Must know Physics Formulas for AIPMT

Must know Formula on Physics' for AIPMT
Parallelogram law of vector addition :
Let be the angle, which the resultant
makes with

Resolution of vectors
Scalar Product (Dot Product) :
If
as
and
are two vectors having angle between them, then their scalar (Dot) product written
and read as
dot
is defined as
Properties of Scalar Product

(i)
It is always a scalar and it will be positive if angle between them is acute, negative if angle
between them is obtuse and zero if angle between them is 90.
(ii) It obeys commutative law
(iii) It obey distributive law
(iv) By definition
cos =
where is the angle between two vectors.

(v) Scalar (Dot) product of two mutually perpendicular vectors is zero i.e.,
(2)

(vi) Scalar (Dot) product will be maximum when = 0 i.e.,
vectors are parallel to each other.
(vii) If
and
are unit vectors, then
(viii) Dot product of unit vectors
and
(ix) Square of a vector
(x) If the two vectors
and
, in terms of their rectangular components, are
and
, then

= AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
Vector Product (Cross Product)

If
and
are two vectors, then their vector product is written as
cross
. It is defined as
where
is vector and is read as
......(7)
is unit vector along the direction of
Properties of Vector Product

(i)
Cross product of two vectors is not commutative
(ii) Cross product is not associative
(iii) Cross product obey distributive law
(iv) If = 0 or it means two vectors are collinear.
and conversely, if
vectors.
, then the vector
are parallel provided

(3)
are non-zero

This may be regarded as a test to decide whether the given two vectors are parallel or not.
(v) If = 90, then
(vi) The vector product of any vector with itself is
(vii) If
, then
(viii) If
(ix) Cross product of unit vectors
and
or
or
are unit vectors, then
(4)
(5)
Representation of errors

Errors can be expressed in the following ways :
Absolute
Propagation of errors in mathematical operations

Rule I :
If X = A + B or X = A B and if A and B represent the absolute errors in A and B respectively,

then maximum absolute error in X = X = A + B and

Maximum percentage error
The result will be written as
X X (in terms of absolute error)
or

....(6)
%(in term of percentage error)
Rule II :
If
X = A B or
X = A/B
then

Rule III :
If
X = An then
If X = ApBqC r then
(6)
....(7)

Motion in Straight Line
Speed and Velocity

Speed is related to distance and it is a scalar while velocity is related to displacement and it is
a vector.
For a moving body speed cant have zero or negative values but velocity can have.
Average Velocity

Let a particle is at a point A at time t1 and B at time t2. Position vectors of A and B are
The displacement in this time interval is the vector
interval is,
and
. The average velocity in this time

here

= change in position vector.
The direction of average velocity is in the direction of displacement
Average Speed

Average speed is defined for a time interval and is given by the total distance traversed in the given
time interval divided by the time interval.
Average speed of a trip vav =
If a particle travels a distance S in time t1 to t2, the average speed is vav =
Acceleration

The motion of an object is said to be accelerated if its velocity
changes with time (when either
changes or the direction of motion changes). The acceleration is defined as the

the speed
rate of change of velocity vector w.r.t. time.
Average Acceleration

During an interval of time when the velocity of particle changes from

to , the average
acceleration is defined as the change in velocity divided by interval of time (say t).
Average acceleration =
The magnitude of average acceleration
The Acceleration-time Graph

Acceleration time curves give information about the variation of acceleration with time. Area under
the acceleration time curve gives the change in velocity of the particle in the given time interval.
(7)
Analysis of Uniformaly Accelerated Motion
Case I : For uniformaly accelerated motion with initial velocity u and initial position x0.
Velocity time graph

In every case, tan = a0
Position time graph
Initial position x of the body in every case is x0 (> 0)

Case II : For uniformly retarded motion with initial velocity u and initial position x0.
Velocity time graph

In every case tan = a0
Position time graph
Initial position x of the body in every case is x0 (>0)
Concepts
1.
Slopes of v-t or s-t graphs can never be infinite at any point, because infinite slope of v-t graph
means infinite acceleration. Similarly, infinite slope of s-t graph means infinite velocity. Hence,
the following graphs are not possible.
2.
At one time, two values of velocity or displacement are not possible Hence, the following
graphs are not acceptable.
(8)
3. The displacement-time graph cannot take sharp turns because it gives two different velocities
at that point.e.g.
4. The displacement-time graph cannot be symmetric about the time-axis because at an instant a particle cannot have two displacements. But the graph may be symmetric about the
displacement-axis. e.g.

5. The distance-time graph is always an increasing curve for a moving body.

6. The displacement-time graph does not show the trajectory of the particle.
If a body dropped from some height (initial velocity zero)

(i) Equation of motion : Taking initial position as origin and direction of motion
(i.e., downward direction) as a positive, here we have

u = 0
[As body starts from rest]

a = +g
[As acceleration is in the direction of motion

v = g t
(i)

...(iv)
(ii) Graph of distance, velocity and acceleration with respect to time :
v2 = 2gh

(ii)
(iii)
(iii) As h = (1/2)gt2, i.e., h t2, distance covered in time t, 2t, 3t, etc., will be in the ratio of 12 :
: 32, i.e., square of integers.
22

(iv) The distance covered in the nth sec,

So distance covered in I, II, III sec, etc., will be in the ratio of 1 : 3 : 5, i.e., odd integers only.

If a body is projected vertically downward with some initial velocity

Equation of motion :
v=u+gt

v2 = u2 + 2 gh

(9)
If a body is projected vertically upward
(i) Equation of motion : Taking initial position as origin and direction of motion (i.e., vertically

up) as positive

a=g
[As acceleration is downwards while motion upwards]

So, if the body is projected with velocity u and after time t it reaches up to height h then

v = u g t ;

(ii) For maximum height v = 0

So from above equation

u = gt,

and
;
v2 = u2 2gh ;
u2 = 2gh
(iii) Graph of distance, displacement, velocity and acceleration with respect to time (for
maximum height) :
It is clear that both quantities do not depend upon the mass of the body or we can say that in
absence of air resistance, all bodies fall on the surface of the earth with the same rate.
Applications of Relative Velocity

Relative velocity concept is very useful in
(1)
Motion analysis between two bodies.
(3)
River (Swimmer ) based problem.
Swimming into the river
A man can swim with velocity
If water is also flowing with velocity
(i)
If the swimming is in the direction of flow of water or along the downstream then

(ii)
(2) Rain / wind / aircraft based problems.
, i.e., it is the velocity of man w.r.t. still water.

then velocity of man relative to ground
vm = v + vR
If the swimming is in the direction opposite to the flow of water or along the upstream then
(10)

(iii)
vm = v vR
If man is crossing the river i.e.,
and
not collinear then use the vector algebra
For shortest path :
If man wants to cross the river such that his displacement should be minimum. It means he wants
to reach just opposite point across the river. Man should start swimming at an angle with the
perpendicular to the flow of river towards upstream.
So that its resultant velocity
To reach at B
component of velocity of v along AB is = vcos . so time taken
For minimum time
To cross the river in minimum time the velocity along AB (v cos ) should be maximum. It is possible
if = 0, i.e., swimming should start perpendicular to water current. Due to effect of river velocity,
man will reach at point C along resultant velocity, i.e., his displacement will not be minimum but
time taken to cross the river will be minimum.
v sin = vR
. It is in the direction of displacement AB.

sin =

In time tmin swimmer travels distance BC along the river with speed of river vR BC = tmin vR Distance
travelled along river flow = drift of man = tmin vR =
Oblique Projectile Motion

Equation of Trajectory : A projectile thrown with velocity u at an angle with the horizontal. The
velocity u can be resolved into two rectangular components.

(11)

This equation shows that the trajectory of projectile is parabolic because it is similar to equation
of parabola y = ax - bx2
Horizontal range : It is the horizontal distance travelled by a body during the time of flight.
So by using second equation of motion

(a) Range of projectile can also be expressed as :
R=
2u
x uy
(where ux and uy are the horizontal and vertical component of initial velocity)
Newtons Second Law of Motion

or
if m = constant then
Impulse

Impulse = product of force with time.
Suppose a force
For a finite interval of time from t1 to t2 then the impulse =
If constant force act for an interval t then Impulse =
acts for a short time dt then impulse =
Impulse - Momentum theorem

Impulse of a force is equal to the change of momentum
Conservation Of Linear Momentum (COLM)

If

= 0, then
= 0
= 0
Motion of Bodies In contact

Case I :

(i) When the force F acts on the body with mass m1 as shown in figure

F = (m1 + m2)a.

If the force exerted by m2 on m1 is f1 (force of contact)

then for body m1 : (F f1) = m1 a

for body m2 : f1 = m2a

action of m1 on m2 : f1 =
(12)

(ii) When the force F acts on the body with mass m2 as shown in figure

F = (m1 + m2)a

for body with mass m2

F f2 = m2 a

for body m1: f2 = m1a

action on m1: f2 =
Case II :

f1 =
(action on m1 alone) and f2 =
(action on m1 and m2)
Motion of Bodies Connected by Strings

Acceleration a =
T1 = m1a =

T2 = F
Some Cases of Pulley
Case I :
Case II :
a =

acceleration =

(13)
and T =
Reaction at the suspension of pulley or thurst or

pressure force

Tension =
Case III :

R = 2T =

acceleration a =
T=

Pressure force or thurst on pulley P = 2 T

Case IV : (m1 > m2)

a=
Case V :
acceleration a =

T=

Case VI :

Acceleration a =
Tension T =

Case VII :

For mass m1 : T1 m1g = m1a

For mass m2 : m2g + T2 T1 = m2a

For mass m3 : m3g T2 = m3a

a=
Coefficient of Friction

Sliding friction coefficient k =
Static friction coefficient s =
The values of s and k depend on the nature of both the surface in contact.
Angle of Friction
(14)
by
tan =
Angle of Repose ()
If a body is placed on an inclined plane and if its angle of inclination is gradually increased, then at
some angle of inclination the body will just on the point to slide down. The angle is called angle
of repose ().

FS = mg sin and N = mg cos so

Relation between angle of friction () and angle of repose ()
tan = and = tan , hence tan = tan = Thus, angle of repose = angle of friction
Acceleration of a body down a rough inclined plane

a = g [sin k cos] hence a < g

acceleration of a body down a rough inclined plane is always less than g.
By Banking of Roads only

Nsin =
and Ncos = mg tan =
Friction and banking of Road both

v=
WORK POWER AND ENERGY

W = F s cos =

If
and
(15)

Then W =

Dimension : M1L2T2

UNIT SI : joule C.G.S. : erg
1 joule = 107 erg
Work Done by a Variable Force
WAB =
POWER

Instantaneous power P =
1 horsepower = 746 watt
Kinetic Energy
If linear momentum of body is p, the kinetic energy for translatory motion is KE =
If a body of mass m is moving with velocity v, its kinetic energy KE = mv2/2.
Work Energy Theorem

W = KE or

W = K2 K1 W = KE

W = change in K.E. of body.
Potential Energy

If force varies only with one dimension (along x-axis) then F =
Potential Energy Curve and Equilibrium

It is a curve which shows change in potential energy

with position of a particle.
Stable Equilibrium :

When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium

position and it tends to come back towards equilibrium
(16)
mv2.

then it is said to be in stable equilibrium
At point C :
slope
At point D :
At point A :
is positive
so F is negative
slope
it is the point of stable equilibrium.
is negative
so F is positive

At point A : U = Umin ,
= 0 and
= positive
Unstable equilibrium :

When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium and it tends to move away from equilibrium
position then it is said to be in unstable equilibrium
is positive so F is negative.
At point E :
is negative so F is positive
At point G : slope
At point B : it is the point of unstable equilibrium.
slope

At point B : U = Umax,
= 0 and
= negative
Neutral equilibrium :

When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium position and no force acts on it then
equilibrium is said to be neutral equilibrium
Point H is at neutral equilibrium U = constant ;
Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy

= 0,
=0
KE + U = constant
COLLISION

Types of collision according to the conservation law of kinetic energy :
(a)
Elastic collision : kinetic energy is conserved. KEbefore collision = KEafter collision
(b)
Inelastic collision : kinetic energy is not conserved.

Some energy is lost in collision
KEbefore collision > KEafter collision
(c)
Perfect inelastic collision : Two bodies stick together after the collision.
Coefficient of restitution (e)

The coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio of the impulses of recovery and deformation
of either body.

e=

Value of e is 1 for elastic collision, 0 for perfectly inelastic collision, 0 < e < 1 for inelastic collision.
Head on Inelastic Collision of two Particles
Let the coefficient of restitution for collision is e

(i) Momentum is conserved m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 ...(1)
(ii) Kinetic energy is not conserved
(17)

(iii) According to Newtons law

By solving equation (1) and (2)
...(2)
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Co-ordinates of Centre of mass

Velocity and acceleration of Centre of Mass

velocity of CM
acceleration of CM
MOMENT OF INERTIA

Moment of inertia of system of particle

I=

For continuous body I =
Radius of Gyration (K)

K=
Theorems of Moment of Inertia

1.
Theorem of perpendicular axes (applicable only for two dimensional bodies or plane laminas)

Iz = I x + I y
where

Ix = MI of the body about x-axis

Iy = MI of the body about y-axis

Iz = MI of the body about z-axis
2.
Theorem of parallel axes (for all type of bodies)
(18)
I = ICM + Md2
TORQUE (OR MOMENt OF A FORCE)

where is smaller angle between

Power Associated with Torque
P =
and
is unit vector along .
ANGULAR MOMENTUM (MOMENT OF LINEAR MOMENTUM)

L = mv r sin
Angular impulse = avt =
Rotational Kinetic Energy
KE =
Work energy theorem in rotational motion
The work done by torque = Change in kinetic energy of rotation W =
Angular Impulse
= change in angular momentum
Relation Between Angular Momentum and Torque
ROLLING MOTION

Total Energy
Rolling Motion on an Inclined Plane

Time of descend when body rolling
(19)
Time of descend when body sliding

so
If different body are rolled down on an inclined plane then body which has
1. Least, will reach first

2. Maximum, will reach last
3. equal, will reach together

4. From figure
3 > 2 > 1

a3 > a2 > a1

t3 < t2 > t1

v1 = v2 = v3

In next figure if
v2 > v1

Change in kinetic energy due to rolling
=
=

Rolling/Sliding :
Pure Rolling
is given by
If the velocity of point of contact with respect to

the surface is zero then it is known as pure rolling.
If a body is performing rolling then the velocity of
any point of the body with respect to the surface

(20)
for pure rolling min =
NEWTONS LAW OF GRAVITATION

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
Gravitational Field Intensity [Ig or Eg]
Gravitational Field Intensity for Solid and Hollow Sphere
(21)
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

Joule/kg.
Gravitational Potential for Solid and Hollow Sphere
(22)
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

VARIATION IN ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

Due to Altitude (height)
If h << Re then
Due to Depth

valid for 100% depth
Due to Rotation of the Earth
(23)

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

Work done by Gravitational force in shifting a mass from one place to another place.

W=U=
ESCAPE VELOCITY (ve)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
(In form of mass)
If M = constant
(In form of g) If g = constant

(In form of density) If = constant
Escape velocity does not depend on mass of body, angle of projection or direction of projection.
Escape velocity at : Earth surface ve = 11.2 km/s
Moon surface ve = 2.31 km/s
Atmosphere on Moon is absent because root mean square velocity of gas particle is greater then
escape velocity. (vrms > ve).
Orbital Velocity (v0)

v0 =

v0 =
For near by satellite h << Re
(Puting r = Re + h)

v0 =
= 8 km/sec (on puting GMe = gRe2)

If orbital velocity of a near by satellite becomes 2 v0 (or increased by 41.4%, or K.E. is doubled)
then the satellite escapes from gravitational field of earth.
Time Period of a Satellite
For Geostationary Satellites
For Near by Satellite
v0 =
In terms of density
Kinetic energy K.E. =
T = 24 hr, h = 36,000 km = 6 Re (r = 7 Re), v0 = 3.1 km/s
= 8 km/s
= 84 minute = 1 hour 24 minute = 1.4 hr = 5063 s
Energies of a Satellite
(24)

Potential energy P.E. =
Total mechanical energy T.E. = P.E. + K.E. =
Binding Energy
B.E. = T.E.
B.E. =
Hence B.E. = K.E. = T.E. =
Work done in Changing the Orbit of Satellite
W = Change in mechanical energy of system but E =
A planet moves around sun in an elliptical orbit of semin major axis a and eccentricity e.
For this planet areal velocity =
Planet Moves Around Sun in an Elliptical Orbit
so W = E2 E1 =
= constant.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS AND FLUIDS

Stress =
Breaking Stress :
The stress required to cause actual fracture of a material is called the breaking stress or the ulti
mate strength. Breaking stress =

Strain =
Longitudinal Strain =
(25)

Volume strain =
Shear strain()
Hooke's law
Within elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain.

E = Elastic constant or modulus of elasticity.
Types of Elasticity Coefficients

Young's Modulus
Elongation of a wire due to its own weight
Let, M = mass of rope, L = length of rope, A = cross-sectional area of the rope, = density of rope,
L = increase in length of the rope due to its own weight.
Work done in stretching a wire (Potential energy of a stretched wire)

The total work done in stretching the wire from x = 0 to x = is, then
Energy density,
Bulk modulus of elasticity (K) : Volume stress and volume strain are in constant ratio which is
called Bulk modulus.
(26)

Isothermal bulk modulus Kisothermal = P

Adiabatic bulk modulus Kadiabatic = P
Compressibility :

The reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity is defined as compressibility.

Modulus of Rigidity or Shear modulus () : Shearing stress and shearing strain are in constant
ratio which is called Shear modulus.
where angle of shear '' is always taken in radian.
Poisson's Ratio () :
In elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain and longitudinal strain is called poisson's ratio.
1 < < 0.5 (theoritical limit)

0.2 to 0.4 (experiments)
Relation between (Y, K, & ) :
(1) Y = 3K (1 2) (2) Y = 2 (1 + ) (3)
Relation between angle of twist and angle of shear.
(4)
r =
angle of twist, angle of shear
surface tension

1.
Surface Tension T =
Work done (surface energy) in formation of a drop of radius r = Work done against surface tension
(27)

W = Surface tension (T) change in area (A) = T 4r2 = 4r2T
2.
Work done (surface energy) in formation of a soap bubble of radius r.

W = T A
or W = T 2 4r2 = 8r2T [ soap bubble has two surfaces]

n drops coalesce (combine) to form a big drop

Now surface energy of one small drop = 4 r2T.

The total initial surface energy of n drops is Einitial = n(4r2T)
The final surface energy of big drop is Einitial = 4R2T.
Therefore, the amount of surface energy released or surface energy loss is
E = Ei Ef = 4nr2T 4R2T

(ii)

Excess pressure inside soap bubble
excess pressure = Pi PO =
E or Work (W)
Excess Pressure Inside a Curved Liquid Surface

(i)
Excess pressure inside the drop
(iii)
Excess pressure inside the cavity or air bubble in liquid

Pexcess = Pin Pout = hdg +

Pinside = Patm + hdg +
characteristic properties of liquid
Pressure

If a uniform force is exerted normal to an area (A), then pressure (P) is defined as the normal force
(F) per unit area i.e. P = F/A
Types of Pressure : Pressure is of three types
(a) Atmospheric pressure(P0) (b) Gauge pressure (Pgauge) (c) Absolute pressure (Pabs.)

Absolute Pressure : Sum of atmospheric and Gauge pressure is called absolute pressure.

Relative Density:
If a body is weighed in air (WA), in water (Ww) and in a liquid (WL), then
Specific gravity of liquid =
Equation of Continuity
A1V1 = A2V2 Based on conservation of mass
(28)

Bernoulli's theorem : The sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy per unit
volume remains constant along a streamline in an ideal fluid flow i.e.,
= constant
(Energy per unit volume)
= constant
(Energy per unit weight)
or

Here P/g is called pressure head, v2/2g is called velocity/kinetic head and h is called gravitational/
potential head
Torricelli's law of Efflux (Fluid Outflow) : The area of cross-section at A is very large as compared to that
at orifice B, speed at A i.e. VA 0.

Horizontal range

or
Range will be maximum when R2 is maximum, ie..,

h = H h or h = H/2
Newton's law of viscosity

Where is a constant called coefficient of viscosity of the liquid.

SI Unit : 1 poiseuille (PI) = 1

Dimension of : M1L1T1
2
CGS Unit : Dyne-sec/cm or poise such that 1 decapoise = 10 poise.
= deca pose
Poiseuille's Formula
In case of steady flow of liquid of viscosity () in a capillary tube of length (L) and radius (r) under
a pressure difference (P) across it, the volume of liquid flowing per second is given by :
Stoke's law and terminal velocity

Stoke showed that if a small sphere of radius r is moving with a velocity v through a stationary
medium (liquid or gas) of viscosity then the viscous force acting on the sphere is Fv = 6rv. It
is called Stoke's law.
Terminal Velocity :

where r = radius of body = density of body

= density of liquid = coefficient of viscosity
Graph :

where variation of velocity with time (or distance) is shown in the adjascent graph.
(29)
Reynolds Number(Re)

The type of flow pattern (laminar or turbulent) is determined by a non-dimensional number called
Reynolds number (Re). Which is defined as

where is the density of the fluid having viscosity and flowing with mean speed v, d denotes
the diameter of tube.
tHeRMAL Properties of matter

Scale of temperature

Hence,
Linear expansion

= 0(1 + ) = 0

Superficial (areal) expansion :

A = A0(1 + )

= 2

Volume expansion :

V = V0(1 + )
= 3

Anomalous expansion of water : Generally matter expands on heating and contracts on cooling. In case
of water, it expands on heating if its temperature is greater than 4oC. In the range 0oC to 4oC, water contracts on heating and expands on cooling, i.e., is netagive. This behaviour of water in the
range from 0oC to 4oC is called anomalous expnasion.
(30)
Thermal Capacity
Thermal capacity = mass specific heat
If to a given mass (m) of a solid, heat is supplied at constant rate and a graph is plotted between
temperature and time as shown in figure.
Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity : The heat conducted by a rod is given by the relation:
Heating curve

Q=
where K = Coefficient of thermal conductivity, A = Area normal to the heat flow

1 2 = Temperature difference, t = Time, L = Length of the rod
Heat Current
We have Q =
or Heat current, H = =
, Where R =
is called
thermal resistance of the conductor.
Series Connection : Two rods A and B of thermal resistances R1 and R2 are joined as shown in figure.
Then the equivalent thermal resistance R = R1 + R2.
and hence heat current H =
Parallel Connection : Equivalent resistance R is given by
Wiedmann-Franz law : The ratio of thermal and electrical conductivities (K & ) at a particular
(31)
temperature (T K) is same for all metals (except mica)
Heat current H =
= (T1 T2)
or, R =

i.e.,

= constant
Growth of ice on ponds :
Kirchhoff's Law

At a given temperature for all bodies the ratio of their spectral emissive power (e) to spectral
absorptive power (a) is constant and this constant is equal to spectral emissive (E) of the ideal
black body at same temperature

= constant
= constant e a

Good absorbers are good emitters and bad absorbers are bad emitters.
Stefans Law [or stefan-Boltzmann Law]
The amount of radiation emitted per second per unit area by a black body is directly proportional
to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

E T 4
T = temperature of ideal black body (in K)

E = T 4
E = amount of radiation emitted

This law is true for only ideal black body.
Newton's Law of Cooling

Wiens Displacedment Law
Temperature of the Sun : From S =

T=

Where S = solar constants.

Equation of state for ideal gas

Where P is the absolute pressure, V is the volume, N is the total number of moles present in the
gas, T is the temperature in absolute (kelvin) units and R is the universal gas constant. The value
of R is same for all gases.

R = 8.314 J/mol-K

Gas laws
(32)
4.
Avogadros Law : - At same temperature and pressure equal volumes of all gases contains equal
number of molecules.

N1 = N2
5.
if P, V, and T are same
Daltons Law : - According to this law, the pressure exerted by a mixture of several gases equals
the sum of the pressure exerted by each component gas present in the mixture i.e.

Pmix. = P1 + P2 + P3 ...........................

Grahams Law of diffusion : - Accroding to this law, at same temperature and pressure, the rate
of diffusion of gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the density of gas i.e.,
Rate of diffusion
Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature
So, Vrms rd
[For H2 gas (Max)]

This is average translational K.E. per mole

Degree of freedom for different gases : - (Acc. to atomicity of gas)

Relation between degree of freedom & specific heat of gas

Energy related with each degree of freedom = RT/2
Energy related with all degree of freedom = fRT/2
Internal Energy of one Mole of Ideal gas (Total K.E.) U = fRT/2 [U = fRT/2]

(33)
Different Kinetic Energy of Gas (Internal Energy)
(i)
Translatory Kinetic Energy (ET)

(ii)
Total internal energy of ideal gas is kinetic energy.

Energy per unit Volume or Energy Density(Ev)

(iii) Molar K.E. or Mean Molar K.E. (E)

(iv)
for N0 molecules or Mw(gram) E = RT =

Molecular Kinetic energy or Mean Molecular K.E. ( )
N0kT
Average velocity
Because molecules are in random motion in all possible direction in all possible velocity. Therefore,

the average velocity of the gas in molecules in container is zero.
rms speed of molecules

Mean speed of molecules

By maxwells velocity distribution law vM or
= vmean
Most probable speed of molecules (vmp)
At a given temperature, the speed to which maximum number of molecules belongs is called as
most probable speed (vmp)

(34)
first law of thermodynamics

First law of thermodynamics is in accordance with law of conservation of energy. According to

Clausius statement of first law of thermodynamics, the heat given to a system (dQ) is used up in
two ways :

(i) In increasing the temperature of system and hence in increasing internal energy of the system. It is represented by dU.

(ii) In doing work against external pressure. It is represented by dW.

dQ = dU + dW where dW = PdV
Specific heat Capacity

Molar specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) : It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of one mole of a gas by 1C at constant pressure.

Cp =
(ii)
Specific heat at constant volume (sv) : It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of unit mass of a gas by 1C at constant volume.

sV =

Molar specific heat at constant volume (CV) : The amount of heat required to raise the temperature
on one mole of a gas by 1C at constant volume is called molar specific heat at constant volume.

CV =
If Mw be the molecular mass of the gas, then

Relation between CP and CV

......(Mayers relation)
Isothermal Process

T = constant or
T = 0 PV = constant

In this process
U = CVT = 0

Q = W = RT
Adiabatic Process

PV = constant or TP1 = constant or TV 1 = constant

In this process Q = 0 and W = U

( PV = RT)
Slope of adiabatic is greater than the slope of isotherm

Isobaric Process
(35)

P = constant V T; Q = CP T, U = CVT, W = P (V2 V1) = RT
Isochoric Process

V = constant P T; Q = U = CVT, W = 0
Polytropic Process : PVx = constant
Molar heat capacity C = CV +
Work done
Efficiency of heat engine =
Heat Engine
Refrigerator
For Carnot reversible refrigerator
Oscilation
(36)
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

If y = Asint

or,
a=
a=
ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
The restoring force F = kx is analogous to the spring force which is conservative. The associated
potential energy

The kinetic energy
Total enery
.....
.....
(37)

.....
Figure shows the graphs of total energy (E), potential energy (U) and the kinetic energy (K) versus
the displacement [x] from the equilibrium postion
The frequency of oscillations of each of U and K is twice the frequency
of the SHM.
From the figure given below, it is clear that |K U| completes its one cycle (maximum to zero and zero to maximum) in time
its frequency is four times the frequency of SHM.
, so
Spring Block System
(1) If m s be the mass of the spring, then the expression of time period is modified as
(2)
If a spring of force constant k is divided into n equal parts and one such part is attached to a mass
m, then the time period is given by

(3)
, because spring constant of each part is nk.

If two springs of force constant k1 and k2 are connected in parallel and a mass m is attached to
(38)

them, then the time period is given by

where k = k1 + k2
(4)
If two springs of force constants k1 and k2 are connected in series and a mass m is attached to them,
then the time period is given by

(5)
where =
or
If two masses m1 and m2 are connected to the two ends of a spring, then the time period is given
by
where

Here m is known as reduced mass.
Some more points about a Pendulum

(1)
The period T does not depend of the amplitude if it is small.
(2)
The formula
(3)
From the formula

(4)
i.e., For a change of x% in , the change in T is

%
When a girl sitting on swing stands up, then her centre of gravity rises up, and hence the effective
length of the swing decreases. Therefore, periodic time also decreases.
(5)
Due to thermal expansion,

in temperature
is true only for << R (radius of the Earth)
where a is coefficient of thermal expansion and = change
(39)

(6)
Hence a pendulum clock will be slow by

At a height h (<< R) above the Earths surface
or
per day.

so
or

Hence a pendulum clock will be slow by]

If h = 1 km, loss of time = 13.6 s per day.
(7)
At a depth d below the Earths surface,
(8)
A simple pendulum with period 2 seconds, is called seconds pendulum. Its length is about 1 m on
the earths surface.
If the length of the pendulum is comparable to the radius (R) of the Earth, the formula for time
period is
(9)
so

(10) If > > R, i.e., for a pendulum of infinite length
so

Putting the values of R and g,

This is maximum limit of the time period for a pendulum.
(11) If = R,
then g in the formula for T will be re-
(12)
If a simple pendulum has an acceleration

placed by

(13) If

is vertically upward. geff = g + a
(14) If
is vertically downward, geff = g a, so
(15) If
is horizontal,
(16) In a freely falling lift, geff = 0, so T =
(40)

i.e., the pendulum will not oscillate. This is also true inside a satellite because geff = 0. So, a pendulum clock cannot work iniside a satellite.
(17)

(18)
(e.g., electrostatic force) also acts on the
In addion to gravity, if other force

bob of mass m, then
If a simple pendulum is suspended from the ceiling of a cart sliding on a smooth inclined plane
of inclination q,
Torsional pendulum

Motion is angular simple harmonic. Hence the period
Wave Motion

Equation of a Plane Progressive Wave
y = a sin
Relation between particle velocity and wave velocity :
Wave equation : y = A sin(t kx), Particle velocity v =

= A cos(t kx).
Wave velocity
Relation between Phase difference, Path difference & Time difference
Phase () 0
Wave length () 0
Time-period (T)
Path difference =
Phase difference
VELOCITY OF TRANSVERSE WAVE
(41)

Velocity of transverse wave in any wire v =
or
where m is linear mass density and T = tension in the wire
SPEED OF LONGITUDINAL (SOUND) WAVES

Newton Formula vmedium =
(Use for every medium)
Where E = Elasticity coefficient of medium &
= Density of medium
For solid medium = vsolid =
Where E = Y = Young's modulus
For solid medium vliquid =

Laplace Correction
Where E = B, where B = volume elasticity coefficient of liquid
Adiabatic Elasticity = P so that v =

And from kinetic-theory of gases vrms =
Effect of various quantities
For a gas & Mw is constant v

(b) Effect of Relative Humidity
With increase in humidity, density decreases so in the light of v =

that with rise in humidity velocity of sound increase.
(c) Effect of Pressure
As velocity of sound v =
So pressure has no effect on velocity of sound in a gas as long as temperature remain constant.
Vibration of air columns in open organ pipe (OOP)
When open organ pipe vibrate in mth overtone then = (m + 1)

so =
n = (m + 1)
Hence frequency of overtones are given by the relation n1 : n2 : n3 ......= 1 : 2 : 3 : .........
Vibration of air column in closed organ pipe(COP)
When closed organ pipe vibrate in mth overtone then = (2m + 1)
(a) Effect of temperature
We conclude
So

Hence freuency of overtones is given by n1 : n2 : n3 ....... = 1 : 3 : 5 ............
DOPPLER EFFECT
1.
If medium (air) is also moving with vm velocity in direction of source and observer. Then velocity
of sound relative to observer will be v vm(ve sign, if vm is opposite to sound velocity).
So, n' = n
(42)
2.

If medium moves in a direction opposite to the direction of propagation of sound, then
n' =
3.
Source in motion towards the observer. Both medium and observer are at rest. n'= {v/(v
vs)}/n

So, when a source of sound approaches a stationary abserver, the apparent frequency is more
than the actual frequency.
4.
Source in motion away from the observer. Both medium and observer are at rest.n'={v/(v + vs)}/n
So, when a source of sound moves away from a stationary observer, the apparent frequency is
less than actual frequency.
5.
Observer in motion towards the source. Both medium and source are at rest. n' = {(v + vo)/v}n

So, when observer is in motion towards the source, the apparent frequency is more than the
actual frequency.
6.
Observer in motion away from the source. Both medium and source are at rest. n' = {(v vo)/v}
n So, when observer is in motion away from the source, the apparent frequency is less than the
actual frequency.
7.
Both source and observer are moving away from each other. Medium at rest.
n' = {(v vo)/(v + vs)}n
Electrostatics
COULOMBS LAW
F=
and k =
where, k =
, if charges are placed in vacuum.
, when charges are placed in medium with relative permittivity r.
( is the absolute permittivity of medium)

where, r =

Principle of superposition

The resultant force acting on a charge due to a group of charges is equal to the vector sum of
individual forces.

ELECTRIC FIELD
Field of isolated point charge :
Electric field
Electric field due to charged ring
(43)

E=
Electric flux =
Electric Flux through various surfaces

(i) |in| = R2E (ii)

out = in = R2E
|out| = R2E
(iii) in = out = Ea2

total = 0.

circular = curved total = 0

(iv)
T = 0
ELECTRIC DIPOLE

Dipole placed in uniform electric field

Electric field due to an electric dipole

(i) At a point on the axis of a dipole :

E = E1 E2

E=
( p = q 2)
(44)
(v) T = 2R2E
If r >>> E =

(ii) At a point on equatorial line of dipole :

E =

If r >>> E =

At any point

Enet =
tan =
ELECTROSTATIC PRESSURE

P=
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (V)
V=
Potential due to group of charges
V = V1 + V2 + ...........................+Vn =
Potential difference
Vab =
Electric potential gradient
(45)
Electric Field
Electric potential due to charged ring

V=

Electric potential due to hollow or conducting sphere

(i)
At outside sphere

V=

(ii) At surface

V=

(iii) Inside the surface

Inside the surface E = 0,
= 0, or V = constant [ E =
so
V=

Electric potential due to dipole

Net electric potential V
If r > > then V =

(ii) At equatorial point

Net potential V = V1 + V2 =
= 0 So V = 0
(iii) Electric potential due to an electric dipole at any point
(46)

Energy of a system of two charges, U =
Energy of a system of three charges, U =
Geometrical point charge system
VP = kq
( 2cos2 <<< r2, P = q2)
Potential Energy of a System of charges
(a)
Wsys = Usys =
VP=
B.E. = Usys = +
(b)
usys =
= K
(3-pairs)
(c)
NP = Number of pairs =
Number of charges.
Capacitor and Capacitance
Capacitance C = Q/V
Capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor of radius R, C = 40R
Energy stored in a charged conductor/capacitor

Parallel Plate Capacitor

(i)
Capacitance
If medium between the plates is air or vacuum, then r = 1, C0 = 0A/d

(where r = K = dielectric constant)

(ii) Force between the plates
(47)

Magnitude of force F =
Force per unit area or energy density of electrostatic pressure =
Spherical capacitor
(i)
Outer sphere is earthed
C = 4 r 0
(ii) Inner sphere is earthed
C =
Capacitor in series :

5.2 Capacitors in parallel

Cp = C 1 + C 2 + C 3

When dielectric is completely filled between plates
If a dielectric slab is fills completely the gap between the plates, capacitance increases by K times i.e., C
(48)
When dielectric is partially filled between the plates
C=
C' =
C' =
COMBINATION OF DROPS
(49)

Suppose we have n identical drops each having Radius r, Capacitance c, Charge q, Potential v
and Energy u.

If these drops are combined to form a big drop of Radius R, Capacitance C, Charge Q, Potential
V and Energy U then
(i)
Charge on big drop : Q = nq
(ii)
Radius of big drop : Volume of big drop = n volume of a single drop
i.e.,
, R = n1/3r
(iii)
Capacitance of big drop : C = n1/3c
(iv)
Potential of big drop : V =
V = n2/3v
U = n5/3u
(v)
Energy of big drop : U =
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF CAPACITOR

Charging of a capacitor
At t = , Q = Q0, then capacitor gets fully charged

Q = CV, Q0 = CE

Current at any instant
At t = = RC (time constant)

Q = Q0 [1 e1] = 0.632 Q0

Time constant is that time in which the charge increases to 0.632 or 63.2% of the maximum charge.
Discharging of a capacitor :

at t = I = 0, q = 0, then capacitor gets fully discharged
at t = RC (time constant)
Q=

Time constant is that time in which the charge decays to 0.37 or 37% of the maximum charge.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Average current iav =
Instantaneous current i =
CURRENT DENSITY (J)

(50)

The current density at a point in a conductor is the ratio of the current at that point in the conductor
to the area of cross-section of the conductor of that point.
,
dA = Cross section area

It is a vector quantity. Its direction is the direction of motion of the positive charges at that point.
Unit =

i =
,
i=
Electric current is the flux of current density.
DRIFT VELOCITY

Relaxation Time()
Average time elapsed between two successive collisions.It is of the order of 1014 s
It is a temperature dependent characteristic of the material of the conductor.
It decreases with increases in temperature.
Mean Free Path()
The distance travelled by a conduction electron during relaxation time is known as mean free path.
Mean free path of conduction electron = Thermal velocity Relaxation time
RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT DENSITY, CONDUCTIVITY & ELECTRIC FIELD

In vector
depends only on the material of the conductor and its temperature.
OHMS LAW
At constant temperature, current is directly proportional to the applied potential difference. This
law is called ohms law and substance which obey it are called ohmic or linear conductors.
V = Ri
R is constant, its unit is ohm ().
Resistance depends on
(1) length of the conductor (R )
(2) area of cross - section of the conductor (R 1/A)

(3) nature of material of the conductor R =

(4) temperature Rt = R0 (1 + t)

Where Rt = Resistance at tC

R0 = Resistance at 0C
(51)

t = Change in temperature

= Temperature coefficient of resistance

Resistivity depends on

(i) Nature of material
(ii) Temperature of material

does not depend on the size and shape of the material because it is the characteristic property
of the conductor material.

(i) Series Combination

Same current passes through each resistance

R = R1 + R2 + R3
Where R = equivalent resistance

(ii) Parallel Combination

There is same drop of potential across each resistance.

KIRCHHOFFS LAW

First law
Second law
In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the current meeting at any junction in the circuit is zero.
This is based on law of conservation of charge.
In any closed circuit the algebraic sum of e.m.f.s and algebraic sum of potential drops is zero.

This law is based on law of conservation of energy.

CELL
Cell convert chemical energy in to electrical energy.
Combination of Cells
(i)
Series combination

equivalent internal resistance r = r1 + r2 + r3 + .... equivalent emf = E = E1 + E2 + E3 + ......
Current i =
If all n cell are identical then i =
If nr >> R, i =
current from one cell; If nr << R, i =
n current from one cell

(ii) Parallel combination
If m identical cell connected in parallel then total internal resistance of this combination

(52)
Total e.m.f. of this combination ET = E

Current in the circuit i =

If r << mR If r >> mR
= Current from one cell
i=
= m current from one cell

i=

(iii) Mixed combination

Total number of identical cell in this circuit is nm.
If n cells connected in series and their are m such branches in the circuit.

The internal resistance of the cells connected in a row = nr.

The internal resistance of the circuit rnet =
( There are such m rows)

ET = nE
i=
Current in the circuit is maximum when external resistance in the circuit is equal to the total internal
resistance of the cells
R=
Wheat Stone Bridge
The configuration in the adjacent figure is called Wheat Stone Bridge.

If current in galvanometer is zero (Ig = 0) then bridge is said to be balanced
(53)
VD = VB or
If
then VB > VD and current will flow from B to D
then VB < VD and current will flow from D to B
If
Metre Bridge
It is based on principle of wheatstone bridge. It is used to

find out unknown resistance of wire.
Potentiometer
Comparision of emf of two cells

Internal resistance of a given primary cell

Jouless Law of Heating

When a current i is made to flow through a passive or ohmic resistance R for time t, heat Q is
(54)
produced such that

Q = i2 Rt = P t = V i t =
SI unit : joule;
1 kWh = 3.6 106 joule = 1 unit
Power
Practical Units : 1 kilowatt hour (kWh)

1 BTU (British Thermal Unit) = 1055 J
P = Vi =

SI unit : Watt

Combination of Bulbs

(i) Series combination of resistors (bulbs)
Total power consumed Ptotal = . If n bulbs are identical Ptotal =

In series combination of bulbs, Brightness Power consumed by bulb V R

Bulb of lesser wattage will shine more. For same current P = i2 R P R R P

(ii) Parallel combination of resistors (bulbs)

Total power consumed Ptotal = P1 + P2
If n bulbs are identical Ptotal = np

In parallel combination of bulbs,
Brightness Power consumed by bulb i
. Bulb of greater wattage will shine more.
ForsameVmorepowerwillbeconsumedinsmallerresistanceasP
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT AND MAGNETISM

Magnetic Flux ()
The number of magnetic field lines which are crossing through given area of cross section is called
magnetic flux of that area.

Biot-Savarts law

In SI units,
In cgs system,
(55)
In vector form, we may write
or
I.
Magnetic Field Due to Straight Conductor Carrying Current
B=
(i)
When the conductor XY is of infinite length and the point P lies near the centre of the conductor
then 1 = 2 = 90
Applications of Biot Savarts Law
Special Cases
So,
(ii)
When the conductor XY is of infinite length but the point P lies near the end Y (or X), then 1 = 90
and 2 = 0.
So,
2.
Magnetic Field at a Point on the Axis of a Circular Coil Carrying Current
Magnetic field at the centre of current carrying circular arc :

Where is always in radian and B0 =
amperes circuiTaL law (acl)

The line integral of the resultant magnetic field

along a closed plane curve is
equal to 0 times the algebraic of the currents crossing the area bounded by the closed curve if the
(56)

electric field inside the loop remains constant. i.e.,

Magnetic field due to infinite long solid cylinderical wire

(a) Solid cylinderical wire

Current density J =
where A = R2

Magnetic field at specific positions :
r > R
= constant,

Bout (2 r) = 0I
Bout
r = 0
(57)

(b) Hollow cylinderical wire
The magnetic field at an axial point P (figure) of a solenoid of any length is given by

Case I:
If the length of solenoid is infinite and P is well-inside the solenoid then,

Case II:
So,

If the length is infinite but point P is near an end then,
1 = 0 and 2 =
Magnetic field due to toroid

A toroid can be considered as a ring shaped closed solenoid also called end less solenoid. Magnetic
field inside a toroid by A.C.L. given as
Where

n (turn density) =

N = total number of turns
Rm (mean radius of toroid) =

R1 & R2 = internal and external radius of toroid respectively.
Magnetic Force on Moving Charge
Consider a charge q moving with velocity
in uniform magnetic
(58)

, such that
makes an angle with
field
experienced by the charge is given by
, then magnetic force
Motion of Charge in Uniform Transverse Magnetic Field

Radius of circular path (r) : Radius of circular path of charge in uniform transverse magnetic field

given as

Time period (T)

, Frequency
, Angular frequency
Motion of Charge in Uniform Magnetic Field at an Acute Angle (0 < < 90)

Radius of circular path

Time period of circular motion :

Pitch of helix (p) : The linear distance travelled by the charge particle in one rotation along external
magnetic field direction is called pitch of helix.

p = (v cos)T, where T =

FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A MAGNETIC

FIELD

where
F = I l B sin
is
the
smaller
angle
between
Special Cases

Case I. If = 0 or 180, sin = 0.

F = I lB (0) = 0
(Minimum)

Case II. If = 90, sin = 1,

F = I lB 1 = I lB (Maximum)

Magnetic Force Between two Long Parallel Current Carrying Conductors or Wires
(59)
and
Magnetic force per unit length of each wire given as :
torque on a current carrying coil in a magnetic field

where, n IA = M = magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment of the rectangular current loop

Cases:
1.
If the coil is set with its plane parallel to the direction of magnetic field B, then

= 0 and cos = 1

Torque, = nIBA (1) = nIBA (Maximum)

This is the case with a radial field.
2.
If the coil is set with its plane perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field B, then

= 90 and cos = 0

Torque, = nIBA (0) = 0 (Minimum)
MAGNETIC DIPOLE IN MAGNETIC FIELD

Torque on Magnetic Dipole
(a) Bar Magnet

= force perpendicular distance between force couple

= (mB) (sin), where M = m

magnitude form

Vector form

Work done in Rotating a Magnetic Dipole

so work done in rotating a dipole from angular position 1 to 2 with respect to the magnetic field

Potential Energy of Magnetic Dipole

The potential energy of dipole defined as work done in rotating the dipole through an angle
with respect to a direction perpendicular to the field :

U = W W90
U = MB (1 cos) MB

Tangent Law

When the magnet is in the equilibrium position,
(60)
or

when a magnet is simultaneously acted upon by two uniform fields at right angle to each other,
it will be deflected through an angle , such that the tangent of the angle of deflection gives the
ratio of the two fields.

Magnetising field or Magnetic intensity

Field in which a material is placed for magnetisation called as magnetising field.
; Unit of
Magnetising field
(ii)

Intensity of magnetisation
When a magnetic material is placed in magnetising field then induced dipole moment per unit
: Ampere/meter
volume of that material is known as intensity of magnetisation.
: Ampere/meter

(iii)
Unit of
Magnetic susceptibility (m)

[It is a scalar with no units and di
mensions]
Physically it represent the ease with which a magnetic material can be magnetised.A material with
more m, can be change into magnet easily.
Magnetic permeability ()

(iv)

It measures the degree to which a magnetic material can be penetrated (or permeated) by the
magnetic field lines.
Unit of

(v)
(It has no units and dimensions)

Relative permeability r =
Relation between permeability & susceptibility

(vi)
Curies Law and Curie Temperature :
= LI Weber = Henry Ampere]
(61)

(vii)

(T = absolute temperature)
Curie Temperature :
The magnetic susceptibility of these substances decreases on increasing the temperature, a ferromagnetic substance behaves like a paramagnetic substance. This particular temperature is called
the curie temperature of the substance.

Curie temperature of iron and nickel is 770oC and 370oC.
(viii) Curie-Weiss law :

At temperature above curie point, the magnetic susceptibility of ferromagnetic substance is inversely proportional to (TTc)

(TC = Curie Temperature)
Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

First law
Whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an emf is induced in
the circuit. The induced emf lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux continues.
Second law
The magnitude of emf induced in a closed circuit is directly proportional to rate of change of
magnetic flux linked with the circuit. If the change in magnetic flux in a time dt is d then
Lenzs Law
MOTIONAL EMF FROM LORENTZ FORCE

Motional emf in wire acb in a uniform magnetic field is the motional emf in an imaginary wire ab.
Thus eacb = eab = (length of ab) = the component of velocity perpendicular to both
and ab. From right hand rule b is at higher potential and a at lower potential.
Hence, Vba = Vb Va = (ab) (v cos) (B)
Induced E.M.F. Due to Rotation of a Conductor Rod in a Uniform Magnetic Field
SELF INDUCTANCE
(62)
L=
Self- Inductance of a Plane Coil
Total magnetic flux linked with N turns,
Self-Inductance of a Solenoid
Let cross-sectional area of solenoid = A, Current flowing through it = I

Lm =
Grouping of Coils
(a) Coils in Series

(b) Coils in Parallel
MUTUAL INDUCTION
where M : is coefficient of mutual induction.

Coefficient of mutual inductance between two solenoids

Coefficient of mutual inductance of two plane concentric coils

For two magnetically coupled coils :
here K is coupling factor between two coils and its range 0 K 1

For ideal coupling Kmax = 1 Mmax =
(where M is geometrical mean of L1 and L2)

For real coupling (0 < K < 1) M =

Inductance in Series and Parallel

Two coil are connected in series : Coils are lying close together (M)
If M = 0, L = L1 + L2 If M 0, L = L1 + L2 + 2M

(a) When current in both is in same direction, then L = (L1 + M) + (L2 + M)

(b) When current flow in two coils are mutually in opposite directions, then L = L1 + L2 2M
(63)

Two coils are connected in parallel :
(a) If M = 0 then
or L =
(b) If M 0 then
Magnetic Energy Per Unit Volume or Energy Density
GROWTH AND DECAY OF CURRENT IN AN INDUCTOR

Growth of current.

where
If = L/R, then

I = I0(1 0.368) = 0.632 I0 = 63.2% I0.

We may define time constant of LR circuit as the time in which current
in the circuit grows to 63.2% of the maximum value of current.

Again, we find that for I = I0, et/ = 0

Decay of current.

where
If = L/R, then I = I0e1 =

Hence we may define time constant of LR circuit as the

time in which current decayss to 36.8% of the maximum value.
Again,
I=0

et/ = 0

or
t=

Efficiency of the d.c. motor.
(64)
or t =
Transformer
N2/N1 is called turn ratio (r) of the transformer.

If
r > 1, N2 > N1 will be a step-up transformer and

If r > 1, N2 < N1 it will be a step-down transformer.

Input power = Output power

V1I1 = V2I2

From equation (2) and (3), we get

Efficiency of a transformer

It is defined as the ratio of the output power of a transformer to the input power supplied to the
transformer. Mathematically
Alternating Current

AVERAGE VALUE OR MEAN VALUE

average value of current for half cycle < I > =
ROOT MEAN SQUARE (rms) VALUE
(65)
This shows that capacitor blocks the flow of d.c. but provides an easy path for a.c.
(66)
(67)
(68)
RAY OPTICS
Reflection from plane mirror

If there are two plane mirror inclined to each other at an angle the number of image of a point
object formed are determined as follows :
(i) If
is odd. There will be two case

(ii) If
(a) When object is not on bisector, then n = m
(b) When object is at bisector, then n = m 1
is even. No. of image (n) = m 1
Relation between f and R for the spherical mirror
Mirror formula
Magnification
Other formulae of magnification
Velocity of the image of an object :
Area of image :

Power of a mirror

The power of a mirror is defined as

refractiVE INDEX
w g
= Refractive index of glass with respect to water and light is travelling from water to glass.
Refractive index depend on wavelength, nature of medium and on temperature.

(69)

Apparent depth and normal shift

Object in a rarer medium is seen from a denser medium
Lateral Shift
total internal reflection
(i)
(ii)
Angle of incident > Critical angle [i = C]

Light should travel from denser to rare medium Glass to air, water to air, Glass to water
Conditions

Snells Law at boundary x - y

D sin C = R sin 90

When light ray travel from refractive index medium to air then R = 1, D =
sin C = 1/

For TIR
sin C =
C (Red) > C (violet)

i > C sin i > sin C sin i > 1/

A point object is situated at the bottom of tank filled with a liquid of refractive index upto
height h it is found light from the source come out of liquid surface through a circular portion
above the object then radius and area of circle

Angle which the eye of fish make = 2C = 2 49 = 98. This angle does not depend on depth of
liquid.

Refraction from curved surface
Lens-makers formula :
(70)
Linear magnification produced by a lens :

Power of lens

Power of a lens is defined as the ability of the lens to converge a beam of light falling on the lens.

It is measured as the reciprocal of focal length of the lens
i.e.

Focal Length of equivalent lens
Newton's Formula :
f=
x1 = distance of object from first focus.
x2 = distance of image from second focus.
Displacement Method :
Achromatism
Refractive Index of the prism
when prism is thin.
Angular dispersion
It is the difference of angle of deviation of violet colour and red colour

Angular dispersion = V R = (V 1)A (R 1)A = (V R)A
It depends on prism material and on the angle of prism.

Dispersive Power ()
It is ratio of angular dispersion () to mean colour deviation (y)
Refractive index of mean colour (y) = (v + R)/2

Deviation without dispersion ( = 0)
(71)
Dispersion without deviation : ( = 0)
Simple microscope
Magnifying power (MP) =
(Minimum Magnification)
(Maximum Magnificaiton)
Compound Microscope
When final image is formed at minimum, distance of distinct vision.

When final image is formed at infinity

Astronomical Telescope
If the final image is at infinity
length of the tube

If the final image is at D
Length of the tube is
WAVE OPTICS
Analysis of interference of light

Resultant
Constructive Interference
When both waves are in same phase. So phase difference is an even multiple of
amplitude
and
(72)
Phase
angle
t a n 1

= 2n; n = 0, 1, 2,....

Destructive interference

When both the waves are in opposite phase. So phase difference is an odd multiple of .

= (2n 1); n = 1, 2,....
Young's Double Slit Experiment (YDSE)

Condition for bright and dark fringes
Bright Fringe
The distance of nth bright fringe from the central bright fringe xn = n
Dark Fringe
The distance of the mth dark fringe from the central bright fringe
xm =

Fringe width
=
Angular Fringe width
Colours in thin films

For minima or destructive interference

When path differnece is odd multiple of /2

So the film will appear dark if 2t cos r = n
For transmitted system
Since No additional path difference the transmitted rays CT1 and ET2.
So the net path difference between them is x = 2t cos r
For maxima 2t cos r = n, n = 0, 1, 2,.... For minima 2t cos r = (2n + 1)

2,....
diffraction of light
For minima
For maxima
Linear width of central maxima wx = 2x
where n = 1, 2, 3 ....
where n = 1, 2, 3 .....
or
Angular width of central maxima
Intensity curve of Fraunhofers diffraction
(73)
, n = 0, 1,

Intensity of maxima in Fraunhofers diffraction is determined by

I0 = intensity of central maxima
n = order of maxima
intensity of first maxima
intensity of second maxima
Resolving Power of Microscope

sin is called numerical aperture of the microscope.

To increase resolving power of microscope. We decrease i.e., use blue light of smaller wavelength.
We cannot increase because in that case aperture of the lens would increase.
Resolving Power of Telescope
Law of Malus

I cos2

Brewsters angle B is given by

where n1 is the refractive index of the medium through which the incident and reflected rays travel
and n2 is the refractive index of the medium from which the light reflects.
MODERN PHYSICS

einsteins photo electric equation

h = (K.E.max) + 0
Quantum efficiency =
Linear momentum of photon

Momentum of photon

(74)

Effective mass of photon

Intensity of light

.... (i)

Here P = power of source, A = Area, t = time taken

E = Energy incident in t time = Nh

N = number of photon incident in t time

De Broglie Wavelength Associated with Uncharged Particles
wavelength associated with the particle
Orbital Speed of electron
Orbital Radius of electron

For hydrogen atom, Z = 1, so
..... [Orbit radii for H-atom]

Putting n = 1, we get the minimum radius, called the "Bohr radius", denoted by a0, i.e.,
Hence,
.... [Orbit radii]
..... [Bohr radius]
.....[Orbit radius of H-atom]

and
Energy
....[Orbit radius of H-like ion]
.... [nth state energy of H-atom]

.... [Minimum energy of H-atom, i.e., ground state energy]
(75)
.... [Ground state energy of H-like ions]
Wavelength of Radiation
Absorption of X-ray
When X-ray pass through x thickness then its intensity

I0 = Intensity of incident X-ray
I = Intensity of X-ray after passing through x distance
= absorbtion coefficient of material
Binding Energy (Eb)
Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy required to split it into its nucleons. Eb = mc2
Q value for decay

XA Z 2YA 4 + 2He4
Z
Q = k + ky

Momentum conservation,

pY = p

.... (i)
.... (ii)

Rutherford and Soddys Law

Half Life (Th)
Mean or Average Life (Ta)
It is the average of age of all active nuclei.

Activity(A) or Decay Rate (R)

It is the rate of decay of a radioactive sample.

or R = R0et

unit of R is becqueral
(76)

1 Bq = 1 decay/sec.

1 Ci(Curie) = 3.7 1010 decay/sec

1 Rutherford (1 Rd) = 106 decay/sec
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS:MATERIALS, DEVICES AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
Conductivity of semi conductor

Common Base Amplifier :
DC current gain
AC current gain
ac =
AC voltage gain
AV =
AC power gain
=
AC power gain =
Common Emitter Amplifier :
DC current gain
=
AC current gain
ac =
resistance gain
(77)

Voltage Gain
Av = ac
AC power gain =

AC power gain =

Relation between and
or =
Digital Electronics and Logic Gates

OR GATE
AND GATE
NOT GATE
(78)
The XOR gate
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Size of antennas required for their efficient radiation would be large i.e. about 75 km as
explained below:
For efficient radiation of a signal, the minimum length of an antenna is one quarter wavelength
.
Effective
power
(P)
radiated
(79)
by
an
antenna
is
given
by

Must know Physics Formulas for AIPMT

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Must know Formula on Physics' for AIPMT

Parallelogram law of vector addition :

Let be the angle, which the resultant

Scalar Product (Dot Product) :

Properties of Scalar Product

(ii) It obeys commutative law

(iii) It obey distributive law

where is the angle between two vectors.

Must know Formula on Physics' for AIPMT

(vi) Scalar (Dot) product will be maximum when = 0 i.e.,

vectors are parallel to each other.

are unit vectors, then

(viii) Dot product of unit vectors

(ix) Square of a vector

(x) If the two vectors

, in terms of their rectangular components, are

Vector Product (Cross Product)

are two vectors, then their vector product is written as

is vector and is read as

is unit vector along the direction of

Properties of Vector Product

Cross product of two vectors is not commutative

(ii) Cross product is not associative

(iii) Cross product obey distributive law

(iv) If = 0 or it means two vectors are collinear.

, then the vector

are parallel provided

Must know Formula on Physics' for AIPMT

(v) If = 90, then

(vi) The vector product of any vector with itself is

(ix) Cross product of unit vectors

are unit vectors, then

Must know Formula on Physics' for AIPMT

Must know Formula on Physics' for AIPMT

Errors can be expressed in the following ways :

Propagation of errors in mathematical operations

If X = A + B or X = A B and if A and B represent the absolute errors in A and B respectively,

Maximum percentage error

The result will be written as

X X (in terms of absolute error)

%(in term of percentage error)

Must know Formula on Physics' for AIPMT

. The average velocity in this time

= change in position vector.

The direction of average velocity is in the direction of displacement

Average speed of a trip vav =

If a particle travels a distance S in time t1 to t2, the average speed is vav =

The motion of an object is said to be accelerated if its velocity

changes with time (when either

changes or the direction of motion changes). The acceleration is defined as the

During an interval of time when the velocity of particle changes from

The magnitude of average acceleration

The Acceleration-time Graph

Must know Formula on Physics' for AIPMT

Analysis of Uniformaly Accelerated Motion

Velocity time graph

Initial position x of the body in every case is x0 (> 0)

Velocity time graph

Initial position x of the body in every case is x0 (>0)

Must know Formula on Physics' for AIPMT

Must know Formula on Physics' for AIPMT

If a body is projected vertically upward