requirements in all foreseen flight regimes, and that a healthy design margin exists to
accommodate a degree of regime uncertainties. This test is performed only once for any
new design. To probe the design margins, the test levels are quite severe typically 1 or
2 times the expected flight levels in terms of electrical, mechanical, thermal or acoustic
loading. The article subjected to qualification testing is the qualification model described
in Section 14.2 above. As already mentioned, the severity of the test renders the article
unsuitable for flight.

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fT

Acceptance testing aims to ascertain that the workmanship in manufacturing has been
impeccable. Since workmanship problems may arise any time, each flight article is
subjected to acceptance testing before being cleared for flight. The test levels are usually
in the range 1.10 1.25 times the anticipated flight loading, which is thought to be
sufficient to flush out most workmanship defects but not enough to impair reliability. The
test duration is shorter than in the case of qualification.
Protoflight testing is a compromise between qualification and acceptance to save cost.
The compromise usually consists in exposing the article to qualification test levels at
acceptance durations.

14.4. Assembly, Integration and Test

Once the integration of the satellite is complete, a lengthy test campaign begins, first on
the prime contractors premises, and later at the launch site. If all goes well, the entire
assembly, integration and test (AIT) phase requires typically a year to complete. When
design or manufacturing flaws are discovered in the course of testing, a programme delay
lasting from a few days to several years may ensue, sometimes with disastrous
consequences for the overall mission.
This is a simplified description of development and AIT at the satellite level. Similar
development and AIT programmes exist at subsystem, unit and component level.
Sometimes the programmes overlap, especially when problems are encountered along the
way.

14.5. AIT Facilities

Satellites are integrated in large halls equipped with the necessary mechanical ground
support equipment (MGSE), consisting mostly of cranes, slings, turntables and
containers. The air in the halls is maintained within tight temperature, humidity and
cleanliness limits. Electrical ground support equipment (EGSE) is accommodated in
adjacent rooms. The EGSE centerpiece is a bank of computers and peripherals linked to
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the satellite via cables. The computers are used to validate the progress of integration, and
to perform extensive functional tests of the finished spacecraft.

olo
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.

Testing proper consists in exposing the satellite to the various parameters in outer space
that are likely to affect its ability to function, such as vacuum, weightlessness,
temperature extremes, and static as well as dynamic launch loads. Not only are these
simulations difficult to perform realistically, but they are also very costly, and the test
programme is therefore by necessity a compromise between the achievable and the
affordable.
14.5.1. Static Loads

ec

hn

The loads to be simulated are those encountered during the ascent of the launch vehicle
(Figure 14-3), as well as those that the satellite might experience during ground
transportation.
6

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Acceleration (g)

3
2
1

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Flight duration (sek)

Figure 14-3 Typical longitudinal acceleration profile of a three-stage launch vehicle.

While Figure 14-3 shows the longitudinal (axial) acceleration, there are also transverse
(lateral) accelerations to contend with.
There are two approaches to simulating static loads on the ground. One method is to place
the satellite on a horizontal centrifuge, the other is to use hydraulic jacks that act on the
satellite in strategic places.
The centrifuge has the advantage of exposing all parts of the satellite to acceleration,
although unrealistic acceleration gradients arise due to the different radii from the
centrifuge hub to the various parts of the satellite (Figure 14-4). This is so because the
centrifugal force Fc = mr2, while the equivalent acceleration force Fa = ma, such that a
= r2.

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r1

Figure 14-4 Acceleration gradients on a centrifuge.

olo
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.

r2

hn

Other drawbacks with the centrifuge are the high cost and the difficulty in measuring
structural deflections in the satellite.

fT

ec

Hydraulic jacks mounted on a jig (whiffle-tree) overcome the disadvantages of the


centrifuge, and this approach is therefore the most common. However, with the number of
jacks being limited for practical reasons, it is not possible to achieve a fully realistic
distribution of loads across the satellite. A degree of interpolation is possible using the
mathematical model of the satellites structure.
14.5.2. Dynamic Loads

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Recall from Section 12.2.2 that dynamic loads are broken down into sinusoidal, random,
acoustic and shock loads. The first two kinds of load are simulated by placing the satellite
on a shaker, which is a computer-driven electromechanical vibration table with three
degrees of freedom (along the x, y and z axes). The shaker may be driven in sinusoidal or
random mode, and the frequency may be swept across a preset spectral range over a given
time (Figure 14-5). The amplitude and frequency response of the satellite is measured
using accelerometers placed in strategic locations.
Accelerometer

Satellite

Vibration
table

Motor

Figure 14-5 Satellite shaker.

Additional accelerometers sense out-of-limit conditions which are fed back to the shaker
drive mechanism to reduce loading. This process is called notching the shakers vibration
level (Figure 14-6) at the satellites natural frequencies to prevent damage due to
resonance (refer to Figure 9-9).

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Amplitude

Notch

olo
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.

Nominal level

Notch Notch

ec

Figure 14-6 Vibration level notching.

hn

Frequency

fT

Q: The shaker is presumably simulating the rockets vibration input to the satellite. If the
satellite is going to shake to pieces as a result, isnt notching a bit like sticking ones head in
the sand?

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A: Not if notching is performed judiciously. In reality, both the satellite and the rocket are
semi-flexible structures and will absorb some of the resonant vibration energy. The shaker,
on the other hand, is totally rigid, so to simulate the structural flexing, it is necessary to
reduce the vibration amplitude in proportion to the predicted energy absorption.

To perform acoustic testing, the satellite is placed in a large hall equipped with horns
(trumpets) of various sizes to cover the different parts of the noise spectrum. The horns
are fed with nitrogen gas under electromechanical valve control. A microphone on the
hall floor provides control feedback to the horn drivers, as do accelerometers mounted on
the satellite.
Random and acoustic vibration cover approximately the same spectral range (Figure 12-3
and Figure 12-4) and are therefore somewhat redundant. Random vibration on a shaker is
preferred for relatively small, compact satellites whose main noise input arrives through
the interface adapter with the launch vehicle and therefore affects the backbone of the
satellite structure. Acoustic noise, on the other hand, enters mainly through the rockets
heatshield. Acoustic testing is therefore more appropriate for larger satellites with flimsy
appendages such as folded solar panels and antennas.
Shock testing is carried out by feeding the shaker with a representative impulse.
Alternatively, the satellite may be suspended from a ceiling crane a few centimetres
above the support surface, and then be dropped.
14.5.3. Temperature and Vacuum

The thermal design of a satellite is verified by placing the spacecraft in a solar simulation
chamber, while workmanship problems are flushed out in a thermal vacuum chamber.
Temperature simulation is conducted in near-vacuum to imitate conditions in space and
avoid thermal convection in the atmosphere. The satellite is therefore placed in a

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hermetically sealed vacuum chamber, inside which the air is evacuated to between 10-4
and 10-6 torr (1 torr = 133.3 Pascal = 133.3 N/m2).

olo
gy
.

A solar simulation chamber is a vacuum chamber whose short wall is covered with highintensity xenon lamps to simulate the suns radiation intensity and spectrum. The satellite
is mounted on a sting a form of motor-driven gimbal that allows the satellite to
experience various solar incidence angles (Figure 14-7). The cold temperature of space is
achieved by flowing nitrogen through pipes inside the chamber walls.

Satellite

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Sting

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Xenon lamps

Figure 14-7 Solar simulation chamber.

Solar simulation allows the thermal mathematical model to be accurately calibrated


against a well-defined set of illumination cases.
A thermal vacuum chamber resembles the solar simulation chamber, except that there is
no sting, and the xenon lamps have been replaced by electric heating elements mounted
on a shroud around the satellite. In some applications, these heating elements consist of
infrared lamps that may be individually switched on and off to create rudimentary thermal
gradients in the satellite. The steady-state temperature is regulated within a range
covering the extremes that the satellite is expected to encounter in orbit, plus a small
temperature margin on either side of hot and cold. Figure 14-8 shows a typical thermal
cycling profile during a thermal vacuum test.

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Temperature
Chamber
10 above evacuation
max mission
&
temperature electrical
discharge
check
20C

Cold soak

10

11

Time (days)

12

13 14

hn

10 below
max mission
temperature

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.

Hot soak

ec

Figure 14-8 Thermal vacuum temperature profile.


(Adapted from Gordon & Morgan [7] with permission from John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

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fT

As illustrated in Figure 14-8, a thermal vacuum test may take up to two weeks, with the
short cycles lasting 12 hours and the longer soaks requiring 72 hours. During the first
two short cycles, the aim is to observe the satellites response to thermal gradients while
ensuring that it reaches the equilibrium temperature at both ends. The hot and cold soaks
probe the satellites ability to function in a sustained thermal environment, while the final
short cycle flushes out any residual problems caused by the soaks.
The satellite remains electrically activated throughout the test. While the chamber is
being pumped down, attention is given to any tendency of high-voltage satellite
equipment to discharge abruptly via an arc to adjacent structures. Arcing is most likely to
occur at atmospheric pressures between ambient and vacuum, and is of concern during
the first few days after launch when air trapped inside the satellite is outgassing.
14.5.4. Weightlessness

Simulating weightlessness is highly desirable but virtually impossible on the ground. The
functions that would benefit the most from a zero-g simulation are deployments of solar
panels and antennas, heat pipe operation, and propellant management, not to mention
payload tasks related to microgravity.
In practice, only deployments are tested under any semblance of weightlessness. Figure
14-9 shows a solar panel being deployed while suspended from a ceiling-mounted
curtain rail and supported by frictionless air cushions. The aim is to create the
equivalent of weightlessness in the horizontal direction to ensure that the spring-loaded
hinges and the lock-up mechanisms work properly.

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hn

Air cushions

ec

Figure 14-9 Solar panel deployment under simulated weightlessness.

14.5.5. Antenna Pattern Tests

fT

Deployable antennas are maintained "weightless" in the AIT area by attaching large
helium balloons to them.

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Antenna patterns are measured by transmitting a selection of signals through the antenna
being tested, and using a calibrated receiving antenna for power measurement. The
primary aim of the test is to establish the shape of the main antenna lobe and the side
lobes.
For antenna pattern measurements to yield accurate results, they must be performed free
of reflexions and radio interference. Conducting the tests outdoors eliminates the problem
of reflexion but invites interference. Conversely, performing them indoors poses the
problem of reflexions from the surrounding walls. The solution to both problems lies in
building an anechoic chamber (anechoic = echo-free) whose floor, ceiling and walls are
covered with material that absorbs radio waves. The material consists of a foam-like
substance shaped into pyramids, as illustrated in Figure 14-10.

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Figure 14-10 Anechoic chamber.

14.6. AIT at the Launch Site

Although the satellite to be launched has undergone extensive testing at home base, AIT
activities continue at the launch site. From the moment of satellite arrival until lift-off, a
launch campaign takes 4 7 weeks depending on the chosen launch vehicle.
An abbreviated functional test is conducted upon arrival to ascertain that the satellite has
survived the mechanical stresses due to handling and shipping by air. The solar panels are
normally transported separately and must be re-installed. Hazardous operations follow,
which consist of installing pyrotechnic devices and filling the spacecraft with propellants.
Thereafter, the satellite is brought to the launch pad and is installed on the launch vehicle,
where it is encapsulated inside the heatshield. The EGSE remains connected to the
satellite via an umbilical cable, and is used for keeping the batteries charged and for
continuous monitoring of the satellites health up until the moment of lift-off.

14.7. In-Orbit Testing

After the rough ride into space, a careful step-by-step approach is adopted to
commission the satellite, i.e. to switch it on and assess its health. The extent to which
the satellite is tested e.g. whether to test redundant units is up to debate, considering
the risk involved in any activation, especially if nothing can be done should a unit prove
to have failed.
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In some projects, in-orbit testing (IOT) refers to the satellite's payload, while the platform
checkout activities in orbit are often referred to as commissioning.

14.8. Overall AIT Sequence

olo
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.

In many satellite projects, the prime contractor is rewarded financially if the satellite
performs according to specifications after launch. Alternatively, he may be penalized if
non-compliant performance is discovered. In either case, specialized in-orbit testing is
often conducted to establish performance parameters such as EIRP, image quality or solar
array output.

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A typical AIT programme for a telecommunications satellite destined for GEO is shown
in Figure 14-11.

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.

Payload module
Install receivers
Install transmitters
Install IF section
Install antennas
Ship to Prime Contractor

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Integrated satellite
Electrical functional test
EMC test
Solar panel illumination test
Propulsion leak check
Install thermal control
Install solar panels
Acoustic noise test
Separation shock test
Sine vibration test
Antenna deployment test
Solar panel deployment test
Spin test and weighing
Ground station compatibility test
Ship satellite to launch site

hn

Platform module
Install propulsion s/s
Install OBDH s/s
Install TT&C s/s
Install power s/s
Install attitude s/s
Mate with payload module

Launch campaign
Visual inspection
Electrical functional test
Propulsion leak test
Install solar panels
Install apogee kick motor
Install pyrotechnics
Propellant filling
Transportation to launch pad
Install satellite on rocket
Heatshield encapsulation
Recharge batteries
Countdown
Lift-off
In-orbit testing
Commissioning
Performance-related tests

Figure 14-11 AIT outline schedule.


The time line is typically weeks.

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14.9. Solved Problems


See Appendix C for solutions.

olo
gy
.

14.8.1 Name the four construction features onboard a geostationary telecommunications


satellite that are most likely to limit its lifetime. Explain in some detail their uses, as well
as the causes and consequences of their limitations. Also discuss reasons why it hasnt
been possible to overcome these limitations.

14.8.2 Give at least three examples of how the platform equipment onboard
geostationary satellites differs from that of low-orbiting satellites, and explain why.

First stage malfunction. The


cause of the failure was traced
to combustion instability in
one of the four first stage
engines 5.75 seconds after
ignition. High frequency
vibrations (POGO effect) had
a destructive effect on Viking
engine injectors. Autodestruct of launch vehicle and
payload occurred after 108
seconds.
The third stage fuel
turbopump failed 9 minutes
20 seconds after lift-off.
Failure of the gearing or
lubrication system was given
as the most probable cause.
The failure resulted in a
premature cut-off of the third
stage engine so that
insufficient velocity was
imparted to orbit the payloads,
causing them to fall into the
Atlantic,

Justification

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May 23,
1980

Failure event

Design (D)
or workmanship
(W)?

fT

Launch

ec

hn

14.8.3 Ariane has been one of the most successful and reliable launch vehicles on the
market. The causes of Ariane 1, 2, 3 and 4 launch failures are summarized in the table
below. Indicate in the two right-hand columns which failures can be attributed to design
(D) or workmanship (W), and justify your verdicts.

Sep 10,
1982

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May 31,
1986

Third stage motor failed to


ignite because of a sealing
defect of the engine's
hydrogen feeding valve.
Vehicle destroyed by the
activation of the on-board
destruct system due to the
vehicles deviation from its
programmed trajectory.
Mission terminated by the
range safety officer 4 minutes
36 seconds after launch. The
Board of Inquiry set up to
investigate the failure believes
that third-stage ignition
occurred but did not continue
normally. Fourteen
recommendations were
submitted for modifications to
the third stage and a review of
the third-stage engine
acceptance process.
Malfunction in the first stage
1 minute 40 seconds after
launch. The vehicle exploded
about 10 km from the launch
pad. The Board of Enquiry
determined the cause of the
failure to be an almost total
obstruction of the water
supply line to one of the four
first stage engines by a piece
of cloth and because of a
faulty connection which led to
the fire inside the No.3 liquid
propellant strap-on booster.
Premature shutdown of the
third-stage engine. The report
of the Board of Enquiry set up
to investigate the failure,
established the cause of the
shutdown was probably the
result of insufficient cooling
of the immersed liquid oxygen
bearing in the turbo-pump,
combined with other
aggravating factors resulting
in an overload to the bearing.

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Sep 12,
1985

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Feb 22,
1990

Jan 24,
1994

448

hn
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After a nominal lift-off and


normal performance of the
first and second stages, the
third stage motor ignited, but
when the gas generator
ignition valve opened, the
pressure in the gas generator
was low, resulting in an
engine performance which
stabilized at only 70 % of its
nominal steady state value.
Consequently the thrust
generated was insufficient to
complete the mission after a
total flight time of the third
stage of 740 seconds. The
findings of the Board of
Inquiry were that a blockage
in the flow of oxygen to the
gas generator in the third
stage engine was the most
probable cause of the failure.

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Dec 1,
1994

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Appendix A / Spherical Trigonometry

Appendix A: Spherical Trigonometry

Longitude

Equator

Subsatellite track

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Latitude

fT

ec

hn

olo
gy
.

The sides of a spherical triangle are segments of great circles. The plane of a great circle
includes the centre of the sphere. Hence, the circles represented by earth longitudes are
great circles, as are the equatorial circle and the subsatellite track of satellite orbits.
However, with the exception of the Equator, the latitude circles are not great circles.

co-B

co-A

Sine & cosine rules

Sine rule:

Cosine rules:

co-c

Napiers rules

sin a sin b sin c


=
=
sin A sin B sin C

cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos C

cos C = cos A cos B + sin A sin B cos c

Napiers rules with C = 90:

The sine of an angle equals the product of the tangent of the adjacent angles.
The sine of an angle equals the product of the cosine of the opposite angles.
Examples of Napiers rules:

cos A = tan b cot c tan b = tan c cos A.


cos c = cos a cos b
(also obvious from the first cosine rule).

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Appendix B / Matrix Algebra

Appendix B: Matrix Algebra

B.1

olo
gy
.

This Appendix covers basic matrix algebra with emphasis on vector transformation
through successive rotations of orthogonal coordinate systems. Rotation methods using
Euler angles, eigenvectors and quaternions are illustrated. The quaternion method is the
norm in modern satellite attitude determination and control.

Matrix Inversion

hn

Matrices are useful for solving simultaneous linear equations. For example, suppose we
have three unknown variables x, y, z and three equations with which to determine them:

ec

4x + 5 y z = 8
2 x + 3 y + 3z = 5
x 2 y + 2 z = 1

fT

(B.1)

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One way of solving for x, y, z is to begin by eliminating x, and then y, such that we are
left with a unique value for z. In our example, multiply the second equation by 2 and then
add it to the first equation:
4x + 5 y z = 8

4 x + 6 y + 6 z = 10
x 2 y + 2 z = 1

4x + 5 y z = 8

0 x + 11y + 5 z = 18
x 2 y + 2 z = 1

Similarly, multiply the last equation in Eq B.1 by 4 and add it to the first equation:
4x + 5 y z = 8

0 x + 11y + 5 z = 18
4x + 8 y 8z = 4

4x + 5 y z = 8

0 x + 11y + 5 z = 18
0 x + 13 y 9 z = 12

(B.2)

Next, multiply the last equation in Eq B.2 by 11/13 and add it to the second equation:

4x + 5 y z = 8

0 x + 11 y + 5 z = 18
11
11
0 x 11y + 9 z = 12
13
13

4x + 5 y z = 8

0 x + 11 y + 5 z = 18
0 x + 0 y + 12.61z = 7.85

(B.3)

The third equation in Eq B.3 now tells us that z = 7.85/12.61 = 0.62. Inserting this value
in the second equation of Eq B.3 gives us y = 1.35. Lastly, inserting these values for z and
y in the first equation yields x = 0.46.
In matrix form, Eq B.1 may be written as follows:

453

Appendix B / Matrix Algebra

5 1 x 8
4


3 y = 5
2 3
1 2 2 z 1

olo
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.

(B.4)

or, in shorthand notation, [A]V = [B], where V represents the vector (x, y, z). A quicker
way of finding x, y, z is to compute the inverse matrix [A]-1, such that:
1

(B.5)

hn

V = [A]-1[B]

5 1 8
x 4


3 5
y = 2 3
z 1 2 2 1

fT

ec

Unfortunately, calculating [A]-1 by hand can be a cumbersome process even for a simple 3
x 3 matrix, and becomes exponentially more difficult as the order of the matrix increases.
We must therefore resort to computer programmes such as Matlab or Excel to obtain [A]1
, and thereby x, y, z. (Some advanced pocket calculators also have this capability.) In our
example, the Excel function MINVERSE yields:

0.146 0.098 0.220

[A] = 0.085 0.110 0.122


0.012 0.159
0.286

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-1

0.146 0.098 0.220 8 0.463 x



Hence: V = [A] [B] = 0.085 0.110 0.122 5 = 1.353 = y
0.012 0.159
0.286 1 0.622 z

-1

Matrix inversion is greatly simplified in the case of orthonormal matrices, since [A]-1 =
[A]T, i.e. the inverse matrix is identical to the transposed matrix. Recall that transposing a
matrix amounts to inverting its rows and columns:

a11

[A] = a 21
a
31

a12

a 22
a 32

a13

a 23 ;
a33

a11

[A] = a12
a
13
T

a 21

a 22
a 23

a31

a32
a33

A matrix [A] is orthonormal if multiplying it with its transpose yields the unity matrix [1].
A unity matrix has all the elements = 0 except for the diagonal ones which are = 1.
Therefore, in the case of an orthonormal 3x3 matrix [A] we have:

1 0 0

[A][A]T = [I] = 0 1 0
0 0 1

454

Appendix B / Matrix Algebra

0
1

For example, the matrix 0 cos


0 sin

sin
cos

0
1

0 cos
0 sin

1 0 0


cos sin + cos sin = 0 1 0
0 0 1
sin 2 + cos 2

hn

0
1

2
cos + sin 2
0
0 sin cos + sin cos

sin =
cos
0

olo
gy
.

0
1

0 cos
0 sin

sin is orthonormal, because


cos

B.2

ec

All the matrices in Sections B.2 and B.3 below are orthonormal.

Coordinate Transformations

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fT

Often it is useful to translate a vector from one coordinate system to another. For
example, it is easier to predict the eclipse duration of a satellite if its radius vector is
expressed in a heliocentric coordinate system rather than in a geocentric ditto. The
translation is performed via a series of matrix multiplications, whereby each
multiplication corresponds to a rotation of one coordinate system to align it with another.
Take a vector V as defined in a coordinate system whose orthogonal axes are defined by
the unit vectors i, j, k.
We have: V = V1 i + V2 j +V3 k. The vector length V = |V| = (V12 + V22 + V32).
Now assume that we wish to express V in a different coordinate system x, y, z, where x =
i. Here we are dealing with a simple rotation of the i, j, k system around the i-axis by
some angle .
z

x=i

x=i

Figure B-1 Positive and negative rotation of coordinate system.

Looking at the figure to the left, we are rotating the i, j, k system in a positive direction
(according to the right-hand rule) in order to align it with the x, y, z system. We notice
that:
455

Appendix B / Matrix Algebra

i
j =
k

1 0
0
0 cos -sin
0 sin cos

x
y
z

(B.6)

olo
gy
.

i = 1x +
0y +
0z
j = 0x + cos y sin z
k = 0x + sin y + cos z

The figure to the right in Figure B-1 shows a negative rotation. The corresponding
rotation matrix is obtained in the same manner:

i
j =
k

1 0
0
0 cos sin
0 -sin cos

x
y
z

(B.7)

hn

i = 1x +
0y +
0z
j = 0x + cos y + sin z
k = 0x - sin y + cos z

fT

ec

The difference between the rotation matrices in Eq B.6 and B.7 is the sign between the
two sinus functions. It is therefore important to keep in mind whether the rotation is
positive or negative according to the right-hand convention. (It is sufficient to memorize
the matrix in Eq B.6, since the matrix in B.7 is arrived at naturally by replacing with
.)

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The elements in an orthonormal matrix constitute direction cosines, i.e. they are the
cosine of the angles between each set of axes i, j, k and x, y, z. Thus Eq B.7 may be
written out as follows (with o as the vector dot product operator):

i i  x i  y i  z x cos 0



j = j  x j  y j  z y = cos 90
k k  x k  y k  z z cos 90 

cos 90 
cos 90  x 1
0



cos
cos(90 ) y = 0 cos


z 0 sin
cos(90 + )
cos

0 x

sin y
cos z

So far we have assumed that the coordinate transformation occurs by simple rotation
around the i = x axis by an angle . If instead a positive rotation takes place around the j
= y axis by some angle , we find through similar reasoning that:

i = cos x + 0y + sin z
j=
0x + 1y +
0z
k = -sinx + 0y + cos z

i
j =
k

cos 0 sin
0
1
0
-sin 0 cos

x
y
z

(B.8)

while a positive rotation around the k = z axis by an angle axis takes the form:

i = cos x - sin y + 0 z
j = sin x + cos y + 0 z
k=
0x +
0y + 1 z

i
j =
k

cos -sin 0
sin cos 0
0
0 1

x
y
z

(B.9)

The angles , , , etc. are known as Euler angles. An example of Euler angles is roll,
pitch and yaw, as discussed in Chapter 5. These angles may serve to illustrate why [A][B]
[B][A], i.e. why the order of rotations is important (Figure B-2).

456

Appendix B / Matrix Algebra

Roll 90

Roll 90

Pitch 45

hn

Level flight

Pitch 45

olo
gy
.

Level flight

Figure B-2 Different rotation sequence leads to a different result.

ec

In shorthand notation, we may write [Rx()] to denote the positive rotation matrix in Eq
B.6, [Ry()] for the matrix in Eq B.8, and [Rz()] for the matrix in Eq B.9. For negative
rotation we will write [Rx(-)], etc.

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fT

Returning to our vector V = V1 i + V2 j +V3 k, we may now be faced with the problem of
translating it into a different coordinate system u,v,w involving several elemental
rotations of the kind illustrated in Eq B.6, B.8 and B.9 above. The transformation might
look like this:

Vuvw = [Ry()][Rx()][Rz(-)][Ry()] Vijk

(B.10)

Using Matlab, Excel or similar programmes, this transformation is relatively


straightforward, provided the input data is correctly defined in terms of sequence and
signs.
Note that it makes no difference whether we multiply the matrices in Eq B.10 as follows:
Vuvw = [Ry()][Rx()][Rz(-)][Ry()] Vijk

or as follows:

Vuvw = [Ry()][Rx()][Rz(-)][Ry()] Vijk

although the first method is preferable, as each multiplication results in only 3 elements
instead of 9.
However, reversing the order of internal pairs of matrices is not admissible, since in
general [A][B] [B][A] according to Figure B-2 above.

Example: Transfer the radius vector r from the geocentric orbital coordinate system to
the geocentric-equatorial rotating system (cf. Section 2.4.1).

457

Appendix B / Matrix Algebra

r =

r1

r2
r3

= [Rz()] [Rz(-)] [Rx(-i)] [Rz(-)] [Rz(-)] rs

olo
gy
.

We have already performed this exercise in Section 2.4.2, as we sought to plot a


subsatellite track on the earths surface. Using mostly negative rotations, we arrived at Eq
2.20. Expressed differently, and using the convention in Eq B.10:

(B.11)

Using an even more compressed notation, we may write Eq B.11 as:

r = [R]/s rs

hn

(B.12)

ec

where [R]/s is the rotation matrix that brings a vector in the s-system to the -system.
Inserting rs = (1, 0, 0)T in Eq B.11, we obtain r as:

fT

c c c c c c s s c s ci s c c s ci c s + s s c c s s s s + s c ci s c + s c ci c s

r = s c c c + s c s s + s s ci s c + s s ci c s + c s c c c s s s + c c ci s c + c c ci c s

si s c + si c sv

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with s_ denoting sin_ and c_ being shorthand for cos_. The first vector component is the
direction cosine for the r-vector with respect to the x-axis; the second component is the
direction cosine with respect to the y-axis; and the third component is the direction
cosine with respect to the z-axis.

B.3

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

As we have seen above, transforming the r-vector from the s-frame to the -frame using
Euler angles is cumbersome indeed. Arriving at the overall rotation matrix [R]/s is even
more arduous, since in the above example it involves 5 coordinate transformations with
each matrix having 9 elements. Considering that each transformation entails 33 = 27
multiplications, we have had to undertake no less than 4 x 27 = 108 trigonometric
multiplications to find [R]/s. Is there not an easier way?
A shortcut is available to us by employing a so-called eigenvector. An eigenvector may
be viewed as a shaft E, around which the rotation of the s-frame to the -frame by some
angle is performed in a single step. The question is how to find the eigenvector E and
the rotation angle .

458

Appendix B / Matrix Algebra


z

ys

xs

ec

Figure B-3 Eigenvector E.

hn

olo
gy
.

zs

or

[R]E = [1]E

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[R]E = E

fT

It is clearly in the nature of the eigenvector that the direction cosines between E and the
(x,y,z)s axes are the same as between E and the (x,y,z) axes, since E serves as a fixed
rotation shaft. Consequently:
(B.13)

1 0 0

with [1] being the identity matrix = 0 1 0 . (Note that a vector or a matrix multiplied
0 0 1

by the identity matrix yields the same vector or matrix.) The scalar quantity is known
as the eigenvalue and determines the length of E. Eq B.13 may be rewritten as follows:
[R]E - [1]E = {[R] - [1]}E = 0

or, written out in full:


r11

r21
r
31

r12

r22
r32

r13 0 0 x


r23 0 0  y
r33 0 0 z

r11

= r21
r
31

r12
r22
r32

r13 x

r23  y = 0
r33 z

(B.14)

Let us apply Eq B.14 to find the eigenvector and the eigenvalue for a simple 2 x 2 matrix:
3 2
, such that
[R] =
6
7

2 x
 = 0
7 y

(B.15)

This equality implies that the determinant of [R] = 0, i.e. (3-)(7-)-12 = 0, or


2 10 + 9 = 0, which gives us the eigenvalues = 9 and = 1. Choosing = 9, and
returning to Eq B.13, we have:
3 2 x
x

 = 9 which gives us y = 3x.


6 7 y
y

459

Appendix B / Matrix Algebra

3 2 x
x

 = 9 , i.e.
6 7 3x
3x

3 2 1
1

 = 9
6 7 3
3

olo
gy
.

Hence:

hn

Comparing this result with Eq B.13, we find that the eigenvector corresponding to the
1
eigenvalue = 9 is E = . Similarly, the eigenvector corresponding to = 1 is E =
3
1
. (A quick rule for checking the result: The sum of the diagonal values = the sum of
1
the eigenvalues, in this example = 10.)

ec

Example: Make a complex coordinate transformation first by making a 90 turn around


the x-axis, then a 90 turn around the y-axis, and lastly a 90 turn around the z-axis.
z

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z
y

Figure B-4 Successive 90 coordinate transformations.

Applying Eq B.7 through B.9, and noting the negative directions of rotation in the above
figures, we have:

0
0 cos 90 0 sin 90 cos 90 sin 90 0
1



1
0
0 cos 90 sin 90  0
 sin 90 cos 90 0 =
0 sin 90 cos 90 sin 90 0 cos 90
0
0
1

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1



0 0 1  0 1 0  1 0 0 = 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

0
0

1
To find the eigenvalue, we set the determinant of 0
1
0

0 =0
0

which yields = 1 as the only real root. Next, we look for the eigenvector. From the
diagrams above, we may conclude that the three rotations have achieved no more than
what one rotation around the y-axis would have accomplished in the first place. Figure
B-4 leads us to surmise that the eigenvector E = (0, 1, 0)T. Let us try it out for size.

460

Appendix B / Matrix Algebra

or

olo
gy
.

[R]E = E

0 0 1 0
0



0 1 0  1 = 1 1
1 0 0 0
0

We stated earlier that the eigenvector is like a fixed shaft, around which the overall
rotation takes place. Having found the eigenvector E = (0, 1, 0)T in our example, we have
yet to establish the rotation angle , which is readily calculated from the equation
1

= cos 1 (trace[ R ] 1)
2

hn

(B.16)

where trace[R] is the sum of the diagonal elements of [R]. In our example, trace[R] = 1,
and consequently = 90, a result which is confirmed in Figure B-4.

ec

It can be shown that:


[ R ] = (1 cos )EE T sin E + cos [ I ]

fT
e3
0
e1

e2
1 0 0

e1 ; [1] = 0 1 0
0 0 1
0

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e1
0

where E = e2 ; E = (e1 , e2 , e3 ); E = e 3
e
e
3
2

(B.17)

In our example:

0 0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
0 0 1

T
T

E = 1 = 1 0 0 ; E = (0,1, 0) = 0 0 0 ; EE = 0 1 0 ; E = 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0

0 0 1

From Eq B.17:
[ R] = EET E = 0 1 0
1 0 0

which is the same matrix [R] that we obtained following the long route via three
separate transformations. In summary, therefore, knowing the eigenvector E and the
rotation angle around that vector allows us to compute the rotation matrix [R] in a
single step.

B.4

Quaternions

The eigenvector method of coordinate transformation, while computationally more


efficient than the multiplication of matrices, still leaves us with a trigonometric function
and some annoying singularities as we move through the various Euler angles. A
quaternion is a mathematical device which frees us from singularities and some
trigonometry, thereby speeding up computation.

461

Appendix B / Matrix Algebra

olo
gy
.

The definition of the quaternion q relies on the eigenvector E = (e1, e2, e3)T whose
eigenvalue = 1. The quaternion also needs the rotation angle of the rotation matrix
[R]. It is deceptively similar to a vector, in that it has a vector part q = (q1, q2, q3)T, as well
as a scalar component q4:

q = (q, q4)= (q1, q2, q3, q4)

(B.18)

= e1 sin , e2 sin , e3 sin


(B.19)
2
2
2
2

q4 = cos
(B.20)
2
As before, the eigenvector E = (e1, e2, e3)T represents the axis of rotation, while is the
rotation angle. However, quaternions differ from vectors by their rules of multiplication.

hn

where q = E sin

1
1 + trace[ R ]
2

R23 R32

R31 R13
R R
21
12

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1
q=
4q 4

(B.21)

fT

q4 =

ec

We may also derive the components from the Euler rotation matrix [R], if known:

(B.22)

Conversely, the rotation matrix [R] is obtained from:


2

[ R ] = (q 4 q T q)[ I ] + 2qq T 2q 4 q

with

qTq = q12 +q22 + q32.

In analogy with Eq B.17, we have:

and:

(B.23)

q1

T
qq = q 2
q
3

0 0 q1

0 0 0
0 0 0

q2
0
0

q = q3
q
2

q3

0
q1

2
q3 q1

0 = q1 q 2

0 q1 q3

q1 q 2
q2

q 2 q3

q2

q1
0

q1 q 3

q 2 q3
2
q3

Eq B.23 may now be written out in full:

q1 2 q 2 2 q 3 2 + q 4 2

[R] = 2(q1q 2 q 3 q 4 )

2(q1 q3 + q 2 q 4 )

462

2(q1 q 2 + q3 q 4 )
2

q1 + q 2 q3 + q 4
2(q 2 q 3 q1 q 4 )

(B.24)
2(q 2 q3 + q1 q 4 )
2
2
2
2
q1 q 2 + q 3 + q 4
2(q1 q3 q 2 q 4 )

Appendix B / Matrix Algebra

0 0 1

Borrowing from our example in Section B.3, where [R] = 0 1 0 , we obtain from
1 0 0

1
1 T
Eq B.21 and B.22: q = 0, 2 ,0, 2 . Eq B.24 gives us back our [R].

B.5

olo
gy
.

Quaternion Multiplication

q' 2
q '1
q' 4
q'3

q '1 q1

q ' 2 q 2
q '3 q 3

q ' 4 q 4

(B.25)

ec

q '3
q' 4
q '1
q' 2

fT

q"1 q ' 4


q"2 q '3
q" = q '
3 2
q" q '
1
4

hn

If one rotation is represented by [R] and another by [R] as per Eq B.24, then it can be
shown that the resulting rotation [R] = [R][R], whereby

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The quaternion components q1, q2, q3, q4 are found from Eq B.21 and B.22 as follows for
the three standard rotation matrices:

Rotation
axis

Around xaxis
Around yaxis
Around zaxis

Direction cosine
matrix,
right-hand rotation
0
0
1

0 cos sin
0 sin cos

cos 0 sin

1
0
0
sin 0 cos

cos sin 0

sin cos 0
0
0
1

Quaternion

q1

sin

2 + 2 cos

q2

q3

sin

2 + 2 cos

0
sin
2 + 2 cos

q4
1
2
1
2
1
2

1 + cos

1 + cos

1 + cos

Table B-1 Conversion from Euler matrices to quaternions.

Whatever the transformation method, successive rotations are accomplished by


multiplying the corresponding rotation matrices [R]. A 3x3 direction cosine matrix
contains 9 elements (a11, a12, ... a33), whereas only 4 elements are needed to describe an
equivalent rotation using quaternions (namely q1, q2, q3, q4). It takes 27 computations to
multiply two direction cosine matrices, and only 16 computations when quaternions are
used, so the amount of computing power is reduced accordingly.
Note that Table B-1 applies to right-hand rotations. If a left-hand rotation is involved, it is
necessary to replace the argument with .
B.6 Summary of Rotation Matrix Derivations

463

Appendix B / Matrix Algebra

Using Euler angles (Eq B.12):


Using eigenvectors (Eq. B.17):

[R] = [R1()][R2()][R3()][R...]
[ R ] = (1 cos )EE T sin E + cos [1]

Using quaternions (Eq. B.23):

[ R ] = (q 4 q T q)[1] + 2qq T 2q 4 q

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ec

hn

olo
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.

464

Appendix C / Solved Problems

2.6.1

Eq 2.12: = 2a a /

, i.e. a 3 =

2
, and a = 6945 km.
4 2

Therefore: h = a R = 574 km.

Eq 2.14: V =
= 7576 m/s.
a

2 1
According to Eq 2.13: V = ( ) . We need to find r and a.
r a

hn

2.6.2

olo
gy
.

Appendix C: Solved Problems

Eq 2.4: a = (ra + rp ) = (Ap + Pe) + R = 24,421 km.


rp
c
Pe + R
= 1 = 1
= 0.727
a
a
a
a (1 e 2 )
Eq 2.3: r =
= 11,514 km
1 + e cos
and therefore V = 7.27 km/s.

fT

ec

Eq 2.5: e =

1
m
.
mV 2
2
r
Therefore Ekin = 26.4 x 109 Nm and Epot = -34,6 x 109 Nm. (Remember to express V in
m/s rather than km/s!). The total energy E = -8.2 x 109 Nm. Let us verify this result
against Eq 2.17:
m
= -8.2 x 109 Nm.
E=
2a

According to Eq 2.16: E = E kin + E pot =

2.6.4

The condition is met when d/dt = d/dt.


d
10 cos i
Eq 2.18:
;
=
dt
( a / R) 7 / 2 (1 e 2 ) 2

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2.6.3

d
5(5 cos 2 i 1)
=
.
dt
( a / R ) 7 / 2 (1 e 2 ) 2
The denominators are the same in both equations, so the condition is met simply by
manipulating the inclination i. We have: 5 cos2i + 2 cosi 1 = 0, which leaves us with i =
73.15 or i = 133.60 regardless of a and e. However, e must be 0, since a perigee is
needed for there to be a perigee drift. Note that the solution i = 133.60 calls for a launch
in a westerly direction, i.e. against the rotation of the earth, and is therefore unlikely to be
adopted in practice.
Eq 2.19:

2.6.5 If the orbit must never see eclipse, it has to be sun-synchronous with the nodes at
the dawn-dusk points. Seen from the north:

465

olo
gy
.

Appendix C / Solved Problems

We know from Figure 2-85 that the inclination of an SSO is always greater than 90.
Seen from the side of the ecliptic plane, the worst-case configuration that defines the
minimum radial distance a is as follows:

Equator
i

ec

hn

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Ecliptic

We have: R/a = cos(i - 90 + ) = cos(i 66.56), with = 23.44 and i > 90.
From Eq 2.18: a/R = [-cos i /0.09856]2/7, and therefore: [-cos i /0.09856]2/7 = 1/cos(i66.56 )
By solving this equation iteratively, we find that i = 101.3, and therefore a = 7753 km.
This is to say that the minimum orbital height h = a R = 1382 km.
2.6.6 Inclinations > 90 require a launch with a westward component. Vandenberg only
allows southerly launches (Figure 11-8). We must therefore choose the SW quadrant for
our launch.
1
360
tan
Eq 2.38: HH GMT = 180 + sin 1
( DD + 101)
15
365.25
tan i
HHGMT = 14h20m; HHlocal = 06h20m.

2
The number of orbital planes P =

3'
2

Eq 2.55:
The number of satellites per plane N =
3'
The geocentric coverage angle is obtained from Eq 2.57:

2.6.7

Eq 2.54:

' = cos 1
cos = 15.7 = 0.274 radians
R+h

466

Appendix C / Solved Problems


With P = 7.6 8; N = 13.2 13, the total number of satellites S is 8 x 13 = 104.

2.6.9

olo
gy
.

2.6.8 With the satellite launched in 2003, the inclination drift rate will be approaching
the maximum value of 0.953 deg/year (June 2006), so it is fair to assume an average drift
rate of 0.9 deg/year. The drift duration is therefore 3 + 3 deg divided by 0.9, or 6.7 years.
Eq 2.49 gives the radius of the inclination vector trace = 7.985 deg. The minimum
inclination will be encountered when the inclination vector passes the = 180 deg line,
such that imin = = 7.985 7.400 = 0.585 deg.
Let us first verify the orbital period. From Eq 2.4: a = (ra + rp ) = 26621 km.

Eq 2.9:

M = E e sin E ;

fT

ec

hn

From Eq 2.12: = 2a a / = 43,204 s = 12.0 hours. Therefore, each satellite will pass
through the apogee every 12 hours.
rp r
c
Eq. 2.5:
e = = 1 = a 1 = 0.742.
a
a
a
e + cos
cos E =
;
Eq 2.8:
1 + e cos
E1 = 153.9 deg for 1 = 169.8 deg, and E2 = 206.11 deg for 2 = 190.2 deg.

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M1 = 135.2 deg for 1 = 169.8 deg, and M2 = 224.8 deg for 2 = 190.2 deg.
M
M
Eq 2.7:
t=
; t =
= 3 hours. Therefore 4 satellites are needed in
2
2
any 12-hour period, knowing that the pattern repeats itself every 12 hours thereafter.

Refer to pages 3 6 and 3 7.


P
= Fc Fs cos s .
Eq 3.6:
Pmax
At BOL, s = 0 and Fs = 1. We also know that e 90 in the Eq 2.3:
2
a e (1 ee )
re =
, so that Fc = (ae/re)2 = 1/(1-ee2)2 = 1.
1 + ee cos e
Therefore, PBOL = Pmax = 1000 W.
7 years later we have s = 23.44 and Fs = 0.7 + 0.3 e-365.25x7.25/1000 = 0.721.
2
a (1 ee )
We also know that e 180 in the equation re = e
,
1 + ee cos e
so that Fc = (a/re)2 = (1-ee)2/(1-ee2)2 = 1/(1+ee)2 = 0.967.
Therefore, P7/Pmax = 0.967 x 0.721 x cos(23.44) = 0.640, i.e. P7 = 640 W.

3.6.1

3.6.2 The capacity Cused needed by the satellite is the product of the drawn current I and
the maximum time tecl in eclipse, i.e. Cused = I tecl. Here, I = Psat/Ubus = 20 A.
a
R
The maximum time in eclipse is obtained from Eq 2.29: (t ecl )max = 2a
sin 1 =

a
2126 s = 0.59 h. Therefore Cused = 20 x 0.59 = 11.8 Ah.

467

Appendix C / Solved Problems

olo
gy
.

However, we are not allowed to drain the battery completely, so there is a limit to the
allowable depth of discharge (DOD). According to Figure 3-20, the DOD depends on the
ratio tecl/( tecl). The orbital period is found from Eq 2.12: = 1.61 h, and tecl/tsun = 0.58.
According to Figure 3-20, DOD = 25% = 0.25, which gives us Crated = Cused/DOD = 47.2
Ah.

3.6.3 We must dimension the solar panels for the worst case situation, which occurs at
summer solstice when the solar power flux density is at its weakest and the obliquity
causes the greatest sun vector offset from the solar panel normal (namely 23.45). The
total required solar cell surface is (Eq 3.8):

hn

= 0.25 according to Figure 3-8


Fc = (ae/Re)2 = 0.967 as per Problem 3.6.1
Fs = 0.71 according to Eq 3.5
(s)max = = 23.45 at summer solstice.

ec

with

P
4000
= 18.77 m2
=
SFc Fs cos s 0.25 1353 0.967 0.71 cos 23.45

fT

A=

The number of 4 x 6 cm solar cells required is therefore 18.77/(0.04 x 0.06) = 7823 cells.

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3.6.4 Both satellites will wish to keep their solar panels pointed in a N/S direction for
maximum solar illumination. There are two stages, namely approach and docking:
(a)
Approach: During final approach, local shadowing will occur if the chaser gets in
the way between the sun and the comsat. One solution is to choose the time of approach
during the local night-time when the sun is behind the comsat, but this may prove
problematic for the chasers docking cameras which are probably dazzled by the sun and
are unable to make out the contours of the targets docking mechanism. Alternatively, the
target could turn its solar panels 90 during the approach, such that they are fully shaded
and therefore insensitive to local shadowing. The target might be able to rely on its
batteries for the duration of the approach. If not, the target will have to interrupt its
mission until docking.
(b)
Docking: The only certain way to avoid local shadowing of the targets solar
panels at all times and during all seasons is to turn the chaser 90 just before docking,
wind-mill fashion, relative to the target. The consequence is that the chasers solar panels
are poorly illuminated during much of the day, and its batteries will have to be sized
accordingly.

468

olo
gy
.

Appendix C / Solved Problems

Chaser
Target

During approach

hn

After docking

fT

ec

4.6.1 By turning the wheel clockwise, you create an angular momentum vector H
pointing away from you, according to the right-hand rule. When you try to bend the axis
downward, you also create a torque vector T which points to the left. The momentum
vector tries to align itself with the torque vector, causing the platform to turn counterclockwise as seen by yourself looking down.

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4.6.2 Any physics handbook will tell us that Iz = mr2, and that Ix = m/12 (3r2 + h2).
From Eq 4.14: = Iz/Ix > 1 as a condition for spin stability. Consequently h/r < 3.
4.6.3

The vector s is defined by the direction cosines, i.e.

s = (cos u , cos v , cos w)T = (0.799, 0.500, 0.342)T.

To ascertain that this is correct, we calculate the length of the unit vector: s = cos2u +
cos2v + cos2w = 0.7992 + 0.5002 + 0.3422 = 1.000, as expected.

4.6.4 Eq 4.52: H = Isat + Iwheel . Conservation of angular momentum requires H to


be constant during the incident, i.e. 0 = Isat d/dt + Iwheel d/dt, or, in our case, 0 = Isat
+ Iwheel . Let subscript 0 denote the values before the incident and 1 afterwards. We
are looking for 1.
= 0 1 ; = 0 1;

with 0 = 360/24 h = 0.00417/s, given that a GEO satellite makes one complete turn
around the pitch axis in 24 hours;
0 = 5000 rpm = 5000 360/60 = 30,000/s; 1 = 0/s; = 30,000/s.
We have: = -Iwheel / Isat , and therefore:
1 = Iwheel / Isat + 0 = 30 + 0.00471 300/s, or 5 rpm.

4.6.5

Refer to Appendix B.
0 1 0

Eq B.24: [R ] = 0 0 1 ; Eq B.20: = 2 cos-1() = 120.


1 0 0

469

Appendix C / Solved Problems

Eq B.19: e1 sin 60 = q1 = ;

e1 = e2 = e3 =

1
3

1 1 1
Eigenvector E = (e1, e2, e3) = , , .
3 3 3
Apparently the eigenvector is a rotation shaft that forms equal angles with each of the
three coordinate axes x, y, z. The rotation angle = 120 around E is 1/3 of a complete
turn. This suggests that the initial coordinate system has been rotated such that all three
coordinate axes have changed places, i.e. x y, y z , z x .

olo
gy
.

hn

z1

fT

ec

z2

y2

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y1

x1

x2

The eigenvalue is obtained from Eq B.14 by setting the following determinant to zero:

0
0
1

Hence = 1.

0
0 = + 1 = 0 ;
0
0

0 1 0

Verify by proving that 0 0 1 E = E.


1 0 0

5.5.1

r = rx + ry + rz = 7211 km; V = V x + V y + V z = 7.28 km/s;

Eq 5.18: e = (1/)[(V2 /r)r (rV)V] = (-0.0228, 0, -0.0343)T;


2

Eq 5.22: e = e x + e y + e z

= 0.0412;

Eq 5.20: = V2/2 /r
;

= 6926 km;
Eq 5.21: a =
2
Ap = a(1 + e) - R = 840 km; Pe = a(1 - e) R = 270 km.

470

Appendix C / Solved Problems

5.5.2

a = R + h = 6971 km; e = 0 (circular orbit).


Eq 2.14:
V = 7.56 km/s.

olo
gy
.

(a)
The first manoeuvre consists in rotating the nodes without changing the
inclination. The manoeuvre must therefore be initiated over one of the poles.
2

hn

Eq 5.27:
V = V1 + V2 2V1V2 cos = 264 m/s,
with V1 = V2 = V, and = = 2.
V

g Isp

Eq 5.42:
m1 = m0 1 e
= 43 kg.

The second manoeuvre involves changing the inclination without rotating the
(b)
nodes; hence this manoeuvre must be initiated over the equator. Sun-synchronism
requires d/dt = 360/365.25 = 0,9856 deg/day.

ec

Eq 2.18 yields i = 97,76.


2

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fT

V = V1 + V2 2V1V2 cos = 1023 m/s,


Eq 5.27:
with V1 = V2 = V, and = i = 97,76 - 90.00 = 7.76.
V

g
Eq 5.42:
m2 = (m0 m1 )1 e Isp = 134 kg.

The total consumed propellant mass mtot = 43 + 134 = 177 kg.

5.5.3

Eq 5.28:

= cos-1[cos i1 cos i2 + sin i1 sin i2 cos ] = 8


after inserting i1 = 90, i2 = 97.76 and = 2.

Eq 5.27:

V = V1 + V2 2V1V2 cos = 1055 m/s,

g Isp

mtot = m0 1 e
Eq 5.42:
= 151 kg.

The propellant mass saving = 177 151 = 26 kg.

Eq 5.43:
dm/dt = F/(g Isp) = 3.4 g/s.
t = mtot dt/dm = 151/0.0034 = 44,412 s = 740 minutes.
Note that the duration t is the actual thruster burn time. If the thruster is fired during 1
minute once per orbit ( = 96.5 minutes), then the total manoeuvre duration is t = 740 x
96.5 = 71,429 minutes = 49.6 days. This suggests that the manoeuvre in question is quite
onerous for such a small thruster.

5.5.4

5.5.5 Let the satellite be allowed to drift to the edge of the window before a correction
is initiated. The window half-size = 0.1.
Eq 2.47:
d2/dt2 = 0.002 deg/day2 in a westerly direction (Figure 2-78).
Eq 5.44:
t = 28.3 days.
Eq 5.45:
V = 0.16 m/s
Eq 5.42:
m = 217 g.
5.5.6 E/W: The worst case (i.e. the strongest E/W pull) applies to a GEO satellite
 = 0.020 deg/day2. Eq 5.45
located at longitude 120E (Figure 5-25), in which case
gives a V = 0.16 m/s per manoeuvre, and Eq 5.44 says that the manoeuvre must be
471

Appendix C / Solved Problems

repeated every 28 days to remain within the 0.1 window. In the course of one year, the
manoeuvre should therefore be repeated N = 365/28 = 13 times, such that the total
velocity increment over one year becomes VtotE/W = NV = 2.08 m/s.

olo
gy
.

N/S: In the worst case, the inclination drifts 0.952 deg/year (Eq 2.52). Assuming that the
drift is to be centered symmetrically around i = 0, the inclination should be managed as
in the polar diagram below:
= 180

i = 0.952
90

fT

ec

270

hn

i = 1

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Therefore, i1 = i2 = 0.952 = 0.476, and ~ 180 in Eq 5.46, such that cos =


0.99986. With V1 = V2 = VGEO = 3075 m/s, we obtain from Eq 5.48:
VtotN/S = VGEO 2 2 cos = 51.45 m/s

6.6.1

Eq 5.42:
Eq 6.1:

m = m0 1 e g Isp = 4 kg.

g I sp m
F dt
I sp =
; F=
= 20 N.
g dm
t

6.6.2 In order to change the inclination alone, the manoeuvre must occur above the
equator where, in the present case, the apogee and the perigee are located.

V1

V2

Eq 2.4:

472

a = (Ap + Pe) + R = 24,369 km.

Appendix C / Solved Problems

Eq 2.13:

2
1
V Ap =
= 1.60 km/s.
Ap + R a

Eq 5.27:

V Ap = V Ap + V Ap 2V ApV Ap cos i = 1,042 km/s.

Eq 5.42:

g Isp

mAp = m0 1 e
= 1,193 kg.

olo
gy
.

ec

hn

6.6.3 By performing the equivalent calculations for the perigee as in Problem 6.6.2, we
find that VPe = 10.24 km/s, VPe = 6.67 km/s, and mPe = 3,585 kg. The intuitive reason
for the much higher propellant consumption is that it takes more energy to divert a fastmoving projectile from its natural trajectory than a slow-moving projectile (compare with
a bullet propelled by a rifle and thrown by hand). Therefore, given a choice, an orbital
manoeuvre is usually performed at the point of lowest orbital speed.
2

(a)

Eq 6.1: I sp =

Ft Ve
= ;
gm g

m =

Ft
Ve

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(b)

fT

6.6.4

mVe
; Eq 6.1: Ve = g Isp = 14,715 m/s
Eq 6.4: U =
2q
Hence U = 148.5 V

m0
m0
= Ve ln
Eq 6.3: V = Ve ln

Ft
m0 m
m0
Ve

= 0.36 m/s

6.6.5 By triggering a V along the velocity vector V, the astronaut creates a new elliptic
orbit in which he is at the perigee initially. Because anew is larger than aISS, we find from
Eq 2.12 that the new orbital period new is longer, and therefore the mean motion nnew (=
average angular velocity ) is slower than that of the ISS (since = 2/). Consequently
the astronaut will trail behind the ISS the next time the station arrives at the perigee, and
the situation will only get worse over time.
V+V

Initially

Later

Later still

After one ISS orbit

Seen from the ISS:

473

Appendix C / Solved Problems

Apogee
V

Apogee

Apogee

Perigee

olo
gy
.

ISS orbit
Perigee

Perigee

Earth

hn

7.4.1 The full-scale decimal value of 8 bits is 28 = 256. Therefore, each bit offers a data
resolution of 1/256 = 0,0039, or 0.39% of the full analogue value.

1
C
= ln

N req B 2 BER
2
Pt Gt Gr 2
Gr 1
C

=

= EIRP

kTB 4d
N ach
T kB 4d

Eq 7.12:

fT

7.4.3

ec

7.4.2 The oscillator frequency = 216 Hz. The clock will restart from zero after 248/216 =
232 seconds, or 232/(365.25 24 3600) = 136.01 years, i.e. on 5 February 2136.

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Eq. 7.15:

Our task is to match (C/N)ach with (C/N)req. In our example, (C/N)ach = 4(C/N)req to
comply with the requirement of a 6 dB margin (since 10 log 4 = 6). Both equations
contain the bandwidth B in the denominator, so we may ignore it in the following. Thus:
C

N0

1
= ln
= 51.2 dB
2 BER
req

C
G

= EIRP r
T
N 0 ach

Eq 7.17:
Eq 7.20:

G
1

= EIRP r
T
k 4d

1
FSL
k

f = c; = 0.15 m.
d2 = 2Rh + h2; d = 2,829 km.

EIRP = [C/N]ach - [Gr/T] [1/k] [FSL] + [Margin] =


= 51.2 + 10.0 - 228.6 + 167.5 + 6.0 = 6.1 dBW.
2


FSL =
= Free Space Loss.
4d

Working with EIRP and G/T, instead of Pr, Gr, Gt and T separately, speeds up link budget
calculations, leaving the matter of transmit power and relative antenna sizes to a detailed
trade-off. Though the dB is a dimensionless quantity, it is helpful to record the physical
origin of the parameter by writing dBW for power, dBK for temperature, etc. The
arithmetic stays the same.

7.4.4

474

Eq 2.39: = 8.7;
Eq 7.22: 3dB = 70(/Dt) = 2 = 17.4;
Eq 7.16: Gt = 102.54, or 20.1 dB.

Dt = 0.6 m

Appendix C / Solved Problems

7.4.6

Pointing loss: Alignment


Polarization loss: Faraday

Lpoint1
Lpol

Atomspheric loss O2

Latm1

Atomspheric loss H2O

Latm2

Galactic & tropospheric noise temperature

Tgalact

Hot body noise (mainly sun)


Receive antenna pointing loss (1 deg)
Total:

Thotbody
Lpoint2
Ls, Ts

Figure
7-42
Eq 7.27
Eq 7.34

Loss
(dB)
0
0

Noise temp
(K)

0.2

0.04
8

0
8.2

230
3
13
407

653

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fT

Cosmic noise temperature

Lrain
Train
Tcosm

Rain loss/temp

Fig or
Eq
Eq 7.34
Eq 7.32
Figure
7-36
Figure
7-36
Figure
7-44

hn

Param

ec

Source

olo
gy
.

7.4.5 Figure 7-33: The coding gain is the difference in Eb/N0 between the uncoded and
the coded signals, i.e. 10 dB 2.4 dB = 7.6 dB.

Attenuation and noise due to rain are the most severe factors for the link quality. The hot
body noise level is potentially high, but it is unlikely that the sun would ever enter the
very narrow antenna beam.

9.4.1 According to readily available physics handbooks, E = 1010 Pa = 1010 N/m2 for
aluminium; the thermal expansion coefficient = 23.2 10-6; the limit yield tensile stress
ty = 450 106 N/m2; ultimate tensile stress tu = 520 106 N/m2.
Eq 9.5:
Eq 9.4:
Eq 9.2:
Eq 9.3:

Eq 9.1:

L = 0.7 10-3 m
= 0.7 10-3 m/m
= 7 106 N/m2 << ty
Fc = Ft = A = 55,000 N
with A = D2/4 = 7.85 10-3 m2
Fcr = 1,900,000 N >> Fc
with I = r4/4 = D4/64 = 4.9 10-6 m4 and Le = 0.5 m.

The beam will neither yield ( << ty) nor buckle (Fc << Fcr).

9.4.2

Eq 9.3:

Eq 9.1:

Fc = Ft = A = 550 N
with A = D2/4 = 7.85 10-5 m2
Fcr = 190 N < Fc
with I = r4/4 = D4/64 = 4.9 10-10 m4 and Le = 0.5 m.

In this case the beam will still not yield, but it will buckle because the compression force
Fc is almost three times the critical buckling load Fcr. Note that the stress remains the
same in both cases, whereas the thermal load Fc = Ft does not.
475

Appendix C / Solved Problems

9.4.4

k
= 10 rad/s.
m

Eq 9.6:

mx + kx = 100 x + 10 4 x = 0 ; n =

Eq 9.7:

fn =

Eq 9.9:

mx + cx + kx = 100 x + 5200 x + 10 4 x = 0 ; n =

Eq 9.10:

1 k
= 1.59 Hz
2 m

2 km

= 2.6

olo
gy
.

9.4.3

k
= 10 rad/s.
m

mx + cx + kx = ma ; 100 x + 5200 x + 10 4 x = 3924


c
k
x + x + x = a ; x + 52 x + 100 x = 39.24
m
m
c
k
1
s2 + s + x = a
After Laplace transformation:
m
m
s
given that the acceleration a at the moment of the rockets ignition corresponds to a step
function, and assuming that x (0) = x(0) = 0. The transfer function is given by:
a
39.24
39.24
X (s) =
=
=
2
c
k
s (s + 2)( s + 50 )
s s + 52 s + 100

s s 2 + s +
m
m

We have:

fT

ec

hn

9.4.5

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From the Laplace transformation tables:


1
e At
e Bt
e Ct

+
+
,
( s + A)( s + B )( s + C )
( B A)(C A) (C B)( A B) ( A C )( B C )

1
e 2t
e 100t
0.4 1 e 2t + 0.04 e 100t

+
x(t) = 39.24
100
2

48
50

48

Amplitude (m)

such that:

0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

Tim e t (sec)

The solution suggests that the spring, i.e. the adapter, will compress 0.4 m within about
2 seconds a rather hazardous situation in terms of buckling and eventual collapse!

10.6.1 At BOL: Aa = r2, while Ae = 2r2 + 2rh = 2r(r + h), since the satellite radiates
A
r
equally through all the surfaces. Therefore, a =
= .
Ae 2(r + h)
A
h
At EOL: Aa = 2rh; Ae = 2r(r + h) as before. a =
= 1/(2).
Ae (r + h)
476

Appendix C / Solved Problems

1/ 4

A S + q s
10.6.2 Eq 10.4: T = a
Ae

1/ 4

= 293.1 K; qs = 480 W.

Teq sun (K) = 357.73


Teq ecl (K) = 147.07
283.15
T0 (K) =
sun (min) =38.32
ecl (min) = 551.51

ec

200
h (km) =
6371
R (km) =
a (km) =
6571
(km3/s2) =398601
(min) =
88.35
te (min) =
37.22
ts (min) =
51.13
S (W/m2) = 1367

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fT

r (m) =
1.00
2
3.14
Aa (m ) =
2
12.57
Ae (m ) =
(W/m2K4) =5.67E-08
m (kg) =
100
c (J/kg K) = 900
qs (W) =
100
0.8
=
=
0.3

hn

10.6.3 Using Eq 10.9 through 10.13 (bold entries are input values):

t (hrs)
0.62
1.47
2.09
2.95
3.57
4.42

T
Tecl/sun =
Tsun/ecl =
Tecl/sun =
Tsun/ecl =
Tecl/sun =
Tsun/ecl =

olo
gy
.

Aa S
= 307.6 K = 34.5C; TEOL = 274.7 K = 1.6C.
Eq 10.3: TBOL =
Ae
These results are as expected, since the irradiated surface Aa is greater at BOL (= 3.14 m2)
than at EOL (= 2 m2).

Celsius
-7.19
30.76
10.96
41.40
20.25
46.85

Kelvin
265.96
303.91
284.11
314.55
293.40
320.00

Cecl =
Csun =
Cecl =
Csun =
Cecl =
Csun =

C
0.17
3.40
0.10
3.95
0.07
4.29

3.0

4.0

t/k+C
0.24
4.74
0.17
5.29
0.13
5.62

T/Teq
1.81
0.85
1.93
0.88
1.99
0.89

50

Temperature (C)

40
30
20
10
0

-10

0.0

1.0

2.0

5.0

Time (hrs)

10.6.4 The satellites radiating surface Ae = 4r2 = 3,14 m2. The transmitter consumes =
Pt/ = 450 W, such that the radiated power qs = 450 300 = 150 W.
477

Appendix C / Solved Problems

The equilibrium temperature is found from Eq 10.4:

1/ 4

q
= s
Ae

1/ 4

= 230,18 K = -42,82C

olo
gy
.

A S + q s
Teq = a
Ae
since S = 0 in eclipse.

mc
= 34542 s
3
4Ae Teq
The integration constant C is calculated by setting T = T0 = 20C = 293,15 K in Eq 10.12,
which gives us Eq 10.13:
Teq
= 0,7793
C = 0.1312 + 0.5 ln
T T
eq
0
The time in eclipse te = 35 minutes = 2100 seconds. Hence, from Eq 10.12:
=

fT

T = Teq 1 + 1.3 e 2( t / + C ) = 285.9 K = 12.8C

ec

hn

The time constant is obtained from Eq 10.10:

10.6.5 Let X = b/a = 3 and Y = c/a = 6. According to Figure 10-17: F21 = 0.07.

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F11 = F22 = F33 = F44 = F55 = F66 = 0 (flat surfaces).

F12 = 0.070 A2/A1 = 0.070 x 3 / 6 = 0.035


F13 = F12 = 0.035

Reciprocity rule:
Symmetry rule:

Let X = a/c = 0.167 and Y = b/c = 0.500. According to Figure 10-17: F14 = 0.120.
F16 = F14 = 0.120
F11 + F12 + F13 + F14 + F15 + F16 = 1
F15 = F51 = 1 (F11 + F12 + F13 + F14 + F16) = 0.690

Symmetry rule:
Summation rule:

cos i
Az = sin 1
= 343.8,
cos
i.e. with a significant westward component.

11.12.1 Eq 11.11:

11.12.2 Eq 11.7:

Eq 11.8:

V pot =

Vpot

2h
= 3.28 km/s
R ( R + h)

0
= 0
3.28

2 1
Vkin = =
r a
in the case of a circular orbit.
Eq 11.10:

478

= 7.56 km/s
R+h

Appendix C / Solved Problems

olo
gy
.

sin sin Az
sin Az 2.11

Eq 11.13:
Vkin = Vkin sin cos Az = Vkin cos Az = 7.26 ,
cos
0 0
since = 90 for a circular orbit.
Vearth = 0.464 cos = 0.232 km/s

Eq 11.15:

0.23
Vearth = 0
0

Eq 11.3:

2.34
2.11 0.23
= 7.26
7.26
V = Vpot + Vkin - Vearth =

3.28

3.28
2

ec

Eq 11.17:
= 9.30 km/s

hn

Eq 11.14:

Vtot = Vu + Vv + V w + Vloss = 8.30 + 1.00 km/s

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fT

g Isp

Eq 5.42:
m = m 0 1 e
= 44 tons,

i.e. the propellant consumed represents 88% of the lift-off mass. A more typical value
would be 80%, so this particular vehicle would either have to use a more efficient engine
(higher Isp), or else avoid retrograde orbits such as the SSO.

11.12.3
Launching straight east implies that Az = 90, while horizontal injection
leads to = 90. Eq 11.14 gives us Vearth = 0.464 cos(46) = 0.322 km/s at Baikonur,
while the corresponding value at Kourou is 0.464 cos(5) = 0.462 km/s.

= (398601/6778) = 7.67 km/s.


Eq 11.10: Vkin =
R+h
Eq 11.7:

Eq 11.16:

V pot =

2h
= 2.72 km/s
R ( R + h)

Vkin Vearth 7.35

VBaikon =
0
= 0 ;
V pot
2.72

Vkin Vearth 7.21

VKourou =
0
= 0 ;
V pot
2.72

VBaikon = 7.84 km/s

VKourou = 7.71 km/s

The saving in V needed to reach 400 km is therefore 7.84 7.71 = 0.13 km/s. According
to Section 11.5.2, the lift-off mass of Soyuz ST is m0 = 310,000 kg. From Eq 11.18, the
corresponding gain in propellant mass is found to be:
V
7840
7710

g Isp
9.81 300
9.81 300

=
m = m0 1 e
= 310,000 1 e
1 e

479

Appendix C / Solved Problems

= 310,000 (0.9303 0.9272) = 961 kg. Broadly speaking, this saving in propellant mass
may be used to increase the mass of the payload. (This statement is not strictly true, since
increasing the payload mass also increases the launchers dry mass m0.)

n!
5!
k
Pampl (1 Pampl ) n k =
0.9 3 (1 0.9) 2 = 0.073
k!(n k )!
3!(2)!

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13.8.1 Eq 13.9: Pk,n =

fT

ec

hn

olo
gy
.

12.5.1 Let m be the unit vector perpendicular to the solar unit vector s and the panel
length axis. Then the magnitude of the perpendicular force component F is:
Eq 12.8:
F = Fm = Fam + Fsm + Fdm =
A S
=
( cos sm + 2 cos2 nm + cos nm)
c
A S
=
( cos cos 90 + 2 cos2 sin + cos sin )
c
A S
=
cos sin (2 cos + ) = 5.68 10-6 N
c
The moment arm L = 1 + 1 + 4 = 6 m from the CoG to the CoP half-way along each
wing. The combined torque T = 2FL. = 68.2 10-6 Nm.
 t 2 and T = I
 , we have t = 2 = 2 I x = 1752 s =
With = 1 deg, = 12
x

T

= 29.2 minutes

13.8.2 Eq 13.10:
5!
5!
5!
P3,5 =
0.93 (1 0.9) 2 +
0.9 4 (1 0.9)1 +
0.95 (1 0.9) 0 =
3!2!
4!1!
5!0!
= 0,073 + 0,328 + 0,591 = 0,992
13.8.3

Pearth

PA/D

Pwheel

Psun

Pnutation

PA/D

Ppitch

Proll

Pyaw

Ppitch

Proll

Pyaw

Pstarn

3! 2
13.8.4 Ptot = [
P1 (1-P1)1 + P13] [1 (1-P2)2] P3 P4 [1-(1-P5)2] [1-(1 2! (3 2)!
2
P6) ] [1-(1-P7)2]

13.8.5 Ptot = 0.76

14.8.1 Suggested answers:

480

Appendix C / Solved Problems

olo
gy
.

Propellant: Most GEO satellite missions terminate as a result of propellant shortage.


Propellant is needed to perform attitude and orbit control. GEO acquisition and N/S
station-keeping are the most propellant-consuming activities. Overcoming the shortage
problem by embarking even more propellant is impracticable due to its weight and
volume and the attendant consequences on launch costs and propellant consumption. The
consumption is inversely proportional to the specific impulse, i.e. the higher the Isp, the
lower the consumption. Electric thrusters offer higher Isp and therefore better propellant
economy than chemical thrusters, but their low thrust force makes them unsuitable in
many operational situations.

hn

Solar cells: The power output of solar cells degrades over time due to radiation damage,
primarily UV. Power shortage forces electrical units to be switched off, and the satellites
functionality will suffer as a result until it becomes unusable. Coating the solar cells with
a UV filter helps prolong their lifetime but does not offer a definitive solution.

fT

ec

Battery cells: Rechargeable spacecraft battery cells lose their capacity over time as the
chemical properties of the electrodes and/or electrolyte change. Consequently the satellite
will no longer function in eclipse, and in most satellite missions this is unacceptable
(which is why the batteries were installed in the first place). Batteries are heavy, so
embarking more of them is not a popular solution, though modern technology has
improved their energy/mass ratio.

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Cathode erosion: Electronic equipment such as travelling wave tube amplifiers (TWTA)
and ion thrusters contain cathodes that emit electrons. Over time, the cathodes become
eroded, such that their ability to produce a well-focussed beam of electrons is impaired. In
the case of a TWTA, the widening beam impinges on the wave-forming coil (slow wave
structure) and reduces its ability to amplify. In an ion thruster, the widening beam leads to
a loss of specific impulse and thrust. No cathode material has yet been found that
eliminates the erosion problem.
14.8.2 Suggested answers:

Attitude control

Orbit
determination

Solar array drive


mechanism

GEO
Mostly chemical or
electric thrusters in
combination with
momentum bias wheels,
reaction wheels, and/or
solar sailing.
Carried out on the ground
on the basis of tone, PRN
or laser ranging.

Simple drive motor around


the N/S axis.

LEO
May include magnetic
torquing and gravity
gradient stabilization,
using the strong magnetic
and gravitational field in
LEO.
Onboard orbit
determination possible
using GPS.
Frequently no solar panel
steering, because either the
panels are body-mounted,
or the orbit is sunsynchronous.

481

Appendix C / Solved Problems

14.8.3

Sep 12,
1985

May 31,
1986

482

olo
gy
.

Without remedial action,


the failure would
probably have recurred
in subsequent launches.

hn

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Sep 10,
1982

First stage malfunction. The cause of the


failure was traced to combustion
instability in one of the four first stage
engines 5.75 seconds after ignition.
High frequency vibrations (POGO
effect) had a destructive effect on
Viking engine injectors. Auto-destruct
of launch vehicle and payload occurred
after 108 seconds.
The third stage fuel turbopump failed 9
minutes 20 seconds after lift-off. Failure
of the gearing or lubrication system was
given as the most probable cause. The
failure resulted in a premature cut-off of
the third stage engine so that insufficient
velocity was imparted to orbit the
payloads, causing them to fall into the
Atlantic,
Third stage motor failed to ignite
because of a sealing defect of the
engine's hydrogen feeding valve.
Vehicle destroyed by the activation of
the on-board destruct system due to the
vehicles deviation from its programmed
trajectory.
Mission terminated by the range safety
officer 4 minutes 36 seconds after
launch. The Board of Enquiry set up to
investigate the failure believes that
third-stage ignition occurred but did not
continue normally. Fourteen
recommendations were submitted for
modifications to the third stage and a
review of the third-stage engine
acceptance process.

Justification

ec

May 23,
1980

D/
W

Failure event

Faulty tolerances in the


design drawings have
been mentioned.

fT

Launch

D
or
W

The mention of
acceptance process
(instead of qualification)
suggests a workmanship
problem.

Appendix C / Solved Problems

olo
gy
.

hn

D
or
W

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fT

Jan 24,
1994

Both the cloth and the


faulty connection point
to workmanship.

ec

Feb 22,
1990

Malfunction in the first stage 1 minute


40 seconds after launch. The vehicle
exploded about 10 km from the launch
pad. The Board of Enquiry determined
the cause of the failure to be an almost
total obstruction of the water supply line
to one of the four first stage engines by
a piece of cloth and because of a faulty
connection which led to the fire inside
the No.3 liquid propellant strap-on
booster.
Premature shutdown of the third-stage
engine. The report of the Board of
Enquiry, set up to investigate the failure,
established the cause of the shutdown
was probably the result of insufficient
cooling of the immersed liquid oxygen
bearing in the turbo-pump, combined
with other aggravating factors resulting
in an overload to the bearing.
After a nominal lift-off and normal
performance of the first and second
stages, the third stage motor ignited, but
when the gas generator ignition valve
opened, the pressure in the gas generator
was low, resulting in an engine
performance which stabilized at only 70
% of its nominal steady state value.
Consequently the thrust generated was
insufficient to complete the mission
after a total flight time of the third stage
of 740 seconds. The findings of the
Board of Enquiry were that a blockage
in the flow of oxygen to the gas
generator in the third stage engine was
the most probable cause of the failure.

Dec 1,
1994

Blockage usually results


from contamination of
some sort.

483

Appendix D / Equations Summary

Chapter 2: Orbital Dynamics


(2.1)

Keplers 3rd Law

e=

c
b2
= 1 2
a
a

(2.2)

Eccentricity

r=

a (1 e 2 )
1 + e cos

(2.3)

Radial distance

a = (ra + rp )

(2.4)

Semimajor axis

(2.5)

Eccentricity

(2.6)

Mean anomaly

(2.7)

Elapsed time

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M = 2

ec

rp r
c
= 1 = a 1
a
a a

fT

e=

hn

2 = const. a 3

t=

M
2

cos E =

e + cos
1 + e cos

(2.8a) Eccentric anomaly

1 e

E = 2 tan 1
tan( / 2)
1+ e

(2.8b) Eccentric anomaly

M = E e sin E

(2.9)

cos =

cos E e
1 e cos E

olo
gy
.

Appendix D: Equation Summary

Mean anomaly

(2.10) True anomaly

1 3
5
11 4
e ) sin M + ( e 2
e ) sin 2 M + ...
(2.11a) True anomaly
4
4
24
sin M
= M + 2.2 e
(2.11b) True anomaly, curvefit
1.5 cos M
= M + ( 2e

= 2a a /

484

(2.12) Orbital period

Appendix D / Equations Summary

2
V =
r

E = E kin + E pot =

olo
gy
.

1 + e cos
e sin

(2.15) Flight path angle


1
m
mV 2
2
r

m
2a

(2.16) Orbital energy

hn

tan =

(2.14) Circular orbit velocity

(2.17) Orbital energy

ec

Vcirc =

E=

(2.13) Orbital velocity

(2.18) Nodal drift rate

d
5(5 cos 2 i 1)
=
dt (a / R) 7 / 2 (1 e 2 ) 2

(2.19) Perigee drift rate

r1
r = r2 = [] [] [i] [] [] rs
r3

(2.20) Coordinate transformation

= sin-1(r3)

(2.21) Geographic latitude

= cos-1(r1/cos) = tan-1(r2/r1)

(2.22) Geographic longitude

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fT

d
10 cos i
=
dt
(a / R )7 / 2 (1 e 2 ) 2

= cos 1

R
R+h

(2.23) Geocentric view angle

ru < r < rp

< 90

(2.24) Condition for penumbra

r < ru

< 90

(2.25) Condition for umbra

r1
re = r2 = [] [] [] [i] [] [] r
r3 e
DD =

365.25
101
360

(2.26) Coordinate transformation

(2.27) Days from January 1

485

Appendix D / Equations Summary

1
360
tan
180 + sin 1
( DD + 101)

15
365.25
tan i

(tecl )max = 2a

a
R
sin 1

(2.28) Launch time

olo
gy
.

HH GMT =

(2.29) Maximum eclipse duration

(2.30) Coordinate transformation

+ 15HH + = +

(2.31) Calculation of launch epoch

= sin-1(tan/tani)

(2.32) Node shift

ec

360
(DD + 101)
365.25

(2.33) Earths position in the ecliptic

fT

1
360
tan
+ sin 1
( DD + 101)

365.25
15
tan i
+ 15HH + = + ;

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HH GMT =

NE:

NW:

+ 15HH + = ||;

i = 180 - i

SE:

+ 15HH + = ||;

= 180 +

SW: + 15HH + = + ;
i = 180 - i

hn

a1
ae = a2 = [] [] [] [i] [] [] a
a3 e

(2.34) Launch time

(2.35) Launch epoch

(2.36) Launch epoch

= 180 +

NE & NW
HH GMT =

1
360
tan
+ sin 1
( DD + 101)

15
365.25
tan i

(2.37) Launch epoch

SE & SW:
HH GMT =

1
360
tan
180 + sin 1
( DD + 101)

15
365.25
tan i

(2.38) Launch epoch

R
= sin 1

R+h

(2.39) Earth subtend angle

' = sin 1
cos
R+h

(2.40) Earth subtend angle at elevation

486

Appendix D / Equations Summary

(2.41) Ground visibility angle

' = cos 1
cos
R+h

(2.42) Ground visibility angle at elev.

d = ( R + h) cos

(2.43) Ground visibility distance

R + h 2

2
d ' = R
cos sin
R

(2.44) Ground visibility distance

= tan-1(tan cos i)

(2.45) Longitude of subsatellite track

= sin-1(sin sin i)

(2.46) Latitude of subsatellite track

ec

hn

olo
gy
.

R
= cos 1

R+h

(2.48) Inclination vector in GEO

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i = (sin i sin , -sin i cos , cos i)T

fT

d 2
= C sin(150 - 2)
(2.47) E/W drift acceleration in GEO
dt 2
with C = {16.9 + 2.9 sin( 35)} 10-4

= cos 1 (cos i0 cos + sin i0 sin cos 0 )

(2.49) Radius of inclination vector trace

sin

= tan 1
sin

(2.50) RAAN during inclination drift

i=

sin
sin

di
= u 2 + v 2 (deg/year)
dt
7/2
1
a
i = cos 0.09856
R

2
P=

3'
2
N =

3 '

(2.51) Inclination during inclination drift

(2.52) Inclination drift rate in GEO


(2.53) Condition for SSO

(2.54) Number of orbital planes


(2.55) Number of satellites per plane

S = PN

(2.56) Total number of satellites

' = cos 1
cos
R+h

(2.57) Ground station visibility angle

487

Appendix D / Equations Summary

Chapter 3: Power Management


U
I = 130 cos 0.1

380
T + 50
GaAs: = 30 cos1.2

250
T + 50
Si:
= 27 cos1.2

200
Fc = (ae/re)2

Solar cell output current

(3.2)

Solar cell efficiency

(3.3)

Solar cell efficiency

(3.4)

Cyclic radiation factor

Fs 0.7 + 0.3 e-t/1000

(3.5)

Solar cell degradation

P
= Fc Fs cos s
Pmax

(3.6)

Solar cell output variation

s = sin-1[sin sin(23.45)]

(3.7)

Solar incidence angle

(3.8)

Solar array area

hn

ec

fT

P
SFs Fc cos s

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A=

olo
gy
.

(3.1)

Chapter 4: Attitude Management


n

I sat = mi ri

(4.1)

Mass moment of inertia, lumped masses

(4.2)

Mass moment of inertia, homogeneous mass

i =1

Isat = r2 dm
n

I sat = ( I i + mi ri )
2

(4.3)

Steiners theorem

H=I

(4.4)

Angular momentum vector

T
T
=
=
t H
I

(4.5)

Gyroscopic angular displacement

T = dH/dt = I d/dt

(4.6)

Torque and spin rate

T = dH/dt = I d/dt

(4.7)

Torque vector

T = dH/dt + x H

(4.8)

Eulers equation

(4.9)

Eulers equations

i =1

 x + y z ( I z I y )
Tx = I x

 y + x z ( I x I z )
Ty = I y

 z + x y ( I y I x )
Tz = I z

488

Appendix D / Equations Summary

(4.10) Solution to Eulers equation

2
I
I
2
s + z 1 z 1 z

I x I y

(4.11) Laplace trransform of (4.9)

x ( s) = 0

olo
gy
.

I
I
 x + z 2 1 z 1 z x = 0

I x I y

(4.12) Nutation rate

I
I
= 1 + z 1 z 1 > 1

Ix
I y

(4.13) Stability margin

ec

Iz
>1
Ix

(4.14) Axisymmetric stability margin

fT

hn

I
I
nut = z 1 z 1 z

I x I y

(4.15) Oscillating spin rates

I
I
nut = z 1 z 1 z

I x I y

(4.16) Nutation rate

nut = z z 1
Ix

(4.17) Axisymmetric nutation rate

I
nut = z z
Ix

(4.18) Axisymmetric nutation rate

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I I
 x + z 2 1 z 1 z x = 0

I x I y

tan =

Iz
tan
Ix

(4.19) Geometry of rolling cones

0 nut < z

(4.20) Nutation rate interval

z nut < 2 z

(4.21) Nutation rate interval

nut = z
nut = z
F =

m
r2

Iz
*

Ix I y

Iz
*
Ix

(4.22) Dual-spin nutation


(4.23) Axisymmetric dual-spin nutation

(4.24) Newtons law of general gravitation

489

Appendix D / Equations Summary

3
(I z I x )sin(2)
2r 3

(4.25) Gravity gradient torque

R
U (r , , ) = 1 + (Cnm cos m + S nm sin m) Pnm (sin )
r n = 2 m= 0 r

Gravity field
1 U
U 1 U
F = U =
,
,
= (Fr , F , F )
r r r cos
B0
1 + 3 sin 2
r3

(4.27) Force of gravity

(4.28) Simplified dipole geomagnetic field

n +1

R
U (r , , ) = R (Gnm cos m + H nm sin m) Pnm (cos * )
n =1 m = 0 r
Geomagnetic field

hn

B = 2.6 1011

(4.26)

olo
gy
.

Tgg =

fT

ec

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1 U
1 U
U
B = U =
,
,
= (B r , B , B )
*
r
r sin *
r
Geomagnetic force

tan
s = tan 1

sin( t )

(4.31) V-slit sun sensor angle

2 = 2 sin-1[R/(R+h)]

(4.32) Earths disc subtended angle

(4.29)

(4.30)

cos = cos e sin + sin e cos cos ( t2)

(4.33) Earths disc subtended angle

cos = -cos e sin + sin e cos cos ( t1)

(4.34) Earths disc subtended angle

2 tan
e = tan 1

cos( t1 ) cos( t 2 )

(4.35) IR pencil-beam earth sensor angle

= 0 +  dt = 0 + b dt

(4.36) RIG displacement angle

k
g I

(4.37) Rate gyro rotation angle

d1 = 2R + R + bR t1 = R[(2N+1) + b t1]
x
R2
= 8 2 N b

c
2 b R 2

= U in cos
= U in cos 4 N
2
c

(4.38) Laser gyro travel distance

= 2

(4.39) Laser gyro phase shift

U out

(4.40) Laser gyro output voltage

490

Appendix D / Equations Summary

(4.41) GPS attitude sensor angle

[A] = [B][R]-1

(4.42) Attitude matrix

G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) G3 ( s )
out ( s )
=
in ( s ) 1 + H ( s )G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) G3 ( s )

GPID ( s ) =

u ( s)
K
= KP + I + KDs
( s )
s

K s2 + KPs + KI
= D
s
T
 =

Iy

(4.44) PID regulator output

hn

u(t) = KP (t) + KI dt + KD d/dt

(4.43) Attitude control transfer function

(4.45) PID transfer function

ec

T ( s) =

olo
gy
.

= sin 1 = sin 1

d
2d

(4.46) Angular acceleration of non-spinning body


(4.47) Angular rotation of spinning body

T=LxF

(4.48) Thrust force vector

T=LF

(4.49) Thrust force

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fT

T
 =
I z

LF
t
I z

= =
n =1

(4.50) Spin axis slew angle

L N
FL
P ( n) =
Nt

I z n=1
I z

H = Isat + Iwheel
F=

S
A cos s
c

(4.51) Spin axis slew angle


(4.52) Angular momentum exchange

(4.53) Solar pressure force

M = FL

(4.54) Moment due to solar pressure


T = I wheel

(4.55) Momentum wheel counter-torque

=

FL

I wheel
I
t = wheel (max 0 )
2 FL

(4.56) Momentum wheel acceleration


(4.57) Time for momentum wheel spin-up

H4 = H1 + H2 + H3
Components of canted spare wheel momentum

(4.58)

491

Appendix D / Equations Summary

H3 = H4 - H1 - H2 = H4 +(-H1) + (-H2)
Components of canted spare wheel momentum

(4.59)

(4.60) Magnetic torque vector

M = nIAu

(4.61) Electromagnet torque

T = nIA(u x B)

(4.62) Magnetorquer torque vector

T = nIAB sin

(4.63) Magnetorquer torque

olo
gy
.

T=MxB

hn

Chapter 5: Orbit Management

(5.1)

Ground station coordinates

(xs x1 )2 + ( ys y1 )2 + (zs z1 )2 = d12


(xs x2 )2 + ( ys y2 )2 + (zs z2 )2 = d 2 2
(xs x3 )2 + ( ys y3 )2 + (zs z3 )2 = d32

(5.2)

Pythagoras theorem

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fT

ec

x1 = R cos 1 cos (1 + 1)
y1 = R cos 1 sin (1 + 1)
z1 = R sin 1

2 360

d =
2 360


d = n

2
360
d=

1



n1 1 ; d = 2 n2 2 ;
2
360
2
360




d = 3 n3 3 ; d = 4 n4 4 ;
2
360
2
360




d = 5 n5 5 ; d = 6 n6 6 ;
2
360
2
360


d = 7 n7 7 .
2
360

(5.3)

Slant range distance

(5.4)

Slant range error

(5.5)

Slant range distance with ambiguity

d=

d = c (t2 t1) = c t

(5.7)

(5.6)

Slant range measurements

Slant range distance from time measurements

sin d u

duvw = d cos sin = d v (5.8) Slant range distance in topocentric coordinates
cos cos d w

492

Appendix D / Equations Summary

(5.9)

olo
gy
.

d uvw

d sin +  d cos


= d cos sin  d sin sin +  d cos cos





d cos cos d sin cos  d cos sin uvw


Range rate in topocentric coordinates

cos( + ) sin( + ) 0 cos 0 sin sin

dxyz = d sin( + ) cos( + ) 0  0


1
0  cos sin

0
0
1 sin 0 cos cos cos

Slant range in geocentric rotating coordinates

(5.10)

(5.11) Hour angle of Greenwich meridian

Vxyz = d xyz + e s

(5.12) Overall velocity vector

ec

hn

= 360 t/24 (deg)

fT

sxyz = R (cos cos(+), cos sin(+), sin)xyzT


Ground station coordinates in geocentric rotating coordinates

(5.14)

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V (r2 r1)/t
Orbital velocity from successive range vector measurements

(5.13)

(xs x1 )2 + ( ys y1 )2 + (zs z1 )2 = d12


(xs x2 )2 + ( ys y2 )2 + (zs z2 )2 = d 2 2
(xs x3 )2 + ( ys y3 )2 + (zs z3 )2 = d32

(5.15) Pythagoras theorem for trilateration

(xs x1 )2 + ( ys y1 )2 + (z s z1 )2 = (d1 + d )2
(xs x2 )2 + ( ys y2 )2 + (z s z2 )2 = (d 2 + d )2
(xs x3 )2 + ( ys y3 )2 + (z s z3 )2 = (d 3 + d )2
(xs x4 )2 + ( ys y4 )2 + (z s z4 )2 = (d 4 + d )2

h=r

(5.16) GPS equations

(5.17) Orbital angular momentum

e = (1/)[(V2 /r)r (rV)V]

(5.18) Eccentricity vector

n=zh

(5.19) Geocentric vector to ascending node

= V2/2 /r

a=
2

(5.20) Specific energy or orbit

e = ex + e y + ez

(5.21) Semimajor axis

h
h
i = cos 1 z = cos 1 z
h
h

(5.22) Eccentricity
(5.23) Inclination

493

Appendix D / Equations Summary

V = V2 V1 = V1 + V2 2V1V2 cos

(5.24) Right ascension of ascending node


(5.25) Argument of perigee

olo
gy
.

n
n
= cos 1 x = cos 1 x
n
n
ne
= cos 1

ne
re
= cos 1

re

(5.26) True anomaly

(5.27) Orbital velocity increment

(5.29) True anomaly of orbit 1

ec

(5.30) True anomaly or orbit 2


(5.31) Radius vector

fT

sin

1 = sin 1 sin i2
1
sin

sin

2 = sin 1 sin i1
2
sin

2
a (1 e1 )
r= 1
1 + e1 cos 1

hn

= cos-1[cos i1 cos i2 + sin i1 sin i2 cos ] (5.28) Angle between velocity vectors

(5.32) Velocity of orbit 1

V2 = (2 / r 1 / a2 )

(5.33) Velocity of orbit 2

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V1 = (2 / r 1 / a1 )

1 + e1 cos 1
e1 sin 1
1 + e2 cos 2
tan 2 =
e2 sin 2
tan 1 =

ruvw = r (cos , sin , 0)T

Vuvw

rxyz

Vxyz

494

(5.34) Flight path angle of orbit 1

(5.35) Flight path angle of orbit 2


(5.36) Satellite range vector

cos sin 0 cos cos cos sin sin

= sin cos 0 sin = sin cos + cos sin


0

0
1 0
0

(5.37) Velocity

0
0 cos sin 0
cos sin 0 1

= sin cos 0  0 cos i sin i  sin cos 0  ruvw


0
0
1 0 sin i cos i 0
0
1
Coordinate system transformation
0
0 cos sin 0
cos sin 0 1

= sin cos 0  0 cos i sin i  sin cos 0  Vuvw


0
0
1 0 sin i cos i 0
0
1
Coordinate system transformation

(5.38)

(5.39)

Appendix D / Equations Summary

d (mV )
dV
dm
=m
+V
dt
dt
dt
m0

V = Ve ln
m0 m
V

g Isp

m = m0 1 e

F dt Ve
F
I sp =
=
=
g dm / dt g dm g
F=

olo
gy
.

(5.41) Velocity increment

(5.42) Propellant mass consumption


(5.43) Specific impulse

hn

t = 4

(5.40) Thrust force



(5.44) E/W drift period in GEO

(5.45) Velocity incr. for E/W correction


t
= cos-1[cos i1 cos i2 + sin i1 sin i2 cos ] (5.46) Manoeuvre angle

V1 = V2 =
(5.47) Circular velocity
a

fT

ec

 = 45.44
V = 11.36

V = V1 + V2 2V1V2 cos

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(5.48) Velocity increment

m = m0 1 e

2i
2
Interval =
=
i = 2.35 i
di
0.85
dt
a 3 / 2
d 1 2
=
360 = 1 2 360
dt
1
a
1
V

g Isp

2 1
2 1
V1 = = =
r a1
a1 a1

(5.49) Propellant mass consumption


(5.50) Inclination manoeuvre interval

(5.51) Longitude drift rate

= 3.0747 km / s
a1

2 1
2 1
V2 = = = 3.0831 km / s
r a2
a1 a2

Vreloc = 5.66 d/dt


Treloc =

m/s

d
dt

H 235 + 1000

(5.52)

Orbital velocities

(5.53) Relocation velocity increment


(5.54) Relocation manoeuvre duration

A
Cp
m

(5.55) Graveyard orbit altitude

Chapter 6: Propulsion

495

m0
V = Ve ln

Ft
m0
Ve

mVe2 = qU

(6.1)

Specific impulse

(6.2)

Total impulse

(6.3)

Velocity increment

(6.4)

Ion exit velocity

hn

Ve
F dt
F
=
=
g
g m g dm
I t = Ft = I sp mg
I sp =

Chapter 7: Telemetry, Tracking & Command

(7.1)

Relationship S/N C/N for AM

ec

S/N = m2 C/N

olo
gy
.

Appendix D / Equations Summary

(7.2)

Relationship S/N C/N for wideband FM

S/N = 32 C/N

(7.3)

Relationship S/N C/N for narrowband FM

fT

S/N = 32(1+) C/N

(7.4)

Analogue modulation

vm(t) = a cos (2fmt)

(7.5)

Sinusoidal analogue modulation

vAM(t) = K[1 + m cos (2fmt)] cos (2fct)

(7.6)

Amplitude modulation

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vc(t) = A cos (2fct + )

m
m

v AM (t ) = K cos(2f c t ) + cos[2( f c + f m )t ] + cos[2( f c f m )t ]


2
2

Amplitude-modulated carrier

(7.7)

v FM (t ) = A cos[2f c t + sin( 2f m t )]

(7.8)

Frequency modulation

v PM (t ) = A cos[2f c t + PM cos(2f m t )]

(7.9)

Phase modulation

BER = e

Eb B
N

(7.10) Bit error rate

Eb 1 1
= ln

N
B 2 BER

(7.11) Bit energy to noise ratio

C C
E
1
= = b = ln

N N req
N B 2 BER

(7.12) Carrier to noise ratio

Eb
1
= ln

N0
2 BER

(7.13) Bit energy to noise density ratio

496

Appendix D / Equations Summary


2

(7.14) Basic link equation


2

G 1
Pr C Pt Gt Gr
= =

= EIRP r

T kB 4d
N N
kTB 4d

(7.15) Complete link equation

(7.16) Transmit antenna gain

(7.17) Frequency and wavelength

D
Gr = r

N = kTB

(7.18) Receive antenna gain


(7.19) Noise power

hn

D
Gt = t

f=c

olo
gy
.


Pr = Pt Gt Gr

4d

d = ( R + h) 2 R 2 = h( 2 R + h)

(7.20) Slant range from horizon

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fT

ec

R + h 2

2
(7.21) Slant range with elevation
d ' = R
cos sin
R

3dB 70
(7.22) Antenna opening angle
D
[C/N]ach = [Pt] + [Gt] + [Gr] + 2[/(4d)] [k] [T] [B] (7.23) Link equation in dB
N0 = N/B = kT

Pr C Pt Gt Gr 1
= =

kTB L 4d
N N

Tsys =

(7.24) Noise spectral desnity

(7.25) Link equation with loss margin

Tant
L 1
+ 290 line
+ Trx
Lline
Lline

(7.26) System noise temperature

T = T0
3dB
270
Lrain =
270 Train

hrain () = R

(7.27) Equivalent temperature from sun or moon

R + 3
2

cos sin
R

(7.28) Rain attenuation


(7.29) Rain height

[
]
[Lrain ()]dB = Lrain (30) dB hrain ()

(7.30) Rain height in dB

Tline

(7.31) Line noise temperature

2901
Lline

[Lpol]dB = 20 log (cos)

(7.32) Polarization loss

= 17/f 2

(7.33) Faraday rotation angle

497

Appendix D / Equations Summary

po int dB

(7.34) Antenna pointing loss

Pr C Pt Gt Gr
1

=
=

N N
kTs B Latm Lrain L pol Lline1 Lline 2 L point1 L point 2 4d
Complete link equation

(7.35)

olo
gy
.

[L ]

= 12
3dB

Chapter 9: Structures and Mechanisms


2 EI
2
Le
=E
Fc =

Critical buckling load

(9.2)

Hookes law

= F/A

(9.3)

Stress

= L/L

(9.4)

Strain

L = L T

(9.5)

Thermal deformation

ec

Harmonic oscillation without damping

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(9.6)

fT

mx + kx = 0
1 k
fn =
2 m
x = A sin(nt + )
mx + cx + kx = 0

(9.7)

Natural frequency

(9.8)

Fundamental frequency response

(9.9)

Harmonic oscillation with damping

(9.10) Damping ratio

2 km

x = Be nt sin n 1 2 t +

(9.11) Damped fundamental frequency response

mx + cx + kx = K sin( t )

Ar =

(9.12) armonic oscillation with loading

mn

=
2
2
2
2 2
1 z 2 + (2 z )
(
)

+
2

n
n
Resonant oscillation amplitude

hn

(9.1)

(9.13)

Chapter 10: Thermal Management


qa = AaS

(10.1) Absorbed radiation energy

qe = AeT4

(10.2) Emitted radiation energy

498

Appendix D / Equations Summary


1/ 4

Aa S

T =

(10.3) Equilibrium temperature


1/ 4

mc
3
4Ae Teq

(10.10) Thermal gradient time constant

fT

ec

hn

olo
gy
.

A S + q s

T = a
(10.4) Equilibrium temperature with internal heat source
A

dT
mc
= Aa S + qs Ae T 4
(10.5) Thermal gradient
dt
dT

q
4
(10.6) Thermal gradient
=
Aa S Ae T + s
dt mc
mc
dT
mc
= qs Ae T 4
(10.7) Thermal gradient in eclipse
dt
1
1 3Ae
= 3+
t
(10.8) Thermal gradient without internal heat
3
T
mc
T0
T
= 1 e 0.4( t / + C )
(10.9) Radiative heating
Teq

Teq

C = 2.5 ln
T T
0
eq
T
= 1 + 1.3e 2 (t / + C )
Teq

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(10.11) Integration constant


(10.12) Radiative cooling

Teq

C = 0.1312 + 0.5 ln
T T
0 eq
4
4
q12 = q1 2 q21 = e A T1 T2

1
1 1
= + 1
e 1 2

r
1
1 1
= + 1 1
e 1 2 r2
r
1 1 1
= + 1 1
e 1 2 r2

(10.13) Integration constant

(10.14) Heat flow between two panels

(10.15) Effective emissivity between parallel flat plates

(10.16) Effective emissivity between concentric spheres


(10.17) Effective emissivity between concentric cylinders

1
cos 1 cos 2
dA2 dA1

A1 A2
d2
n

Rki = k Ak Fkj [ij (1 i ) Fij ]1 i


j =1

Rk = k Ak

(10.20) Radiation coupling factor for sphere

qik = qki qik = Rki (Tk4 - Ti4)

(10.21) Net radiation flow

A1 F12 =

(10.18) View factor


(10.19) Radiation coupling factor

499

Appendix D / Equations Summary

p
n
dTm
4
4
= (im m Am Rim )Ti + RmwTw + qsm (10.22) Heat balance
dt
i =1
w =1
T T2
dT
q = kA
= kA 1
(10.23) Heat conduction
dx
x1 x 2

Chapter 11: Launch Vehicles

V = Vpot + Vkin -Vearth


Epot = mgh
g (r ) =

2h
R ( R + h)

(11.3) Velocity increment component vectors


(11.4) Potential energy

(11.6) Gravitational acceleration


(11.7) Potential energy velocity

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V pot =

r2

(11.2) Specific impulse

hn

F dt
g dm

ec

I sp =

(11.1) Rocket engine thrust

fT

F = Vedm/dt + Ae (pe pa)

0
Vpot = V pot 0
1
Ekin = mVkin2

olo
gy
.

mm cm

(11.8) Potential energy velocity vector

(11.9) Kinetic energy

1
2
2 1
Vkin = =

(11.10) Kinetic energy velocity
R+h a
r a
cos i
(11.11) Launch azimuth near ascending node
Az = sin 1

cos
cos i
(11.12) Launch azimuth near descending node
Az = 180 sin 1

cos
sin sin Az
Vkin = Vkin sin cos Az
(11.13) Kinetic energy velocity vector
cos
(11.14) Earth rotation velocity
Vearth = R cos = 0.464 cos
1
Vearth = Vearth 0
0

500

(11.15) Earth velocity vector

Appendix D / Equations Summary

Vtot = Vu + Vv + Vw + Vloss

(11.16) Launch velocity increment vector

olo
gy
.

Vkin sin sin Az Vearth Vu

V = Vkin sin cos Az


= Vv
Vkin cos + V pot
Vw

(11.17) Total launch velocity increment


(11.18) Propellant mass consumption
(11.19) Launch velocity increment

hn

m = m0 1 e g Isp

m
m0
= g I sp ln before
V = g I sp ln
mafter
m0 m

Vtotal = V1 + V2 + ... + Vn

ec

(11.20) Multistage velocity increment

(11.22) 2-stage velocity increment

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m2 + m3 + m sat
V2 = g I sp 2 ln
m2 + m3 + msat m2

fT

m1 + m2 + m3 + m sat
(11.21) 3-stage velocity increment
V1 = g I sp1 ln
+
+
+

m
m
m
m
m
2
3
sat
1
1

m3 + msat

V3 = g I sp 3 ln
m
+
m

m
sat
3
3

(11.23) Single-stage velocity increment

2mS + m1 + m2 + m3 + msat

V1 A = g I sp1 ln
2mS + m1 + m2 + m3 + msat (2mS + m1 A )
Velocity increment with strap-on boosters

(11.24)

(m1 m1 A ) + m2 + m3 + m sat

V1B = g I sp1 ln
(11.25)
(m1 m1 A ) + m2 + m3 + msat m1B )
Velocity increment with strap-on boosters
2 I spS + I sp1
I spE =
(11.26) Average specific impulse with 2 boosters
3
N I spS + I sp1
(11.27) Average specific impulse with N boosters
I spE =
N +1

Chapter 12: Launch and Space Environment


F = ma - Ve dm/dt
1
dm
a (t ) =
F + Ve

m(t )
dt

(12.1) Thrust

Fp = Ae( pe - pa)

(12.3) Thrust due to pressure difference

(12.2) Acceleration over time

501

Appendix D / Equations Summary

F t
g m

S
c
F = Fa + Fs + Fd
F=A

F =

A S
cos ( + 2 cos2 + cos )
c

olo
gy
.

D = AV2CD

(12.5) Acoustic pressure level

(12.6) Atmospheric drag force


(12.7) Solar pressure force

(12.8) Components of solar pressure force

hn

F
(dB)
2 10 5

(12.9) Resultant solar pressure force

ec

I = 20 log10

(12.4) Specific impulse

Chapter 13: Product Assurance


P(t ) = e t

fT

I sp =

(13.1) Probability of random failure

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Psat = PpayloadPpowerPattitudePpropulsionPOBDHPS&MPthermal
System survival probability

(13.2)

PAB = PA PB

(13.3) Reliability of units in series

QAB = QA QB

(13.4) Unreliability of units in parallel

PAB = 1 QAB = 1 (1 PA)(1 PB) = PA + PB - PAPB

(13.5) Parallel reliability

PAA(t) = 1 [1 PA(t)]2

(13.6) Hot redundancy

PAA(t) = PA(t) (1 + t)

(13.7) Cold redundancy

PAA = PA 1 + (1 e 0.1t )
10

n!
k
Pk ,n =
Pampl (1 Pampl ) n k
k!(n k )!
n
n!
Pk ,n =
P i (1 P) n i
i = k i!( n i )!

502

(13.8) Cold redundancy

(13.9) Binomial probability


(13.10) Binomial probability

Appendix E / Spacecraft Hardware & Software Internet Links

Appendix E: Spacecraft Hardware Internet Links

olo
gy
.

The following manufacturers websites provide a small sample of all the satellite products
available on the market. They have been chosen so as to illustrate the technical
implementation of platform equipment designs described in Chapters 3 through 10.
Websites that include reasonably detailed technical design information are favoured over
those that only provide outline performance parameters. Where the manufacturer offers
several different models, usually only the link to the most "representative" model for
satellite applications is given.

ec

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Encyclopedic Websites
www.astronautix.com
http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/
www.sat-index.com
www.skyrocket.de/space/home.htm
http://www.spaceflight101.com

General

fT

E.1

hn

The links were current as of January 2014. Check the Internet for updates.

Satellite Platforms
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products
http://www.boeing.com/boeing/defensespace/space/bss/factsheets/702/702fleet.page?
https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/content/spacebus-3000-platform
http://www.lockheedmartin.ca/content/dam/lockheed/data/space/documents/a2100
/A2100brochure.pdf
http://www.mitsubishielectric.com/bu/space/products/platform/index.html
http://sslmda.com/html/products/1300.html
https://www.ohbsystem.de/tl_files/system/images/mediathek/downloads/pdf/120830_OHB_10604
_Messe_SmallGEO_2012.pdf
http://www.esa.int/esapub/br/br153/br153.pdf
http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/technology/Alphabus_factsheet.pdf
Launch Interface Adapters
http://www.ruag.com/de/Space/Brochures/Factsheets4upload/payload_adapter_sy
stem_for_EELV.pdf
http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Launchers/Launch_vehicles/Speltra_Sylda_5

503

Appendix E / Spacecraft Hardware & Software Internet Links

E.2

Power Management

olo
gy
.

Solar Arrays
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/Power-Management/Solar-Arrays
http://www.astrium.eads.net/en/equipment/solar-array-kwt.html
https://www.thalesgroup.com/sites/default/files/asset/document/solar_generators_f
amily.pdf
http://www.spectrolab.com/DataSheets/Panel/panels.pdf
http://www.dutchspace.nl/pages/products/content.asp?id=298&P=2_6_1_1

ec

hn

Batteries
http://www.eaglepicher.com/lithium-ion-8
http://www.saftbatteries.com/battery-search/ves-vl-batteries-satellites
http://www.abslspaceproducts.com/Default.aspx?pid=5&subid=19

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fT

Power Distribution & Conditioning


http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/Power-Management/Power-System150
http://www.astrium.eads.net/en/equipment/medium-power-pcdu.html
https://www.thalesgroup.com/sites/default/files/asset/document/PCDU_GeoLeoM
edium_power.pdf
http://www.terma.com/media/150039/modular_medium_power_unit.pdf
http://www.crisa.es/space/powerI.htm

E.3

Attitude and Orbit Management

Momentum & Reaction Wheels


http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/Actuators--Sensors/Actuators/Microwheels-Reaction-Wheel
http://www.reactionwheel.com/products/mw-4000.html
http://www.rockwellcollins.com/sitecore/content/Data/Products/Space_Componen
ts/Satellite_Stabilization_Wheels/Magnetic_Bearing_Momentum_and_Reaction_
Wheel.aspx
http://www51.honeywell.com/aero/common/documents/myaerospacecatalogdocuments/HR_0610_Reaction_Wheel.pdf
http://www2.l3com.com/spacenav/space_and_nav/space_products/pdfs/SellSheet_RWA_15_Ap
r11.pdf
http://www2.l3com.com/spacenav/space_and_nav/space_products/pdfs/SellSheet_MWA_50_A
pr11.pdf
Magnetic Torque Rods
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/Actuators---Sensors/Actuators/MTR30-Magnetorquer
http://www.dutchspace.nl/pages/products/content.asp?id=250&P=2_3_1_1

504

Appendix E / Spacecraft Hardware & Software Internet Links

olo
gy
.

Sun Sensors
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/Actuators---Sensors/Sensors/-SunSensor
http://www.astrium.eads.net/en/equipment/liass.html
http://bradfordspace.com/userfiles/Mini%20Fine%20Sun%20Sensor%20Datasheet.pdf
http://www.spacemicro.com/assets/caa-medium-sun-sensor-v1.pdf
http://www.adcole.com/products.html

hn

Earth Sensors
http://www.sodern.com/sites/docs_wsw/RUB_52/STD15.pdf

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fT

ec

Star Trackers
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Divisions/Systems--Services/Subsystems/AOCS/Sensors/Altair-HB--Star-Tracker
http://www.ballaerospace.com/file/media/D0540_CT-602.pdf
http://www.sodern.com/sites/docs_wsw/RUB_51/Hydra.pdf
http://www.jena-optronik.de/en/aocs/astro-aps.html
http://www.terma.com/media/101677/star_tracker_he-5as.pdf
http://www.spacemicro.com/assets/star-tracker-and-ustar200m-combined.pdf
Magnetometers
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/Actuators--Sensors/Sensors/Magnetometer
http://www.meda.com/Data_Sheets/tam-1.pdf
http://magnetometer.com/wp-content/uploads/TFM100S-Spec-Sheet-February2008.pdf
Gyros
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/Actuators---Sensors/Sensors/InertialSensor--MIRaS-01 http://www.astrium.eads.net/en/equipment/astrix-1000.html
http://www51.honeywell.com/aero/common/documents/myaerospacecatalogdocuments/Missiles-Munitions/GG1320AN_Digital_Laser_Gyro.pdf
http://www2.l3com.com/spacenav/space_and_nav/space_products/pdfs/SellSheet_RGA_14_Ap
r11.pdf
GPS

http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/In-Development--Customisation/SGR-Axio
http://www.astrium.eads.net/en/equipment/mosaicgnss-receiver.html
https://www.thalesgroup.com/sites/default/files/asset/document/gps_2012.pdf

505

Appendix E / Spacecraft Hardware & Software Internet Links

E.4

Propulsion

ec

hn

olo
gy
.

Electric
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/Propulsion-Systems/XenonPropulsion-System
http://www.astrium.eads.net/en/equipment/ppu-for-electric-propulsion.html
https://www.thalesgroup.com/sites/default/files/asset/document/propulsion_syste
ms2012.pdf
https://www.thalesgroup.com/sites/default/files/asset/document/PowerProcessing
Unit-2012.pdf
http://www.snecma.com/IMG/pdf/PPS1350_Anglais.pdf
http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/spacecraft-propulsion/ion-propulsion/
http://www.crisa.es/space/propulsionI.htm
http://www.rocket.com/files/aerojet/documents/Capabilities/PDFs/Electric%20Pro
pulsion%20Data%20Sheets.pdf

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Chemical
http://www.astrium.eads.net/en/equipment/unified-propulsion-system-electronicsups-e-m0c.html
http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/spacecraft-propulsion/propulsion-systems/upsbackground.html
http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/spacecraft-propulsion/apogee-motors/400n-apogeemotor.html
http://cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/spacecraft-propulsion/bipropellant-thrusters/10nthruster.html
https://www.thalesgroup.com/sites/default/files/asset/document/propulsion_syste
ms2012.pdf
http://www.rocket.com/files/aerojet/documents/Capabilities/PDFs/Monopropellan
t%20Data%20Sheets.pdf
http://www.rocket.com/files/aerojet/documents/Capabilities/PDFs/Bipropellant%2
0Data%20Sheets.pdf

E.5

TT&C

Antennas
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/Communication/Antennas/S-BandQuadrifilar-Helix-antenna
http://www.ruag.com/de/Space/Brochures/Factsheets4upload/Wide_Coverage_An
tennas.pdf
Transmitters & Receivers
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/Communication/Receivers/Transmitte
r/S-Band-Transmitter
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/Communication/Receivers/Transmitte
r/S-Band-Receiver

506

Appendix E / Spacecraft Hardware & Software Internet Links

https://www.thalesgroup.com/sites/default/files/asset/document/Platform_Solution
s_ISBT_Integrated_Transponders.pdf
http://www.kongsberg.com/en/kds/kns/products/ttcproducts/commandreceivers/
http://www.kongsberg.com/en/kds/kns/products/ttcproducts/telemetrytransmitters
andbeacons/

E.6

Onboard Data Management

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Hardware
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/On-Board-Data-Handling/On-BoardComputer/OBC750-LEO-flight-computer
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/Flying-Soon/Mass-Memory-unit
https://www.thalesgroup.com/sites/default/files/asset/document/Mngt_Distrib_Int
erf-units-3.pdf
https://www.thalesgroup.com/sites/default/files/asset/document/Platforms_Solutio
ns_RTU_Remote_Terminals.pdf
https://www.ruag.com/de/Space/Products/Digital_Electronics_for_Satellites_Laun
chers/Data_Handling_Systems/processor_board_feb2011
http://www.crisa.es/space/computersI.htm

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Software
http://www.crisa.es/space/softwareI.htm
http://www.terma.com/media/101789/on-board_operations_software.pdf

E.7

http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/Downloads/SSTL-SpacecraftComposite-Structures
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/Communication/Antennas/High-GainX-Band-Antenna-Pointing-Mechanism
http://www.astrium.eads.net/en/equipment/hold-down-and-release-mechanismhrm--f8f.html
https://www.thalesgroup.com/sites/default/files/asset/document/Sadrive2012.pdf
http://www.ruag.com/de/Space/Brochures/Factsheets4upload/Deployment_Mech_
Juni13.pdf

E.8

Structures & Mechanisms

Thermal Management

https://www.thalesgroup.com/sites/default/files/asset/document/Heatpipes2012.pd
f
http://www.ruag.com/de/Space/Products/Satellite_Structures2C_Mechanisms_Me
chanical_Equipment/RSA_TH_Brochure_03-2013_online-version.pdf
http://www.iberespacio.es/ing.html

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Appendix F / Launch Vehicle User Manual Internet Links

Antares OSP-3 User's Guide


http://www.orbital.com/NewsInfo/Publications/Antares%20UG.pdf
Ariane 5 Users Manual
http://www.arianespace.com/launch-servicesariane5/Ariane5_users_manual_Issue5_July2011.pdf

olo
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.

Appendix F: Launch Vehicle User Manual Internet Links

hn

Atlas V Launch Services Users Guide


http://www.ulalaunch.com/site/docs/product_cards/guides/AtlasVUsersGuide2010.pdf

ec

Delta IV Payload Planners Guide


http://www.ulalaunch.com/site/docs/product_cards/guides/DeltaIVPayloadPlannersGuide
2007.pdf

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Dnepr SLS Users Guide


http://snebulos.mit.edu/projects/crm/DNEPR/Dnepr_User_Guide.pdf

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Falcon 9 Launch Vehicle Payload Users Guide


http://decadal.gsfc.nasa.gov/pace201206mdl/Launch%20Vehicle%20Information/Falcon9UsersGuide_2009.pdf
H-IIA Launch Vehicle
http://www.jaxa.jp/pr/brochure/pdf/01/rocket01.pdf

International Reference Guide to Space Launch Systems


https://info.aiaa.org/tac/SMG/STTC/AIAA%20Launch%20Guide/AIAA%20Launch%20
Guide.doc
Cosmos-3M
http://www.russianspaceweb.com/cosmos3.html

Long March 2C Users Manual


http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/library/report/1999/2c.htm
Long March 2D Data
http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/china/cz-2d.htm
Long March 2F Data
http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/china/cz-2f.htm

Long March 3A Users Manual


http://www.cgwic.com/LaunchServices/Download/manual/index.html
Long March 3B Users Manual
http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/library/report/1999/3b.htm
Long March 3C Users Manual
509

Appendix F / Launch Vehicle User Manual Internet Links

http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/library/report/1999/3c.htm

Minotaur IV, V, VI User's Guide


http://www.orbital.com/NewsInfo/Publications/Minotaur_IV_Guide.pdf
Pegasus User's Guide
http://www.orbital.com/NewsInfo/Publications/pegasus_ug.pdf

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Long March 4 Data


http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/china/cz-4.htm

hn

Proton Launch System Mission Planners Guide


http://www.ilslaunch.com/sites/default/files/pdf/Proton%20Mission%20Planner%27s%20
Guide%20Revision%207%20%28LKEB-9812-1990%29.pdf

ec

PSLV Data
http://www.spaceflight101.com/pslv-launch-vehicle-information.html

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GSLV Data
http://www.spaceflight101.com/gslv-launch-vehicle-information.html

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Rockot Users Guide


http://www.eurockot.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/UsersGuideIss5Rev0web.pdf
Shavit Data
http://www.fas.org/spp/guide/israel/launch/#ref99

Soyuz (Arianespace) Users Manual for launches from CSG


http://www.arianespace.com/launch-services-soyuz/Soyuz-User's-Manual.asp
Soyuz (Starsem) Users Manual for launches from Baikonur & Plesetsk
http://www.starsem.com/services/images/soyuz_users_manual_190401.pdf
START-1 Users Handbook Vol. I & II
http://snebulos.mit.edu/projects/reference/launch_vehicles/START/start-vI.pdf
http://snebulos.mit.edu/projects/reference/launch_vehicles/START/start-vII.pdf
Taurus Launch System Payload Users Guide
https://www.orbital.com/NewsInfo/Publications/taurus-user-guide.pdf
VEGA Users Manual
http://www.arianespace.com/launch-services-vega/VEGAUsersManual.pdf
Zenit 3SL Users Guide for Sea Launch
http://www.sea-launch.com/launch.aspx?q=11137
Zenit 3SLB Users Guide for Land Launch
http://landlaunch.ru/

510

Abbreviations

Abbreviations

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FS
Factor of safety
FSK Frequency shift keying
GEO Geostationary orbit
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
GSO Geosynchronous orbit
GTO Geostationary transfer orbit
HEO Highly eccentric orbit
HET Hall effect thruster
HP
Horizontal polarization
ICBM Intercontinental ballistic missile
ID
Identification word
IF
Intermediate frequency
IOT In-orbit test
IR
Infrared
ITAR International Traffic in Arms
Regulations
ITO Indium tin oxide
ITU International
Telecommunications Union
LAE Liquid apogee engine
LEO Low earth orbit
LFA Lorentz force accelerator
LHCP Left-handed circular polarization
LV
Latch valve
MEO Medium Earth Orbit
MGSE
Mechanical ground
support equipment
MLI Multilayer insulation
MMH Monomethyl hydrazine
MPD Magnetoplasmadynamic
MPPT Maximum power point tracking
MS
Margin of safety
N2H2 Hydrazine
N2O4 Nitrogen tetroxide
NiCd Nickel cadmium
NiH2 Nickel hydrogen
NORAD North American Aerospace
Defense Command
NRV Non-return valve
NRZ Non-return to zero
OBDH
Onboard data handling
OCP Operational control procedure
OSR Optical solar reflector
PA
Product assurance
PCB Printed circuit board
PCM Pulse code modulation

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AC
Alternating current
A/D Analogue-to-digital
AIT Assembly integration & test
AKM Apogee kick motor
AM Amplitude modulation
ASK Amplitude shift keying
ASW Address & synchronization word
BAPTA Bearing & power transfer
assembly
BAT Bandwidth allocation table
BER Bit error rate
BOL Beginning of life
bps
Bits per second
BPSK Binary phase shift keying
C/N Carrier-to-noise ratio
CCD Charged coupled device
CFT Call for tender
COE Classic orbital elements
CoM Centre of mass
COTS Commercial off-the-shelf
CPU Central processing unit
D/A Digital-to-analogue
DC
Direct current
DOD Depth of discharge
EGSE Electrical ground support
equipment
EIRP Equivalent isotropic radiated
power
EMC Electromagnetic compatibility
EMI Electromagnetic interference
EOL End of life
EP
Electrodynamic propulsion
ESA European Space Agency
ESD Electrostatic discharge
FDIR Failure detection, isolation and
recovery
FDM Frequency division multiplex
FDMA Frequency division multiple
access
FDV Fill-and-drain valve
FET Field effect thruster
FET Field effect transistor
FITs Failures in 109 hours
FM
Frequency modulation
FMECA Failure mode effects and
criticality analysis

511

Abbreviations

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RIG Rate integrating gyro


RTU Remote terminal unit
S/N Signal-to-noise ratio
SCL Spacecraft control language
SEL Single event latch-up
SEU Single event upset
SIW Synchronization & identification
word
SP-L Split-phase level
SPT Stationary plasma thruster
SSM Second surface mirror
SSO Sun-synchronous orbit
TAL Thruster with anode layer
TC
Telecommand
TDM Time division multiplex
TDMA Time division multiple access
TM
Telemetry
TT&C Tracking, telemetry & command
UDMH Unsymmetrical dimethyl
hydrazine
UPS Unified propulsion system
UTC Coordinated Universal Time
UV
Ultraviolet
VCA Virtual channel assembler
VP
Vertical polarization

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PID Proportional, integral &


derivative
PIT
Pulsed inductive thruster
PKM Perigee kick motor
PM
Phase modulation
PM
Pulse modulation
PMD Propellant management device
PPD Pulsed plasma thruster
PPL Preferred parts list
PRARE Precise Ranging & Range-Rate
PRN Pseudo-random noise
PSK Phase shift keying
PWM Pulse width modulation
QA
Quality assurance
QFSK Quadrature frequency shift
keying
QPL Qualified parts list
QPSK Quadrature phase shift keying
RAAN Right ascension of the ascending
node
R&D Research and development
RF
Radio frequency
RFP Request for proposal
RG
Rate gyro
RHCP Right-handed circular
polarization

512

List of Symbols

List of Symbols
Amplitude; Area
Apogee height

a
b

Az

Azimuth

Bandwidth; Magnetic flux density


Carrier power; Harmonic
coefficient; Integration constant
Drag coefficient
Diameter; Distance sun-earth; Drag
force
Calendar days
Eccentric anomaly; Energy;
Youngs modulus
Factor; Force; View factor
Antenna gain; Harmonic coefficient;
Transfer function; Universal
constant of gravitation
Altitude; Angular momentum;
Harmonic coefficient; Transfer
function
Hours
Current; Impulse; Moment of inertia
Gain setting; Constant
Length; Moment arm; Transmission
loss
Bending moment; Earths mass;
Mean anomaly
Noise power; Number
Associated Legendre polynomial;
Number of orbital planes; Power;
Probability
Perigee height
Unreliability
Earths radius; Radiation coupling
factor; Radius; Reliability; Rotation
matrix
Harmonic coefficient; Number of
satellites; Signal power; Solar power
density; Suns radius
Temperature; Torque; Transfer
function
Potential function; Voltage
Velocity
Distance
Distance
Distance

Semimajor axis
Semiminor axis
Focal distance; Specific heat; Speed
of light; Viscous constant
Diameter; Distance

Eccentricity

Frequency

Gravitational acceleration

Orbital height

Inclination

Boltzmann constant; Spring constant

Length

DD
E
F
G

Mass

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A
Ap

HH
I
K
L

M
N
P

Pe
Q
R

U
V
X
Y
Z

n
p
q

Number; Normal vector


Pressure
Power flux

Radius

Ground station vector; Laplace


operator
Time

Coordinate

v
w

Coordinate; Velocity; Voltage


Coordinate

Coordinate

Coordinate

Coordinate

513

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514

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Absorbivity; Angle; Azimuth


Angle; Specular coefficient
Angle; Diffuse coefficient
Elevation
Emissivity; Error; Obliquity; Specific
energy; Strain
Damping factor
Flight path angle
Angle between vectors; Antenna
beamwidth; Pitch angle
Thermal time constant
Longitude
Latitude; Wavelength
Gravitational parameter
True anomaly
Earths position in ecliptic
Angular radius; Bit rate; Density;
Reflectivity
Sum
Stefan-Boltsmann constant; Stress
Orbital period; Transmissivity
Angle; Pitch angle
Yaw angle
Right ascension of ascending node
Angular velocity; Argument of perigee

fT

olo
gy
.

List of Symbols

References

References

olo
gy
.

[1]
Bate, R., Mueller, D. and White, J. (1971), Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
York, NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-60061-0.
[2]
Berlin, P. (1988), The Geostationary Applications Satellite. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0 521 33525 6.
[3]
engel, Y. (1998), Heat Transfer: A Practical Approach. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-7-115223-7.

hn

[4]
Dorf, R. and Bishop, R. (1998), Modern Control Systems. Menlo Park, CA,
Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-32677-9.

ec

[5]
Dunlop, J. and Smith, D.G. (1998), Telecommunications Engineering.
Cheltenham: Stanley Hornes Ltd. ISBN 0-7487-4044-9.

fT

[6]
Fortescue, P., Stark, J. and Swinerd, G. (2011), Spacecraft Systems Engineering.
Chichester, W. Sussex: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-61951-5.

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[7]
Gordon, G. and Morgan, W. (1993), Principles of Communications Satellites.
New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470750124.
[8]
Kaplan, M. (1976), Modern Spacecraft Dynamics and Control. New York: John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-45703-5.
[9]
Sellers, J. (2000), Understanding Space. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 007-242468-0.
[10] Sidi, M. (1997), Spacecraft Dynamics and Control. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0 521 78780 7.
[11] Wertz, J. (1978), Spacecraft Attitude Determination and Control. Dordrecht:
Reidel Publishing. ISBN 90-277-1204-2.

[12] Wertz et al., W. (2011), Space Mission Engineering: The New SMAD. Hawthorne,
CA: Microcosm Press. ISBN 978-1-881-883-15-9.

515

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Index

Index

olo
gy
.

hn

ec

BAPTA. See Bearing and power transfer assembly


Battery
capacity, 90, 432
depth-of-discharge, 89, 90
efficiency, 77
lithium-ion, 90
nickel-cadmium, 89, 90
nickel-hydrogen, 89, 90
rechargeable, 9, 43, 77, 89
reconditioning, 90, 91
specific energy, 90
Bearing and power transfer assembly (BAPTA), 321
Bit energy-to-noise ratio (Eb/N0), 271
Bit error
coding
Gray, 127, 128
Hamming, 254, 258, 259
Reed-Solomon, 258, 259, 260
Viterbi, 258, 259, 260, 272
correction, 208, 218, 258, 271
detection, 257, 258
rate, 257, 260, 271, 272, 276
Bit rate, 25556
Boltzmanns constant, 274, 275

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Absorbivity
definition, 328
Accelerometer, 114, 255, 256
Aerodynamic drag, 97, 153
AIT. See Assembly, Integration and test
Albedo, 326, 327
Alphasat satellite, 321
Antenna
beamwidth, 275, 276, 280, 281, 287, 291
despun, 240
dipole, 119, 282, 283
gain, 151, 223, 256, 257, 258, 272, 273, 274, 276,
280, 281, 282, 286, 287, 288, 322
ground station, 246
helix, 282, 283
high-gain, 99
horn, 178, 282, 283
main lobe, 275, 285
omnidirectional, 262, 274, 281
parabolic dish, 274, 276, 291
phased array, 104, 298
polarization, 254, 279, 28385, 288
loss, 29091
reflector, 242, 397, 399
side lobe, 275, 276, 286, 443
types, 28185
Apogee
engine, 31
kick motor, 205, 226, 309
liquid apogee engine, 52, 53, 205, 227
motor, 204, 218
Aries star constellation, 16
Attitude
control, 14867, 218, 227, 233, 239, 241
magnetic, 16367
determination, 14348
error, 104
inertial, 102, 123
manoeuvre, 104, 123, 165, 167
matrix, 14448
measurement, 12043
earth sensor, 12833, 134, 136, 138
gyro, 104, 136
gyroscope, 13641
magnetometer, 13536
rate gyro (RG), 136
rate integrating gyro (RIG), 136
ring laser gyro, 13941
spinning gyro, 13638, 138
star tracker, 13435
sun sensor, 127, 138, 321
sun sensor, 12328
pointing accuracy, 104, 114, 117, 118, 120, 142,
170, 177

fT

stability, 102
stabilization, 7, 99, 100120
body, 50, 52, 87, 88, 103, 104, 121, 126, 127,
129, 132, 228, 308, 309
dual-spin, 103, 113
geomagnetic, 11920
gravity gradient, 114, 115
spin, 50, 87, 103, 104, 105, 112, 113, 125, 130,
134, 144, 153, 166, 227, 228, 240, 308, 363
three-axis, 103, 227
Attitude and orbit control. See Attitude:control &
Orbit:control separately
Attitude management, 99168

Carrier-to-noise ratio, 263, 271, 272, 273, 276, 278,


279, 285
Centre of mass, 101, 106, 116, 125, 159, 169, 239,
240, 241, 310
Centrifugal force, 104, 117, 228, 399, 438
Classic orbital elements, 1320, 25, 169
COE. See Classic orbital elements
Controller Area Network (CAN) data protocol, 303
Coordinate system
geocentric orbital, 33, 34, 44, 46, 51
geocentric-equatorial inertial, 40, 67
geocentric-equatorial intertial, 33
geocentric-equatorial rotating, 33, 37, 41
heliocentric rotating, 44, 46, 47, 50, 51

517

Index

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.

HEO. See Orbit:highly eccentric

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Earths gravitational field, 120


Earths magnetic field, 102, 118, 119, 135, 160, 163,
164, 404
Earthshine, 326, 327, 329
Eccentricity vector, 188
Ecliptic plane, 16, 44, 45, 50, 57, 68, 70, 187
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), 304, 305, 411
Electromagnetic interference (EMI), 352, 411
Emissivity
definition, 329
effective
definition, 337
Energy storage, 8991
Environment
aerodynamic drag, 401
atomic oxygen, 404
cosmic, 7
debris, 4068
galactic cosmic radiation, 408
internal, 41112
launch, 7, 371, 39398
solar wind and particle showers, 408
space, 399411
ultraviolet radiation, 411
vacuum, 399
weightlessness, 399
EP. See Propulsion:electric
Equatorial bulge, 29
Equinox
autumn, 48, 90
vernal, 184, 186
Equivalent isotropic radiated power, 274
Equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP), 274, 445
Error coding, 25760
ESRO-IV satellite, 166
Euler angles, 122, 148
Eulers equation, 106, 110

GEO. See Orbit: geostationary


Geomagnetic field, 119, 120, 123, 165
Globalstar satellite, 73, 214, 366
GOES satellite, 104
Gonyets satellite, 115
GPS, 121, 123, 141, 142, 143, 169, 182, 299, 405
GPS receiver, 182
Gravitation
luni-solar, 65, 66
Gravity turn
definition, 362
Ground station
coverage, 4043
GSO. See Orbit:geosynchronous
GTO. See Orbit:geostationary transfer
Gyroscope, 103, 104, 123, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141,
153, 428
Gyroscopic stiffness, 102, 103, 104, 105, 160

hn

Data distribution, 3014


Data memory
non-volatile, 300
volatile, 300
Data rate, 260
Dead reckoning, 231
Design drivers, 510
Development and test (AIT), 43549

ec

Frequency division multiplex (FDM), 247


Fuel cells, 97

fT

Copernicus, 11
Coverage
global, 13, 16, 61, 73, 74, 184, 214
ground station, 42, 74

Failure Detection, Isolation and Recovery (FDIR), 432


Failure Mode Effects and Criticality Analysis
(FMECA), 432
Finite difference method, 319
Finite element method, 319, 351

518

Inertia
major axis of, 14, 101, 108
minor axis of, 14, 101, 108, 113
moment of, 100, 101, 102, 104, 108, 116, 137, 319
principal axis of, 101, 106, 162
products of, 101
International Space Station, 44, 356, 368
International Teleocommunications Union (ITU),
261, 281
International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR), 388
Iridium satellite, 73, 74, 184, 185, 187, 214, 366

Kalman filtering, 143, 192


Krmn vortex, 314
Kepler's law, 11, 12, 13, 20, 21, 25, 26

LAE. See Apogee: liquid apogee engine


Laplace transform, 107, 149, 150, 151
Launch
and early orbit phase, 261, 262
ascent and injection, 36264
campaign, 369, 444
cost, 203, 223, 307, 431
date of, 47, 53, 58
epoch, 47, 56
insurance, 389
site
Baikonur, 72, 364, 368, 369
Cape Canaveral, 58, 364, 365

Index

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Meteosat satellite, 104


MIL-STD-1553B data protocol, 303
Mission analysis, 3260
Mission definition, 7, 10
MMH. See Popellant:hydrazine:momomethyl
Modulation
amplitude, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269
analogue, 26269
digital, 26972
frequency, 263, 264, 265, 267, 268, 269
index, 263, 267, 273
phase, 263, 264, 265, 268, 269
Molniya satellite, 72, 73
Moment of inertia
area, 311
mass, 100, 162, 311
ratio, 112
Momentum
angular, 101, 102, 104, 108, 109, 137, 149, 153,
162, 188
bias, 104, 113, 160
dumping, 113, 160, 161, 165, 225, 235
linear, 102, 201
Momentum wheel, 103, 104, 107, 113, 114, 149, 158,
159, 160, 161, 321, 400
Multilayer insulation (MLI) blanket, 351, 352

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Kourou, 364, 365, 368


Plesetsk, 364, 368
Vandenberg, 364, 365
time of, 17, 47, 53, 56, 58
window, 17, 32, 5356, 58
Launch and space environment, 393413
Launch cost, 389
Launch site, 36466
Launch vehicle
Ariane, 20, 21, 23, 27, 28, 38, 39, 47, 48, 53, 56,
317, 365, 393
Atlas, 365, 368, 393
availabilisty, 388
Delta, 208, 365, 368, 393
design, 38084
fairing, 360
Falcon 9, 368
heatshield, 9, 104, 109, 115, 307, 360, 372, 397,
398, 440, 444
heavy, 36870
Land Launch, 369
Long March family, 369
medium, 36768
Pegasus, 367, 393
performance, 71, 37179
computation, 37479
direct injection into GEO, 37374
profile, 36670
Proton, 368, 369, 373
reliability, 38588
design flaw, 386
workmanship, 385, 386, 440
satellite interface adapter, 360, 395, 396, 440
satellite separation system, 360
Sea Launch, 365, 369, 370
selection strategy, 38990
shroud, 360
small, 36667
Space shuttle, 356, 368
strap-on booster, 38384
tandem adapter, 360
Launch vehicle selection, 35991
LEO. See Orbit:low earth
Link budget, 74, 27379, 281, 285, 287, 292, 295

Magnetorquer, 149, 153, 160, 163, 165


Manoeuvre
dog-leg, 204, 371, 372, 374
Margin
stability, 108, 109
Marman clamp band, 360
Mathematical model, 107, 118, 149
Mathematical modelling
reliability, 41718
structure, 31820, 439
thermal, 33847, 441
Maximum power point tracking, 81, 95
Mechanism, 32022
Meteor, 406
Meteorid, 406
Meteorite, 406

Napiers rule, 57, 126


Natural frequency, 313, 439
Newton's law, 11, 114, 201, 224, 232, 362, 394
Noise
temperature, 273, 274, 275, 276, 292
NORAD, 184, 185, 187
Nutation
amplitude, 112
damper, 114
damping, 114, 138
rate, 113

OBDH. See Onboard data handling


OBDH Design Aspects, 305
Obliquity, 45
Onboard clock, 155, 253, 256, 299
Onboard computer, 298300
Onboard data handling, 297305
Optical solar reflector (OSR), 351, 352
Orbit
acceleration, 66
altitude
definition, 8
apogee
definition, 13
argument of perigee
definition, 17
choice of, 7, 32
control, 7, 99, 193220, 224, 226, 227, 235, 239,
241
relocation, 21214
station-keeping, 20520

519

Index

520

olo
gy
.

sun angle, 5053, 55, 82, 84, 126, 344


sun-synchronous, 7071, 204, 215
tangent, 52
true anomaly
definition, 18
relationship to elapsed time, 20
velocity, 12, 27, 66, 178, 375, 402
Orbit management, 169221
Orbital decay, 186, 401, 402, 403, 404
Orbital dynamics, 1176
Outgassing, 399, 416, 417, 442

fT

ec

hn

Payload module, 309


PID regulator, 150, 151, 152, 153
Platform module, 309
Power
supply, 7, 238, 262
Power bus, 86, 92
Power distribution and conditioning, 9296
Power management, 7698
Power supply, 7888
Pressurant
tank, 309
PRN. See Ranging: pseudo-random noise
Product assurance, 41533
configuration management, 431
materials and processes, 41617
parts engineering, 41516
quality assurance, 431
reliability, 41731
component derating, 419
redundancy, 41931
safety and risk, 432
Propellant
bipropellant, 211, 226, 227, 229, 232, 233, 361
budget, 21820
cold gas, 224
consumption, 104, 196, 2013, 202, 207, 210, 211,
212, 216, 217, 218, 220, 231, 233, 234, 359,
382, 394
cryogenic, 226, 359, 368, 369
distribution, 23031
filter, 231
pressure regulator, 231
pressure transducers, 231
fuel, 224, 225, 226, 227, 231, 232, 361, 367
hydrazine, 203, 226, 227, 233, 235, 355, 432
monomethyl (MMH), 226
unsymmetrical dimethyl (UDMH), 226
hypergolic, 226, 230, 232, 233, 361
liquid, 22829
liquid hydrogen, 226
liquid oxygen, 226
monopropellant, 224, 226, 227, 229, 232, 233
oxidizer, 224, 225, 226, 227, 229, 232, 233, 361,
367
sloshing, 102, 108, 109, 114, 153, 399
solid, 225, 226, 22930, 232, 239, 361, 367, 384
storage, 22830
tank, 227, 228, 229, 231, 309, 361, 399
elastic membrane, 228

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east-west, 66, 2069, 209, 215, 218, 240,


241, 242
north-south, 67, 20912, 235, 240, 242
strategies, 20318
determination, 169, 170, 173, 18492, 246, 299
GPS, 18184
disposal, 215
eccentric anomaly
definition, 21
eccentricity
definition, 14
eclipse
definition, 4349
duration, 44, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54
lunar, 44
penumbra, 43, 44, 45, 46
umbra, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47
elapsed time, 22, 63
relationship to true anomaly, 20
elliptic, 13, 20, 21, 31, 213
energy
definition, 28
flight path angle
definition, 27
geostationary, 8, 10, 13, 16, 31, 6070, 223, 261
geostationary transfer, 20, 22, 23, 27, 31, 38, 39,
47, 170, 204, 215, 223, 261, 405
geosynchronous, 39, 62
graveyard, 21518
height
definition, 8
highly eccentric, 7273
Hohmann transfer, 196, 215, 216
inclination
definition, 15
line of apsides, 17, 30, 34
line of nodes, 17, 18
low earth, 7375
mean anomaly
definition, 21
measurement, 17084
two-line elements, 185
node, 15, 16, 29, 48, 64, 66, 70, 71, 215
ascending, 15, 17, 24, 30, 47, 57, 59, 63, 70,
186, 187, 188, 209, 377
descending, 15, 29, 30, 47, 48, 55, 209, 377
drift, 30, 70
line of, 35
perigee
definition, 13
drift, 31
period
definition, 21
perturbations, 2931, 64, 170, 205, 408, 409
luni-solar, 69
prograde, 15, 17, 30, 70
re-entry, 216, 401
retrograde, 15, 30, 71
right ascension of the ascending node
definition, 16
semimajor axis
definition, 14
semiminor axis, 14

Index

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RAAN. See Orbit:node:ascending


Radiation
damage, 78
ultraviolet, 83
Radiation coupling factor, 34142
Radio frequency
bandwidth, 247, 252, 253, 254, 256, 257, 258, 263,
264, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 274, 279,
281
carrier, 121, 141, 169, 170, 173, 178, 260, 263,
264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 272, 273, 276,
281, 283, 288
choice of, 26162
interference, 206, 274, 285, 443
Radio signal
attenuation, 279, 280, 28892
noise, 28590
Radio signal quality, 26272
Ranging
bilateration, 171
Doppler, 27, 169, 173, 178, 179
laser, 136, 138, 139, 140, 141, 143, 169, 172, 176
77
pseudo-random noise, 17273
range-rate, 169, 173, 17881, 187
slant, 169, 17176, 171, 172, 173, 174, 178, 179,
180, 187, 189, 192
standard, 175
tone, 17376
trilateration, 171, 172, 182
Reaction wheel, 103, 104, 113, 118, 160, 161, 162,
163, 426, 428
Reflection
diffuse, 216, 409, 410
specular, 216, 409, 410
Reflectivity
definition, 328
Remote terminal unit (RTU), 304
Retroreflector, 176, 177
Rhumb line, 156, 157
Rocket engine
combustion chamber, 232, 361
gas generator, 361
Rocket engine architecture, 361
Rocket stage, 359, 367, 394, 407

olo
gy
.

hn

Quarter-orbit coupling (between roll and yaw), 133


Quaternion, 147, 148

SADM. See Solar array drive mechanism


Safe mode, 262, 297
Satellite
anomaly, 21, 297
constellation, 73, 74, 134, 181, 184, 203, 214
dry mass, 218, 297, 365
mass, 189, 202, 203, 216, 218
size of, 10, 77, 326
Satellite development, 436
Satellite structure, 30820
Satellite testing
acceptance, 437
AIT facilities, 43744
anechoic chamber, 443
antenna pattern, 443
at launch site, 444
commissioning, 445
dynamic load, 43940
shaker, 439, 440
electrical ground support equipment (EGSE), 437,
444
in-orbit testing (IOT), 445
mechanical ground support equipment (MGSE),
437
overall AIT sequence, 445
protoflight, 437
qualification, 374, 436, 437
solar simulation, 440, 441
static load, 43839
thermal vacuum, 44042
weightlessness simulation, 442
SCAPE suit, 432
Second surface mirror (SSM), 329, 351
Sequantial switching shunt regulator (S3R), 95
Signal-to-noise ratio, 257, 260, 263
Solar array, 50, 54, 8688, 92, 93, 321
radiation damage, 405
Solar array drive mechanism (SADM), 321
Solar cell
bypass diode, 87
design, 7879
efficiency, 82
gallium arsenide, 79, 82, 85
output, 82, 83, 85
performance, 7986
shadowing, 86, 87
silicon, 79, 80, 82
string, 86, 95, 298
triple junction, 79
Solar panel. See Solar array
size of, 77
Solar pressure, 29, 102, 153, 159, 161, 165, 167, 215,
216, 399, 40811
Solar sailing, 163, 167
Space
inertial, 16, 29, 52, 63, 102, 105, 106, 111, 123,
126
Spacecraft control centre, 183, 246, 247
Spacecraft controller, 138, 231, 245, 246, 247, 281,
297, 299, 325
Specific impulse

ec

fT

propellant management device (PMD), 229


Propulsion, 22344
chemical, 226, 234
electric, 9, 10, 95, 225, 226, 234, 242
electrodynamic, 223, 224, 23339
subsystem, 169, 170, 206, 223, 226, 227, 233
thermodynamic, 223, 22433, 234
Pulse code modulation (PCM), 251
Pulse width modulation (PWM), 93

521

Index

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Tacoma Narrows bridge, 314


Telecommand
definition and structure, 25355
Telemetry
definition and structure, 24753
housekeeping, 247
payload, 247
Temperature
equilibrium, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 342, 351
operating limit, 325
operating range, 325
out-of-limit, 325
Terminator, 70, 71
Thermal
conduction, 326, 34751
control, 325, 351
active, 325, 351, 35556
doubler, 354
electric heater, 355, 356
heat pipe, 326, 35254
louvre, 355, 356
passive, 35155
spreader, 354
convection, 326, 353, 356, 440
equilibrium, 32731
gradient, 33136
hardware implementation, 35156
inertia, 330, 331, 332, 351
interaction, 33638
monitoring, 325, 351
radiation, 326, 32747
radiator, 326, 353, 354, 356
Thermal management, 32557
Thermal propellant gauging (TPG), 231
Thermistor, 351, 355
Thrust

duration, 205
level, 205, 226, 230, 232, 235, 361
vector, 52, 53, 54, 199, 242
Thruster
arcjet, 236
dual-mode, 233
electromagnetic, 135, 165, 234, 23839, 408
electrostatic, 234, 23638
electrothermal, 224, 234, 23536
field emission, 238
gridded ion engine, 236, 237
Hall-effect, 237
hydrazine, 203
layout, 223, 23942
Lorentz force accelerator, 238
mangetoplasmadynamic, 238
plume impingement, 242
pulsed inductive, 239
pulsed plasma, 239
resistojet, 235, 236
valve
fill-and-drain, 231
latch, 230, 231, 321
pyrotechnic, 230, 231, 321, 398
vernier, 241
Thuraya satellite, 321
Time
sidereal, 63, 179, 180, 192
Time division multiplex (TDM), 248, 251
Tracking
angle, 169, 17071, 260
Tracking, telemetry and command, 24496
Tsiolkovsky
rocket equation, 202
TT&C. See Tracking, telemetry & command
TT&C subsystem
digital portion, 24760
RF portion, 26095

fT

definition, 202
Spin axis
flat spin, 108, 114
nutation, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 255,
256
precession, 30, 66, 70, 106
Spin rate, 104, 105, 111, 113, 126, 160, 162, 240, 241
Sputnik satellite, 99, 367
SSO. See Orbit:sun-synchronous
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 275, 328, 329
Steiners theorem, 100
Stiction, 163
Strap-on boosters, 359, 368, 387, 393
Structure. See Structures and Mechanisms
Structure load, 31318
dynamic, 313, 393, 39598, 439
quasi-static, 313
static, 313, 39395, 438
Structure materials, 31013
Structure resonance, 281, 310, 313, 314, 316, 317,
396, 439
Structures and mechanisms, 30523
Subsatellite track, 15, 16, 33, 38, 39, 40, 43, 62, 63,
66, 72, 73

522

UDMH. See Popellant:hydrazine:unsymmetrical


dimethyl

Van Allen belt, 14, 83, 393, 399, 4046, 408


Velocity
increment, 197, 202, 207, 225, 380
Vibration
acoustic, 397
random, 396
shock, 398
sinusoidal, 395
View factor, 33841
Voltage conversion, 9293
Voltage stabilization, 9396

Wire harness, 11, 92, 297, 302

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Index

523

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