Taylor McGinnis

A Rebellious Calvinist: William Walkers Trials

&
Errors to Become the Grey Eyed Man of Destiny

Being raised as a strict Calvinist can be extremely hard on young

children. Calvinism, which is a branch of Protestantism, stresses total
deprivation, in fact that is number one on the five points of Calvinism.
Calvinists learn to believe that they are completely infected by sin, they are
evil, and that only God can make them live. Though harsh, this was the
reality that William Walker had to face when he was growing up in Nashville,
Tennessee in the 1820s and 30s. However, as adulthood approached
Walker, it was clear that this strict theology had not been pleasing to him. In
search of finding his purpose in life, Walker rebelled against the teachings his
parents made him endure. A clear break in his Calvinist beliefs is evident
when he chooses not to join the ministry, and begin trying out different
occupations that provided him with broader opportunities. His denial of the
repressive lifestyle of Calvinism influenced his decision to act atypically for a
Calvinist. After a few trials and errors, Walker became infatuated with
acquiring power, which took the form of Filibustering in foreign countries.

In the beginning of the 16th century, there were several religious

leaders that had different views than the longstanding Roman Catholic
Church. Thus, a religious renewal began to take place in Europe. The
Reformed Faith started with the preachings of Huldrych Zwingli and Heinrich
Bullinger in Switzerland, and was continued when John Calvin, the Reformed
Faiths, greatest representative and most influential exponent established
Geneva as a model Reformed City.1 As Calvins influence grew, millions of
people from all of Western Europes countries began to convert to the
Reformed Faith in opposition to the Roman Catholic Church. Even the
governments of England and France were challenged in anticipation of
implementing more purity and spiritual renewal. With its growing popularity,
the spread of Calvinism to North America was inevitable as people began to
venture to the new colonies. During the 1600s, thousands of Puritans, and
Dutch Calvinists landed in places like Virginia and Massachusetts practicing
certain types of the Reformed Faith. However, as the years waned in North
America, religion lost its popularity. Leonard Pine explains, The moral
character of people started to slide, and revival would not come fully until
Jonathan Edwards and the Great Awakening.2 Edwards was a well-educated
man who had grown up in a very religious family. Though in his early years
he was unable to accept Calvinism, once he came to Northampton,
1 The Origins Of Calvinism
http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/onsite/origins.html
2 The Story of Calvinism in the New World: A Synopsis http://www.wrs.edu/thestory-of-calvinism-in-the-new-world-a-synopsis/

Massachusetts he fully embraced its practices. With Edwards, the stage had
been set for a revival to once again capture the faith of thousands of people.
One of the ways Jonathan Edwards was able to influence so many
people was because of the way he preached. During his sermons, Edwards
evoked vivid, terrifying images of the utter corruption of human nature and
the terrors awaiting the unrepentant in hell. 3 Despite the harsh message
Edwards was giving, he was able to convert thousands of people in the
northern colonies. Edwards was able to deliver his message in such an
intense and convincing fashion that people would often scream and go
unconscious because they were, overwhelmed by Gods love. 4 As
mentioned earlier, Calvinisms doctrine of salvation is split up into five
points. The first of the five points reads:
Total Depravity, the belief that man is dead in trespasses and sins and
totally unable to save himself. Many adherents of Calvinism carry this a
step further, claiming that man cannot even desire a relationship with
God apart from His working in their hearts. In fact, it is claimed that
God must regenerate a person before they can even desire to come to
Christ.

3 The First Great Awakening, last modified January, 2008.

http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/eighteen/ekeyinfo/grawaken.htm
4 Jonathan Edwards and the Great Awakening, last modified 2014.
http://enrichmentjournal.ag.org/200201/200201_104_jonathan.cfm

The other four include unconditional elections, (which emphasizes that

god has already chosen in the past who shall achieve salvation), limited
atonement, (which means that Jesus did no die for the sins of everyone, but
instead just for the sins of those who were going to heaven), irresistible
grace, (God will draw himself to those who he has elected and that man cant
help but drawing themselves to god), and perseverance of saints (born again
Christians cant give up salvations because it is entirely gods work. 6 With
these points, the unfortunately reality for Calvinist believers was that free
will was not a part of their lives because they were ultimately predestined by
god.7 Though Edwards rarely left the northern colonies, it is clear that the
influence of Calvinism spread to many states, including Tennessee, where
James Walker and his wife Mary Norvell lived.
Quite possibly in the peak of Calvinism in America, Walker and Norvell
had their first son William in May of 1824. It was right around this time that a
lot of important Calvinists were publishing works in support of their faith. 8
William became the first of four children for the Walkers, and religiously, the
5 Calvinism vs. Arminianism
http://www.ccfestus.com/books/taylor_calvinism.htm#01
6 Calvinism vs. Arminianism
7 Jerry L. Walls, The Free Will Defense, Calvinism, Wesley, and the Goodness of
God, Christian Scholars Review (1984): 19-33, accessed July 1, 2014.
8 The Americanization of Calvinism
http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/0195151119.001.0001/acprof9780195151114-chapter-15

Walker family was part of the denomination, The Disciples of Christ which
strongly believed in the bible being the sola scriptura. Walkers father was
known to be a three-times-to-church-on-Sunday father. Alejandro Bolanos
explains that, They were strict in practice, making life hard for children. The
situation in Billys (William) home was aggravated by both parents being of
strong and somewhat stern character 9 Due to Williams love for his parents,
he was never known to argue about his religious life with them. However, he
was otherwise known to question authority outside of the home. Although his
father had raised him to become a minister, Walker rebelled against his
strict Calvinist upbringing. This rebelliousness led Walker to reject a career in
the ministry.10 This act of insubordination marked the first time that Walker
was acting out to show that he was no longer going to follow the path of a
Calvinist minister.
Wanting to explore his options, Walker attended The University of
Nashville where he was able to expand his education ranging from
mathematics and astronomy to constitutional law and logic. 11 Being a very
good student, Walker had the ability to try out many professions after
graduating, and he exercised that freely. His first experimental job was that
9 Alejandro Bolanos, William Walker: The Gray-Eyed Man of Destiny (St. Louis 1988)
21
10 Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire, 1854-1861 (Florida:
Gainesville University Press, 2002) 80.
11 James Jeffrey Roche, The Story of The Filibuster (London: T.F. Unwin), 40.

of a doctor. He spent two years traveling to European countries like France,

Germany, and Italy to enhance his education in the medical field. Though he
gained a lot of experience, Walker, lost interest in his medical pursuits,
abandoning forever his medical career a few months after arriving in
France.12 It was an odd fallout that required Walker to give an explanation to
his parents. Nevertheless, his next venture was law, and soon enough,
Walker was admitted into the bar in New Orleans. However, Walker once
again did not find law to be his true calling. While still in New Orleans, Walker
finally found a profession where he would be able to have his voice heard,
journalism. Journalism was a skill that Walker would learn to use as a
manipulative tool for the remainder of his life. Walkers inability to find, and
stick to a profession is a testimony to his curiosity in attaining a more
prominent status.
Walkers decision to take up journalism conveniently came when Manifest
Destiny was becoming a strong national influence. Walt Anderson explains,
In the West were men, who, like Walker, restless and looking for
opportunities, felt sure that there was no limit to what an American with a
little luck and history on his side, might actually accomplish. 13 With the help
of friend Edmund Randolph, Walker was able to immediately get another job
working for a newspaper in San Francisco. Walkers rebelliousness attitude
12 Bolanos, Gray-Eyed Man, 32.
13 Walt Anderson, William Walker and His Filibusters, American History Illustrated
(1966): 6, accessed June, 20, 2014.

quickly showed when one of the first stories he wrote accused a corrupt
judge.14 This story led to Walkers imprisonment, and eventually a duel a
friend of the judge, Graham Hicks called for a duel. Walker was not new to
duels as he had previously engaged in four others, but had never wounded a
single person. Walkers tactics while dueling were questionable. He did not
believe in cold-blooded killing, and this belief continued when he faced Hicks.
In their duel Hicks shot Walker in the arm, to which Walker brushed off the
pain and urged him to shoot again. However, the duel was stopped it before
Hicks could deliver the fatal shot. Though Walker in no way won the duel, the
event helped enhance the growing reputation of Walker. 15 In that same year,
a new opportunity arose for Walker that caught his interest. In Lower
California there was a place called Sonora that had been rumored to be very
rich in minerals, and had been being inhabited by Apache Indians. Being
drawn by the opportunity to lead men to Sonora in anticipation of creating
the Republic of Sonora, and to acquire more power, Walker began his
filibuster career.
Though Walker had no military experience regarding combat or leading men,
he began his campaign by hiring men to accompany him in his expedition to
Lower California. Unfortunate for him, Walker was refused help by the
14 Jon Swan, William Walkers Manifest Destiny, MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of
Military History (1988): 38-47, accessed June 19, 2014.
15 Walter W. Crites, The Gray-Eyed Man of Destiny: William Walker, The First and
Only American Ever Elected President of a Foreign Country, The American West
(1972): 7, accessed June 15, 2014.

Mexican government, which left Walker to solely recruit in San Francisco. He

recruited strategically, promoting Manifest Destiny, and also with the goal of
protecting the people of Sonora from the Apaches. With this, many of his
recruits came from his home state, Tennessee, and other southern slave
states.16 After gaining somewhere between 200 and 300 recruits, Walker was
ready to ship off, but just before the expedition started, Walkers ship was
seized. Commander of the Pacific Division of the U.S. Army Ethan Allen
Hitchcock halted Walker anticipating that he would violate the neutrality
laws. In a situation like this, Another man might have considered returning
to the placid practice of law. Not Walker. While Randolph handled his court
case,

Walker

chartered

another

ship,

acquired

new

weapons

and

ammunition, and rounded up as many volunteers as he could find. 17 It was

clear that nothing would stop Walkers ambition to attain power. Less than a
month later Walker sailed out of San Francisco Bay with 45 men.
Unharmed, Walker reached Baja California and soon declared it The Republic
of California, a state that would maintain the laws of Louisiana; thus being a
slave state. Walker also declared himself president, finally achieving the
prominent status he had longed for. While still receiving no resistance,
Walkers troops traveled to La Paz where they took the Mexican Governor
prisoner. However, on that same day, President Franklin Pierce called for the
16 William Walker, created February 1919,
http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist1/walker.html
17 Swan, William Walkers Manifest Destiny, 40.

arrest of all filibusters who violated neutrality laws. 18 However, to Walkers

dismay this expedition would soon be jeopardized. Without the necessary
supplies, his force was soon reduced by desertion, disease, and the
harassment of Mexican outlaws.19 These events allowed Walker to
demonstrate his stern, powerful command. Despite being short and without
a muscular physique, Walker demanded the respect he believed he
deserved, and deserters would not be shown sympathy. Hearing of devious
plots by his men, Walker had two men shot, several others whipped, and
many more asked to leave the camp. 20 Being aware of his vulnerability,
Walker soon moved up the coast and moved his operations to Sonora.
However, his troubles continued when the Mexican Governor he had taken
prisoner bribed his ship to sail away with necessary supplies. The desertions
continued and eventually left Walker with almost nothing. Accepting failure,
the remaining men surrendered at the U.S. border. Although Walker did not
fully succeed, it did not discourage him from continuing his quest for power.
Representing himself, Walker was able to convince the court that he had
peaceful intentions with his expedition to Baja California, and was soon
acquitted on his crime. During this time, he made friends with a Bostonian
named Byron Cole. Cole introduced Walker to the prospect of Nicaragua. A
18 Ibid
19 Anderson. William Walker and His Filibusters, 6.
20 Roche, The Story of The Filibusters, 47-48.

country that was so lost the government changed two or three times each
year.21 Cole knew of Walkers capabilities and urged him to continue his
filibustering in Nicaragua. Cole eventually made his way to Nicaragua and
began

talking

with

Democratic

Party

leader

Francisco

Castellon.

In

negotiations, Cole made an offer to Castellon that he would bring back 300
military men to help with his cause. 22 Cole then brought the contract back to
California to present to Walker. Although Walker was interested, he realized
that the current contract would violate the neutrality laws. In his book The
War in Nicaragua, Walker remarks that, He, however, told Cole that if he
would return to Nicaragua, and get from Castellon a contract of colonization,
something might be done with it.23 Castellon gave his approval of the new
contract and Walker immediately began his recruiting for his newest
filibuster opportunity. Less than a year after his first failed attempt, Walker
was ready to sail to Nicaragua with only 58 men.
It took nearly six weeks to get to Nicaragua, but Walker and his men were
ready for what they were going to face. Soon after his arrival, Walker led his
men and some natives to the town of Rivas where he would encounter his
first battle. Heavily outnumbered by opposing forces, Walker chose the bold
moving of charging his opponents. When the battle was over, only 6 of
21 Anderson, William Walker and His Filibusters, 6.
22 Crites, The Gray-Eyed Man, 7.
23 William Walker, The War In Nicaragua, (New York: S.H. Goetzel & Co., 1860) 25.

Walkers filibuster men had died, whereas they were responsible for over 150
Legitimist fatalities.

24

His reputation as a bold, powerful leader continued to

be recognized. Wanting to continue his campaign, Walker chose to attack at

Virgin Bay just a few days later. The battle proved to be a major turning point
for Walker. His men again fought strongly against the Legitimist forces, killing
over a hundred of them, while Walkers forces only suffered injuries.
Alejandro Bolanos explains:
How fruitful Virgin Bay! The Battle left Walker in firm control of the
transit road, and indispensable prerequisite for his conquest of
Nicaragua. Moreover, Castellons death eliminated a powerful rival for
his full possession of the country.25
In just a few weeks upon Walkers arrival in Nicaragua he had won over the
country with his perseverance and impressive leadership on the battlefield.
His next task was to take Granada, which like his previous battles, he
succeeded.

Upon capturing Granada, with confidence, Walker issued a

manifesto claiming that he was the commander-in-chief of the entire

Nicaraguan army.

26

With so much control over the country, Walker set

himself up as president of Nicaragua, after conducting a farcical election. 27

24 Crites, The Gray-Eyed Man of Destiny, 8.

25 Bolanos, The Gray-Eyed Man Of Destiny, 177.
26 Ibid
27 William Walker-Emporer of Nicaragua, http://www.nicaragua-guide.com/williamwalker.html

On July 12th of 1886, he was declared the president of Nicaragua after

winning the vote by an overwhelming majority.28
Further differentiation in Walkers religious devotion to Calvinism can also be
seen when Walker became president in Nicaragua. Though also a Protestant
denomination, Walker thought that the Anglo-Saxon ways would be beneficial
for the natives in Nicaragua. Stephen Benz explains:
The underlying goal of Walkers text-its subtext- is to expound for his
Anglo-American readers the introduction of an American element in
Nicaragua, or as he terms it, the necessity of the American element in
Nicaraguan society. 29
Walker truly believed that the Anglo-Saxon institution had the power to save
all of the societies in Central America. Anglo-Saxons were, for years
commonly believed to be the wealthy and elite in America. This belief of
superiority had a clear influence on Walkers reasoning for thinking he
needed to change the Nicaraguan people. In a way, he was attempting to act
on Rudyard Kiplings White Mans Burden years before it had even been
written. His religious beliefs now followed that of a superior white man.
The boy that was born in Tennessee and thought destined to become a
man of the ministry had just officially become the only American man to ever
be elected president of another country.

Years had been spent trying out

certain professions, but he found his true calling in filibustering. Alternative

to others, It wasnt money or the pursuit of sex or any other earthly
28 Roche, The Story of the Filibusters, 111.
29 Stephen Benz, William Walker and The Discovery of Central America, SECOLAS
Annals; Journal of The Southeastern Council on Latin American Studies (1993) : 98,
accessed June 18, 2014.

pleasures that motivated Walker. It was his sheer obsession with power. 30
Nicaragua proved to be the perfect place to expand his power. Interestingly,
Walker saw Nicaragua as an invention of his own mind, a fantasy land where
he was able to do as he pleased without regard to the natives. 31 As
mentioned earlier, Walker continued his journalism career in Nicaragua. Soon
after he captured Granada he founded El Nicaraguense, a Spanish-English
bilingual paper. On December 8th, 1885 he wrote an article that officially
declared himself the Gray-Eyed man of Destiny. The article addressed a
prophecy that stated one day the Indians would be freed by a Gray-Eyed
Man, Walker believed with all his power that he was that heroic person the
Indians had longed for.

32

30 Albert Z. Carr, Walker:: The True Story of the First American Invasion of
Nicaragua (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 9.
31 Benz, Discovery of Central America, 101
32 William Walker. The Gray-Eyed Man, El Nicaraguense, December 8th, 1885.