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C s mng thng tin
Gio trnh dnh cho sinh vin i hc ngnh

in t - Vin thng
Nguyn Hu Thanh
Nguyn Thanh Sn
Nguyn Xun Dng
Phm Vn Tin
L Nht Thng
Ch bin: Nguyn Hu Thanh
Khoa in t Vin Thng
Trng i hc Bch khoa H ni
Cc t vit tt
y
Vit tt
Cumulative distribution function
CDF
First-come-first-server
FCFS
First in first out
FIFO
Last-come-first-serve
LCFS
Last in first out
LIFO
Probability density function
pdf
Probability distribution function
PDF
Bng i chiu thut ng Anh - Vit

Ting Anh
Ting Vit
Analysis
Phn tch
Arrival process
Tin trnh ti
Base station
Trm gc
Biominal distribution
Phn b nh thc
Binomial process
Tin trnh nh thc
Birth Death Process
Tin trnh sinh t
Derparture process
Tin trnh i
Evaluation
nh gi
Expectation
K vng
Exponential distribution
Phn b m
First in first out / First-come-first-serve
Vo trc phc v trc
Formal description
M t hnh thc
Frequency function
Hm tn sut
Gaussian distribution
Phn b chun/phn b Gauss
Inter-arrival time
Thi gian gia hai s kin ti (?)
Last in first out / Last-come-first-serve
Vo sau phc v trc
Load
Ti
Model
M hnh
Modeling
M hnh ha
Performance
c tnh/cht lng hot ng
Probability
Xc sut
Probability density function
Hm mt xc sut
Probability distribution function
Hm phn phi xc sut
Random experiment
Php th ngu nhin
Random event
S kin ngu nhin
Random variable
Bin ngu nhin
Scale parameter
Tham s t l
Server
Trm phc v/Server
Service process
Tin trnh phc v
Shape parameter
Tham s hnh dng
Simulation
M phng
4
Standard deviation
lch chun
Steady state
Trng thi n nh
Stochastic process
Tin trnh ngu nhin
Traffic intensity
Mt lu lng
Transformation
Bin i
Uniform distribution
Phn b u
Utilization
Hiu sut knh
Validation
Kim nh tnh chnh xc
Variance
Phng sai
Mc lc
Cc t vit tt _________________________________________________________________________ 3
Bng i chiu thut ng Anh - Vit ______________________________________________________ 4
Mc lc _____________________________________________________________________________ 6
Mc lc hnh v _______________________________________________________________________ 9
Mc lc bng biu ____________________________________________________________________ 10
Chng 1 Gii thiu ___________________________________________________________________ 1
1.1. Mc ch ca vic m hnh ha v nh gi c tnh hot ng ca h thng _______________________ 1
1.2. Cc tham s, tiu chun v phng php nh gi mt h thng thng tin _________________________ 3
1.2.1. Cc tham s nh gi c tnh hot ng ca h thng thng tin___________________________________________ 3
1.2.2. Cc tiu chun nh gi__________________________________________________________________________ 3
1.2.3. Cc phng php nh gi _______________________________________________________________________ 4
Chng 2 Cc tin trnh ngu nhin ______________________________________________________ 6

2.1. Xc sut v s kin _______________________________________________________________________ 6
2.1.1. Php th v s kin ngu nhin ____________________________________________________________________ 6
2.1.2. Xc sut ______________________________________________________________________________________ 6
2.2. Bin ngu nhin v cc hm xc sut_________________________________________________________ 7

2.2.1. Bin ngu nhin________________________________________________________________________________ 7
2.2.2. Hm mt v phn phi xc sut _________________________________________________________________ 8
2.2.3. Hm tn sut v phn phi xc sut ca bin ngu nhin ri rc __________________________________________ 10
2.2.4. Cc tham s c trng ca bin ngu nhin __________________________________________________________ 12
2.3. Cc m hnh phn b xc sut c bn _______________________________________________________ 14

2.3.1. Phn b Bernoulli (Bernoulli distribution)___________________________________________________________
2.3.2. Phn b nh thc (binomial distribution) ____________________________________________________________
2.3.3. Phn b chun (Gaussian distribution) _____________________________________________________________
2.3.4. Phn b m (exponential distribution) ______________________________________________________________
2.3.5. Phn b Poisson (Poinsson distribution) ____________________________________________________________
2.3.6. Phn b Gamma (Gamma distribution) _____________________________________________________________
2.3.7. Mi lin h gia phn b m v phn b Gamma _____________________________________________________
14
15
16
17
17
18
19
2.4. Tin trnh ngu nhin (stochastic process) ___________________________________________________ 20

2.4.1. Khi nim v nh ngha ________________________________________________________________________ 20
2.4.2. Phn loi ____________________________________________________________________________________ 21
2.5. Cc c tnh thng k ca tin trnh ngu nhin ______________________________________________ 22

2.5.1. Cc hm quan h xc sut _______________________________________________________________________ 22
2.5.2. Cc trung bnh thng k_________________________________________________________________________ 23
2.5.3. Tnh dng ___________________________________________________________________________________ 24
2.6. Cc tin trnh ngu nhin thng gp _______________________________________________________ 27

2.6.1. Tin trnh m ________________________________________________________________________________ 27
2.6.2. Tin trnh Poisson _____________________________________________________________________________ 28
2.7. Kt lun _______________________________________________________________________________ 28
Chng 3 H thng hng i ___________________________________________________________ 29

3.1. Gii thiu ______________________________________________________________________________ 29
3.2. M hnh hng i K hiu Kendall________________________________________________________ 29
3.2.1. M hnh hng i n __________________________________________________________________________ 29
6
3.2.2. K hiu Kendall ______________________________________________________________________________ 31

3.2.3. Cc tham s quan trng nh gi c tnh ca h thng hng i _______________________________________ 32
3.3. H thng hng i trng thi n nh nh l Little ________________________________________ 33

3.3.1. H thng hng i n nh ______________________________________________________________________ 33
3.3.2. nh l Little _________________________________________________________________________________ 35
3.3.3. Mt s c tnh khc ca h thng ng, hot ng trng thi n nh____________________________________ 37
3.4. Hng i M/M/1/1 _______________________________________________________________________ 38

3.5. Hng i M/M/1/ ______________________________________________________________________ 41
3.5.1. Xc sut c n yu cu trong h thng ______________________________________________________________ 41
3.5.2. Tnh ton cc tham s hiu nng __________________________________________________________________ 43
3.6. Tin trnh sinh t (Birth Death Process) __________________________________________________ 46

3.7. Hng i M/M/1/K ______________________________________________________________________ 46
3.7.2. Tnh ton cc tham s hiu nng __________________________________________________________________ 47
3.8. Hng i M/M/c/_______________________________________________________________________ 51

Chng 4 Mng hng i ______________________________________________________________ 52

4.1. Mng ni tip ___________________________________________________________________________ 52
Chng 5 nh tuyn trong mng thng tin _______________________________________________ 53

5.1. Yu cu v nh tuyn trong mng thng tin _________________________________________________ 53
5.1.1. Vai tr ca nh tuyn trong mng thng tin _________________________________________________________ 53
5.1.2. Cc khi nim trong l thuyt graph _______________________________________________________________ 53
5.2. Cc m hnh nh tuyn qung b (broadcast routing) _________________________________________ 55

5.2.1. Lan trn gi (flooding) _________________________________________________________________________
5.2.2. nh tuyn bc ngu nhin (random walk) _________________________________________________________
5.2.3. nh tuyn khoai ty nng (hot potato) _____________________________________________________________
5.2.4. nh tuyn ngun (source routing) v m hnh cy (spanning tree) _______________________________________
5.2.5. Duyt cy ___________________________________________________________________________________
55
56
56
57
57
5.3. Cc m hnh nh tuyn thng dng ________________________________________________________ 78

5.3.1. nh tuyn ngn nht (Shortest path Routing) ________________________________________________________ 78
5.4. Bi tp (Pending) _______________________________________________________________________ 101
Chng 6 iu khin lung v chng tc nghn __________________________________________ 102

6.1. Tng quan_____________________________________________________________________________ 102
6.1.1. M u ____________________________________________________________________________________
6.1.2. Khi nim iu khin lung_____________________________________________________________________
6.1.3. Khi nim chng tc nghn _____________________________________________________________________
6.1.4. Nhim v ch yu ca iu khin lung v chng tc nghn ___________________________________________
6.1.5. Phn loi iu khin lung v trnh tc nghn_______________________________________________________
102
105
106
106
107
6.2. Tnh cng bng_________________________________________________________________________ 108

6.2.1. nh ngha __________________________________________________________________________________
6.2.2. Tnh cng bng v mt bng truyn_______________________________________________________________
6.2.3. Tnh cng bng v mt b m __________________________________________________________________
6.2.4. C ch pht li ARQ __________________________________________________________________________
6.2.5. Stop-and-Wait ARQ __________________________________________________________________________
6.2.6. Go-back-N ARQ _____________________________________________________________________________
6.2.7. Selective repeat ARQ _________________________________________________________________________
108
108
109
110
111
117
124
6.3. iu khin lung v trnh tc nghn theo phng php ca s _________________________________ 126
6.3.1. iu khin lung theo ca s (Window Flow Control) ________________________________________________ 127
6.3.2. iu khin tc nghn s dng ca s thch ng (adaptive window) ______________________________________ 132
6.4. iu khin lung v chng tc nghn da trn bng thng (rate-based flow control) _______________ 138
6.4.1. Khi nim __________________________________________________________________________________ 138
7
6.4.2. iu khin bng thng theo thut ton go r (leaky bucket) ___________________________________________ 139
6.4.3. Thut ton GPS (pending) ______________________________________________________________________ 143
6.5. Bi tp (Pending) _______________________________________________________________________ 144
Chng 7 K thut m phng__________________________________________________________ 145

7.1. Gii thiu _____________________________________________________________________________ 145
7.2. M phng da trn cc s kin ri rc v cc cng c ________________________________________ 145
7.2.1. Phng php m phng da trn s kin ri rc _____________________________________________________ 145
7.2.2. Cc cng c m phng thng dng da trn s kin ri rc ____________________________________________ 148
7.3. Cng c m phng mng NS2 ____________________________________________________________ 149

7.3.1. Cu trc ____________________________________________________________________________________ 149
7.3.2. Cc tin ch trong NS h tr cho m phng mng [Pending] ___________________________________________ 151
7.3.3. Th d (Pending) _____________________________________________________________________________ 151
7.4. Kt lun (Pending) ______________________________________________________________________ 151

7.5. Bi tp (Pending) _______________________________________________________________________ 152
Ti liu tham kho___________________________________________________________________ 153

Ph lc 1 __________________________________________________________________________ 155
Mc lc hnh v
Hnh 1-1. Cc bc c bn trong m hnh ha v nh gi c tnh h thng
Hnh 2-1. Hm mt xc sut ................................................... 9

Hnh 2-2.Hm phn phi xc sut ............................................... 9
Hnh 2-3: Kt qu Th d 2-5 .....................................................11
Hnh 3-1. H thng hng i vi N trm phc v, hng i c ln K
30
Hnh 3-2. Round robin ................................................................32

Hnh 3-3. Mng ng .................................................................33
Hnh 3-4. Quan h gia s yu cu ti v s yu cu c phc v
36
Hnh 3-5.H thng hng i c quan st vi hai ranh gii khc nhau: (a) Hng i v cc trm phc
v; (b) Hng i ..................................................................38
Hnh 3-6. Hng i M/M/1/1 ......................................................39
Hnh 3-7. Khong thi gian xt ..................................................39
Hnh 3-8. Hng i M/M/1/ ......................................................41
Hnh 3-9. Cn bng xc sut ti trng thi i. Tin trnhsinh t46
Hnh 3-10. H thng M/M/1/K ....................................................46
Hnh 3-11. H thng hng i M/M/1/K.....................................47
Hnh 3-12. H thng M/M/1/K trn quan im h thng ng ..50
Hnh 3-13 Hng i M/M/c/ .....................................................51
Hnh 5-1. Hng ch bn trong router.........................................57
Hnh 5-2. Duyt cy ...................................................................58
Hnh 5-3. Cc thnh phn ..........................................................62
Hnh 5-4. Php tnh Minimum Spanning Tree ( MST)...............70
Mc lc bng biu
Bng 2-1. im tng ng vi kt qu tung xc xc ................. 7
Bng 2-2: Kt qu Th d 2-5.....................................................11
10
Chng 1 Gii thiu

1.1. Mc ch ca vic m hnh ha v nh gi c tnh hot ng ca h thng
Trong thc t, khi kho st cc h phc v ni chung, cc h thng
my tnh v vin thng ni ring, hoc khi nghin cu a ra cc c
ch hot ng mi trong cc h thng ny, mt yu cu hng u l
phi kho st cc c tnh v hiu nng hot ng ca cc h thng,
c ch .
Th d 1-1:
Mt nh cung cp dch v in thoi di ng GSM mun m rng

vng ph sng ca mnh. Vi cc tham s u vo cho trc bao
gm:
Lu lng u vo , c tnh bng s yu cu kt ni trong

mt n v thi gian. Tham s ny c kho st v o c
thc t ti vng cn m rng.
Thi gian trung bnh ca mt cuc gi di ng . Tham s ny

bit trc da trn cc d liu thng k ca nh cung cp
dch v.
Ti ti a u ca mt trm gc (base station), chnh l s cuc

gi ti a m trm gc c th cho php ti mt thi im.
Yu cu xc sut t chi dch v ti a p. y l xc sut mt

yu cu kt ni b t chi do trm gc khng ti nguyn cung
cp cho cuc gi .
T cc yu cu u vo, nh cung cp cn phi tnh ton c bao nhiu

trm gc cn phi lp t mi ti vng , xc sut t chi dch v
nh hn p.
Th d 1-2:
Mng Ethernet c N my tnh, tng lu lng u vo o c l

(Mbit/s). Knh truyn c dung lng l C (Mbit/s). Phi tnh ton hiu
sut hot ng ca knh truyn (tnh bng % ca lu dung lng C),
tr trung bnh (tnh bng s) ca mt gi tin khi c truyn t ngun ti
ch.
Tuy nhin, qu trnh phn tch mt h thng thc thng thng tng
i kh khn v tn km. khng nh tnh cht ca mt h thng v
hiu nng hot ng, tnh kinh t .v.v., thng thng ngi ta thng
s dng cc m hnh miu t cc h thng .
nh ngha 1-1: M hnh (model) thng thng l s n gin
ha mt h thng thc bng cch miu t cc hot ng v trng

thi ca h thng cng vi cc iu kin khi u v iu kin
b cho trc.
Mc ch ca vic m hnh ha l n cho php nh gi c tnh, t
ci thin cht lng hot ng ca mt h thng. cc th
nghim vi m hnh cho ra kt qu chnh xc v ng tin cy, cc d
liu u vo ca m hnh phi ph hp vi h thng thc t.
Cc bc trong qu trnh m hnh ha v nh gi c tnh hot ng

ca mt h thng bao gm:
M hnh ha (modeling): c hiu l qu trnh tru tng
ha v n gin ha mt h thng thc bng cch b qua cc

yu t khng quan trng v ch tp trung vo mt tp hp hu
hn cc thng s ng ch c s dng miu t h
thng. Mt iu kh khn bc ny l xc nh cc yu t c
th b qua v cc thng s bt buc phi c xem xt. V vy
chnh xc ca mt m hnh ph thuc rt nhiu vo bc
ny.
Thng thng c hai phng php m hnh ha l m hnh ton
hc v m hnh m phng (xem 1.2.3).
Phn tch (analysis): c hiu l qu trnh tm hiu, khm
ph cc c im hoc chc nng ca h thng. Trong bc

ny, c im hoc phn ng ca mt h thng s c
nghin cu tng ng vi cc thng s u vo cho trc.
nh gi v so snh (evaluation and comparison): c tnh
ca mt h thng vi cc thng s u vo khc nhau s c

kim tra v so snh, thng qua c th nh gi tnh chnh
xc ca m hnh (validation).
a kt qu nh gi v h thng thc: Cc kt qu
c a ra t cc bc trn c a tr v phc v cho h
thng thc (th d nh ci thin cht lng hot ng .v.v.).
Hnh 1-1 m t qu trnh nh gi c tnh hot ng h thng.
Hnh 1-1. Cc bc c bn trong m hnh ha v nh gi c tnh h

thng
1.2. Cc tham s, tiu chun v phng php nh gi mt h thng thng tin
1.2.1. Cc tham s nh gi c tnh hot ng ca h thng thng tin
nh gi c tnh hot ng ca mt h thng, cn phi la chn
cc tham s ca m hnh. Cc tham s ny c th c phn loai
nh sau:
Cc tham s lin quan n thi gian:
Thi gian h thng thc hin mt yu cu
Thi gian p ng ca h thng.
Thi gian mt yu cu lu li trong h thng .v.v.
Cc tham s lin quan n khng gian:
ln ca hng i h thng ( ln b m .v.v.)
Yu cu v b nh cho mt chng trnh .v.v.
Cc tham s khc:
Thng lng
Gi thnh .v.v.
1.2.2. Cc tiu chun nh gi

Nh chng ta bit, trong qu trnh m hnh ha ngi ta ch gii
hn xem xt mt s thng s quan trng ca h thng. V vy kt lun
v c tnh hot ng ca mt h thng no bao gi cng c dng:
H thng A tt hn h thng B v mt C
Vic kt lun chung chung theo kiu h thng A tt hn h thng B
thng thng khng chnh xc do khi xt theo mt tiu chun nh gi
no , mt h thng c th ti u nhng khi xt theo mt tiu chun
khc, h thng li c nhng nhc im ng k.
Th d 1-3:
Sau y l mt th d v vic chn tham s m hnh, quy tc phc v

v cc tiu chun nh gi:
Tham s m hnh:
Tham s lu lng ca yu cu n mt h thng.
Tham s c trng cho thi gian phc v mt yu cu.
S trm phc v cc yu cu
Quy tc phc v:
3
FIFO, LIFO
Hng i c u tin
Cc tiu chun nh gi:
Thi gian lu li h thng trung bnh ca mt yu cu.
Thi gian ch i ca mt yu cu trong hng i.
Thng lng ca h thng.
Ti ca h thng.
1.2.3. Cc phng php nh gi

Phng php phn tch ton hc (mathematical analysis)
Phng php phn tch ton hc thc hin cc bc sau:
M t hnh thc (formal description) mt h thng.
nh ngha cc mi quan h trong h thng, m t chng bng

cc cng thc, m hnh ton hc.
Tnh ton da vo m hnh ton hc va lp.
Trong quyn sch ny chng ti ch yu tp trung vo phng php

ny.
Phng php xp x (approximation method)
Trong nhiu trng hp, phng php phn tch ton hc qu phc
tp c th m t mt h thng. Phng php xp x c th p dng
trong nhng trng hp ny.
Phng php m phng (simulative techniques)
M phng miu t mt qu trnh xy ra trong thc t thng qua cc
chng trnh my tnh. M phng s dng c s xc sut thng k
nh gi c tnh hot ng ca mt h thng t cc kt qu th
nghim thu c, th d nh gi tr k vng, phng sai, cc phn b
ngu nhin ca kt qu .v.v.
M phng c u im l vic xy dng, phn tch v nh gi d dng
hn so vi phng php ton hc. Trong nhiu trng hp, m phng
l phng php kh thi nht v mt thi gian v ti chnh (khng phi
mua mt h thng thc) kho st v nh gi c tnh mt h
thng.
Phng php m phng c nhng nhc im chnh nh: (1) thi
gian chy chng trnh kh ln nu m phng cc h thng phc tp.
Do thng thng cc h thng tht cng phi n gin ha i kh
nhiu khi chuyn sang m hnh m phng; (2) chnh xc kt qu
ca m hnh m phng tng i kh kim chng. Mt trong cc
phng php kim tra chnh xc ca m hnh l chy chng
trnh m phng vi cc tham s u vo m gi tr u ra c bit
4
trc, sau so snh cc kt qu m phng so vi kt qu o c

c trong thc t.
Cc cng c m phng mng thng dng c s dng hin nay l
NS-2 (network simulator version 2) [5], OMNET++ [10], OPNET .v.v.
[8]. Cc k thut m phng s c trnh by c th trong Chng 7.
Phng php o c (measurement techniques)
o c c s dng o cc thng s cn th nghim trong cc h
thng thc (nh thng lng, bng thng, tr, tuyn ng m mt
gi IP i qua .v.v.).
o c c s dng b tr cho phng php phn tch ton hc
v phng php m phng; cc tham s u vo s dng trong cc
m hnh ton hc v m phng u c o c trong thc t. Mt
khc, o c cng c s dng kim tra chnh xc ca mt m
hnh so vi h thng thc t.
Cc cng c o c hay c s dng trong thc t bao gm:
Ethereal, tcpdump, net-snmp, netperf, dbs .v.v. [2].
Phng php kt hp (hybrid techniques)
Phng php ny kt hp c phng php phn tch ton hc v
phng php m phng trn. Trong phng php ny, mt h
thng s c phn tch thnh cc khi chc nng. i vi tng khi,
ngi ta c th s dng phng php m phng hoc phn tch ton
hc.
Chng 2 Cc tin trnh ngu

nhin
2.1. Xc sut v s kin
Trong mc ny, cc khi nim c bn trong mn xc sut thng k s
c trnh by.
2.1.1. Php th v s kin ngu nhin
nh ngha 2-1: Mt php th ngu nhin (random experiment)
l qu trnh th hay qu trnh quan st c th c lp i lp li

nhiu ln di cng mt iu kin ging nhau. Kt qu ca mt
ln th khng th tin on trc, c lp vi cc php th trc
v c phn b ng nht.
Ch rng tuy kt qu ca php th ngu nhin khng th tin on
trc, nhng cc kt qu ny phi nm trong mt tp gi tr xc nh.
Nh vy, nu gi e l kt qu ca php th ngu nhin, l tp hp
cc gi tr ca php th, ta c:
e;
(PT 2-1)
Th d 2-1: Vic tung ng xu l mt php th ngu nhin.

nh ngha 2-2: S kin ngu nhin (random event) l kt qu
ca mt php th ngu nhin. Kt qu ny nm trong mt tp cc

kt qu c xc nh.
2.1.2. Xc sut
Khi nim xc sut
nh ngha 2-3: Xc sut c nh ngha l tn sut quan
h (relative frequency) ca vic xut hin mt s kin ngu

nhin.
Nu gi A l s kin ngu nhin; s kin A xut hin nA ln trong mt
s lng ln cc s kin n, xc sut ca s kin A s c nh ngha
nh sau:
6
P ( A)
nA
;
n
(PT 2-2)
Mt s tnh cht ca xc sut
C th thy nu A khng bao gi xut hin P(A) = 0. Mt khc,

nu A lun xut hin P(A) = 1. Do :
0 P( A) 1 ;
(PT 2-3)
Nu gi P( A B) l xc sut xut hin ca s kin A hoc s

kin B. Ta c, trong trng hp bin A v B tng quan:
P( A B) = P( A) + P( B) P( A B) ;
(PT 2-4)
Trong P ( A B ) l xc sut xut hin s kin A v s kin B.

Trong trng hp A v B c lp:
P ( A B ) = P ( A) + P ( B ) ;
(PT 2-5)
Nu gi P ( A / B ) l xc sut c iu kin (A xut hin vi iu

kin B xut hin). Trong trng hp A v B tng quan:
P( A B) = P( A) P( B / A) = P( B) P( A / B) ;
(PT 2-6)
Cng thc trn c gi l cng thc Bayes. Mt khc, nu A

v B l hai bin c lp:
P ( A B ) = P ( A) P ( B ) ;
(PT 2-7)
2.2. Bin ngu nhin v cc hm xc sut
2.2.1. Bin ngu nhin

nh ngha 2-4: Bin ngu nhin c nh ngha l i
lng bin thin ph thuc vo kt cc ca mt php th

ngu nhin no .
Nh vy, nu gi X l mt bin ngu nhin ph thuc vo s kin
ngu nhin e, l tp hp cc gi tr ca php th, ta c:
X X (e) , e ;
(PT 2-8)
Th d 2-2: Tr chi tung xc xc tnh im vi lut chi sau:
Bng 2-1. im tng ng vi kt qu tung xc xc

Kt qu tung
im
200
500
7
600
1000
1200
1500
Trn Bng 2-1, kt qu tung chnh l s kin ngu nhin (kt qu ca

php th), im l bin ngu nhin tng ng vi kt qu .
C hai loi bin ngu nhin l bin ngu nhin ri rc v bin
ngu nhin lin tc.
Bin ngu nhin ri rc

nh ngha 2-5: Bin ngu nhin ri rc (discrete random
variable) l bin m tp gi tr ca n l mt tp hu hn
hoc v hn m c cc phn t.
Ni mt cch khc, min gi tr ca mt bin ngu nhin ri rc l mt
x x ,..., xn ,...
dy s: 1, 2
c th hu hn hoc v hn.
Th d 2-3: im thi ca mt sinh vin (t 1 n 10); S cuc gi ca
mt tng i trong mt n v thi gian.

Bin ngu nhin lin tc
nh ngha 2-6: Bin ngu nhin lin tc (continous random
variable) l bin ngu nhin m tp gi tr ca n lp kn mt

khong trn trc s
Ni mt cch khc, s phn t ca tp gi tr l v hn, khng m
c theo l thuyt s. Min gi tr ca mt bin ngu nhin lin tc s
l mt on [a, b] .
Th d 2-4: Huyt p ca mt bnh nhn; tui th ca mt loi bng
n in t.
2.2.2. Hm mt v phn phi xc sut
Hm mt xc sut (probability density function - pdf)
Mt xc sut ca mt bin ngu nhin x lin tc c th hiu l xc
sut bin ngu nhin ly gi tr trong min [ xi , xi + dx] . Nu gi
f (x) l hm mt xc xut ca x th:
f ( x) p ( xi x xi + dx) ;
(PT 2-9)
Hnh 2-1. Hm mt xc sut

Hm phn phi xc sut (probability distribution function - PDF)
1
Hm phn phi xc sut ca mt bin ngu nhin lin tc x l xc
sut bin ngu nhin ly gi tr trong min [ x1 x x 2 ] . Nu gi

F (x) l hm phn phi xc sut, ta c nh ngha hm phn phi xc
sut nh sau:
F ( x)
x2
f ( x)dx ;
(PT 2-10)
x1
Trong f (x) l hm mt xc sut ca x.
Hnh 2-2.Hm phn phi xc sut

T phng trnh trn ta c th thy:
F ( x) =
f ( x)dx = 1 ;
(PT 2-11)
C hai thut ng tng ng trong sch ting Anh biu th Hm phn phi xc sut l: Probability
Distribution Function (PDF) v Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF).
Mt s tnh cht ca hm mt xc sut

nh l 2-1: Hm mt xc sut ca tng hai bin ngu nhin
c lp s l tch chp ca hai hm mt xc sut thnh phn.

Tc l:
fX
( x) =
Xi
( y ) f X j ( x y )dy ;
(PT 2-12)
= X i + X j . Hm
(x) , f X i (x) v f X j (x) l cc hm mt xc sut tng ng.
Trong : X i v X j l hai bin ngu nhin, X

fX
Chng minh: (pending)
2.2.3. Hm tn sut v phn phi xc sut ca bin ngu nhin ri rc

Xt X l bin ngu nhin ri rc c tp cc gi tr ri rc x1 , x2 ,..., x K .
Hm tn sut (frequency function) ca bin ngu nhin ri rc
c xc nh bi:
~
X ( xi ) = P( X = xi ) i = 1,2,..., K ;
(PT 2-13)
Xem xt s kin a < X b vi a < x1 v x k b < x k +1 , chng ta c:

~
~
~
P(a < X b) = X ( x1 ) + X ( x2 ) + K + X ( xk )
k
~
=
X ( xi )
i =1
0
=
P( X a )
(PT 2-14)
Khi , hm phn phi xc sut ca ca bin ngu nhin ri rc c

xc nh:
0
k ~
FX ( x) = X ( xi )
i =1
1
x < x1
xk x < xk +1 ;
(PT 2-15)
x xK
~
FX ( xi ) FX ( xi 1 ) = X ( xi )
(PT 2-16)
Th d 2-5: Truyn bn tin s qua knh nhiu, xc sut li truyn mt
s l P ( E ) =
2
3
; xc sut truyn ng mt s l P (C ) = 1 P ( E ) =
5
5
10
Xc
2 3
54
Xc sut truyn bn tin ba s, mt s b li: 3 =
5 5 125
2 3 36
Xc sut truyn bn tin ba s, hai s b li: 3 =
5 5 125
sut
truyn
3
27
3
P (CCC ) = P (C ) P(C ) P(C ) = =
5 125
khng
li:
Xc
sut
truyn
tt
ba
li:
8
2
P ( EEE ) = P( E ) P( E ) P ( E ) = =
5 125
Nu ta chn X ( S ) l s li bn tin thu c th X l bin ngu nhin

ri rc vi K = 4 gi tr c th c l xi = 0, 1, 2, 3. T y ta s c
~
~
~
~
X ( xi ) cng vi FX ( xi ) c th l FX (0) = X (0) ; FX (1) = X (0) + X (1) ,
.v.v.
Bng 2-2: Kt qu Th d 2-5
~
X ( xi )
xi
FX ( x i )
27
125
27
3
=
5 125
2 3
54
3 =
5 5 125
2 3 36
3 =
5 5 125
8
2
=
5 125
~
X (xi )
81
125
117
125
125
125
F X (x)
1
117/125
81/125
54/125
36/125
27/125
27/125
8/125
Hnh 2-3: Kt qu Th d 2-5
11
2.2.4. Cc tham s c trng ca bin ngu nhin

K vng ca bin ngu nhin (expectation)
nh ngha 2-7: K vng ca bin ngu nhin X k hiu l
m X hoc E [X ] c xc nh:
E [X ] = m X =
xf
( x)dx ; X lin tc
(PT 2-17)
~
E [ X ] = m X = xi X ( xi ) ; X ri rc
(PT 2-18)
Mt s tnh cht ca k vng
E [c ] = c ; c l hng s
E [c X ] = c E [X ]
E [a X + b Y ] = a E [X ] + b E [Y ]
E [X Y ] = E [X ] E [Y ] nu X v Y c lp vi nhau
Th d 2-6: Tm k vng ca bin ngu nhin X khi bit:
x2
F X ( x ) = a ( x 2) 2
2< x4
x>4
Gii: Do X lin tc, FX (x) lin tc, nn ti x=4, a (4 2) 2 = 1 a =
1
.
4
T y ta xc nh c hm mt xc sut:
1
( x 2)
f X ( x) = 2
x [2,4]
x [2,4]
K vng ca bin ngu nhin X c xc nh:

+
x3 x2
x
10
E [X ] = xf X ( x)dx = ( x 2)dx = =
2
2 2 3
6
2
Th d 2-7: Tm k vng ca bin ngu nhin X khi bit bng phn
phi
x
~
X ( x)
0,064
0,288
0,432
0,216
12
Gii:
3
~
~
E [X ] = xi X ( xi ) = xi X ( xi ) = 0.0,064 + 1.0,288 + 2.0,432 + 3.0,216 = 1,8
i
i =0
Phng sai ca bin ngu nhin (variance)

nh ngha 2-8: Phng sai ca bin ngu nhin X k hiu l
X2 hoc VAR[X ] c xc nh:
] (X m
VAR[X ] = X2 = E ( X m X ) =
2
)2 f X ( x)dx ; (PT 2-19)
Nhn xt: ( X m X
) l lch ca bin X so vi trung bnh ca n,

do vy phng sai chnh l trung bnh ca bnh phng lch .
Phng sai c trng cho phn tn ca bin ngu nhin xung
quanh gi tr k vng ca bin . Phng sai cng ln th bt nh
ca bin tng ng cng ln.
X2 = E ( X m X )2 = E [X 2 ] m X2 ;
(PT 2-20)
Nu X l bin ri rc:
2
~
~
= x X ( xi ) xX ( xi ) ;
i
i
2
X
(PT 2-21)
2
i
Nu X l bin lin tc :
+
= x f X ( x)dx xf X ( x)dx ;
2
X
(PT 2-22)
Th d 2-8: Tm phng sai ca bin ngu nhin X khi bit bng
phn phi:
x
~
X ( x)
Gii:
0,064
0,288
0,432
0,216
X2 = E [X 2 ] m X2
Theo Th d 2-7, m X = 1,8
[ ]
E X 2 = 0 2.0,064 + 12.0,288 + 2 2.0,432 + 3 2.0,216 = 3,96
X2 = E [X 2 ] m X2 = 3,96 3,24 = 0,72

Th d 2-9: Cho hm mt xc sut ca bin ngu nhin X tun
theo quy lut phn b hm s m:
13
x0
0
f X ( x) =
x
e
>0
x > 0;
Tnh phng sai ca X.

Gii:
E [X ] =
x
xf X ( x)dx = x e dx =
[ ] x
E X2 =
f X ( x)dx = x 2 . .e x dx =
0
X2 = E [X 2 ] m X2 =
lch chun ca bin ngu nhin (standard deviation)

nh ngha 2-9: lch chun ca bin ngu nhin X, k hiu
l X c xc nh bi:
X = X2 = E ( X m X )2 ;
(PT 2-23)
H s thay i ca bin ngu nhin

nh ngha 2-10: H s thay i ca bin ngu nhin X, k
hiu l c X c xc nh bi:
cX =
E[X ]
(PT 2-24)
2.3. Cc m hnh phn b xc sut c bn

2.3.1. Phn b Bernoulli (Bernoulli distribution)
nh ngha 2-11: Phn b Bernoulli l phn b ngu nhin ca
bin ri rc. Bin ngu nhin ny nhn hai gi tr l 1 vi xc sut

p v 0 vi xc sut (1-p).
Nh vy, gi tr k vng v phng sai ca phn b Bernoulli c
tnh nh sau:
E( X ) = p ;
(PT 2-25)
X = p (1 p ) ;
(PT 2-26)
14
2.3.2. Phn b nh thc (binomial distribution)

nh ngha 2-12: Mt bin ngu nhin X c phn b nh thc
bc n, nu n c nhng gi tr 0, 1, 2, , n vi xc sut:
n
P ( X = k ) = p k q n k ;
k
(PT 2-27)
n
n!
Trong 0 < p < 1 ; p + q = 1 v k = 0, 1, 2,, n v =
k k!(n k )!
Hm mt xc sut ca phn b nh thc c tnh nh sau:
n
n
PX ( x) = p k q n k ( x k ) ;
k =0 k
(PT 2-28)
vi ( x) l hm xung n v (unit impulse function), hay cn gi l hm

Delta Dirac. Tng ng, chng ta c hm phn phi xc sut:
n
n
F ( x) = p k q n k u ( x k ) ;
k =0 k
(PT 2-29)
vi u (x) l hm bc n v (unit step function). Hm bc n v

c nh ngha nh sau :
0; x < 0
u ( x) =
;
1; x 0
(PT 2-30)
K vng, phng sai v h s thay i ca bin ngu nhin X tun

theo phn b nh thc c xc nh:
E( X ) = mX = n p ;
(PT 2-31)
X2 = n p q = n p (1 p) ;
(PT 2-32)
cX =
E[X ]
(1 p )
;
n p
(PT 2-33)
2.3.2. Phn b u (uniform distribution)

nh ngha 2-13: Mt bin ngu nhin X tun theo phn b u
nu n c hm mt xc sut l hng s trong khong [a, b]:
f ( x) = b a
0
a xb
( x < a ) ( x > b)
15
(PT 2-34)
Nu a = 0, b = 1, chng ta c phn b u n v (unit uniform

distribution):
0 x 1
1
f ( x) =
0
( x < 0) ( x > 1)
(PT 2-35)
Tng ng, chng ta c hm phn phi xc sut:
F ( x) =
xa
; a x b;
ba
(PT 2-36)

theo phn b u c xc nh:
E( X ) = mX =
X2 =
cX =
a+b
;
2
(PT 2-37)
(b a )2 ;
(PT 2-38)
12
E[X ]
(b a )2 ;
2
3(a + b )
(PT 2-39)
2.3.3. Phn b chun (Gaussian distribution)

nh ngha 2-14: Mt bin ngu nhin X tun theo phn b
chun (hay cn c gi l phn b Gauss) nu hm mt xc

sut c dng:
f X ( x) =
e ( x )
/ 2 2
(PT 2-40)
Tng ng, chng ta c hm phn phi xc sut:

FX ( x ) =
1
2
( )
e
/ 2 2
d =
1
2
( x ) /
2 / 2
d ;
(PT 2-41)

theo phn b chun c xc nh:
E( X ) = mX = ;
(PT 2-42)
X2 = 2 ;
(PT 2-43)
cX =
E[X ]
(PT 2-44)
16
2.3.4. Phn b m (exponential distribution)

nh ngha 2-15: Phn b m l mt phn b ngu nhin ca
mt bin x lin tc vi hm mt xc sut:
f ( x ) = e x ;
(PT 2-45)
Ngoi ra, hm phn b xc sut, k vng, phng sai v h s thay

i ca ca bin ngu nhin x tun theo phn b m c tnh nh
sau:
F ( x ) = 1 e x ;
E ( x) =
( x) =
cX =
(PT 2-46)
(PT 2-47)
;
E[X ]
(PT 2-48)
= 1;
(PT 2-49)
Trong > 0 l tham s tc (rate parameter), f ( x) l hm mt

xc sut, F ( x) l hm phn phi xc sut, E ( x) l k vng, ( x)
l phng sai v c X l h s thay i ca bin x.
Phn b hm s m kh quan trng v thng c dng ph

bin trong l thuyt hng i m t cc phn b ngu nhin
xy ra trong cc h thng thng tin, th d nh s phn b ca
khong thi gian n gia cc cuc gi cng nh thi gian phc
v ca h thng tng i in thoi.
Mt tnh cht quan trng ca bin ngu nhin X tun theo phn
b hm s m l thuc tnh khng nh (memoryless):
P ( X u + t | X > u ) = 1 e t = P ( X t ) ;
(PT 2-50)
Nhn xt: Phng trnh trn cho thy hm phn b xc sut trong
mt khong [u; u+t] khng ph thuc vo gi tr khi u u m ch ph

thuc vo rng ca khong gi tr t.
2.3.5. Phn b Poisson (Poinsson distribution)
nh ngha 2-16: Mt bin ngu nhin ri rc X c phn b
Poisson vi tham s ( > 0 ) nu n ly nhng gi tr 0, 1, 2,,

n vi xc sut:
P ( X = k ) = e
k
k!
; k = 0, 1,
17
(PT 2-51)
Phn b Poisson c hm mt xc sut nh sau :
PX ( x) = e
k =0
(x k) ;
k!
(PT 2-52)
vi (x) l hm xung n v (unit impulse function). Tng ng, chng

ta c hm phn phi xc sut
FX ( x) = e
k =0
k
k!
u( x k ) ;
(PT 2-53)
vi u (x) l hm bc n v2 (unit step function).

theo phn b Poisson c xc nh:
E( X ) = mX = ;
(PT 2-54)
X2 = ;
(PT 2-55)
cX =
E[X ]
(PT 2-56)
2.3.6. Phn b Gamma (Gamma distribution)

nh ngha 2-17: Phn b Gamma l phn b ngu nhin ca
mt bin x lin tc vi hm mt xc sut:

n x n 1 x
e ; x 0
f ( x) = (n 1)!
;
0; x < 0
(PT 2-57)
Ngoi ra, hm phn b xc sut, k vng v phng sai ca phn b

Gamma nh sau:
x n 1 y
y e dy
F ( x) = 0
; x 0 ;
(n 1)!
0; x < 0
E ( x) =
X2 =
(PT 2-58)
(PT 2-59)
(PT 2-60)
Hm bc n v c nh ngha theo PT 2-30
18
Trong : v n l hai tham s ca phn b Gamma. > 0 c

gi l tham s t l (scale parameter), n nguyn dng c gi l
tham s hnh dng (shape parameter).
2.3.7. Mi lin h gia phn b m v phn b Gamma
nh l 2-2: C mt tp hp bin ngu nhin X i c lp v
tun theo phn b m vi tham s > 0 , i (1,2,..., n) .Bin ngu

nhin X c nh ngha nh sau:
n
X = Xi ;
(PT 2-61)
i =1
Hm mt xc sut ca bin X tun theo phn b Gamma,

ngha l:
n X n 1 X
e ; X 0
;
f X ( X ) = (n 1)!
0; X < 0
(PT 2-62)
Chng minh:
Cc bin X i c lp tun theo phn b m vi tham s > 0 , v th:
e x ; x 0
;
f X i ( x) =
0; x < 0
n
Cn phi tm mt xc sut ca bin ngu nhin X = X i . S

i =1
dng phng php quy np:
Trng hp n=1:
X = X 1 , do :
x 0 x
f X ( X ) = 0! e ; x 0 ;
0; x < 0
(PT 2-63)
Gi thit (PT 2-62) ng cho trng hp n nguyn dng bt

k, phi chng minh (PT 2-62) ng cho trng hp n + 1:
n
X = X i + X n +1 ;
(PT 2-64)
i =1
Trong theo gi thit th:
19
n X n 1 X
e ; X 0
;
f n ( X ) = (n 1)!
X
i
0; X < 0
i =1
Do hai bin
X
i =1
(PT 2-65)
v X n +1 l hai bin c lp, theo nh l 2-1 hm
mt xc sut ca bin X tng hai bin trn s l tch chp ca

hai hm mt xc sut thnh phn, tc l:
f X (X ) =
f
n
Xi
( X ) f X n +1 ( X Y )dY ;
(PT 2-66)
i =1
X n Y n 1 Y ( X Y )

e e
dY ; X 0
; (PT 2-67)
f X ( X ) = (n 1)!
0
0; X < 0
n +1 e X X n 1
nY dY ; X 0
;
f X (X ) =
n! 0
0; X < 0
(PT 2-68)
Nh vy cui cng ta c:
n X n 1 X
e ; X 0
f X ( X ) = (n 1)!
;
0; X < 0
(PT 2-69)
nh l c chng minh
nh l 2-2 s c s dng trong mt s chng minh Chng 3.
2.4. Tin trnh ngu nhin (stochastic process)
2.4.1. Khi nim v nh ngha
Vn c bn lin quan n phn tch thng k cc h thng thng tin
s l c tnh ca cc tn hiu ngu nhin nh cc tn hiu thoi, tn
hiu truyn hnh, d liu my tnh s v tn hiu nhiu Nhng tn
hiu ngu nhin ny c hai c tnh:
Cc tn hiu ny u l nhng hm bin i theo thi gian

c xc nh trong mt s khong thi gian quan trc.
Cc tn hiu ny l ngu nhin v khng th m t c chnh

xc dng sng ca tn hiu quan st c.
Xem xt mt th nghim ngu nhin c nh ra bi cc kt qu s t

mt tp hp cc gi tr S ca php th. Vi mi mt im mu s,
tng ng chng ta c mt hm bin thin theo thi gian:
X (t , s ),
T t T ;
(PT 2-70)
20
y 2T l ton b khong thi gian quan trc. i vi mi mt im

mu c nh s j , th ca hm X (t , si ) theo thi gian c gi l
hm mu ca mt tin trnh ngu nhin. n gin v mt k hiu,
chng ta biu th hm mu ny di dng:
x j (t ) = X (t , s j ) ;
(PT 2-71)
Hnh 2.5 minh ha mt tp hp cc hm mu {x j (t ) j = 1,2,..., n}. T

hnh v ny, chng ta thy rng, i vi thi im tk c nh trong
khong thi gian quan trc, tp hp cc s:
{x1 (t k ), x2 (t k ),K, xn (t k )} = {X (t k , s1 ), X (t k , s2 ),K X (t k , sn )} ;
(PT 2-72)
hnh thnh nn mt bin ngu nhin. Do vy, chng ta c mt

tp hp cc bin ngu nhin X (t , s ) hnh thnh nn mt tin trnh
ngu nhin.
n gin v mt k hiu, ngi ta thng b s v dng X (t ) biu
th cho mt tin trnh ngu nhin.
Hnh 2-4. Tp hp cc hm mu
nh ngha 2-18: Tin trnh ngu nhin X (t ) c nh ngha l
mt tp hp ca cc hm thi gian cng vi mt lut xc sut

nht nh
2.4.2. Phn loi
S khc nhau c bn gia bin ngu nhin v tin trnh ngu
nhin ch: vi bin ngu nhin, kt qu php th ca th nghim
ngu nhin c nh x thnh mt gi tr s; cn vi tin trnh ngu
nhin, kt qu ca php th c nh x thnh mt hm thi gian.
21
Ph thuc vo tnh lin tc hoc ri rc ca khng gian mu S v t,

mt tin trnh ngu nhin c th c phn chia thnh bn loi khc
nhau:
Chui ngu nhin ri rc (Discrete Random Sequence) nu
c S v t l nhng gi tr ri rc: Th d: Nu X n i din cho

kt qu th n ca vic tung mt con xc sc th {X n , n 1} l
mt chui ngu nhin ri rc v t={1, 2, 3, } v S={1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6}.
Chui ngu nhin lin tc (Continuous Random Sequence)
nu t l ri rc cn S l lin tc. Th d: Nu X n i din cho

nhit ti gi th n trong ngy th {X n ,1 n 24} l mt chui
ngu nhin lin tc v nhit c th l bt k gi tr no trong
mt khong gi tr xc nh v do vy lin tc.
Tin trnh ngu nhin ri rc (Discrete Random Process)
nu t l lin tc v S l ri rc. Th d: Nu X (t ) i din cho

s cuc gi in thoi nhn c trong khong thi gian (0, t )
th { X (t )} l tin trnh ngu nhin ri rc v S = {0,1,2,3,...} .
Tin trnh ngu nhin lin tc (Continuous Random
Process) nu c t v S l lin tc. Th d: Nu X (t ) i din

cho nhit cao nht ti mt a im no trong khong thi
gian (0, t ) , th { X (t )} l tin trnh ngu nhin lin tc.
Ni mt cch tng qut, t ri rc hoc lin tc lin quan n S, cn
chui hoc tin trnh lin quan n t.
Ngoi ra, cc tin trnh ngu nhin cn c phn bit thnh: tin
trnh ngu nhin xc nh v tin trnh ngu nhin khng
xc nh:
Nu gi tr ca bt k hm mu no khng c d on chnh
xc t cc gi tr quan trc c trong qu kh th tin trnh
ngu nhin c gi l khng xc nh.
Mt tin trnh ngu nhin c gi l xc nh nu gi tr tng

lai ca bt k mt hm mu no u c th d on c t
cc gi tr trong qu kh. Th d: X (t ) = A cos( 0 t + )
2.5. Cc c tnh thng k ca tin trnh ngu nhin

2.5.1. Cc hm quan h xc sut
Xem xt mt tin trnh ngu nhin X (t ) . i vi mt thi im xc nh
t1, X (t1 ) = X 1 l mt bin ngu nhin v hm phn b xc sut
FX ( x1 ; t1 ) ca n c xc nh:
FX ( x1 ; t1 ) = P{X (t1 ) x1 }; X 1
22
(PT 2-73)
FX ( x1 ; t1 ) c gi l hm bc mt ca X (t ) . Hm mt xc
sut bc mt tng ng c xc nh:
f X ( x1 ; t1 ) =
FX ( x1 ; t1 )
;
x1
(PT 2-74)
Tng t, vi t1, t2, X (t1 ) = X 1 v X (t 2 ) = X 2 i din cho hai bin

ngu nhin. Phn b chung ca chng c gi l phn b bc hai
v c xc nh bi:
FX ( x1 , x2 ; t1 , t 2 ) = P{X (t1 ) x1 , X (t 2 ) x2 };
(PT 2-75)
Trong X 1 , X 2 .
Hm mt bc hai tng ng c xc nh:
f X ( x1 , x 2 ; t1 , t 2 ) =
2 FX ( x1 , x 2 ; t1 , t 2 )
;
x1x 2
(PT 2-76)
Theo cch tng t, i vi n bin

X (t i ) = X i , (i = 1,K, n) , hm phn b bc n l:
ngu
nhin
FX ( x1 , x 2 ,K , x n ; t1 , t 2 , K , t n ) = P{X (t1 ) x1 , X (t 2 ) x 2 , K , X (t n ) x n }
(PT 2-77)
Hm mt bc n tng ng l:
f X ( x1 , x 2 , K, x n ; t1 , t 2 , K t n ) =
n FX ( x1 , x 2 , K , x n ; t1 , t 2 , K , t n )
;
x1x 2 K x n
(PT 2-78)
2.5.2. Cc trung bnh thng k
K vng (mean) ca mt tin trnh ngu nhin X (t ) c xc nh:
E [X (t )] = m X (t ) =
xf
( x; t )dx ;
(PT 2-79)
23
Nh vy, y X (t ) c xem nh l bin ngu nhin i vi mt
gi tr c nh t.
Hm t tng quan (autocorrelation) ca X (t ) c xc nh:
R XX (t1 , t 2 ) = E [X (t1 ) X (t 2 )] =
++
x x
1 2
f X ( x1 , x 2 ; t1 , t 2 )dx1 dx 2 ;
(PT 2-80)
Hm t hip bin (autocovariance) ca X (t ) c xc nh:
C XX (t1 , t 2 ) = E{[ X (t1 ) m X (t1 )][ X (t 2 ) m X (t 2 )]} = R XX (t1 , t 2 ) m X (t1 )m X (t 2 )
(PT 2-81)
Hm m men chung bc n ca X (t ) c xc nh:
+
E [X (t1 ) L X (t 2 )] = L x1 L x n f X ( x1 , K, x n ; t1 , K, t n )dx1 L dx n ;
(PT 2-82)
2.5.3. Tnh dng
Tnh dng cm nhn cht
nh ngha 2-19: Mt tin trnh ngu nhin X (t ) c gi l c
tnh dng cm nhn cht (strict-sense stationary SSS) nu cc

c tnh thng k ca n khng thay i khi c s dch chuyn
no v mt thi gian so vi ban u. Ni cch khc, tin trnh
X (t ) l SSS nu:
f X ( x1 , K, x n ; t1 , K, t n ) = f X ( x1 , K, x n ; t1 + c, K, t n + c); c ;
(PT 2-83)
T
phng
trnh
(PT
2-83),
chng
ta
thy
rng
f X ( x1 ; t1 ) = f X ( x1 ; t1 + c); c . Do vy, hm mt bc mt ca tin
trnh dng X (t ) l c lp vi t. Do :
f X ( x1 ; t ) = f X ( x1 ) ;
(PT 2-84)
24
Tng t, f X ( x1 , x 2 ; t1 , t 2 ) = f X ( x1 , x 2 ; t1 + c, t 2 + c); c . t c = t1 ,
chng ta c:
f X ( x1 , x 2 ; t1 , t 2 ) = f X ( x1 , x 2 ;0, t 2 t1 ) ;
(PT 2-85)
Nhn xt: Cc phng trnh trn ch cho chng ta thy rng,
nu X (t ) l SSS, hm mt chung ca cc bin ngu nhin

X (t ) v X (t + ) l c lp vi t v ch ph thuc vo khong thi
gian chnh lch gia chng.
Tnh dng cm nhn lng
nh ngha 2-20: Mt tin trnh ngu nhin X (t ) c tnh dng
cm nhn lng (wide-sense stationary WSS) nu k vng ca

n l hng s:
E [X (t )] = m X ;
(PT 2-86)
v hm t tng quan ca n ch ph thuc vo chnh lch

thi gian :
E [X (t ) X (t + )] = R XX ( ) ;
(PT 2-87)
T phung trnh (2-86) v (2-87), hm t hip bin ca mt tin trnh

WSS cng ch ph thuc vo chnh lch thi gian :
C XX ( ) = R XX ( ) m X2 ;
(PT 2-88)
t = 0, t phng trnh (2-88), chng ta c:

E [X 2 (t )] = R XX (0) ;
(PT 2-89)
Nh vy, cng sut trung bnh ca tin trnh WSS c lp vi t v
bng R XX (0) .
Lu rng, mt tin trnh SSS l WSS, nhng mt tin trnh
WSS cha hn l SSS.
Hai tin trnh X (t ) v Y (t ) c gi l c tnh dng cm nhn lng

chung (jointly WSS) nu bn thn ring tng tin trnh l WSS v
hm tng quan cho (cross-correlation) gia chng ch ph thuc
vo chnh lch thi gian .
R XY (t , t + ) = E [X (t )Y (t + )] = R XY ( ) ;
(PT 2-90)
T phng trnh (2-90), hm hip bin cho (cross-covariance) ca

cc tin trnh WSS chung gia X (t ) v Y (t ) cng ph thuc vo chnh
lch thi gian :
C XY ( ) = R XY ( ) m X mY ;
(PT 2-91)
25
Trung bnh thi gian v ergodic

K vng trung bnh thi gian (time-averaged) ca mt hm mu
x(t ) ca mt tin trnh ngu nhin X (t ) c nh ngha:

T /2
1
x(t )dt ;
T T
T 72
x = x(t ) = lim
(PT 2-92)
Tng t, hm t tng quan trung bnh thi gian ca mt

hm mu x(t ) c xc nh:
T /2
1
x(t ) x(t + )dt ;
T T
T 72
R XX ( ) = x(t ) x(t + ) = lim
(PT 2-93)
Lu rng: x v R XX ( ) l cc bin ngu nhin; gi tr ca chng ph

thuc hm mu ca X (t ) c s dng.
Nu X (t ) l tin trnh dng, bng vic ly gi tr trung bnh (k vng)
trn c hai pha ca phng trnh (2-92) v (2-93) chng ta c:
T /2
1
E [x ] = lim
E [x (t )]dt = m X ;
T T
T 72
E [R XX ( )] = lim
(PT 2-94)
T /2
1
E [x (t ) x (t + )]dt = R XX ( ) ;
T T
T 72
(PT 2-95)
T cc phng trnh (2-94) v (2-95) chng ta thy, k vng ca trung

bnh thi gian bng vi k vng thng k v k vng ca t tng
quan trung bnh thi gian bng vi t tng quan thng k.
Mt tin trnh ngu nhin X (t ) c tnh ergodic nu cc trung
bnh thi gian l nh nhau cho tt c cc hm mu v bng cc
trung bnh thng k tng ng.
Do vy, trong mt tin trnh ergodic, tt c cc thng k ca n c th
nhn c qua vic quan trc mt hm mu n x(t ) = X (t , s ) ; (s l
c nh) ca tin trnh.
Mt tin trnh dng X (t ) c gi l ergodic theo k vng nu:
x = x(t ) = E [X (t )] = m X ;
(PT 2-96)
Tng t, mt tin trnh dng X (t ) c gi l ergodic theo t

tng quan nu:
26
R XX ( ) = x(t ) x(t + ) = E [ X (t ) X (t + )] = R XX ( ) ; (PT 2-97)
Trong thc t, vic kim tra tnh ergodic ca mt tn trnh ngu nhin l
rt kh khn. Mt gi thit hp l cho vic phn tch phn ln cc tn
hiu thng tin cc dng sng ngu nhin ca chng c tnh ergodic
theo k vng v theo t tng quan.
2.6. Cc tin trnh ngu nhin thng gp
2.6.1. Tin trnh m
Tin trnh m (counting process)
nh ngha 2-21: Mt tin trnh ngu nhin {N (t ), t 0} c
gi l tin trnh m (counting process) nu N (t ) i din cho

tng s cc s kin xut hin cho ti thi im t. Ni cch khc,
mt tin trnh m phi tha mn cc iu kin sau:
i. N (t ) 0 .
ii. N (t ) l s nguyn.
iii. Nu s < t , th N ( s ) N (t ) .
iv. i vi s < t th N (t ) N ( s ) chnh l s s kin xut hin
trong khong thi gian ( s, t ) .
Hnh 2-5. Tin trnh m
Th d 2-10:
Tin trnh tng trng c lp (independent increments)

nh ngha 2-22: Mt tin trnh m {N (t ), t 0} c gi tng
trng c lp (independent increments) nu nh [ N ( s ) N (t )]

( s > t ) v [ N (u ) N (v)] ( u > v ) l hai bin ngu nhin c lp vi
iu kin (t , s ) v (v, u ) l hai khong thi gian c lp, khng
trng nhau.
Hnh 2-6. Tin trnh tng trng c lp
Th d 2-11:
27
Tin trnh tng trng dng (stationary increments)

nh ngha 2-23: Mt tin trnh m c gi l tng trng
dng (stationary increments) nu s cc s kin trong khong

thi gian (t1 + s, t 2 + s ) ; tc l {N (t 2 + s ) N (t1 + s )} c cng phn
b vi s s kin xut hin trong khong thi gian (t1 , t 2 ) ; tc l
{N (t 2 ) N (t 1)} i vi mi t1 < t 2 v s > 0 .
Ni cch khc, tin trnh m l tng trng dng nu nh vic phn
b s cc s kin xut hin trong bt k khong thi gian no ch ph
thuc vo di ca khong thi gian quan trc m khng ph thuc
vo thi im bt u tin hnh quan trc.
Hnh 2-7. Tin trnh tng trng dng
Th d 2-12:
2.6.2. Tin trnh Poisson
2.7. Kt lun
Chng 2 tp trung gii thiu nhng khi nim c bn v xc sut,
bin ngu nhin v cc hm xc sut, cc phn b xc sut c bn,
tng quan v tin trnh ngu nhin v mt s tin trnh ngu nhin ph
bin nh Poisson, Gauss, Markov. y c th c xem nh l
nhng kin thc c bn, nhm h tr bn c trong vic hc v tm
hiu nhng chng tip theo.
Tin trnh tng trng c lp
Tin trnh tng trng dng
Tin trnh Bernoulli (Bernoulli process)
Tin trnh nh thc (Binomial process)
Tin trnh Poisson:
Mt s nh l ca tin trnh Poisson
Tnh cht ca tin trnh Poisson
Tnh hp nht (merging property)
Tnh tch bit
28
Chng 3 H thng hng i

3.1. Gii thiu
Trong Chng 2, chng ta kho st cc tin trnh ngu nhin thng
dng. y chnh l cc cng c ton hc thng c s dng trong
h thng hng i c cp trong chng ny.
Hng i l thnh phn khng th thiu khi m hnh ha h thng s
dng phng php ton hc v l cng c hu hiu nh gi hiu
nng hot ng ca cc h thng phc v ni chung cng nh ca h
thng my tnh v thng tin ni ring.
nh ngha 3-1: H thng phc v l h thng c s
dng phc v cc yu cu nht nh hoc cc khch hng

thng qua cc im cung cp dch v. Yu cu hoc khch hng
ri h thng sau khi dch v c cung cp.
Th d 3-1:
Cc h thng in thoi: p ng s lng ln khch hng quay s

kt ni n mt trong nhng ng ra hu hn ca tng i.
Trong mng my tnh: khi gi tin c chuyn t ngun ti ch v i
qua mt s lng cc nt trung gian. H thng hng i xut hin ti
mi nt mng qu trnh lu tm thng tin ti b m.
H thng my tnh: khi cc cng vic tnh ton v tuyn lm vic ca
h thng yu cu dch v t b x l trung tm v t cc ngun khc.
Tt c cc h thng trn th d trn u c m t bng khi nim
hng i.
3.2. M hnh hng i K hiu Kendall
3.2.1. M hnh hng i n
Mt hng i n gin c nh ngha bi cc c im c bn sau
y:
Tin trnh ti (arrival process): c c trng bi tc yu

cu (hoc s kin) ti h thng (yu cu trn n v thi
gian) v tnh cht ngu nhin ca tin trnh ti.
Th d: cc gi tin c gi ti u vo ca mt router l mt tin

trnh ti, c c trng bi s gi/s v phn b ngu nhin ca
cc gi, tc l phn b ngu nhin ca khong thi gian gia hai
gi lin tip, th d nh phn b m.
29
Tin trnh phc v (service process): tin trnh phc v gn
lin vi cc trm phc v (server) trong mt h thng phc v.

Mi trm phc v bao gi cng c c trng bi tc phc
v trung bnh (s yu cu trn mt n v thi gian) v tnh
cht ngu nhin ca tin trnh phc v.
Th d: Cc gi tin c gi ra u ra ca mt router c coi nh
mt tin trnh phc v v c c trng bi s gi c phc v
trong 1s. Thng thng cc gi tin trong Internet c di thay i,
v vy thi gian phc v mt gi tin trung bnh (thi gian gi gi
t bit u tin n bit cui cng ln ng truyn) s c tnh
cht ngu nhin tun theo mt phn b no .
S trm phc v (server): Mt h thng phc v c th c
nhiu trm phc v. Trong trng hp ny h thng phc v c

th phc v mt lc nhiu yu cu.
Quy tc phc v (service strategy): th hin nguyn tc v
trnh t phc v cc yu cu khi chng i vo h thng phc v.

Th d: trong nguyn tc FIFO yu cu no vo h thng trc th
c phc v trc. Trong nguyn tc LIFO, yu cu no vo h
thng sau cng li c phc v u tin.
Hng i (queue): Khi mt yu cu i vo mt h thng phc
v, nu tt c cc trm phc v u bn th yu cu s phi

i trong hng i. Hng i c c trng bi ln K.
Hnh 3-1 minh ha mt h thng hng i vi N trm phc v, ln
hng i K, tin trnh ti vi tham s v N tin trnh phc v vi tham
s {1, ..., n}.
Hnh 3-1. H thng hng i vi N trm phc v, hng i c ln K
30
3.2.2. K hiu Kendall

K hiu Kendall c s dng m t h thng hng i n, do
David George Kendall pht trin. H thng hng i c m t bng
mt chui k t nh sau:
A/S/C/[K]/[P]/[D]
Cc k t trong du ngoc vung khng bt buc phi c. Trong :
A v S: Th hin phn b ngu nhin ca tin trnh ti (A) v
tin trnh phc v (S). Mt s phn b ngu nhin thng dng

l:
M: phn b Markov hay phn b m
D: phn b xc nh, phi ngu nhin (derterministic). Trong

phn b D khong thi gian gia 2 s kin n h thng hoc
thi gian x l mt yu cu ti trm phc v l hng s.
G hoc GI: Phn b ngu nhin bt k.
C: S trm phc v, C ; C 1
K: Th hin s yu cu m h thng c th cha c, k c
P: S lng cc yu cu i vo h thng (Calling population).
D: Quy tc phc v (service discipline/strategy).
FIFO (First-In-First-Out): Yu cu no vo h thng trc c

phc v trc.
LIFO (Last-In-First-Out): Yu cu no vo h thng sau cng

c phc v u tin.
Round-robin (RR): H thng RR c nhiu hng i cho nhiu

tin trnh ti khc nhau. Cc yu cu ca cc tin trnh ti c
phc v theo th t ln lt (Hnh 3-2).
yu cu ang c phc v bi trm phc v, K N ; K 0 .

Nu K c b qua th mc nh K =
Nu P c b qua th mc nh P = .
31
Hnh 3-2. Round robin

SIRO (Service In Random Order): Cc yu cu c phc v
theo trnh t ngu nhin, khng ph thuc vo trnh t ti h
thng.
PQ (Priority Queue): Hng i c u tin. Ging nh RR, h
thng ny c nhiu hng i cho cc tin trnh ti khc nhau.
Tuy nhin th t phc v cc yu cu trong cc hng i tun
theo trnh t u tin. Trm phc v s phc v cc yu cu
trong hng i c mc u tin cao nht. Khi hng i ny rng,
trm phc v s chuyn xung phc v hng i c yu cu
mc u tin thp hn. Khi mt hng i bt k mc u tin
cao hn c yu cu, trm phc v s chuyn sang phc v yu
cu hng i c mc u tin cao.
Th d 3-2:
H thng hng i M/M/2/K:
Tin trnh ti theo phn b m.
Tin trnh phc v theo phn b m.
H thng c 2 trm phc v.
Hng i c ln l K.
S lng yu cu i vo h thng l .
Quy tc phc v: FIFO (ngm nh).
3.2.3. Cc tham s quan trng nh gi c tnh ca h thng hng i

Khi nh gi c tnh ca h thng hng i, ngi ta thng hay ch
n cc tham s sau:
S yu cu trung bnh nm trong h thng N.
S yu cu trung bnh nm trong hng i N q .
S yu cu trung bnh c x l trm phc v N S .
Mi quan h v ngha ca 3 tham s trn s c cp k

hn cc phn tip theo.
Thi gian trung bnh mt yu cu lu li trong h

thng W.
Thi gian trung bnh mt yu cu phi ch trong hng

i trc khi c phc v Tq .
Thi gian phc v trung bnh mt yu cu ti trm phc
v TS .
Xc sut thi gian mt yu cu phi i trong

hng i t q nh hn mt khong thi gian t cho trc
p{t q < t} .
32
Xc sut h thng c i yu cu pi .
Xc sut mt yu cu b t chi e, tc xc sut yu
cu khng c php i vo h thng do hng i b y.

3.3. H thng hng i trng thi n nh nh l Little
3.3.1. H thng hng i n nh
Xt mt h thng c ranh gii ng (enclosed network), gi tt l mng
ng (Hnh 3-3). Mng ny c th c mt hoc nhiu cng cho yu
cu i ti h thng (cng vo) v mt s cng cho yu cu i ra (cng
ra).
nh ngha 3-2: Mt mng khng t to ra cc yu cu, khng
hy cc yu cu, khng thay i tnh cht cc yu cu trong

mng c gi l mng ng (enclosed network).
Hnh 3-3. Mng ng

Do mng khng to ra m cng khng hy cc yu cu, yu cu ch c
th i vo, c lu gi trong mng v i ra khi mng. Nu tng yu
cu trung bnh i vo mng ln hn tng yu cu i ra khi mng th
tng s yu cu nm trong mng s khng ngng tng ln. Mt khc,
nu tc ti nh hn tc i ra th tng yu cu trong mng s
gim v khng. Ti thi im , tc ti v tc ra s cn bng
nhau.
Vi l lun nh trn, chng ta nhn thy mt h thng trng
thi n nh lun c tng tc ti trung bnh v tng tc ra
trung bnh bng nhau.
33
Mt tnh cht quan trng ca h thng trng thi n nh l tnh

cht thng k ca mng ti mt thi im cho trc s tng
ng vi tnh cht thng k ca mng ti mt thi im bt k.
Cc h thng hng i c xem xt trong quyn sch ny l mt
trng hp ring ca mng ng, hot ng n inh. Thng thng
khi xc nh c tnh ca mt h thng hng i, ngi ta quan tm
n cc tham s sau:
N (t ) : s yu cu nm trong h thng ti thi im t.
N q (t ) : s yu cu nm trong hng i ti thi im t.
N S (t ) : s yu cu ang c phc v.
T: Thi gian tng cng mt yu cu nm trong h thng hng

i.
Tq : Thi gian mt yu cu phi nm ch trong hng i trc
khi n lt n c phc v.
TS : thi gian mt yu cu c phc v bi server.
Ta c th d dng suy lun:
N (t ) = N S (t ) + N q (t ) ;
(PT 3-1)
T= Tq + TS ;
(PT 3-2)
Mt khc, nu gi:
l tc trung bnh ca yu cu i ti h thng (s yu

cu/n v thi gian).
l tc phc v trung bnh ca trm phc v (s yu

cu/n v thi gian).
c l s trm phc v ca h thng hng i
Ta nh ngha ti ca h thng bng biu thc:
;
c
(PT 3-3)
34
cn c gi l mt lu lng ca h thng (traffic intensity)

v c ngha l phn thi gian m ngi quan st bn ngoi bt gp
ti thiu mt trm phc v trng thi bn (ang phc v yu cu).
Ngoi ra, c th hiu c l tc phc v trung bnh ca ton h
thng hng i. T nh ngha chng ta thy rng:
0 1;
(PT 3-4)
3.3.2. nh l Little
Xt mt mng ng bt k vi cc tham s sau:
N (t ) - S yu cu nm trong h thng ti thi im t.
t - S yu cu i n h thng trong khong thi gian t (0,t).
t - S yu cu ri khi h thng trong khong thi gian t

(0,t).
Nh vy nu gi N t l s lng yu cu trung bnh nm trong h

thng trong (0,t), ta c:
t
1
(PT 3-5)
N t = N (t )dt ;
t0
Mt khc gi:
Ti l thi gian m yu cu i lu li trong h thng.
t l s yu cu n h thng trong khong thi gian (0,t):
t =
t
t
(PT 3-6)
Tt l thi gian lu li trung bnh ca yu cu trong h thng

trong khong thi gian (0,t):
Tt =
T ;
(PT 3-7)
i =1 i
Gi s cc gii hn sau y tn ti :
N = lim N t
t
; = lim t
t
T = lim Tt ;
t
nh l Little c pht biu nh sau:

nh l 3-1: S yu cu trung bnh nm trong h thng bng
tch ca tc ti trung bnh vi thi gian lu li h thng trung

bnh ca yu cu:
N = T ;
(PT 3-8)
35
Chng minh nh l Little:
Chng minh cng thc Little bng phng php hnh hc theo nh
minh ha di y.
Hnh 3-4. Quan h gia s yu cu ti v s yu cu c phc v

Xt trong khong (0,t) :
Din tch phn gch cho:
t
S t = N (t )dt = [ (t ) (t )]dt ;
0
(PT 3-9)
Mt khc din tch ny cng bng:

t
S t = 1 Ti ;
(PT 3-10)
i =1
Nh vy, t (PT 3-9, 3-10) ta rt ra:

t
i =1
N (t )dt = Ti
(PT 3-11)
t
Ti
t
1 t
i =1
Hay: N (t )dt =
t o
t t
(PT 3-12)
tc l :
N t = t Tt ;
(PT 3-13)
Nu gii hn sau y tn ti :
N = lim N t
t
; = lim t
t
T = lim Tt ; (PT 3-14)

t
T (PT 3-13) v (3-14)
N = T ;
(PT 3-15)
36
Cng thc c chng minh

Nhn xt: nh l Little ng cho mt mng ng bt k, khng
ph thuc vo cc tham s hng i, tin trnh n v tin trnh

phc v.
3.3.3. Mt s c tnh khc ca h thng ng, hot ng trng thi n
nh
Xt mt h thng hng i nh Hnh 3-5. H thng hng i c c
trng bi cc tham s sau:
Tin trnh ti vi tc trung bnh .
c trm phc v vi tc phc v trung bnh ca tng trm l

.
Hng i c ln v tn (yu cu lun c chp nhn).
Nu xem xt h thng hng i nh mt mng ng bao gm hng

i v cc trm phc v nh Hnh 3-5 a, theo nh l Little ta c:
N = T ;
(PT 3-16)
Mt khc, nu xem xt ring khi hng i ca h thng hng i trn

(Hnh 3-5 b), cn c vo nh ngha ta thy y vn l mt mng ng,
v vy c th p dng nh l Little nh sau:
N q = Tq ;
(PT 3-17)
Mt khc theo (PT 3-2): T= Tq + TS vi TS =
1
v theo (PT 3-16) v
c
(PT 3-17):
N
1 Nq
+
;
(PT 3-18)
+ Nq ;
c
(PT 3-19)
Hay:
N=
Ngoi ra theo (PT 3-3) =
nn (PT 3-19) tr thnh:

c
N = + Nq
(PT 3-20)
Nh vy ta c th ni rng chnh l s yu cu trung bnh m h

thng phc v phi x l ti cc trm phc v.
37
Nhn xt: nh l Little v cc c tnh ca h thng ng m
chng ta xt n thi im ny khng ph thuc vo cc c

im ring bit ca tng h thng hng i nh tin trnh n,
tin trnh phc v, s trm phc v .v.v. Tuy nhin nu mun
kho st cc c tnh khc ca h thng hng i chng ta cn
phi bit cc c tnh thng k ca lung lu lng u vo cng
nh tin trnh x l yu cu.
(a)
(b)
Hnh 3-5.H thng hng i c quan st vi hai ranh gii khc nhau:
(a) Hng i v cc trm phc v; (b) Hng i
3.4. Hng i M/M/1/1
K t phn ny, chng ta ln lt kho st c tnh hot ng ca cc
h thng hng i t n gin n phc tp, vi cc c tnh thng k
cho trc ca tin trnh n v tin trnh phc v.
38
Ch rng iu kin kho st c tnh mt h thng hng i

l chng phi hot ng ch n nh, ngha l cc tnh cht
thng k ca h thng khng ph thuc vo thi gian. Mt h
thng nh vy cn c gi l mt h thng dng.
Hnh 3-6. Hng i M/M/1/1

H thng hng i M/M/1/1 c c trng bi:
Tin trnh ti tun theo phn b m vi tham s l .
Tin trnh phc v tun theo phn b m vi tham s l .
Mt trm phc v
Khng c hng i, nh vy h thng c th cha ti a mt

yu cu.
Gi N (t ) l s yu cu trong h thng ti thi im t. Do ch c hai kh

nng l h thng khng c yu cu, hoc trm phc v ang x l mt
yu cu nn: N (t ) {0,1} .
Gi:
p ni (t1 , t 2 ) l xc sut trong khong thi gian (t1 , t 2 ) c n yu

cu i vo h thng.
p ko (t1 , t 2 ) l xc sut trong khong thi gian (t1 , t 2 ) c k yu

cu i ra khi h thng.
Nhim v u tin t ra l phi tnh xc sut p{N (t ) = 0} p 0 (t ) v

p{N (t ) = 1} p1 (t ) . Mun vy ta xt khong thi gian (0, t + dt ) nh
trn Hnh 3-7.
Hnh 3-7. Khong thi gian xt

Xt trng hp N (t ) = 0
Trc ht phi tnh p{N (t + dt ) = 0} . Ta nhn thy rng:

Nu (Ti thi im t + dt h thng khng c yu cu no) th:
[(Ti thi im t h thng khng c yu cu no) V (Trong khong
thi gian (t , t + dt ) khng c yu cu no n h thng)]
HOC
39
[(Ti thi im t c 1 yu cu trong h thng) V (Trong khong

thi gian (t , t + dt ) c mt yu cu ri khi h thng)]
HOC
[(Ti thi im t h thng khng c yu cu no) V (Trong khong
thi gian (t , t + dt ) c 1 yu cu n h thng) V (Trong khong
thi gian (t , t + dt ) c 1 yu cu ri khi h thng)]
Chng ta c th biu din trng hp trn bng biu thc ton hc
nh sau:
p 0 (t + dt ) = p 0 (t ) p 0i (t , t + dt ) +
+ p1 (t ) p1o (t , t + dt ) + p 0 (t ) p1i (t , t + dt ) p1o (t , t + dt )
(PT 3-21)
Theo nh ngha ca phn b Markov, ta c:
p 0i (t , t + dt ) = 1 dt ;
(PT 3-22)
p1o (t , t + dt ) = dt ;
(PT 3-23)
p1i (t , t + dt ) = dt ;
(PT 3-24)
Thay vo (PT 3-21) ta c:
p 0 (t + dt ) = p 0 (t )(1 dt ) + p1 (t ) dt + p 0 (t )dtdt (PT 3-25)

S hng th 3 ca v phi trong (PT 3-25) bng 0 do (dt ) 2 tin ti 0
nhanh hn dt . Do ta c:
p 0 (t + dt ) = p 0 (t )(1 dt ) + p1 (t ) dt
Hoc:
p 0 (t + dt ) p 0 (t )
= p 0 (t ) + p1 (t ) ;
dt
(PT 3-26)
Cui cng c:
dp 0 (t )
= p 0 (t ) + p1 (t ) ;
dt
(PT 3-27)
Nhn xt rng h thng ang xt l mt h thng dng, khng ph

thuc vo thi gian nn:
dp 0 (t )
= 0;
dt
(PT 3-28)
Do (PT 3-27) tr thnh:
p 0 = p1 ;
(PT 3-29)
Mt khc:
p 0 + p1 = 1 ;
(PT 3-30)
Gii h phng trnh (PT 3-29) v (PT 3-30) ta c:

40
p =
0 +
p1 =
+
(PT 3-31)
T (PT 3-31) ta nhn thy rng xc sut p B mt yu cu b t chi

chnh l xc sut p1 yu cu i vo h thng nhn thy trm phc
v ang bn.
pB =
(PT 3-32)
S yu cu trung bnh trong mt h thng:

1
N = np n = p1 =
n =0
(PT 3-33)
3.5. Hng i M/M/1/
Hnh 3-8. Hng i M/M/1/

H thng hng i M/M/1/ c c trng bi:
Mt trm phc v
Hng i c ln l v hn, tc l khng xy ra trng hp

dch v b t chi.
3.5.1. Xc sut c n yu cu trong h thng

Cng nh trng hp hng i M/M/1/1, u tin chng ta phi tnh
xc sut p n (t ) ti thi im t c n yu cu trong h thng hng i.
Cng l lun nh trng hp trn, chng ta xt trong mt khong thi
gian [0, t+dt] (Hnh 3-7).
Mt khc theo nh ngha v phn b Poisson, chng ta cng bit rng
mt yu cu n h thng trong khong thi gian [t, t+dt] vi xc sut
41
l .dt , mt yu cu ri khi h thng trong khong thi gian [t, t+dt]

vi xc sut l .dt . Cng gi thit rng xc sut xy ra cc s kin
trong cc khong thi gian khng trng nhau l c lp.
Vi n > 0 xc sut p n (t + dt ) c tnh nh sau:
p n (t + dt ) =
P{n-1 yu cu trong h thng ti t} x

P{1 yu cu n h thng trong [t, t+dt]} x
P{0 yu cu i ra khi h thng trong [t, t+dt]} +
+ P{n yu cu trong h thng ti t} x
+ P{n yu cu trong h thng ti t} x
+ P{n+1 yu cu trong h thng ti t} x
P{1 yu cu i ra khi h thng trong [t, t+dt]} ;
Nh vy chng ta c th biu din phng trnh trn di dng:
p n (t + dt ) =
pn 1 (t )dt (1 dt ) +
+ p n (t )(1 dt )(1 dt ) +
+ p n (t )dtdt +
+ p n +1 (t )(1 dt ) dt ;
(PT 3-34)
Cc s hng c cha thnh phn (dt ) 2 c th b qua nn (PT 334) tr thnh:
p n (t + dt ) = p n 1 (t )dt + p n (t )(1 dt dt ) + p n +1 (t ) dt ; (PT 3-35)

T (PT 3-35):
p n (t + dt ) p n (t )
= p n 1 (t ) ( + ) p n (t ) + p n +1 (t ) ;
dt
Hay:
dp n (t )
= p n 1 (t ) ( + ) p n (t ) + p n +1 (t ) ;
dt
(PT 3-36)
Vi n=0, xc sut p 0 (t + dt ) c tnh tng t nh trong h

thng M/M/1/1:
dp 0 (t )
= p 0 (t ) + p1 (t ) ;
dt
(PT 3-37)
42
Nh vy ta c h phng trnh (PT 3-36) v (PT 3-37). Do h thng

ang xt l h thng dng, khng ph thuc thi gian nn:
dp n (t )
= 0; n {0,1,..., } ;
dt
(PT 3-38)
T (PT 3-36, 37, 38) ta c h phng trnh:
p1 = p0
( + ) p n = p n 1 + p n +1
(PT 3-39)
T (PT 3-39) rt ra:

n
p n = p 0 = n p 0 ;
(PT 3-40)
y l ti ca h thng v c tnh theo (PT 3-3) ( 1 ). Vi

v cho trc, tnh p n cn phi bit p 0 . Da vo iu kin sau
p
n =0
= 1 ta c:
n =0
p0 = 1 ;
(PT 3-41)
Hay
p0 =
=
n
1
= 1 ;
1 (1 )
(PT 3-42)
n=0
Do :
p n = n (1 ) ;
(PT 3-43)
3.5.2. Tnh ton cc tham s hiu nng
u tin chng ta phi tnh s yu cu trung bnh trong h

thng:
n =0
n =0
N = np n = (1 ) n n =
Nh vy:
N=
(PT 3-44)
Tip theo tnh s yu cu nm trong hng i trung bnh,

chng ta rng nu c n yu cu nm trong h thng th s
43
c (n-1) yu cu nm trong hng i v 1 yu cu ang c

phc v bi trm phc v ( n 1 ), do :
n =1
n =1
n =1
n =0
n =0
N q = (n 1) p n = np n p n = np n ( p n p 0 ) =
= N (1 p 0 ) ;
(PT 3-45)
T (PT-3-45) c:
Nq =
2
;
1
(PT 3-46)
Tnh xc sut mt yu cu phi i trong hng i mt

khong thi gian t q t vi t cho trc - p (t q t ) . Chng ta l
lun nh sau:
Nu mt yu cu mi n h thng khi khng c yu cu no ang

nm trong h thng, yu cu s c phc v ngay, c ngha l
tq = 0 :
p (t q = 0) = p 0 = 1 ;
(PT 3-47)
Nu mt yu cu mi n h thng v bt gp n yu cu
trong h thng th yu cu s phi i n khong thi gian phc
v vi phn b m trc khi n c phc v.
t q = S1 + S 2 + ... + S n ;
(PT 3-48)
Vi S i l khong thi gian phc v yu cu th i, c phn b m

vi tham s . Nh vy theo nh l 2-2, hm mt xc sut
ca t q s tun theo phn b Gamma, do xc sut
p (t q t | N = n) c tnh nh sau:
t
p (t q t | N = n) =
0
( x) n 1 x
e dx ;
(n 1)!
(PT 3-49)
Nh vy ta c:
p (0 < t q t ) = p (t q t | N = n) p n =
n =1
=
n =1 0
( x) n 1 x
(x ) n 1
e dx.(1 ) n = e x (1 )
dx =
(n 1)!
n =1 ( n 1)!
0
= e x (1 )e x dx =
0
t
( )e ( ) x dx =
0
= [1 e ( )t ] ;
44
Do :
p (0 < t q t ) = [1 e ( )t ] ;
(PT 3-50)
Theo (PT 3-47) ta c:

p (t q t ) = 1 + [1 e ( )t ] ;
Hay:
p (t q t ) = 1 e ( ) t ;
(PT 3-51)
Tnh thi gian lu li trung bnh ca mt yu cu trong h

thng:
Theo nh l Little: N = T hay T =

1
T=
1
;
1
; Theo (PT 3-44) ta c:
(PT 3-52)
Tnh thi gian trung bnh mt yu cu phi i trong hng i:
Cng theo nh l Little ta c: Tq =
Tq =
1
=
;
1 1
1
Nq
; Theo (PT 3-46):
(PT 3-53)
Nhn xt:
Trong h thng hng i M/M/1/ khi th tt c cc

tham s hiu nng u tin ti v cng. C ngha l nu
th h thng hot ng khng n nh.
Tq c th tnh trc tip t (PT 3-51) nh sau:
Tq = t
0
d
p (t q t )dt ;
dt
(PT 3-54)
Ch rng p (t q t ) chnh l hm phn phi xc sut ca t q do

d
p (t q t ) l hm mt xc sut, v vy (PT 3-54) l k vng
dt
ca t q .
45
3.6. Tin trnh sinh t (Birth Death Process)

Ta gi mt h thng hng i ang trng thi i nu trong h thng
ang c i yu cu. Nhn vo cc trng thi ca h thng hng i
M/M/1/1 v M/M/1/ , c th l cc phng trnh xc sut (PT 3-28) v
(PT 3-39) ta c nhn xt sau:
Nhn xt: Nu h thng hng i c tin trnh ti v tin trnh
phc v u tun theo phn b m th h thng s c tnh cht

cn bng xc sut, ngha l xc sut h thng chuyn t trng
thi i sang trng thi (i+1) hoc (i-1) s bng xc tng xc sut h
thng chuyn t trng thi (i+1) hoc (i-1) v trng thi i.
Hnh 3-9. Cn bng xc sut ti trng thi i. Tin trnhsinh t

Nhn xt trn c th c biu din nh trn Hnh 3-9 hoc
( + ) pi = pi 1 + pi +1 ;
(PT 3-55)
Trong p j l xc sut h thng c j yu cu. Qu trnh sinh t

v cc tnh cht ca n c trnh by chi tit trong [13, 14, 19].
3.7. Hng i M/M/1/K
Hnh 3-10. H thng M/M/1/K

H thng hng i M/M/1/K c c trng bi:
Mt trm phc v.
46
Hng i c ln K phn t. Nh vy nu mt yu cu i vo
hng i m trong hng i c K yu cu khc th yu cu
mi n s b t chi.

u tin chng ta biu din h thng hng i M/M/1/K bng tin trnh
sinh t (Hnh 3-11).
Hnh 3-11. H thng hng i M/M/1/K

H phng trnh cn bng ca h thng ny c biu din nh sau:
p 0 = p1
p n 1 + p n +1 = ( + ) p n ; n {1,..., K 1}
p = p ; n = K
K 1
K
(PT 3-56)
T h phng trnh trn, ta c:

p n = n p 0 ; n {0, K }
(PT 3-57)
Mt khc ta cng c:
K
p
n =0
= 1;
T tnh ra c:
p0 =
1
K
=
n
1
;
1 K +1
(PT 3-58)
n =0
pn =
1
n;
K +1
1
(PT 3-59)
3.7.2. Tnh ton cc tham s hiu nng
Tnh xc sut t chi dch v (xc sut mt yu cu)
47
Chng ta nhn xt rng mt yu cu b t chi khi n n hng i v

thy c K yu cu ang trong hng i. Gi xc sut mt yu cu
b t chi dch v l Ploss , ta nhn thy rng:
Ploss = p K =
1
K ; n {0,..., K }
1 K +1
(PT 3-60)
Tnh s yu cu trung bnh trong h thng:
Ta c:
K
N = np n =
n =1
K
1
n n ;
1 K +1 n =1
(PT 3-61)
tnh c (PT 3-61) chng ta ch n phng trnh sau:

K
f ( ) = n =
n =0
1 K +1
;
1
(PT 3-62)
Ly vi phn (PT 3-62):

K
f ( ) = n n 1 =
n =1
1 ( K + 1) K + K K +1
;
(1 ) 2
(PT 3-63)
Thay (PT 3-63) vo (PT 3-61) ta c:

N=
( K + 1)
K +1
;
1 K +1
(PT 3-64)
Ch rng trong trng hp 1 , khc vi hng i M/M/1/, t h

phng trnh (PT 3-56) ta c th rt ra:
p n = p 0 vi n=0, 1, , K.
Do :
pn =
1
; n {0,1,..., K }
K +1
(PT 3-65)
Vy trong trng hp 1 thay vo (PT 3.61):

K
N = np n =
n =1
K
;
2
(PT 3-66)
Tnh s yu cu trung bnh trong hng i:

K
n =1
n =1
n =1
N q = (n 1) p n = np n p n = N (1 p 0 ) ; (PT 3-67)
48
Cui cng ta c:
Nq =
( K + 1) K +1
1
;
+
1
1 K +1
(PT 3-68)
Cng nh trong cc h thng hng i trc, ta tnh phn b

xc sut ca thi gian i t q trong hng i. y cn ch
rng, khi mt yu cu ti hng i v bt gp tng cng K yu
cu nm trong hng i th yu cu s b t chi.
Nh vy u tin phi tnh xc sut q n l xc sut c n yu cu

ang trong h thng, vi iu kin n K 1 :
q n P ( N = n | n K 1) =
pn
pn
; (PT 3-69)
=
P (n K 1) 1 p K
Do :
qn =
(1 ) n
; n = 0,1,..., K 1 ;
1 K
(PT 3-70)
Gi xc sut mt yu cu phi i mt khong thi gian t q t

v ang c n yu cu trong h thng ( n = 0,1,..., K 1 )
l: p (t q t , N = n) . Theo cng thc xc sut c iu kin:
p (t q t , N = n) = p (t q t | N = n) P( N = n | n K 1)
= p (t q t | N = n)q n ;
(PT 3-71)
Nh vy, cng l lun nh trong trng hp hng i M/M/1/ ta

c:
K 1
p (t q t ) = p (t q = 0) + p(t q t | N = n)q n ;
(PT 3-72)
n =1
K 1
p (Tq t ) = q 0 + q n
n =1
( x) n 1
(n 1)!
e x dx ;
x n 1 x
p (t q t ) = q n
e dx ;
(n 1)!
n =0
0
K 1
Cui cng ta tnh c:

1
p (t q t ) =
1 K
K 1
x n 1
(n 1)! e
n =0
49
dx ;
(PT 3-73)
T (PT 3-73) ta c th tnh thi gian trung bnh m cc yu cu

phi nm ch trong hng i l:
K 1
d
( t ) n 1 t
Tq = t p (t q t )dt = q n t
e dt ;
dt
(n 1)!
n =0
0
0
(PT 3-74)
Ch rng:
1
n!
= n;
x n e x dx =
(n 1)! 0
(n 1)!
(PT 3-75)
Do c th c tnh (kt hp vi (PT 3-69)):

Tq =
K 1
nqn =
n=0
1
1 pK
K 1
np
n =0
1
( N Kp K ) ;
1 pK
(PT 3-76)
Mt khc theo (PT 3-67):

N q = N (1 p 0 ) = ( N Kp K ) ;
Cui cng ta c:
Tq =
1
Nq ;
1 pK
(PT 3-77)
Nhn xt: Nu gi a (1 p K ) l tc yu cu i vo
hng i th (PT 3-77) tun theo nh l Little:
Tq =
Nq
(PT 3-78)
Nu quan st hng i M/M/1/K trn quan im mt h thng

ng, chng ta rng ti u vo h thng dng yu cu u
vo vi tc trung bnh s c chia thnh hai nhnh: nhnh
yu cu i vo hng i vi tc trung bnh a = (1 p K ) v
nhnh cc yu cu b t chi vi tc trung bnh L = p K .
Hnh 3-12. H thng M/M/1/K trn quan im h thng ng
Cng tnh ton tng t nh trn, ta c thi gian trung bnh T

mt yu cu lu li h thng:
50
T=
1
N
N =
;
1 pK
a
(PT 3-79)
3.8. Hng i M/M/c/
Hnh 3-13 Hng i M/M/c/

H thng hng i M/M/c/ c cc c im sau:
C c trm phc v.
Tin trnh phc v ca mt trm i bt k tun theo phn b m

vi tham s l i .
Hng i c chiu di v tn.
H thng
51
Chng 4 Mng hng i

4.1. Mng ni tip
52
Chng 5 nh tuyn trong

mng thng tin
5.1. Yu cu v nh tuyn trong mng thng tin
5.1.1. Vai tr ca nh tuyn trong mng thng tin
5.1.2. Cc khi nim trong l thuyt graph
Phn ny gii thiu cc thut ng v cc khi nim c bn nhm m
t cc mng, graph, v cc thuc tnh ca n. L thuyt graph l mt
mn hc xut hin t lu, nhng l thuyt ny c mt s thut ng
c chp nhn khc nhau dng cho cc khi nim c bn. V th c
th s dng mt s thut ng khc nhau lp m hnh graph cho
mng. Cc thut ng c trnh by di y ny l cc thut ng
c cng nhn v c s dng thng xuyn chng ny.
Mt graph G, c nh nghi bi tp hp cc nh V v tp hp cc
cnh E. Cc nh thng c gi l cc nt v chng biu din v tr
(v d mt im cha lu lng hoc mt khu vc cha thit b truyn
thng). Cc cnh c gi l cc lin kt v chng biu din phng
tin truyn thng. Graph c th c biu din nh sau:
G=(V, E)
Hnh 4.1 l mt v d ca mt graph.
Hnh 4.1. Mt graph n gin

Mc d theo l thuyt, V c th l tp hp rng hoc khng xc nh,
nhng thng thng V l tp hp xc nh khc rng, ngha l c th
biu din
V={vi | i=1,2,......N}
Trong N l s lng nt. Tng t E c biu din:
E={ei | i=1,2,......M}
53
Mt lin kt, ej, tng ng mt kt ni gia mt cp nt. C th biu

din mt lin kt ej gia nt i v k bi
ej=(vi,vk)
hoc bi
ej=(i,k)
Mt lin kt gi l i ti mt nt nu nt l mt trong hai im
cui ca lin kt. Nt i v k gi l k nhau nu tn ti mt lin kt (i, k)
gia chng. Nhng nt nh vy c xem l cc nt lng ging.
Bc ca nt l s lng lin kt i ti nt hay l s lng nt lng
ging. Hai khi nim trn l tng ng nhau trong cc graph thng
thng. Tuy nhin vi cc graph c nhiu hn mt lin kt gia cng
mt cp nt, th hai khi nim trn l khng tng ng. Trong
trng hp , bc ca mt nt c nh ngha l s lng lin kt
i ti nt .
Mt lin kt c th c hai hng. Khi th t ca cc nt l khng c
nghi. Ngc li th t cc nt c ngha. Trong trng hp th t
cc nt c ngha, mt lin kt c th c xem nh l mt cung v
c nh ngha
aj=[vi,vk]
hoc n gin hn
aj=[i,k]
k c gi l cn k hng ra i vi i nu mt cung [i,k] tn ti v
bc hng ra ca i l s lng cc cung nh vy. Khi nim cn k
hng vo v bc cn k hng vo cng c nh ngha tng
t.
Mt graph gi l mt mng nu cc lin kt v cc nt c mt trong
lin kt c cc thuc tnh (chng hn nh di, dung lng, loi...).
Cc mng c s dng m hnh cc vn cn quan tm trong
truyn thng, cc thuc tnh ring bit ca nt v lin kt th lin quan
n cc vn c th trong truyn thng.
S khc nhau gia cc lin kt v cc cung l rt quan trng c v
vic lp m hnh cho mng ln qu trnh hot ng bn trong ca cc
thut ton, v vy s khc nhau cn phi lun c phn bit r rng.
V mt hnh hc cc lin kt l cc ng thng kt ni cc cp nt
cn cc cung l cc ng thng c mi tn mt u, biu din
chiu ca cung.
Mt graph c cc lin kt gi l graph v hng, tuy nhin mt
graph c cc cung gi l graph hu hng. Mt graph hu hng
c th c c cc lin kt v hng. Thng thng , cc graph c
gi s l v hng, hoc s phn bit l khng c ngha.
C th c kh nng xy ra hin tng xut hin nhiu hn mt lin kt
gia cng mt cp nt (iu ny tng ng vi vic c nhiu knh
thng tin gia hai chuyn mch). Nhng lin kt nh vy c gi l
54
cc lin kt song song. Mt graph c lin kt song song gi l mt

multigraph.
Cng c kh nng xut hin cc lin kt gia mt nt no v chnh
nt . Nhng lin kt c gi l cc self loop. Chng t khi xut
hin v thng xut hin do vic xem hai nt nh l mt nt trong qu
trnh lp m hnh graph cho mt mng hoc pht sinh trong qu trnh
thc hin mt thut ton c vic hp nht cc nt. Hnh 4.2 minh ho
mt graph c cc lin kt song song v cc self loop. Mt graph khng
c cc lin kt song song hoc cc self loop gi l mt graph n
gin. Vic biu din v vn dng cc graph n gin l tng i d
dng, v vy gi thit rng cc graph c xem xt l cc graph n
gin. Nu c s khc bit vi gi thit ny, chng s c ch ra.
5.2. Cc m hnh nh tuyn qung b (broadcast routing)
5.2.1. Lan trn gi (flooding)
Mt dng mnh hn ca nh tuyn ring bit l lan trn gi. Trong
phng thc ny, mi gi i n router s c gi i trn tt c cc
ng ra tr ng m n i n. Phng thc lan trn gi ny hin
nhin l to ra rt nhiu gi sao chp (duplicate). Trn thc t, s gi
ny l khng xc nh tr khi thc hin mt s bin php hn ch
qu trnh ny.
Mt trong nhng bin php l s dng b m bc nhy trong
phn tiu ca mi gi. Gi tr ny s b gim i mt ti mi bc
nhy. Gi s b loi b khi b m t gi tr khng. V mt l tng,
b m bc nhy s c gi tr ban u tng ng vi di t
ngun n ch. Nu nh ngi gi khng bit di ca ng i,
n c th t gi tr ban u ca b m cho trng hp xu nht. Khi
gi tr ban u s c t bng ng knh ca mng con.
Mt k thut khc ngn s lan trn gi l thm s th t vo tiu
cc gi. Mi router s cn c mt danh sach theo nt ngun ch ra
nhng s th t t ngun c xem xt. trnh danh sch
pht trin khng gii hn, mi danh sch s tng ln bi s m k
ch ra rng tt c cc s th t n k c xem. Khi mt gi i ti,
rt d dng c th kim tra c gi l bn sao hay khng. Nu ng
gi l bn sao th gi ny s b loi b.
Lan trn gi c u im l lan trn gi lun lun chn ng ngn
nht. C c u im ny l do v phng din l thuyt n chn tt
c cc ng c th do n s chn c ng ngn nht. Tuy
nhin nhc im ca n l s lng gi gi trong mng qu nhiu.
S dng lan trn gi trong hu ht cc ng dng l khng thc t.
Tuy vy lan trn gi c th s dng trong nhng ng dng sau.
Trong ng dng qun s, mng s dng phng thc lan trn

gi gi cho mng lun lun hot ng tt khi i mt vi
qun ch.
55
Trong nhng ng dng c s d liu phn b, i khi cn thit

phi cp nht tt c c s d liu. Trong trng hp s
dng lan trn gi l cn thit. V d s dng lan trn gi gi
cp nht bn nh tuyn bi v cp nht khng da trn
chnh xc ca bng nh tuyn.
Phng php lan trn gi c th c dng nh l n v

so snh phng thc nh tuyn khc. Lan trn gi lun lun
chn ng ngn nht. iu dn n khng c gii thut
no c th tm c tr ngn hn.
Mt bin i ca phng php lan trn gi l lan trn gi c chn lc.

Trong gii thut ny, router ch gi gi i ra trn cc ng m i theo
hng ch. iu c ngha l khng gi gi n nhng ng m
r rang nm trn hng sai.
5.2.2. nh tuyn bc ngu nhin (random walk)
Trong phng php nh tuyn ny, router s chuyn gi i n trn
mt ng u ra c chn mt cch ngu nhin. Mc tiu ca
phng php ny l cc gi lang thang trong mng cui cng cng
n ch. Vi phng php ny gip cho qu trnh cn bng ti gia
cc ng. Cng ging nh phng php nh tuyn lan trn gi,
phng php ny lun m bo l gi cui cng s n ch. So vi
phng php trc th s nhn rng gi trong mng s t hn. Nhc
im ca phng php ny l ng t ngun n ch c th di
hn ng ngn nht. Do tr ng truyn s di hn s tr ngn
nht thc s tn ti trong mng.
5.2.3. nh tuyn khoai ty nng (hot potato)
nh tuyn ring bit l loi nh tuyn m router quyt nh tuyn i
ch da vo thng tin bn thn n lm lt c.
y l mt thut ton tng thch ring bit (isolated adaptive
algorithm). Khi mt gi n mt nt, router s c gng chuyn gi i
cng nhanh cng tt bng cch cho n vo hng ch u ra ngn
nht. Ni cch khc, khi c gi i n router s tnh ton s gi c
nm ch truyn tren mi ng u ra. Sau n s gn gi mi
vo cui hng ch ngn nht m khng quan tm n ng s i
u. Hnh 5-1 biu din cc hng ch u ra bn trong mt router ti
mt thi im no . C ba hng ch u ra tng ng vi 03
ng ra. Cc gi ang xp hng trn mi ng ch c truyn
i. Trong v d y, hng ch n F l hng ch ngn nht vi ch
c mt gi nm trn hng ch ny. Giu thut khoai ty nng do s
t gi mi n vo hng ch ny.
56
Hnh 5-1. Hng ch bn trong router

C th bin i tng ny mt cht bng cch kt hp nh tuyn
tnh vi gii thut khoai ty nng. Khi gi i n, router s tnh n c
nhng trng s tnh ca ng dy v di hng ch. Mt kh nng
l s dng la chn tnh tt nht tr khi di hng ch ln hn mt
ngng no . Mt kh nng khc l s dng di hng ch ngn
nht tr trng s tnh ca n l qu thp. Cn mt cch khc l sp
xp cc ng theo trng s tnh ca n v sau li sp xp theo
di hng ch ca n. Sau s chn ng c tng v tr sp xp l
nh nht. D gii thut no c chn i chng na cng c c tnh
l khi t ti th ng c trng s cao nht s c chn, nhng s
lm cho hng ch cho ng ny tng ln. Sau mt s lu lng
s c chuyn sang ng t ti hn.
5.2.4. nh tuyn ngun (source routing) v m hnh cy (spanning tree)
Chng ta s xt mt s thut ton c bn dng cho vic tm kim cc
cy c s dng thit k v phn tch mng. Mt cy l mt graph
khng c cc vng; bt k mt cp nt no cng ch c duy nht mt
ng i. y ch yu xem xt cc graph v hng, nhng graph
c cc lin kt c s dng c hai chiu trong qu trnh to ra cc
ng i.
V mt s l do, cc cy rt hu dng v c s dng nh l graph
c bn cho cc thut ton v cc k thut phn tch v thit k mng.
Th nht, cc cy l mng ti thiu; cung cp mt s kt ni m khng
mt lin kt no l khng cn thit. Th hai, do vic ch cung cp duy
nht mt ng i gia mt cp nt bt k, cc cy gii quyt cc vn
v nh tuyn (ngha l quyt nh vic chuyn lu lng gia hai
nt). iu lm n gin mng v dng ca n. Tuy nhin, v cc
cy lin thng ti thiu nn cng n gin v c tin cy ti thiu.
l nguyn nhn ti sao cc mng thc t thng c tnh lin thng cao
hn. Chnh v vy, vic thit k mt mng thng bt u bng mt
cy.
5.2.5. Duyt cy
Cho trc mt cy no , chng ta c th i ti mi nt ca n. Qu
trnh gi l mt qu trnh duyt cy. Trong qu trnh thc hin, cc
cnh trong cy c duyt hai ln, mi ln theo mt hng khc
57
nhau. C nhiu cch duyt khc nhau. u tin, ch ra mt nt ca cy

lm nt gc. Vic duyt c thc hin xoay quanh nt . C mt s
iu kin la chn nt gc ny (chng hn nt gc l mt khu vc
my tnh trung tm). Ngoi ra, nt gc c th c chn mt cch
ngu nhin.
Gi s nt A trong hnh 4.1 l nt gc ca cy. T A chng ta c th
ln lt i ti cc nt k cn ca n nh l B, C hoc D. Sau , li i
theo cc nt k cn ca chng (B, C v D) l E, F, G v H. Tip tc i
ti ln lt cc nt k cn khc bn cnh cc nt ny. Khi , vic
duyt ny s kt thc khi ti cc nt I, J, K v L. Qu trnh ny c
gi l tm kim theo chiu rng. Trong qu trnh tm kim theo chiu
rng mt c im cn ch l nhng nt gn nt gc nht s c
ti trc. Vic tm kim s thc hin theo mi hng cng lc. iu
i khi c ch v c thc hin d dng.
Mt thut ton nhm i ti mi nt ca cy th c gi l thut ton
duyt cy. Thut ton sau y, Bfstree, thc hin mt qu trnh tm
kim theo chiu rng. (Chng ta quy c rng, cc tn hm c k t
u tin l k t hoa phn bit chng vi cc tn bin). Bfstree
s s dng mt danh sch k cn n_adj_list, danh sch ny lit k
tt c cc nt k cn ca mi nt thuc cy. n gin hn, gi s
rng cy ny l mt cy hu hng hng ra nhn t gc v do
n_adj_list s ch bao gm cc nt k cn vi mt nt no m
cc nt k cn xa gc hn so vi nt ang xt.
Hnh 5-2. Duyt cy
void <-BfsTree ( n, root, n_adj_list ):

58
dcl n_adj_list [n, list ]

scan_queue [queue ]
InitializeQueue (scan_queue )
Enqueue( root, scan_queue )
while (NotEmpty(scan_queue))
node <- Dequeue (scan_queue)
Visit(node )
for each (neighbor , n_adj_list [node ])
Enqueue(neighbor, scan_queue)
Visit l mt th tc trong thc hin mt s qu trnh no i vi
mi nt (chng hn nh in ln mn hnh cc thng tin ca mi nt .v.v).
Thut ton ny c thc hin cng mt hng i. Hng i l mt
FIFO; trong cc phn t c thm vo t pha sau hng i v
chuyn ra t pha trc. Cc th tc InitializeQueue, Enqueue,
Dequeue, NotEmpty lm vic trn cc hng i. InitializeQueue
thit lp mt hng i rng. Enqueue, Dequeue l cc th tc thm
mt phn t vo cui hng i v chuyn mt phn t ra t u
hng i. Hm NotEmpty tr v TRUE hoc FALSE tu thuc vo
hng i c rng hay khng.
n_adj_list l mt chui m mi phn t ca chui l mt danh
sch. n_adj_list[n] l mt danh sch cc nt k cn nt n. Nh
ni chng trc, for_each(element, list), l mt cu
trc iu khin thc hin vng lp i vi tt c cc phn t ca list
v thc hin cc m bn trong vng lp, trong vng lp cc phn
t ca list ln lt c s dng. Th tc trn hot ng vi gi thit
l n_adj_list c thit lp trc khi th tc BfsTree c gi.
Tng t, ta c th nh ngha mt qu trnh tm kim theo chiu su.
Qu trnh ny cng bt u t nt gc. Qu trnh duyt tip tc thc
hin nt lng ging cha c duyt ca nt va mi c duyt. Ta
cng gi s rng cy bao gm cc lin kt c hng i ra xa nt gc.
V d 4.1:
Tr li vi graph trong hnh 4.1, ta c th ti nt B t nt A. Sau , ta

ti nt E, k cn vi nt B-nt c duyt gn thi im hin ti nht.
Nt E ny khng c nt k cn cha duyt no, do vy ta phi quay
tr li nt B i sang nt F. Ta tip tc i ti cc nt I, J, K (cng vi
vic quay li nt I), v nt L. Sau ta quay tr v nt A, tip tc ti
cc nt cn li l C, D, G v H. Do vy, ton b qu trnh duyt l:
A, B, E, F, I, J, K, L, C, D, G, H
Nh rng th t ca qu trnh duyt l khng duy nht. Trong qu
trnh duyt trn ta chn cc nt k cn xm nhp theo th t t tri
qua phi. Nu chn theo th t khc, qu trnh duyt l:
A, B, F, I, J, K, L, E, D, H, G, C
59
Trt t thc t ca qu trnh duyt ph thuc vo tng thut ton c

th. iu ny cng ng vi mt qu trnh tm kim theo chiu rng.
Kim tra thut ton BfsTree, trt t ny l mt hm ca trt t cc
nt cn k trong n_adj_list.
Thut ton DfsTree sau s thc hin mt qu trnh tm kim theo
chiu su.
void <- DfsTree(n, root, n_adj_list):
dcl n_adj_list [n, list]
Visit(root)
for each(neighbor, n_adj_list[node])
DfsTree(n, neighbor, n_adj-list)
Qu trnh tm kim ny s c thc hin vi s tr gip ca mt
ngn xp theo kiu LIFO, ngha l phn t c thm vo v chuyn
ra t nh ngn xp. Trong trng hp ny, chng ta thng gi
quy DfsTree, thc t chng ta s dng ngn xp h thng, ngha
l s dng loi ngn xp m h thng s dng lu gi cc li gi
hm v i s.
C hai loi duyt trnh by trn u l qu trnh duyt thun (ngha l
cc qu trnh ny duyt mt nt ri sau duyt ti nt tip theo ca
nt ). Qu trnh duyt ngc i khi cng rt cn thit, trong qu
trnh duyt ngc mt nt c duyt sau khi duyt nt tip ca
nt . D nhin, cng c th thnh lp mt danh sch thun v sau
o ngc danh sch . Cng c th thay th trt t tm kim mt
cch trc tip nh th tc sau:
void <- PostorderDfsTree(n, root, n_adj_list):
PostorderDfsTree(n, neighbor,
n_adj_list)
Visit (root)
Cc thnh phn lin thng trong cc graph v hng
Ta c th p dng khi nim duyt cc nt vo mt graph v hng,
n gin ch bng cch theo di cc nt c duyt v sau
khng duyt cc nt na.
C th duyt mt graph v hng nh sau:
void <- Dfs(n, root, n_adj_list):
visited [n]
void <- DfsLoop (node)
60
if (not(visited [node])
visited [node]<-TRUE
visit [node]
DfsLoop (neighbor)
visited <-FALSE
DfsLoop (root)
Ch rng cu lnh
Visited <-FALSE
khi to ton b cc phn t mng c duyt bng FALSE. Cng
cn ch rng th tc DfsLoop c nh ngha bn trong th tc
Dfs nn DfsLoop c th truy cp ti visited v n_adj_list (Lu
rng cch d nht c cc gi m cho cc hm c dng hm Dfs
trn l trc tin hy c thn ca hm chnh ri quay tr li c thn
ca cc hm nhng nh hm DfsLoop).
Ch rng trong qu trnh duyt chng ta ngm kim tra tt c cc
cnh trong graph, mt ln cho mi u cui ca mi cnh. C th, vi
mi cnh (i, j) ca graph th j l mt phn t ca n_adj_list[i] v i
l mt thnh phn trong n_adj_list[j]. Thc t, c th a chnh
cc cnh vo cc danh sch k cn ca n v sau tm nt
im cui khc ca cnh bng hm:
node <- OtherEnd(node1, edge)
Hm ny s tr v mt im cui ca edge khc vi node1. iu
lm phc tp qu trnh thc hin i cht. C th d dng thy rng
phc tp ca cc thut ton duyt cy ny bng O(E), vi E l s
lng cnh trong graph.
By gi chng ta c th tm c cc thnh phn lin thng ca mt
graph v hng bng cch duyt mi thnh phn. Chng ta s nh
du mi nt bng mt ch s thnh phn khi chng ta tin hnh. Cc
bin n_component s theo di bt k thnh phn no m chng ta i
ti
void <- LabelComponent (n, n_adj_list):
dcl n_component_number [n],
n_adj_list[n,list]
void <- Visit [node]
n_component_number [node]<- ncomponents
n_component_number<-0
ncomponent<-0
for each(node, node_set)
if (n_component_number [node]=0)
ncomponent +=1
Dfs (node, n_adj_list)
61
Chng ta nh nghi mt hm Visit thit lp mt ch s thnh

phn cc nt c duyt. Hm ny nm bn trong th tc
LabelComponent v ch c th c gi t trong th tc . Mt
khc, Dfs cn c nh ngha bn ngoi, v th n c th c gi
t bt k u.
Trong khi thc hin qu trnh duyt theo chiu rng v chiu su mt
graph v hng, nhng cnh ni mt nt vi mt nt lng ging cha
duyt trc khi duyt nt to ra mt cy, nu graph l khng lin
thng th to ra mt rng.
Hnh 5-3. Cc thnh phn

Hnh 5-3 biu din mt graph c 4 thnh phn. Gi s vng trn tp
cc nt i theo tun t alphabet, cc thnh phn c nh s theo
trt t cc nt c ch ci "thp nht" v ch s thnh phn c biu
din bn cnh nt.
Vi mi thnh phn, thut ton trn s gi Dfs kim tra thnh phn
. Trong , thut ton cng kim tra cc cnh, mi cnh mt ln. V
th, phc tp ca n c bc bng bc ca tng s cc nt cng vi
s cc cnh trong tt c cc thnh phn (ngha l phc tp ca
thut ton bng O(N+E)).
Cy bc cu ti thiu (Minimum Spanning Tree)
C th s dng Dfs tm mt cy bc cu nu c mt cy bc cu
tn ti. Cy tm c thng l cy v hng. Vic tm cy "tt nht"
thng rt quan trng . Chnh v vy, chng ta c th gn mt " di"
cho mi cnh trong graph v t ra yu cu tm mt cy c di ti
thiu. Thc t, " di" c th l khong cch, gi, hoc l mt i
lng nh gi tr hoc tin cy. Mt cy c tng gi l ti thiu
c gi l cy bc cu ti thiu.
Ni chung, nu graph l mt graph khng lin thng, chng ta c th
tm c mt rng bc cu ti thiu. Mt rng bc cu ti thiu l mt
tp hp cc cnh ni n graph mt cch ti a c tng di l ti
thiu. Bi ton ny c th c xem nh l vic la chn mt graph
62
con ca graph gc cha tt c cc nt ca graph gc v cc cnh

c la chn. u tin, to mt graph c n nt, n thnh phn v
khng c cnh no c. Mi ln, chng ta chn mt cnh thm vo
graph ny hai thnh phn lin thng trc cha c kt ni c
lin kt li vi nhau to ra mt thnh phn lin thng mi (ch khng
chn cc cnh thm vo mt thnh phn lin thng trc v to ra
mt vng). V vy, ti bt k giai on no ca thut ton, quan h:
n=c+e
lun c duy tr, y n l s lng nt trong graph, e l s cnh
c la chn tnh cho ti thi im xt v c l s lng thnh phn
trong graph tnh cho ti thi im xt. cui thut ton, e bng n tr
i s thnh phn trong graph gc; nu graph gc l lin thng, chng
ta s tm c mt cy c (n-1) cnh. Nh gii thch trn, Dfs s
tm ra mt rng bc cu. Tuy nhin, chng ta thng khng tm c
cy bc cu c tng di ti thiu.
Thut ton "hu n"
Mt cch tip cn kh d tm mt cy c tng di ti thiu l,
mi giai on ca thut ton, la chn cnh ngn nht c th. Thut
ton gi l thut ton "hu n". Thut ton ny c tnh cht "thin
cn" ngha l khng lng trc c cc kt qu cui cng do cc
quyt nh m chng a ra mi bc gy ra. Thay vo , chng
ch a ra cch chn tt nht cho mi qu trnh la chn. Ni chung,
thut ton "hu n" khng tm c li gii ti u cho mt bi ton.
Thc t thut ton thm ch cn khng tm c mt li gii kh thi
ngay c khi li gii tn ti. Tuy nhin chng hiu qu v d thc
hin. Chnh v vy chng c s dng rng ri. Cc thut ton ny
cng thng to c s cho cc thut ton c tnh hiu qu v phc
tp hn.
V th, cu hi u tin t ra khi xem xt vic ng dng mt thut
ton gii quyt mt bi ton l liu bi ton y c hay khng cu
trc no m bo cho thut ton hot ng tt. Hy vng rng thut
ton t ra cng m bo c mt li gii kh thi nu li gii tn ti.
Khi , n s m bo tnh ti u v m bo yu cu no v thi
gian thc hin. Bi ton tm cc cy bc cu ti thiu thc s c mt
cu trc mnh cho php thut ton "hu n" m bo c tnh ti u
cng nh m bo phc tp tnh ton mc va phi.
Dng chung ca thut ton "hu n" l:
Bt u bng mt li gii rng s.
Trong khi vn cn c cc phn t cn xt,
Tm e, phn t "tt nht" vn cha xt
Nu vic thm e vo s l kh thi th e c thm vo s, nu vic
thm khng kh thi th loi b e.
63
Cc yu cu cc kh nng sau:
So snh gi tr ca cc phn t xc nh phn t no l "tt

nht"
Kim tra tnh kh thi ca mt tp cc phn t
Khi nim "tt nht" lin quan n mc ch ca bi ton. Nu mc

ch l ti thiu, "tt nht" ngha l b nht. Ngc li, "tt nht" ngha
l ln nht.
Thng thng, mi gi tr gn lin vi mt phn t, v gi tr gn lin
vi mt tp n gin ch l tng cc gi tr i cng ca cc phn t
trong tp . l trng hp cho bi ton cy bc cu ti thiu c
xt trong phn ny. Tuy nhin, khng phi l trng hp chung.
Chng hn, thay cho vic ti thiu tng di ca tt c cc cnh
trong mt cy, mc ch ca bi ton l ti thiu ho di cc cnh
di nht trong cy. Trong trng hp , gi tr ca mt cnh l di
ca cnh v gi tr ca mt tp s l di ca cnh di nht nm
trong tp.
Mun tm c cnh "tt nht" b sung, hy nh gi cc cnh
theo nh hng v gi tr ca n ti gi tr ca tp. Gi s V(S) l
gi tr ca tp S v v(e,S) l gi tr ca mt phn t e th v(e,S) c quan
h vi tp S bi cng thc
v(e,S)= V(S e) - V(S)
Trong trng hp ti thiu di ca cnh di nht trong mt cy.
v(e,S) bng 0 i vi bt k cnh no khng di hn cnh di nht
c chn. Ngc li, n s bng hiu di gia cnh vi cnh di
nht c chn, khi hiu ln hn 0.
Trong trng hp chung, gi tr ca tp c th thay i mt cch ngu
nhin khi cc phn t c b sung vo n. Chng ta c th gn gi
tr 1 cho cc tp c s lng phn t l chn v 2 cho cc tp c s
lng phn t l l. iu lm cho cc gi tr ca cc phn t ch l
mt trong hai gi tr +1 v -1. Trong trng hp ny, thut ton "hu
n" khng c s dng. By gi gi s rng "trng lng" ca mt
tp bin i theo mt cch hp l hn th khi , s c mt c s hp
l hn cho vic ch ra phn t "tt nht". Mt iu quan trng cn ch
l, khi tp ln ln, gi tr ca phn t m trc khng c xem
xt c th thay i do cc phn t thm vo tp . Khi iu ny xy
ra, thut ton "hu n" c th mc li trong cc la chn ca n v s
nh hng ti cht lng ca li gii m chng ta nhn c.
Tng t, trong hu ht cc trng hp, tnh kh thi c th b nh
hng mt cch ngu nhin do s b sung phn t. Chnh v vy,
trong cc bi ton m nhng tp c s lng phn t chn c th
c xem l kh thi v nhng tp c s phn t l l c th c xem
l khng kh thi th thut ton "hu n" hoc bt k thut ton no c
b sung cc phn t, mi ln mt phn t, s khng hot ng. V vy
chng ta s gi thit cc tnh cht sau, nhng tnh cht ny lun c
duy tr trong mi trng hp xem xt:
Tnh cht 1:
64
Bt k mt tp con no ca mt tp kh thi th cng kh thi, c bit

tp rng cng l mt tp kh thi.
Ngoi ra gi thit rng phc tp ca thut ton tnh ton gi tr
ca mt tp v kim tra s kh thi ca chng l va phi, c bit, khi
phc tp ny l mt a thc ca s nt v cnh trong graph.
list<-Greedy (properties)
dcl properties [list, list]
candidate_set[list]
solution[list]
void<-GreedyLoop ( *candidate_set,
*solution)
dcl test_set[list],solution[list],
candidate_set[list]
element <SelectBestElement(candidate_set)
test_set <-Append(element,solution)
if(Test(test_set))
solution<-test_set
candidate_set<Delete(element,candidate_set)
if(not(Empty(candidate_set)))
Greedy_loop(*candidate_set,
*solution)
candidate_set<-ElementsOf(properties)
solution<-
if(!(Empty(element_set)))
GreedyLoop(*candidate_set, *solution)
return(solution)
By gi ta c th xem xt su hn cc cu lnh ca thut ton "hu
n". Cc cu lnh ca thut ton hi kh hiu v chng da trn nh
ngha ca hai hm, Test v SelestBestElement (l hm kim tra
tnh kh thi v nh gi cc tp). Chng ta cng gi s rng c mt
cu trc properties, l mt danh sch ca cc danh sch cha tt c
cc thng tin cn thit kim tra v nh gi tt c cc tp. Mt danh
sch ca cc danh sch n gin ch l mt danh sch lin kt, m
mi thnh vin ca n l mt danh sch. Thm ch cu trc c th
c lng vo nhau su hn, ngha l c cc danh sch nm bn
trong cc danh sch nm bn trong cc danh sch. Cu trc nh vy
tng i ph bin v c th c s dng biu din hu ht cc
kiu thng tin. C th lu gi di, loi lin kt, dung lng, hoc
a ch. Bn thn cc mc thng tin ny c th l mt cu trc phc
tp; ngha l cu trc c th lu gi gi v cc dung lng ca mt
vi loi knh khc nhau cho mi lin kt.
65
Trn thc t, iu rt c ch cho vic duy tr cc cu trc d liu tr

gip cho php thut ton thc hin hiu qu hn. Bi ton v cy
bc cu ti thiu l mt v d. Tuy nhin, r rng, gi s rng tt c
qu trnh tnh ton c thc hin trn mt cu trc properties sn c
( c khi to). c s dng biu din tp rng. Append v
Delete l cc hm b sung v chuyn i mt phn t khi mt danh
sch. ElementsOf ch n gin ch ra cc phn t ca mt danh
sch; v vy, ban u tt c cc phn t trong properties l cc ng
c. C rt nhiu cch thc hin cc qu trnh ny. properties c th
l mt dy v cc hm Append, Delete v ElementsOf c th hot
ng vi cc danh sch ch s (danh sch m cc phn t l cc ch
s mng). Trong thc t cch thc hin c chn l cch lm sao
cho vic thc hin cc hm Test v SelectBestElement l tt
nht.
on gi m trn gi thit rng thut ton "hu n" s dng li khi
khng cn phn t no xem xt. Trong thc t, c nhiu nguyn
nhn thut ton dng li. Mt trong nhng nguyn nhn l khi kt
qu xu i khi cc phn t c tip tc thm vo. iu nay xy ra khi
tt c cc phn t cn li u mang gi tr m trong khi chng ta ang
c tm cho mt gi tr ti a. Mt nguyn nhn khc l khi bit rng
khng cn phn t no trong tp ng c c kh nng kt hp vi
cc phn t va c chn to ra mt li gii kh thi. iu ny xy ra
khi mt cy bc cu ton b cc nt c tm thy.
Gi s rng thut ton dng li khi iu l hp l, cn nu khng,
cc phn t khng lin quan s b loi ra khi li gii.
Gi thit rng, cc li gii cho mt bi ton tho mn tnh cht 1 v gi
tr ca tp n gin ch l tng cc gi tr ca cc phn t trong tp.
Ngoi ra, gi thit thm rng tnh cht sau c tho mn:
Tnh cht 2:
Nu hai tp Sp v Sp+1 ln lt c p v p+1 phn t l cc li gii v

tn ti mt phn t e thuc tp Sp+1 nhng khng thuc tp Sp th
Sp{e} l mt li gii.
Chng ta thy rng, cc cnh ca cc rng tho mn tnh cht 2,
ngha l nu c hai rng, mt c p cnh v rng kia c p+1 th lun
tm c mt cnh thuc tp ln hn m vic thm cnh vo tp
nh hn khng to ra mt chu trnh.
Mt tp cc li gii tho mn cc tnh cht trn gi l mt matroid. nh
l sau y l rt quan trng (chng ta ch tha nhn ch khng chng
minh).
nh l 4.1
Thut ton hu n m bo m mt li gii ti u cho mt bi

ton khi v ch khi cc li gii to ra mt matroid.
66
C th thy rng, tnh cht 1 v tnh cht 2 l iu kin cn v

m bo tnh ti u ca thut ton hu n . Nu c mt li gii cho
mt bi ton no m n tho mn hai tnh cht 1 v 2 th cch n
gin nht l dng thut ton hu n gii quyt n. iu ng
vi mt cy bc cu.
Sau y l mt nh l khng km phn quan trng.
nh l 4.2
Nu cc li gii kh thi cho mt bi ton no to ra mt

matroid th tt c cc tp kh thi ti a c s lng phn t nh
nhau.
Trong , mt tp kh thi ti a l mt tp m khi thm cc phn t
vo th tnh kh thi ca n khng c bo ton; N khng nht thit
phi c s lng phn t ti a cng nh khng nht thit phi c
trng lng ln nht.
nh l o ca nh l trn cng c th ng nghi l nu tnh cht 1
c tho mn v mi tp kh thi ti a c cng s lng phn t, th
tnh cht 2 c tho mn.
nh l 4.2 cho php chng ta chuyn i mt bi ton ti thiu P
thnh mt bi ton ti a P' bng cch thay i cc gi tr ca cc phn
t. Gi thit rng tt c v(xj) trong P c gi tr m. Li gii ti u cho
bi ton P c s lng phn t ti a l m th chng ta c th to ra
mt bi ton ti a P' t P bng cch thit lp cc gi tr ca cc phn
t trong P' thnh -v(xj). Tt c cc phn t u c gi tr dng v P'
c mt li gii ti u cha m phn t. Thc ra, th t ca cc li gii
ti a phi c o li: li gii c gi tr ti a trong P' cng l li gii
c gi tr ti thiu trong P.
Gi s lc nay ta cn tm mt li gii c gi tr ti thiu, tun theo iu
kin l c s lng ti a cc phn t. S tnh c cc phn t c gi tr
dng. C th gii quyt bi ton P nh l mt bi ton ti a P' bng
cch thit lp cc gi tr ca cc phn t thnh B-v(xj) vi B c gi tr
ln hn gi tr ln nht ca xj. Khi cc gi tr trong P' u dng v
P' l mt li gii ti u c m phn t. Th t ca tt c cc tp kh thi
ti a b o ngc: mt tp c gi tr l V trong P th c gi tr l
mB-V trong li gii P'. Mt gi tr ti a trong P' th c gi tr ti thiu
trong P. Quy tc ny cng ng vi cc cy bc cu tho mn tnh
cht 1 v tnh cht 2 v c th tm mt cy bc cu ti thiu bng cch
s dng mt thut ton hu n.
Thut ton Kruskal
Thut ton Kruskal l mt thut ton hu n c s dng tm
mt cy bc cu ti thiu. Tnh ng n ca thut ton da trn cc
nh l sau:
nh l 4.3
67
Cc rng th tho mn tnh cht 1 v 2.

Nh chng ta bit, mt rng l mt tp hp cc cnh m tp hp
khng cha cc chu trnh. R rng l bt k mt tp con cc cnh
no ca mt rng (thm ch c tp rng) cng l mt rng, v vy tnh
cht 1 c tho mn.
thy rng tnh cht 2 cng tho mn, xt mt graph c biu din
trong hnh 4.4.
Hnh 4.3.
Gi s c mt rng F1 c p cnh. Rng {2,4} l mt v d vi p=2, v
n c biu din bng nt t trong hnh 4.4. Khi xt mt rng
khc F2 c p+1 cnh. C hai trng hp c xt.
Trng hp 1: F2 i ti mt nt n, nhng F1 khng i ti nt . Mt
v d ca trng hp ny l rng {1, 4, 6}, rng ny i ti E cn F1 th
khng. Trong trng hp ny, c th to ra rng {2, 4, 6} bng cch
thm cnh 6 vo rng {2,4}.
Trng hp 2: F2 ch i ti cc nt m F1 i ti. Mt v d ca trng
hp ny l rng {1. 4. 5}. Xt S, mt tp cc nt m F1 i ti. Cho
rng c k nt trong tp S. V F1 l mt rng nn mi cnh trong F1
gim s lng thnh phn trong S i mt, do tng s lng thnh
phn l k-p. Tng t, F2 to ra k-(p+1) thnh phn t S (s lng
thnh phn va ni b hn vi s lng thnh phn ca F1). V vy,
mt cnh tn ti trong F2 m cc im cui ca n nm cc thnh
phn khc nhau trong F1 th c th thm cnh vo F1 m khng
to ra mt chu trnh. Cnh 3 l mt cnh c tnh cht trong v d
ny (cnh 1 v 5 cng l nhng cnh nh vy).
V th, chng ta thy rng nu tnh cht 1 v 2 c tho mn th mt
thut ton hu n c th tm c mt li gii ti u cho c bi ton
cy bc cu ti thiu ln bi ton cy bc cu ti a. Ch rng mt
cy bc cu l mt rng c s cnh ti a N-1 cnh vi N l s nt
trong mng. Sau y chng ta s xt bi ton ti thiu.
68
Thut ton Kruskal thc hin vic sp xp cc cnh vi cnh u tin

l cnh ngn nht v tip theo chn tt c cc cnh m nhng cnh
ny khng cng vi cc cnh c la chn trc to ra cc chu
trnh. Chnh v th, vic thc hin thut ton n gin l:
list <- kruskal_l( n, m, lengths )

dcl length[m], permutation[m],
solution[list]
permution <- VectorSort( n , lengths )
solution <-
for each ( edge , permutation )
if ( Test(edge , solution ) )
solution <- Append ( edge , solution )
return( solution )
VectorSort c u vo l mt vector c di l n v kt qu tr v
l th t sp xp cc s nguyn t 1 ti n. S sp xp gi cho gi
tr tng ng trong vector theo th t tng dn.
V d 4.2:
Gi s rng n= 5 v gi tr ca mt vector l
31, 19, 42, 66, 27
VectorSort s tr v th t sp xp nh sau:
2, 5, 1, 3, 4
Test nhn mt danh sch cc cnh v tr v gi tr TRUE nu cc
cnh khng cha mt chu trnh. V Test c gi cho mi nt, s
hiu qu ca ton b thut ton tu thuc vo tnh hiu qu ca vic
thc hin Test. Nu mi khi cc cnh c thm vo cy, chng ta
theo di c cc nt ca cnh thuc cc thnh phn no th Test tr
nn n gin; n gin ch l vic kim tra xem cc nt cui ca
cc cnh ang c xt c cng mt thnh phn khng. Nu cng,
cnh s to ra mt chu trnh. Ngc li, cnh khng to nn chu
trnh.
Tip l xem xt vic duy tr cu trc thnh phn. C mt s cch
tip cn. Mt trong cc cch l mi nt duy tr mt con tr n
mt nt khc trong cng mt thnh phn v c mt nt mi thnh
phn gi l nt gc ca thnh phn th tr vo chnh n. V th lc u,
bn thn mi nt l mt thnh phn v n tr vo chnh n. Khi mt
cnh c thm vo gia hai nt i v j, tr i ti j. Sau , khi mt cnh
c thm vo gia mt nt i trong mt thnh phn c nt gc l k v
mt nt j trong mt thnh phn c nt gc l l th tr k ti l. V vy,
chng ta c th kim tra mt cnh bng cch da vo cc con tr t
cc nt cui ca n v xem rng chng c dn n cng mt ni hay
69
khng. Chui cc con tr cng ngn, vic kim tra cng d dng.
Nhm gi cho cc chui cc con tr ngn, Tarjan gi nn lm gn
cc chui khi chng c duyt trong qu trnh kim tra. C th, ng
gi mt hm FindComponent c to ra nh sau:
index <- FindComponent(node , *next)
dcl next[]
p=next[node]
q=next[p]
while ( p!=q )
next[node]= q
node = q
p=next[node]
q=next[p]
return (p)
FindComponent tr v nt gc ca thnh phn cha node. Hm ny
cng iu chnh next , nt hng v nt gc cha nt . c bit,
hm ny iu chnh next hng ti im tng cao hn. Tarjan ch ra
rng, bng cch , th lm gn ng i ti nt gc mt cc hon
ton cn hn l khng lm gn mt cht no c v ton b kt qu
trong vic tm kim v cp nht next ch ln hn so vi O(n+m) mt
cht vi n l s lng nt v m l s lng cnh c kim tra.
V d 4.3:
Hnh 5-4. Php tnh Minimum Spanning Tree ( MST)

Xt mt mng c biu din trong hnh 4.4. cc du * trong hnh
c gii thch di y. u tin, sp xp cc cnh v sau ln
lt xem xt tng cnh, bt u t cnh nh nht. V th, chng ta
xem (A, C) l cnh u tin. Gi FindComponent cho nt A ta thy c
p ln q u l A nn FindComponent tr v A nh l nt gc ca
thnh phn cha nt A. Tng t, FindComponent tr v C nh l
nt gc ca thnh phn cha nt C. V th, chng ta mang A v C vo
cy v thit lp next[A] bng C. Sau , xt (B, D). Hm cng thc
70
hin tng t v B, D c thm vo cy, next[B] bng D. Chng ta

xt (C, E), chp nhn n v thit lp next[C] bng E.
By gi, xt (A, E). Trong FindComponent, p l C cn q l E. V th
chng ta chy vo vng lp while , thit lp next[A] bng E v rt
ngn ng i t A ti E vi E l nt gc ca thnh phn cha chng.
Node, p v q c thit lp thnh E v FindComponent tr v E nh
l nt gc ca thnh phn cha nt A. FindComponent cng tr v E
nh l nt gc ca thnh phn cha E. V th, c hai im cui ca (A,
E) l cng mt thnh phn nn (A, E) b loi b.
Tip n, xt (A, B). Trong qu trnh gi FindComponent i vi nt
A, chng ta thy rng p=q=E v next khng thay i. Tng t, qu
trnh gi FindComponent i vi nt B ta c p=q=D. V th, chng
ta thit lp next[E] bng D. Ch rng, chng ta khng thit lp
next[A] bng B, m li thit lp next i vi nt gc ca thnh phn
ca A bng vi nt gc ca thnh phn ca B.
Cui cng, (C, D) c kim tra v b loi b.
Trong hnh 4.4 nhng cnh trong cy bc cu c phn bit bi mt
du * ngay bn cnh cc cnh . Ni dung cc next c ch ra
bng cc cung (cc cnh hu hng) c mi tn. Chng hn,
next[B] bng D c ch ra bng mt mi tn t B ti D. Ch rng,
cc cung c nh ngha bi next to ra mt cy, nhng ni chung
cy khng phi l mt cy bc cu ti thiu. Thc vy, vi trng
hp c mt cung (E, D), ngay c khi cc cung khng cn thit phi
l mt phn graph. V vy, bn thn next ch nh ngha cu trc
thnh phn khi tin hnh thc hin thut ton. Chng ta to mt danh
sch hin cc cnh c chn dnh cho vic bao gp trong cy. Gi
ca cy c nh ngha bi next tng i bng phng, nghi l cc
ng i ti cc nt gc ca cc thnh phn l ngn khin
FindComponent hot ng hiu qu.
Hin nhin, s phc tp ca thut ton Kruskal c quyt nh bi
vic sp xp cc cnh, s sp xp c phc tp l O(m log m).
Nu c th tm c cy bc cu trc khi phi kim tra tt c cc
cnh th chng ta c th ci tin qu trnh bng cch thc hin sp
xp phn on. C th, chng ta c th lu gi cc cnh trong mt
khi (heap) v sau ly ra, kim tra mi cnh cho n khi mt cy
c to ra. Chng ta d dng bit c qu trnh dng vo lc
no; ch n gin l theo di s lng cnh c xt v dng li
khi c n-1 cnh c chp nhn.
Chng ta gi s rng, cc qu trnh qun l khi (heap) nh thit lp,
b xung v ly d liu ra l n gin. iu quan trng cn ch y
l phc tp ca vic thit lp mt khi (heap) c m phn t l O(m),
phc tp ca vic tm phn t b nht l O(1) v phc tp ca
vic khi phc mt khi (heap) sau khi b xung, xo, hoc thay i mt
gi tr l O(logm). Chnh v vy, nu chng ta xt k cnh tm cy bc
cu, phc tp trong vic duy tr mt khi (heap) bng O(m+klogm),
phc tp ny b hn O(mlogm) nu k c bc b hn bc ca m. k
71
ti thiu bng O(n) nn nu graph l kh mng th vic s dng khi

(heap) s khng c li. Nu graph l dy c th vic lu tr c th
c xem xt. y l phin bn cui cng ca thut ton Kruskal,
thut ton ny tn dng cc hiu ng ni trn.
list <- Kruskal_l( n, m, lengths )

dcl length[m], ends[m,2], next[n],
solution[list],
l_heap[heap]
for each ( node , n )
next[node]<-node
l_heap <-HeapSet(m, lengths)
#_accept <-0
solution <-
while ( (#_accept < n-1) and
!(HeapEmpty(l_heap))
edge <- HeapPop(*l_heap)
c1=FindComponent(ends[edge,1], *next)
c2=FindComponent(ends[edge,2], *next)
if (c1 !=c2 )
next[c2] <- c1
solution <- Append ( edge , solution )
#_accept=#_accept+1
return( solution )
HeapSet to ra mt khi (heap) da vo cc gi tr cho trc v tr v
chnh khi (heap) . HeapPop tr v ch s ca gi tr nh ca khi
(heap) ch khng phi bn thn gi tr . iu ny c li hn vic tr
v mt gi tr v t ch s lun bit c gi tr c ch s ch t gi
tr khng th bit c ch s ca gi tr . Cng cn ch rng
HeapPop lm khi (heap) thay i. HeapEmpty tr v gi tr TRUE
nu khi (heap) rng. Mng ends cha cc im cui ca cc cnh.
Thut ton Prim
Thut ton ny c nhng u im ring bit, c bit l khi mng dy
c, trong vic xem xt mt bi ton tm kim cc cy bc cu ti thiu
(MST). Hn na cc thut ton phc tp hn c xy dng da vo
cc thut ton MST ny; v mt s cc thut ton ny hot ng tt
hn vi cc cu trc d liu c s dng cho thut ton sau y,
thut ton ny c pht biu bi Prim. Tm li, cc thut ton ny
ph hp vi cc qu trnh thc hin song song bi v cc qu trnh
c thc hin bng cc ton t vector. Thut ton Prim c th c
miu t nh sau:
72
Bt u vi mt nt thuc cy cn tt c cc nt khc khng

thuc cy ( ngoi cy).
Trong khi cn c cc nt khng thuc cy
Tm nt khng thuc cy gn nht so vi cy
a nt vo cy v ghi li cnh ni nt vi cy
Thut ton Prim da trn nhng nh l sau y:
nh l 4.4.
Mt cy l mt MST nu v ch nu cy cha cnh ngn nht

trong mi cutset chia cc nt thnh hai thnh phn.
thc hin thut ton Prim, cn phi theo di khong cch t mi
nt khng thuc cy ti cy v cp nht khong cch mi khi c
mt nt c thm vo cy. Vic c thc hin d dng; n
gin ch l duy tr mt dy d_tree c cc thng tin v khong cch
ni trn. Qu trnh tun theo:
array[n] <- Prim( n , root , dist )
dcl dist[n,n] , pred[n], d_tree[n],
in_tree[n]
index <- FindMin()
d_min <- INFINITY
for each( i , n )
if(!(in_tree[j]) and (d_tree[i]<
d_min))
i_min <- i
d_min <- d_tree[i]
return ( i_min )
void <-Scan(i)
for each ( j , n )
if(!(in_tree[j]) and
(d_tree[j]>dist{i,j]))
d_tree[j]<- dist[i,j]
pred[j]<-i
d_tree <- INFINITY
pred <- -1
in_tree <- FALSE
d_tree(root)<-0
#_in_tree <-0
73
while (#_in_tree < n)

i <- FindMin()
in_tree[i]<- TRUE
Scan(i)
#_in_tree =#_in_tree + 1
return (pred)
FindMin tr v mt nt khng thuc cy v gn cy nht. Scan cp
nht khong cch ti cy i vi cc nt khng thuc cy.
C th thy rng phc tp ca thut ton ny l O(n2); c hai hm
FindMin v Scan c phc tp l O(n) v mi hm c thc hin
n ln. So snh vi thut ton Kruskal ta thy rng phc tp ca
thut ton Prim tng nhanh hn so vi phc tp ca thut ton
Kruskal nu m, s lng cc cnh, bng O(n2),cn nu m c cng bc
vi n th phc tp ca thut ton Kruskal tng nhanh hn.
C th tng tc thut ton Prim trong trng hp graph l mt graph
mng bng cch ch quan tm n cc nt lng ging ca nt i va
c thm vo cy. Nu sn c cc thng tin k lin, vng lp for
trong Scan c th tr thnh.
for each (j , n_adj_list[i] )
phc tp ca Scan tr thnh O(d) vi d l bc ca nt i. Chnh v
th phc tp tng cng ca Scan gim t O(n2) xung O(m).
Thit lp mt tp k lin cho ton b mt graph l mt php ton c
phc tp bng O(m):
index[nn,list] <- SetAdj(n ,m, ends)
dcl ends[m,2], n_adj_list[n,list]
for node = 1 to n
n_adj_list[node] <-
for edge = 1 to m
Append(edge, n_adj_list[end[edge,1]])
Append(edge, n_adj_list[end[edge,2]])
C th tng tc FindMin nu ta thit lp mt khi (heap) cha cc gi
tr trong d_tree. V th, chng ta c th ly ra gi tr thp nht v
phc tp tng cng ca qu trnh ly ra l O(nlogn). Vn ch l
chng ta phi iu chnh khi (heap) khi mt gi tr trong d_tree thay
i. Qu trnh iu chnh c phc tp l O(mlogn) trong trng
hp xu nht v c kh nng mi cnh s c mt ln cp nht v mi
ln cp nht i hi mt php ton c phc tp l O(logn). Do ,
phc tap ca ton b thut ton Prim l O(mlogn). Qua th nghim
c th thy rng hai thut ton Prim v Kruskal c tc nh nhau,
nhng ni chung, thut ton Prim thch hp hn vi cc mng dy cn
thut ton Kruskal thch hp hn i vi cc mng mng. Tuy vy,
74
nhng thut ton ny ch l mt phn ca cc th tc ln v phc tp

hn, l nhng th tc hot ng hiu qu vi mt trong nhng
thut ton ny.
Hnh 4.2. Graph c lin kt song song v self loop

Bng 4.1
Nt init.
A
0(-)
0(-)
0(-)
0(-)
0(-)
B 100 10(A) 10(A) 10(A) 10(A) 10(A)

C 100 2(A)
2(A)
2(A)
D 100 100(-) 11(A) 11(A) 5(B)
5(B)
E 100 7(A)
2(A)
6(C)
2(A)
6(C)
6(C) 6(C)
V d 4.4:
Tr li hnh 4.4, gi s rng cc cnh khng c biu din c di

bng 100. Thut ton Kruskal s chn (A, C), (B, D), (C, E), v loi (A,
E) bi v n to ra mt chu trnh vi cc cnh c chn l (A, C)
v (C, E), chn (A, B) sau dng li v mt cy bc cu hon ton
c tm thy.
Thut ton Prim bt u t nt A, nt A s c thm vo cy. Tip
theo l cc nt C, E, B v D. Bng 4.1 tng kt cc qu trnh thc hin
ca thut ton Prim, biu din d_tree v pred khi thut ton thc
hin. Cui thut ton, pred[B] l A, tng ng vi (A, B) l mt
phn ca cy. Tng t, pred ch ra (A, C), (B, D) v (C, E) l cc
phn ca cy. V vy, thut ton Prim s la chn c cy ging vi
cy m thut ton Kruskal nhng th t cc lin kt c la chn l
khc nhau.
Mt ng i trong mt mng l mt chui lin tip cc lin kt bt u
t mt nt s no v kt thc ti mt nt t no . Nhng ng i
nh vy c gi l mt ng i s, t. Ch rng th t cc lin kt
trong ng i l c ngha. Mt ng i c th l hu hng hoc
75
v hng tu thuc vo vic cc thnh phn ca n l cc lin kt hay

l cc cung. Ngi ta gi mt ng i l ng i n gin nu
khng c nt no xut hin qu hai ln trong ng i . Ch rng
mt ng i n gin trong mt graph n gin c th c biu
din bng chui lin tip cc nt m ng i cha v chui cc nt
biu din duy nht mt chui cc lin kt .
Nu s trng vi t th ng i gi l mt chu trnh, v nu mt nt
trung gian xut hin khng qu mt ln th chu trnh c gi l
chu trnh n gin. Mt chu trnh n gin trong mt graph n
gin c th c biu din bi mt chui cc nt lin tip.
V d 4.5:
Xt graph hu hng trong hnh 4.4. Cc thnh phn lin thng bn

c xc dnh bi
{A B C D} {E F G} {H} {I} {J}
Cc cung (A, H), (D, I), (I, J) v (J, G) khng l mt phn mt thnh
phn lin thng bn no c. Xem graph trong hnh 4.3 l mt graph v
hng (ngha l xem cc cung l cc lin kt v hng), th graph ny
c mt thnh phn duy nht, v th n l mt graph lin thng.
Cho mt graph G = (V, E), H l mt graph con nu H = (V', E'), trong
V' l tp con ca V and E' l tp hp con ca E. Cc tp con ny c
th c hoc khng tun theo quy nh nu.
Hnh 4.4. Graph hu hng

Mt graph khng h cha cc chu trnh gi l mt cy. Mt cy bc
cu l mt graph lin thng khng c cc chu trnh. Nhng graph nh
vy c gi mt cch n gin l cy. Khi graph khng lin thng
hon ton c gi l mt rng. Chng ta thng cp cc cy
trong cc graph v hng.
76
Trong cc graph hu hng, c mt cu trc tng t vi cy gi l

cy phn nhnh. Mt cy phn nhnh l mt graph hu hng c
cc ng i t mt nt (gi l nt gc ca cy phn nhnh) ti
tt c cc nt khc hoc ni mt cch khc l graph hu hng c cc
ng i t tt c cc nt khc n nt gc. Mt cy phn nhnh s
tr thnh mt cy nu n l v hng.
Cc cy bc cu c rt nhiu thuc tnh ng quan tm, nhng thuc
tnh khin cho cc cy bc cu rt hu ch trong qu trnh thit k
mng truyn thng. Th nht, cc cy bc cu l lin thng ti thiu c
ngha l: chng l cc graph lin thng nhng khng tn ti mt tp
con cc cnh no trong cy to ra mt graph lin thng. Chnh v vy,
nu mc ch ch n gin l thit k mt mng lin thng c gi ti
thiu th gii php ti u nht l chn mt cy. iu ny c th hiu
c v trong mt cy lun c mt v ch mt ng i gia mt cp
nt. iu khng gy kh khn ng k trong vic nh tuyn trong
cy v lm n gin cc thit b truyn thng lin quan i rt nhiu.
Ch rng mt graph c N nt th bt k mt cy no bc cu tt c
cc nt th c ng (N-1) cnh. Bt k mt rng no c k thnh phn
th cha ng (N-k) cnh. Nhn xt ny c th suy ra t lp lun sau:
khi c mt graph c N nt v khng c cnh no th c N thnh phn,
v c mi cnh thm vo nhm kt ni hai thnh phn th s lng
thnh phn gim i mt.
Mt tp hp cc cnh m s bin mt ca n chia ct mt graph (hay
ni mt cch khc l lm tng s lng thnh phn ca graph) c
gi l mt tp chia ct. Mt tp chia ct no chia ct cc nt
thnh hai tp X v Y c gi l mt cutset hoc mt XY-cutset.
Hu ht cc vn cn quan tm u lin quan n cc cutset ti
thiu (nghi l cc cutset khng phi l tp con ca mt cutset khc).
Trong mt cy, mt cnh bt k l mt cutset ti thiu. Mt tp ti thiu
cc nt m s bin mt ca n phn chia cc nt cn li thnh hai tp
gi l mt cut. Cc vn cn quan tm cng thng lin quan n
cc cut ti thiu.
V d 4.6:
Hnh 4.4 biu din mt graph v hng. Cc tp cc lin kt

{(A, C), (B, D)}
v
{(C, E), (D, E), (E, F)}
l cc v d ca cc cutset ti thiu.
Tp cui cng l mt v d v mt loi tp trong tp cc lin kt i
ti mt nt thnh vin bt k u l mt cutset v cc cutset chia
ct nt ra khi cc nt khc.
Tp (C, D) l mt cut. Nt A cng l mt cut. Mt nt duy nht m s
bin mt ca n chia ct graph gi l mt im khp ni.
Tp hp cc lin kt:
77
{(A, B), (A, C), (A, G), (C, D), (C, E), (E, F)}
l mt cy. Bt k tp con no ca tp ny, k c tp y hay tp rng,
u l mt rng.
Hnh 4.4. Cc cutset, cc cut, cc cy

5.3. Cc m hnh nh tuyn thng dng
5.3.1. nh tuyn ngn nht (Shortest path Routing)
Bi ton tm cc ng i ngn nht l mt bi ton kh quan trng
trong qu trnh thit k v phn tch mng. Hu ht cc bi ton nh
tuyn c th gii quyt nh gii quyt bi ton tm ng i ngn nht
khi mt " di " thch hp c gn vo mi cnh (hoc cung) trong
mng. Trong khi cc thut ton thit k th c gng tm kim cch to
ra cc mng tho mn tiu chun di ng i.
Bi ton n gin nht ca loi ton ny l tm ng i ngn nht
gia hai nt cho trc. Loi bi ton ny c th l bi ton tm ng
i ngn nht t mt nt ti tt c cc nt cn li, tng ng bi ton
tm ng i ngn nht t tt c cc im n mt im. i khi i
hi phi tm ng i ngn nht gia tt c cc cp nt. Cc ng i
i khi c nhng gii hn nht nh (chng hn nh gii hn s lng
cc cnh trong ng i).
Tip theo, chng ta xt cc graph hu hng v gi s rng bit
di ca mt cung gia mi cp nt i v j l lij. Cc di ny khng
cn phi i xng. Khi mt cung khng tn ti th di lij c gi s
l rt ln (chng hn ln gp n ln di cung ln nht trong mng).
Ch rng c th p dng qu trnh ny cho cc mng v hng
bng cch thay mi cnh bng hai cung c cng di. Ban u gi
s rng lij l dng hon ton; sau gi thit ny c th c thay
i.
78
Thut ton Dijkstra

Tt c cc thut ton tm ng i ngn nht u da vo cc nhn
xt c minh ho trn hnh 4.5, l vic lng nhau gia cc ng
i ngn nht ngha l mt nt k thuc mt ng i ngn
nht t i ti j th ng i ngn nht t i ti j s bng ng i ngn
nht t i ti k kt hp vi ng i ngn nht t j ti k. V th, chng
ta c th tm ng i ngn nht bng cng thc quy sau:
d ij = min (d ik + d kj )
k
dxy l di ca ng i ngn nht t x ti y. Kh khn ca cch

tip cn ny l phi c mt cch khi ng quy no v chng ta
khng th khi ng vi cc gi tr bt k v phi ca phng trnh
4.2. C mt s cch thc hin vic ny, mi cch l c s cho mt
thut ton khc nhau.
Hnh 4.5. Cc ng ngn nht lng nhau
Thut ton Dijkstra ph hp cho vic tm ng i ngn nht t mt

nt i ti tt c cc nt khc. Bt u bng cch thit lp
dii = 0
v
dij =
ij
sau thit lp
dij lij
j l nt k cn ca i
Sau tm nt j c dij l b nht. Tip ly chnh nt j va chn

khai trin cc khong cch cc nt khc, ngha l bng cch thit lp
dikmin (dik, dij+ljk)
Ti mi giai on ca qu trnh, gi tr ca dik l gi tr c lng hin
c ca ng i ngn nht t i ti k; v thc ra l di ng i
ngn nht c tm cho ti thi im . Xem djk nh l nhn trn
nt k. Qu trnh s dng mt nt trin khai cc nhn cho cc nt
khc gi l qu trnh qut nt.
Thc hin tng t, tip tc tm cc nt cha c qut c nhn b
nht v qut n. Ch rng, v gi thit rng tt c cc ljk u dng
do mt nt khng th gn cho nt khc mt nhn b hn chnh
nhn ca nt . V vy, khi mt nt c qut th vic qut li n nht
thit khng bao gi xy ra. V th, mi nt ch cn c qut mt ln.
Nu nhn trn mt nt thay i, nt phi c qut li. Thut ton
Dijkstra c th c vit nh sau:
79
array[n] <-Dijkstra (n, root, dist)

dcl dist[n,n], pred[n], sp_dist[n],
scanned[n]
index <- FindMin( )
d_min <- INFINITY
for each (i , n )
if (!(scanned[j])&& (sp_dist[i]<
d_min) )
i_min <- i
d_min <- sp_dist[i]
return (i_min)
void <- Scan( i )
for each ( j , n)
if((sp_dist[j] > sp_dist[i] +
dist[i,j]))
sp_dist[j]<- sp_dist[i] +
dist[i,j]
pred[j]<- i
sp_dist<- INFINITY
pred <- -1
scanned <-FALSE
sp_dist[root]<- 0
#_scanned <- 0
while (#_scanned < n )
i <- FindMin()
Scan( i )
#_scanned= #_scanned + 1
return ( pred )
Trong thut ton vit trn, hm ch tr v dy pred , dy ny
cha tt c cc ng i. Hm cng c th tr v dy sp_dist, dy
ny cha di ca cc ng i, hoc hm tr v c hai dy nu
cn thit.
Thut ton trng rt quen thuc. N gn ging vi thut ton tm cy
bc cu ti thiu Prim. Ch khc nhau ch, cc nt trong thut ton
ny c gn nhn l di ca ton b ng i ch khng phi l
di ca mt cnh. Ch rng thut ton ny thc hin vi graph
hu hng trong khi thut ton Prim ch thc hin vi graph v
hng. Tuy nhin v mt cu trc, cc thut ton l rt n gin.
phc tp ca thut ton Dijkstra, cng ging nh phc tp ca
thut ton Prim , l O(N2).
Cng ging nh thut ton Prim, thut ton Dijkstra thch hp vi cc
mng dy v c bit thch hp vi cc qu trnh thc hin song song
( y php ton scan c th c thc hin song song, v bn cht
phc tp ca qu trnh l O(1) ch khng phi l O(N)). Hn ch
80
ch yu ca thut ton ny l khng c c nhiu u im khi mng

l mng v ch ph hp vi cc mng c di cc cnh l dng.
Hnh 4.6. Cc ng i ngn nht t A

V d 4.7:
Xt mt mng trong hnh 4.6. Mc tiu y l tm cc ng i ngn

nht t nt A ti cc nt khc. Khi u, A c gn nhn 0 v cc
nt khc c gn nhn l v cng ln. Qut nt A, B c gn bng
5 v C c gn l 1. C l nt mang nhn b nht nn sau C c
qut v B c gn bng 4 (=1+3), trong khi D c gn bng 6. Tip
theo B (c nhn bng 4) c qut; D v E c gn ln lt l 5 v
10. Sau D (c nhn bng 5) c qut v F c gn bng 9. E
c qut v dn n khng c nhn mi. F l nt c nhn b nht
nn khng cn phi qut v khng c nt no phi nh nhn li. Mi
nt ch c qut mt ln. Ch rng vic qut cc nt c cc nhn
theo th t tng dn l mt iu cn lu v trong qu trnh thc hin
thut ton mt s nt c nh li s. Cc nt c qut ngay tc
th hoc l phi c qut li sau .
Ch rng cc ng i t A n cc nt khc (ngha l (A, C), (C, B),
(B, D), (B, E) v (D, F)) to ra mt cy. iu ny khng l mt s trng
hp ngu nhin. N l h qu trc tip t vic lng nhau ca cc
ng i ngn nht. Chng hn, nu k thuc ng i ngn nht t i
ti j th ng i ngn nht t i ti j s l tng ca ng i ngn nht
t i ti k v ng i ngn nht t k ti j.
Tng t nh trong v d minh ho cho thut ton Prim, kt qu ca v
d trn c th c trnh by mt cch ngn gn nh bng sau:
81
Bng 4.2
Nt init. A(0) C(1) B(4) D(5) F(9) E(10)
A
0(-) 0(-)
0(-)
0(-)
0(-)
0(-)
0(-)
B (-) 5(A) 4(C) 4(C) 4(C) 4(C) 4(C)

C (-) 1(A) 1(A) 1(A) 1(A) 1(A) 1(A)
D (-) (-) 6(C) 5(B) 5(B) 5(B) 5(B)
E (-) (-) (-) 10(B) 10(B) 10(B) 10(B)
F (-) (-) (-) (-) 9(D) 9(D) 9(D)
Thut ton Bellman
Mt thut ton khc ca dng thut ton Dijkstra do Bellman pht biu
v sau c Moore v Page pht trin, l vic qut cc nt theo
th t m chng c nh nhn. Vic loi tr vic phi tm nhn
nh nht, nhng to ra kh nng; mt nt c th cn qut nhiu hn
mt ln.
Trong dng n gin nht, thut ton Bellman duy tr mt hng i cc
nt qut. Khi mt nt c nh nhn n c thm vo hng i
tr khi n tn ti trong hng i. Hng i c qun l theo quy
tc vo trc, ra trc. V th cc nt c qut theo th t m chng
c nh nhn. Nu mt nt c nh nhn li sau khi nt c
qut th n c thm vo sau hng i v c qut ln na.
V d 4.8:
Trong v d hnh 4.6, chng ta bt u qu trnh bng cc t nt A

vo hng i. Qut A cc nhn 5 v 1 ln lt c gn cho nt B v
C, ng thi cc nt B v C c a vo hng i (v cc nt ny
nhn gi tr mi v cha c mt trong hng i). Tip chng ta qut
nt B v cc nt E v D c nh nhn ln lt l 11 v 6. D v E
cng c t vo hng i. Sau chng ta qut C, khi B c
gn nhn l 4 v li c t vo sau hng i. E c qut v F
c gn nhn 13 v a vo hng i. D c qut v F c gn
nhn l 10; F vn cn trong hng i nn F khng c a vo
hng i. B c qut ln th hai. trong ln qut ny E v D ln lt
c nh nhn l 10 v 5 ng thi c hai nt c t vo hng
i. F c qut v khng nh nhn nt no c. E c qut khng
nh nhn nt no c. D c qut v F c nh nhn 9 v c
a vo hng i. F c qut v khng nh du nt no c.
Cc nt B, C, D v F c qut hai ln. l ci gi phi tr cho vic
khng qut cc nt theo th t. Mt khc trong thut ton ny khng
cn thit phi tm kim cc nt c nhn nh nht.
Cng nh trong hai v d 4.4 v 4.5 cho thut ton Prim v thut ton
Dijkstra, chng ta c th trnh by kt qu ca cc qu trnh trong v d
ny nh trong bng sau
82
Bng 4.3
Nt
A
init.
A(0)
B(5)
C(1)
E(11)
D(6)
0(-) A 0(-) B 0(-) C 0(-) E 0(-) D 0(-) B
B (-)
5(A) C 5(A) E 4(C) D 4(C) B 4(C) F
C (-)
1(A)
1(A) D 1(A) B 1(A) F 1(A)
D (-)
(-)
6(B)
6(B)
6(B)
6(B)
E (-)
(-)
11(B)
11(B)
11(B)
11(B)
F (-)
(-)
(-)
(-)
13(E)
10(D)
B(4)
F(10)
E(10)
D(5)
F(9)
0(-) F 0(-) E 0(-) D 0(-) F 0(-)
4(C) E 4(C) D 4(C)
4(C)
4(C)
1(A) D 1(A)
1(A)
1(A)
1(A)
5(B)
5(B)
5(B)
5(B)
5(B)
10(B)
10(B)
10(B)
10(B)
10(B)
10(D)
10(D)
10(D)
9(D)
9(D)
Thut ton c th vit nh sau:

array[n]<-Bellman (n, root, dist)
dcl dist[n][n], pred[n], sp_dist[n],
in_queue[n]
scan_queue[queue]
void <- Scan( i )
in_queue[i]<- FALSE
for j=1 to n
if((sp_dist[j] > sp_diat[i] +
dist[i,j]))
sp_dist[j]<- sp_diat[i] +
dist[i,j]
pred[j]<- i
if ( not ( in_queue[j] ) )
Push(scan_queue, j )
in_queue[j]<- TRUE
sp_dist<- INFINITY
pred <- -1
in_queue <-FALSE
initialize_queue( scan_queue )
sp_dist[root]<- 0
Push(scan_queue , root )
in_queue <-TRUE
83
while (not(Empty( scan_queue ))

i <- Pop(scan_queue)
Scan( i )
return ( pred )
Mt hng i chun c s dng qu trnh trn. C th s dng dy
in_queue theo di nt no ang hin c trong hng i.
Theo qu trnh c vit trn th thut ton Bellman l mt qu trnh
tm kim theo chiu rng. Ngi ta chng minh c rng trong
trng hp xu nht, mt nt c qut n-1 ln. V vy qu trnh qut
trong trng hp xu nht c phc tp l O(n) vi n l s lng
cc nt. T suy ra rng phc tp ca ton b thut ton l O(n3).
Tuy nhin trong thc t cc nt khng thng xuyn c qut li
nhiu ln.
Trong hu ht cc trng hp thc t, s ln qut trung bnh trn mt
nt l rt nh, ti a l 3 hoc 4, ngay c khi mng c hng ngn nt.
Nu bc trung bnh ca nt nh, iu ny thng xy ra trong cc
mng thc t, th thi gian cho vic tm kim nt cha qut b nht l
phn c nh hng nht ca thut ton Dijkstra. V vy trong thc t
thut ton Bellman c xem l nhanh hn so vi thut ton Dijkstra
mc d phc tp trong trng hp xu nht ca thut ton Bellman
ln hn.
Tng t c th ci tin phc tp ca th tc Scan bng cch duy
tr mt danh sch k cn cho mi nt. phc tp ca Scan tr thnh
O(d) thay v O(n) vi d l bc ca nt ang qut. V vy, trn thc t
phc tp ca thut ton Bellman thng bng O(E) vi E l s cnh
ca graph.
Ngoi vic c th ci thin cht lng trung bnh ca thut ton trong
nhiu trng hp, thut ton Bellman cn c mt u im na l
thut ton hot ng ngay c khi di cc cnh l cc gi tr m.
Thut ton Dijkstra da vo quy tc: mt nt khng th gn cho nt
khc mt nhn b hn nhn ca chnh nt. iu ch ng khi khng
c cc cung c di l m trong khi thut ton Bellman khng cn
phi gi thit nh vy v qut li cc nt mi khi nt c gn nhn
li. V th, thut ton ny rt ph hp khi xut hin cc cung c di
m. Tuy nhin cn ch rng khi graph c mt chu trnh c tng di
m th thm ch thut ton Bellman cng khng kh dng. Trong
trng hp ny, thut ton khng kt thc v cc nt tip tc nh
nhn cc nt khc mt cch v hn. C mt s dng khc nhau ca
thut ton Bellman, ngoi thut ton ny ra cn c mt s cc thut
ton tm ng i ngn nht t mt im ti cc im khc trong
trng hp khc nhau.
Thut ton Floyd
C th thy rng bi ton tm kim ng ngn nht gia mi cp nt
nng n gp N ln bi ton tm ng i ngn nht t mt nt n tt
84
c cc nt khc. Mt kh nng c th l s dng thut ton

Bellman hoc thut ton Dijkstra N ln, bt u t mi nt ngun. Mt
kh nng khc, c bit thch hp vi cc mng dy, l s dng thut
ton Floyd.
Thut ton Floyd da vo quan h quy c trnh by trong
phn gii thiu thut ton Dijkstra, nhng thut ton ny s dng quan
h quy theo mt cch khc. Lc ny, dij(k) c nh ngha l
ng i ngn nht t i ti j s dng cc nt c nh s l k hoc
thp hn nh l cc nt trung gian. V th dij(0) c nh nghi nh l
lij, di ca lin kt t nt i ti nt j, nu lin kt tn ti hoc dij(0)
s bng v cng nu lin kt khng tn ti. V vy,
dij(k) = min (dij(k-1), dik(k-1) + dkj(k-1) )
ngha l, chng ta ch quan tm n vic s dng nt k nh l mt
im qu giang cho mi ng i t i ti j. Thut ton c th c vit
nh sau:
array[n] <-Floyd (n, dist)
dcl dist[n][n], pred[n][n], sp_dist[n,n]
for each (i , n )
for each (i , n )
sp_dist[i,j] <- dist[i, j]
pred[i, j]<- i
for each (k , n )
for each (i , n )
for each (j , n )
if((sp_dist[i,j]> sp_dist[i,k] +
dist[k,j]))
sp_dist[i,j]<- sp_dist[i,k] +
dist[k,j]
pred[i, j]<- pred[k,j]
return ( pred )
pred[i,j] cha nt trung gian cui cng ca ng i t i ti j v
c th c s dng khi phc ng i t i ti j. Ging nh thut
ton Bellman, thut ton Floyd hot ng c vi cc di cung l m.
Nu xut hin cc chu trnh c tng di m th thut ton Floyd
dng li nhng khng bo m cc ng i l ngn nht. Cc chu
trnh c tng di m c th c nhn bit nh s xut hin ca
cc con s m trn ng cho chnh ca dy sp_dist.
85
Hnh 4.7: V d graph

V d 4.9:
Xt graph trong hnh 4.7. Mng cha khong cch ban u v mng
cha nt trung gian cui cng ca mi ng i c cho trc nh
sau:
n
sp_dist
pred
Ch rng sp_dist c cc gi tr 0 trn ng cho chnh v v

cng ln (c biu din l du "-") nu gia hai nt khng tn ti mt
lin kt. Ngoi ra v graph l graph hu hng v khng i xng nn
sp_dist cng khng i xng.
Xt A ta thy A l mt nt trung gian khng nh hng n cc dy
ny v khng c cung no i ti n v v th khng c ng i no i
qua A. Tuy nhin, xt nt B ta thy rng nt B gy nn s thay i v
tr (A, D) v (C, D) trong cc dy trn , c th nh sau :
n
86
sp_dist
pred
Tip tc xt cc nt C, D v E th gy nn s thay i c th nh sau:

n
pred
sp_dist
Cc thut ton tm i ngn nht m rng
Trong qu trnh thit k v phn tch mng i khi chng ta phi tm

ng i ngn nht gia mi cp cc nt (hoc mt s cp) sau khi c
s thay i di mt cung. Vic thay i ny bao gm c vic thm
hoc loi b mt cung (trong trng hp di ca cung c th
c xem nh l chuyn t khng xc nh thnh xc nh hoc
ngc li). V th ta gi thit rng ng i ngn nht gia tt c cc
cp nt l bit trc v bi ton t ra y l xc nh (nu c)
nhng s thay i do vic thay i di ca mt cung no . Thut
ton sau y c Murchland pht biu, trong xem xt ring r cho
tng trng hp: tng v gim di ca cc cung . Nhng thut ton
ny hot ng vi cc graph hu hng v c th hot ng vi cc
di cung l m, tuy nhin thut ton ny vn khng gii quyt cc
chu trnh c tng di l m.
di cung gim
Gi s rng di cung (i,j) c gim. V s lng nhau trong cc
ng i ngn nht (ngha l mt nt k thuc mt ng i ngn nht
t i ti j th ng i ngn nht t i ti j s bng ng i ngn nht
t i ti k hp vi ng i ngn nht t j ti k) nn nu cung (i, j)
khng phi l ng i ngn nht sau khi cung ny c lm ngn
(trong trng hp ny cung (i, j) c th khng phi l ng i ngn
nht trc khi di ca cung (i, j) b thay i) th n khng phi l mt
phn ca ng i ngn nht no c v s thay i c b qua.
Tng t, nu (i, j) l mt phn ca ng i ngn nht t k ti m th
n phi l mt phn ca ng i ngn nht t k ti j v ng i
ngn nht t i ti m. Thc ra, ng i ngn nht t k ti m mi phi
87
chui cc ng i t k ti i c, lin kt (i, j) v ng i t j ti m.

iu ny c biu din trong hnh 4.8.
Hnh 4.8. ng i ngn nht m rng khi (i, j) c lm ngn

V th cn phi qut cc nt i v j tm cc tp K v M thch hp
cha cc nt k v m nh trong hnh 4.8 v thc hin vic xt cc cp
nt, mi nt t mt tp (K hoc M ni trn ). Vi i thuc K v j
thuc M thc hin vic kim tra iu kin sau
dkm > dki+lij +djm
nu ng, cp nht dkm v nt trung gian cui cng ca ng i ny.
Thut ton ny c th c vit nh sau:
(array[n,n], array[n,n]) <sp_decrease(n,i,j,length,*dist,sp_dist,pred )
dcl dist[n,n], pred[n,n], sp_dist[n,n],
setk[set], setm[set]
dist[i, j]<- length
if(length >=sp_dist[i,j])
return( sp_dist, pred )
setk <-
setm <-
for each (k, n)
if(sp_dist[k,j]> sp_dist[k,i] + length)
append(k, setk )
for each (m, n)
if(sp_dist[i,m]> sp_dist[j,m] + length)
append(m, setm )
for each (k , setk )
for each (m , setm )
if(sp_dist[k,m]>
sp_dist[k,i] + length + sp_dist[j,m])
sp_dist[k,m]<sp_dist[k,i] + length + sp_dist[j,m]
if ( j = m )
pred[k, m]<- i
88
else
pred[k, m]<- pred[j, m]
return ( sp_dist , pred )
Thut ton tr v sp_dist v pred, ng i ngn nht c cp
nht v cc dy cha nt trung gian cui cng ca mi ng i ngn
nht. Hm c xy dng trong on gi m trn c u vo l dy
cha cc di ca cc lin kt hin c dist , im cui (i v j) ca
lin kt mi c lm ngn v di mi ca lin kt c lm ngn
length . l danh sch rng.
C th thy rng, trong trng hp xu nht phc tp ca th tc
trn l O(n2) v trong th tc trn c hai vng lp c phc tp trong
trng hp xu nht l O(n). Trong thc t, trng hp c hai tp u
c phc tp l O(n) l t khi gp v v th phc tp thc t ca
thut ton thng thp hn nhiu.
di cung tng
By gi xt trng hp mt lin kt (i,j) c ko di hoc b loi b
khi graph (trong trng hp ny di ca lin kt c xem l v
cng ln). Nu (i, j) khng phi l mt phn ca ng i ngn nht t
k ti m trc khi di lin kt (i,j) c tng ln th sau lin kt
ny chc chn cng khng thuc ng i ngn nht t k ti m. V
vy cn kim tra cp (k, m) c ng i ngn nht tho mn iu kin:
dkm = dki + lij + djm
Ch rng, nu lij khng phi l mt phn ca ng i ngn nht t i
ti j th khng c thay i no xy ra. Thut ton ny c th c vit
nh sau:
(array[n,n], array[n,n]) <sp_increase(n,i,j,*dist,length,
sp_dist,pred )
dcl dist[n,n], pred[n,n], pairs[set]
if(length > sp_dist[i,j])
dist[i,j] <- length
return( sp_dist, pred )
pairs <-
for each (k, n)
for each (m, n)
if(sp_dist[k,m]=
sp_dist[k,i] + dist[i,j]+ sp_dist[i,m])
append( (k,m), pairs )
sp_dist[k,m] <- dist[k,m]
dist[i,j] <- length
89
for each (a , n )
for each ((k,m) , pairs )
if(sp_dist[k,m] > sp_dist[k,a]+
sp_dist[a,m])
sp_dist[k,m]<- sp_dist[k,a]+
sp_dist[a,m]
pred[k, m]<- pred[a, m]
return ( sp_dist , pred )
Trong trng hp ny, pairs l mt tp cc cp nt cn phi c
kim tra. V vy, cc phn t ca pairs l cc cp nt. Thut ton ny
c cc tham s vo ra ging nh thut ton cp nht cc ng i
ngn nht khi gim di mt cung.
V bn cht thut ton ny ging nh thut ton Floyd, ch khc nhau
ch thut ton ny ch hot ng vi cc cp c chn cha lin
kt b thay i trc khi lin kt ny c ko di.
phc tp ca th tc ny l O(np) vi p l s cp nt trong tp
pairs . Trong trng hp xu nht, tp pairs c th cha n(n-1)
cp nt v v th phc tp l O(n3), ging vi phc tp ca thut
ton Floyd. Tuy nhin trong thc t p thng rt b.
Hnh 4.9
V d 4.10: (v d cho trng hp di cung gim)
Xt mt mng trong hnh 4.9. Cc cnh trong mng ny l cc lin kt

hai hng. di ca cc ng i ngn nht gia cc cp nt c
cho trc trong bng 4.4.
By gi thm mt cung (B, E) c lBE = 1. V
dBE > lBE
chng ta thc hin qu trnh. Ngoi ra v
dBC > lBE + dEC
nhng
dBx lBE + dEx
90
i vi tt c cc nt khc. V vy
setm = C, E
Tng t,
setk = A, B
Bng 4.4
A
By gi chng ta xt cc cp nt
(k, m) vi k setk v m setm, (ngha l cc cp (A,C), (A, E), (B, C)
v (B, E)). Chng ta thy rng tt c cc cp tr cp (A, C) u b thay
i nn chng ta cp nht cc ng i ngn nht v nt trung gian
cui cng ca mi ng i ngn nht gia cc cp nt ny. Ma trn
ng i ngn nht by gi c biu din trong bng 4.3
Bng 4.5
A
Ch rng, ma trn ny khng cn i xng na v mt cung (B, E)

va mi c thm vo mng.
By gi gi s rng lBE = 5 (v d cho bi ton c s tng di mt
cung). Kim tra ma trn ng i ngn nht, ta thy rng trc khi
thay i lBE th
dBE = lBE
Chng ta kim tra tt c cc cp nt (k, m) v thy rng iu kin
dkm = dki + lij + djm
91
ch c cc cp (A, E), (B, C) v (B, E) tho mn. V th chng ta thc

hin php gn sau
pairs <- {(A, E), (B, C), (B, E)}
v sau thc hin lp trn tt c cc nt trung gian, kim tra cc
ng i ngn nht i vi cc cp ny. Khi thc hin qu trnh ny,
ch rng ng i ngn nht t A ti E tr thnh 4 (qua nt C) v
ng i ngn nht t B ti C tr thnh 5 (qua A). Tuy nhin, i vi
ng i ngn nht t B ti E th cung (B, E) c gi nguyn. di
cc ng i ngn nht gia cc cp nt c ch ra trong bng 4.6.
Bng 4.6
A
Flow Network
Cho mt t-p mng v mt yu cu duy nht t mt nt ngun s ti
mt nt ch d, yu cu t ra y l tm mt dng lung kh thi,
ngha l tm mt tp cc lung lin kt tho mn yu cu duy nht ni
trn m khng c bt k lung ca lin kt no c gi tr vt qu dung
lng ca chnh lin kt . T-p mng c biu din di dng
tp cc lin kt lij, i cng vi cc dung lng cij. V trong thc t cc
mng l cc mng tha nn c th lu tr topo mng di dng cc
danh sch hin v khai thc cc tnh cht ca mng tha. Ngoi ra c
th lu tr cc dung lng di dng mt ma trn, trong cij c
gn bng 0 khi lij khng tn ti.
Bi ton v th tr thnh bi ton tm mt hoc nhiu ng i t s ti
d ri gi lung i qua cc ng ny ng thi m bo yu cu
cho. Tng cc lung bng vi gi tr yu cu v tng lung trn mi
lin kt khng vt qu dung lng ca lin kt.
C mt s dng ca bi ton ny. Dng u tin, nh ni trn, l
bi ton tm cc lung tho mn mt yu cu no . Mt dng khc
l bi ton ti a ho gi tr lung t s ti d ng thi tho mn iu
kin dung lng. Dng cui cng l khi chng ta bit c gi trn
mt n v lung dnh cho mi lin kt, bi ton t ra l tm mt lung
tho mn yu cu cho trc c gi ti thiu. Cc li gii cho cc bi
ton ny lin h cht ch vi nhau v s c xem xt su hn. Hn
na, li gii cho bi ton ny l c s cho vic gii quyt cc bi ton
phc tp hn gi l bi ton lung a hng, bi ton c rt nhiu yu
92
cu gia cc ngun v cc ch. y l bi ton ht sc quan trng

trong vic thit k mng v s c ni k chng sau.
Ch rng trong trng hp ny ta ang xt cc lin kt hu hng
(ngha l c s khc nhau gia cij v cji). Tuy nhin c th gii quyt
cc mng v hng bng cch thay th mi lin kt v hng lij bng
hai lin kt hu hng c cc dung lng ring r. Nh chng ta s
thy, trong bt k lin kt no v u trong qu trnh tm li gii cho
bi ton ny, ch c lung theo mt hng.
C th biu din bi ton ny di dng bi ton tm cc lung fij tho
mn cc iu kin sau:
ij
ij
ij
f ji = rij ; i = s
f ji = rij ; i = d
j
f ji = 0; i s
j
f ij cij
f ij 0; i, j
Thut ton Ford-Fulkerson
Thut ton tt nht cho vic gii bi ton lung n hng l thut ton
Ford-Fulkerson. Thut ton ny ch ra cc ng i t ngun s ti ch
d v gi cc lung ln nht c th qua mi ng m khng vi phm
gii hn dung lng. Thc ra thut ton c iu khin nhm ch ra
cc ng i v in y chng bng cc lung.
Hnh 4.10. Mng n gin

Chng hn xt mt mng trong hnh 4.10. Gi s tt c cc lin kt c
dung lng l 1. Chng ta c th gi mt n v lung trn ng i
SABD v mt trn ng i SEFD. V tng dung lng ca cc lin
kt ri S l 2 v mi n v lung t S ti D phi s dng mt n v
dung lng ri khi S ny do khng c lung no khc na tha
mn yu cu. Ngoi ra, v mi n v lung phi s dng t nht mt
n v dung lng ca mt SD-cut bt k (vi SD-cut l mt tp cc
lin kt m s bin mt ca n phn tch S khi D) nn lung t S ti
D ln nht khng th ln hn dung lng ca bt k cut no (dung
93
lng ca cut l tng dung lng ca tt c cc lin kt thuc cut). Do

ta c b sau:
B 4.1 (Ford-Fulkerson)
Lung t S ti D ln nht khng th ln hn dung lng ca cut

c dung lng nh nht
Thc ra, lung t S ti D ln nht chnh bng dung lng ca SD-cut
c dung lng b nht. chnh l nh l Lung Ln nht- Cutset
B nht ni ting ca Ford-Fulkerson.
Gii hn (1) nu trn gi l iu kin gii hn bo ton lung. iu
kin ny m bo rng vi cc nt khc vi nt ngun v nt ch th
lung vo bng vi lung ra. Trong trng hp ny, cc nt ngun
(ch) c lung ra (vo) phi bng lung t ngun ti ch. Bt k SDcut no cng phn chia cc nt thnh hai tp X v Y vi S thuc X v
D thuc Y. Nu iu kin (1) i vi tt c cc nt thuc tp X c
cng li th ta thy rng lung tng t X ti Y tr i lung tng t Y ti
X c kt qu bng lung t S ti D. Ch rng tng cc phn v tri
chnh bng tng cc lung trong cc lin kt c mt u thuc X cn
u kia thuc Y, tr i tng cc lung trong cc lin kt c mt u
thuc Y cn u kia thuc X. Cc lin kt c hai u cng thuc X
khng tham gia vo tng ny v chng xut hin trong tng nhng c
du ngc nhau. Cc lin kt khng c u no thuc X cng khng
xut hin trong tng. S tham gia vo v phi ca iu kin; tt c cc
nt khc khng tham gia.
V th, tho mn nh l trn cn phi:
Lung tng i qua cut c dung lng b nht phi bng dung lng
ca cut ngha l tt c cc lin kt thuc ct phi trng thi bo
ho (lung bng dung lng).
Lung i ngc cut ny phi bng 0.
Thc ra, tt cc cut c dung lng b nht phi l bo ho v iu
xy ra vo cui thut ton. Thut ton thc hin bng cch ch ra cc
ng i c dung lng b v gi lung i qua ton b cc ng i
. Khi khng tm ra mt ng i no c c dung lng b, mt cut
bo ho c ch ra v thut ton kt thc. Cc cut c dung lng b
khc cng bo ho nhng chng khng c thut ton ch ra.
number <- FFflow(n , s , d , cap , *flow )
dcl cap[n][n] , flow[n][n], pred[n],
sign[n] , mxf[n] , scan_queue[queue]
void <-Scan( i )
for each( j , n )
if( predd[j] = U )
if(flow[i,j] < cap[i,j])
94
mxflow <- min(mxf[i],cap[i,j]flow[i,j])
mxf[j],pred[j],sign[j] <mxflow,i,+
else if (
flow[j,i] > 0)
mxflow <- min(mxf[i],flow[j,i])
mxf[j],pred[j],sign[j] <mxflow,i,Push(scan_queue, j)
void <-Backtrack( )
n <- d
tot_flow <- tot_flow + mxf[d]
while ( n != s )
p <- pred[n]
if (sign[n] = + )
flow[p,n]<- flow[p,n] +
mxf[d]
else
flow[n,p]<- flow[n,p] +
mxf[d]
tot_flow <- 0
flow <- 0
flag <- TRUE
while ( flag )
pred <- U
Initialize_queue ( scan_queue )
Push( scan_queue , s )
mxf[s] <-INFINITY
while( !(Empty(scan_queue) &&(pred[d] = U) )
i<- Pop(scan_queue)
Scan( i )
if( pred[d] != U )
Backtrack( )
flag <- (pred[d] !=U)
return( tot_flow )
Trong trng hp n gin nht, thut ton Ford-Fulkerson c vit
nh trong on gi m trn vi n l s nt, m l s lin kt. Mi nt c
mt nhn:
(maxflow, pred, sign)
Nhn ny biu din gi tr lung ln nht c th trn ng i hin
hnh tnh cho ti thi im ang xt, nt lin trc ca nt ang xt
trong ng i hin hnh v chiu ca lung i qua lin kt. Gi tr
tng trng U l khng xc nh; gi tr thc s ca U nn c phn
bit vi bt k gi tr hp l no khc.
95
Thut ton tr v lung trong mi lin kt. Tng lung i t ngun ti

ch c th c tnh bng tng cc lung i ra khi ngun (hoc i ti
ch). Thut ton ch ra ng i t ngun ti ch bng cch s dng
mt thut ton c ci bin t thut ton Bellman. Thut ton ny
cho php s dng mt lin kt (i,j) theo hng ti (ngha l t i ti j)
nu lung t i ti j l fij b hn dung lng ca lin kt cij. N cng
cho php s dng lin kt theo chiu ngc li (ngha l lin kt (i.j)
c s dng a lung t j ti i), nhng iu ny ch xy ra nu
trc c mt lung t i ti j l dng. Trong trng hp ny, lung
c loi ra khi lin kt (i,j).
Lung ln nht theo chiu t i ti j l cij - fij. Lung ln nht theo chiu
t j ti i l fij. i lng mxf, trong cc nhn ca mi nt, ch ra lung
ln nht c th c gi i trn mt ng i.
Bn trong vng while trn, chng ta bt u t nt ngun s v thc
hin vic tm kim nhn d. Nu thnh cng, chng ta c th quan st
ngc t d v s theo pred t d. Thc ra qu trnh ny bao gm vic
tng lung trong mi lin kt theo hng thun v gim lung trong
mi lin kt theo hng ngc li. Nu khng c nhn cho d, thut
ton kt thc. Khi thut ton ch ra lung ln nht; cc lin kt (i, j)
c i c gn nhn v j khng c gn nhn to ra cc cut bo ho.
Hm Scan c phc tp l O(n). Mt dng khc ca thut ton ny
hot ng c hiu qu hn, l dng c hm Scan c phc tp
l O(d) vi d l bc ca nt, hm ny to ra mt danh sch cha cc
nt k cn cho mi nt nt. Trong Scan(i) thay th
for j=1 to n
bng
for each ( j , adj_set[i] )
Khi thut ton dng li, mt cut hon ton c nh ngha. Cc nt c
nhn khc U th thuc tp X v cc nt cn li th thuc Y, vi X v Y
c nh nghi nh trc y. Vic nh nhn bo m rng tt c
cc cung trong X,Y-cut l bo ho, v tt c cc cung trong Y,X-cut c
lung bng 0. iu ny c th thy r khi ch rng thut ton dng
li khi vic nh nhn khng c tip tc na. Bt k cung cha bo
ho no thuc S,D cut hoc bt k cung no thuc D,S cut c lung
khc khng th c th c s dng tip tc vic nh nhn. Khi
chng ta khng tip tc nh nhn ngha l khi khng c nhng
cung nh vy. V vy, lung t S ti D bng vi dung lng ca X,Ycut v nh l Lung ln nht - Cut b nht ngm c chng
minh.
V d 4.11:
Xem xt vic s dng cc cung theo chiu ngc cng l mt vic

quan trng. Nu vic ny khng c thc hin th s khng m bo
rng lung l ln nht. Xt mt mng trong hnh 4.10. Gi s rng,
ng i u tin l SAFD. mt n v lung c gi i trn ton b
ng i. Tip mt ng i khc c tm kim. S khng th
nh nhn A bi v SA l mt cung bo ho. S nh nhn E v E nh
96
nhn F, F khng th nh nhn D v FD l mt cung bo ho. Ch

rng, khng tn ti mt cung t F ti A; cung FA ch c hng t A ti
F. iu cn ch y l thut ton phi s dng cung FA theo chiu
ngc, do loi b mt n v lung khi cung . iu cho php
F nh nhn A, A nh nhn B v B nh nhn D. V th mt ng i
th hai c tm thy, l ng i SEFABD c cung FA c s
dng theo chiu ngc. Kt qu ca vic gi lung trn hai ng i
l gi mt n v lung t S ti E, ti F, ti D v mt n v lung nh
vy t S ti A, ti B v ti D. n v lung ban u trn lin kt AF
c loi tr trong ng i th hai v lung mng trn cung ny
bng 0. Hai ng i c tm thy bng thut ton c th kt hp to
thnh hai ng i mi.
Nh trnh by trn, i vi mt mng c N nt v E cnh, mt ln
s dng thut ton ny tm mt ng i n th c phc tp
bng O(N2) v mi nt c qut ti a mt ln (cc nt khng c
nh li nhn), v phc tp ca php qut l O(N). Vi thut ton
c sa i t thut ton Bellman c s dng danh sch k cn,
mi nt c kim tra ti a mt ln t mi u v mt ln thc hin
vic c phc tp bng O(E). phc tp trong vic thit lp
danh sch k cn l O(E) v ch cn i qua cc cung mt ln duy nht
cng vi vic chn cc nt vo danh sch k cn. V vy, i vi cc
mng tha, phc tp khng qu ln.
C th thy rng phc tp ca ton b thut ton bng tch ca
phc tp khi tm mt ng i n v s ng i tm c. Nu
dung lng ca cc cung l cc s nguyn th mi ng i cng
thm t nht mt n v lung vo mng. V th s lng ng i
c gii hn bi lung cui cng F. Do phc tp ton b ca
thut ton l O(EF).
Hnh 4.11. Mng n gin

Ni chung, F c th rt ln. Xt mt mng trong hnh 4.11. Tt c cc
cung ngoi tr cung (A, B) u c dung lng bng K, mt s rt ln.
(A, B) c dung lng bng 1. Gi s ng i u tin l SABD. V
cung (A, B) c dung lng bng 1, nn ch c mt n v lung c th
chuyn qua ng i ny. Tip , gi s rng SBAD l ng i
c tm thy. V ch c mt n v lung c loi khi (A, B) nn
cng ch c duy nht mt n v lung c gi trn ng i ny.
Thut ton thc hin tm kim c 2K ng i, cc ng i SABD
v SBAD c lp i lp li, trong mi ng i c mt n v
97
lung c gi i, v th phc tp t ti phc tp trong trng

hp xu nht.
Cc bi ton tng t nh bi ton nu trn s khng th xy ra nu
thut ton tm cc ng i tm c cc ng i c s bc ti
thiu. Thut ton tm kim theo chiu rng s thc hin vic ny. T
trc ti nay, bi ton lung ln nht c tm hiu kh k v c
rt nhiu thut ton cng nh cc thut ton ci tin t cc thut ton
dng gii quyt bi ton ny.
Trong thc t, qu trnh thc hin thut ton nu trn c th hot
ng gii quyt hoc l bi ton lung ln nht hoc l bi ton tm
mt lung c mt gi tr c th no . By gi chng ta s xem xt bi
ton tm cc lung c gi nh nht.
Cc lung c gi nh nht
Gi thit rng chng ta bit gi ca mt n v lung cij trn mi
lin kt. Yu cu t ra l tm mt lung t ngun ti ch vi gi tr
cho trc c gi b nht, trong gi ca mt lung c nh ngha
bng tng tt c cc tch ca lung trn mi lin kt nhn vi gi ca
mt n v lung trn lin kt . Tng t, c th chng ta cn tm
mt lung vi tr s ln nht c gi b nht. Chng hn, chng ta cn
tm mt gi ti thiu, nhng vn m bo l c th to ra mt lung c
tr s ln nht.
Cch n gin nht tm mt lung c gi ti thiu l sa i
thut ton Ford-Fulkerson tm cc ng i ngn nht thay v tm
cc ng i c bc nh nht vi gi ca mt n v lung c s
dng nh cc di. Thut ton Bellman hoc bt k thut ton tm
ng ngn nht no cng c th c lm cho tng thch vi mc
ch ny. Yu cu t ra l phi theo di c lung trn mi lin kt
v ging nh trong thut ton Ford-Fulkerson, y ch s dng cc
lin kt cha bo ho theo chiu thun, v ch s dng cc lin kt
theo chiu ngc nu cc lin kt ang c lung theo chiu thun
dng.
Cch thc hin trn c th c xem nh l vic thc hin thut ton
Ford-Fulkerson vi mt vi sa i. Lc ny, mi nhn c thm mt
i lng th t p, l di ca ng i. Gi tr c cp nht
ging nh cch lm trong thut ton Bellman. Chng hn, mt nt
c di l p s gn cho nt lng ging ca n mt di ng i l
q vi q bng tng ca p v di ca lin kt ni hai nt.
98
Hnh 4.12. Lung c gi thp nht

V d 4.12:
Trong hnh 4.12 mi lin kt c gn mt nhn (gi ca mt n v

lung, dung lng). Cc lin kt l cc lin kt hai hng. Chng hn,
gi ca vic chuyn mt n v lung gia A v B theo mt trong hai
hng l 4. S dng thut ton Ford-Fulkerson, sa i cch theo di
di cc ng i v cho php mt nt c nh nhn li nu
di ng i trong nhn ca nt ny c ci tin (tch cc hn)
gii quyt bi ton. V th, mi nt c mt nhn
(pathlength, maxflow, pred, sign)
S c nhn (0, INFINITY, PHI, PHI), nhn ny ch ra rng c
mt gi ( di ng i) bng 0 tnh t ngun, khng c gii hn v
lung, v khng c nt lin trc. Tt c cc nt khc ban u khng
c nhn hoc c nhn gn ging vi nhn sau
(INFINITY, INFINITY, PHI, PHI)
Mt nhn c di ng i khng xc nh tng ng vi vic
khng c nhn no v bt k khi no nh nhn, cng c mt nhn c
di ng i xc nh thay th mt nhn nh vy.
S c t vo danh sch qut v n l nt u tin c qut, S
nh nhn C bng (2, 4, S, +) v C c t vo danh sch
qut. V di gia S v chnh n bng 0 v khng c gii hn v
lung m n c th chuyn qua, nn di ng i ch n gin l
di ca lin kt t S ti C v lung ln nht chnh l dung lng
ca lin kt (S, C). S gn nhn A bng (2, 3, S, +) v A c t
vo danh sch qut. Vic chn nt no c nh nhn trc mang
tnh ngu nhin. iu ny tu thuc vo th t c thit lp trong
danh sch k cn.
Sau C c qut, C th nh nhn S nhng iu l khng th
v S c mt nhn c di ng i bng 0, trong khi C c gn
mt nhn c di ng i bng 4. Tuy nhin C c th nh nhn E
bng (8, 3, C, +). di ng i bng 8 chnh l tng ca 2 (
di ng i trong nhn hin c ca C) v 6 ( di ca lin kt t C
ti E). Lung ln nht chnh l gi tr b nht ca 4 (lung ln nht
trong nhn ca C) v 3 (dung lng ca lin kt t C ti E tr i lung
99
hin ti l 0). E c a vo danh sch qut. Tng t C gn nhn

B bng (11, 4, C, +) v B c a vo danh sch qut.
Sau A c qut. A c th gn li nhn cho B bng nhn c di
ng i b hn v B c nhn bng (6, 2, A, +). Ch rng B
c gn li nhn c di ng i b hn, mc d iu dn n
lung ln nht trong nhn b hn. iu ny c th gim lung trn
ng i nhng khng lm gim tng lung c gi ti D; s
nh nhn kiu ny ch n gin l yu cu cn thm ng i
chuyn lung . Mc d B c gn li nhn nhng khng c a
vo danh sch qut v B tn ti trong danh sch qut.
E sau c qut, nt ny gn nhn D bng (11, 3, C, +). D l
nt ch nn khng cn phi a vo danh sch qut. Mc d D c
gn nhn nhng vn phi tip tc nh nhn cho n khi danh sch
thnh rng bi v vn c th c mt ng i tt hn. E khng th gn
nhn B ln na v nhn ca B c di ng i bng 6 trong khi E
ch c th gn 9 cho B. Tip B c qut v D c nh nhn
bng (9, 2, B, +).
Lc ny, danh sch qut rng. i ngc ng i t D, ng i
ny c cc nt sau: B (nt trc ca D), A (nt trc ca B) v S.
Thm 2 n v lung (lung ln nht trong nhn ca D) vo cc lin
kt (S, A), (A, B) v (B, D). Lc ny c ba lin kt c cc lung c
lung dng, v th chng iu kin s dng theo chiu ngc
li. Lin kt (A, B) bo ho theo chiu thun v ch iu kin s
dng theo chiu ngc.
Ln tm th hai c kt qu l ng i SCED c di l 11 v lung
bng 3. Ln tm th ba c kt qu l ng i SCEBD c di l 12
v lung bng 1.
Trong ln tm th t, tt c mi nt u c gn nhn tr nt D,
nhng D khng th c gn nhn nn thut ton kt thc. iu ny
tng ng vi cc cut c dung lng bng 6 gia cc nt cn li v
nt D. V th c mt lung ln nht bng vi dung lng ca mt cut
ti thiu. iu ny to ra tng gi tr bng
(9x2 + 11x3 + 12x1) = 63
Nu ch mun gi ba n v lung th iu c th thc hin vi gi
bng
(9x2 + 11x1) = 29
vi ng i u tin v ng i th hai. Chnh v vy, thut ton
ny c th c s dng gii quyt bi ton lung ln nht, gi b
nht ln bi ton tm lung vi gi tr cho trc c gi b nht. Trong
bi ton tm lung vi gi tr cho trc c gi b nht, thut ton c th
dng li khi lung t ti gi tr mong mun. Trong bi ton lung ln
nht, gi b nht, nh ni trn, thut ton c thc hin cho
n khi khng c ng i no na c tm thy.
S m rng thut ton Ford-Fulkerson l ng n. iu bt li duy
nht l vic phi mt s m bo v phc tp tnh ton. Khng
100
cn c vic tm kim theo chiu su na, v c th phi tm mt

ng i m php tm kim c phc tp bng O(L) vi lung c
ln l L. Trong thc t, cc ng i c di b nht c xu hng c
bc nh nht v t khi c s thay i ng k v thi gian hot ng.
Th nhng, theo nh l iu c th xy ra. iu ny t ra yu cu
v s pht trin cc thut ton phc tp hn c phc tp trong
trng hp xu nht b hn. Nhng thut ton nh th gi l thut
ton kp, rt nhiu trong s chng bt u bng vic s dng thut
ton Ford-Fulkerson tm mt lung ti a (hoc mt lung c gi tr
cho trc) v sau tm kim ng chuyn lung khc theo mt chu
trnh c di m, chuyn lung khi ng i c gi cao hn ti
ng i c gi thp hn.
5.4. Bi tp (Pending)
101
Chng 6 iu khin lung v

chng tc nghn
6.1. Tng quan
6.1.1. M u
Trong trao i thng tin, khi pha pht truyn d liu n pha thu th
d liu u tin c lu trong b m pha thu. D liu trong b m
ny sau khi c x l v chuyn ln cc lp pha trn th s c
xa i, dnh b m cho cc d liu k tip.
Trn thc t trao i thng tin trong mng, c th xy ra tnh trng pha
pht truyn d liu vi tc cao hn kh nng x l ca pha thu,
dn n b m ca pha thu s y dn v b trn. Trong trng hp
ny, pha thu khng th nhn thm cc gi d liu t pha pht dn
n vic pha pht phi thc hin truyn li d liu, gy lng ph bng
thng trn ng truyn.
Nhm gim thiu vic phi truyn li thng tin v mt gi do trn hng
i, cn c c ch thc hin kim sot v iu khin lu lng thng
tin i n mt thit b/mng. Chc nng ny c thc hin bi k
thut iu khin lung v kim sot tc nghn.
V d 5.1: hot ng ca mng khi khng c s kim sot
Hnh: Hot ng ca mng khi khng c s kim sot

Trn hnh v ny cc s trn mi lin kt th hin tc truyn d liu
trn ng . Gi s c hai kt ni t B n A (theo ng B Y X
102
A, tc BA Kbps) v t C n D (theo ng C Z X D, tc
CD Kbps).
Gi thit h thng mng khng c kim sot, ngha l tt c cc gi
tin u c th truy cp ti nguyn ca mng, v b m ti cc nt X,
Y v Z c th c s dng bi bt k gi tin no. Gi thit mi trng
truyn khng c li, lc ny cc gi tin khng b sai nhng vn c th
phi c truyn li nu n b nt mng hy do khng cn dung lng
b m lu gi tin tm thi trc khi x l. Gi thit khi gi tin b
mt v khng c lu trong b m th nt pht n s thc hin pht
li nhm m bo vic truyn tin tin cy.
minh ha cho vic iu khin trong mng, ta tm hiu cc trng
hp sau:
1)
Trng hp 1: BA = 7 Kbps v CD = 0 .
Trong trng hp ny khng xy ra tc nghn v lu lng t B n A

s c mng trung chuyn ht. Tc thng tin n nt A chnh
bng tc thng tin nt B a vo mng, cc ng B-Y, Y-X v X-A
u c tc 7 Kbps
2)
Trng hp 2: BA = 8 + Kbps ( > 0) v CD = 0
Trong trng hp ny, tc thng tin t B n A ln hn tc hot

ng ca ng t X n A. V l do ny, tc thng tin t Y n X
ln hn t X n A, lng thng tin d tha s phi c lu trong b
m ca X. B m ca X s dn b y v trn dn n cc gi thng
tin t Y n s khng c lu v b hy. V b m ca Y lu li cc
gi tin cha c bo nhn ( truyn li) nn b m ca Y cng dn
b y v trn.
Nt X c th chuyn 8 Kbps khi lu lng u vo ca n l 8+ Kbps
(X hy Kbps). Lc ny, ng Y X s c tc 8+2 Kbps (trong
8+ Kbps l thng tin t B n v Kbps l thng tin pht li).
Nhng v nt X ch c th truyn 8 Kbps nn n hy 2 Kbps v Y li
phi truyn li lng thng tin ny. Qu trnh ny c tip din v cui
cng ng ni Y X s hot ng vi tc 56 Kbps. Tng t nh
vy, ng lin kt t B n Y cng s hot ng vi tc 16 Kbps
(bao gm c cc gi mi v cc gi c pht li)
gii quyt vn ny, c th lm theo hai cch:
Xy dng h thng mng c kh nng p ng tc ca

thng tin t X n A (8+ Kbps) nhm p ng vi yu cu v
tc ca B gii php ny ch thc s kh thi v hiu qu khi
tc pht tin ca B l n nh trong mt thi gian di, nu
khng hiu qu s dng ti nguyn rt thp nu xy dng h
thng mng c kh nng p ng lu lng ln nhng li ch
hot ng vi cc yu cu trao i lu lng nh.
Gii hn tc truyn tin ca B xung cn 8 Kbps phng n

ny kh thi khi yu cu truyn tin ca B trong phn ln thi gian
103
< 8 Kbps v tc vt 8 Kbps ch din ra trong thi gian

ngn.
Trong hai phng n ny, trn thc t ngi ta s dng phng n 2
vi s h tr ca cc giao thc mng.
3)
Trng hp 3: BA = 7 Kbps v CD = 7 Kbps
Tng t nh trng hp 1, trng hp 3 khng xy ra tc nghn

trong mng. Thng tin c chuyn n A v D vi tc 7Kbps cho
mi nt. Mi mt lin kt trong mng s hot ng vi tc 7Kbps
4)
Trng hp 4: BA = 8 + Kbps v CD = 7 Kbps ( > 0)
Trong trng hp ny, ng i t C n D c dung lng (tc )

p ng yu cu cho kt ni C D; tuy nhin yu cu truyn thng
tin trn ng B A vt qu kh nng x l ca tuyn truyn ny.
Trong trng hp ny, hai kt ni B A v C D chia s b m ca
nt X. Nh xt trong trng hp 2, lu lng thng tin t B n A
lm trn b m ca X, iu ny dn n thng tin t B v C khi n X
u b hy. Hin tng ny xy ra i vi tt c cc gi tin (c B v C)
cho d nguyn nhn gy ra l do B. H qu l nt Y v Z cng b trn
b m v tt c cc ng lin kt s hot ng vi tc cc i
ca chng.
Do trc khi chuyn gi tin t B v C n A v D tng ng, nt X
phi lu cc gi tin ny vo b m x l nn trong trng hp b
m X b trn, X s phi hy cc gi tin ny. Do tc thng tin Y X
gp i tc thng tin Z X (khi cc lin kt ny hot ng vi tc
c nh) nn s lng gi tin t Y n X s gp i t Z n X. Ni
mt cch khc, X s hy (hay chp nhn) cc gi tin t Y v Z n
theo t l 2:1. Lc ny thng tin t B n A hot ng vi tc 8
Kbps trong khi thng tin t C n D ch hot ng vi tc 4 Kbps.
So vi trng hp 3, ta thy:
Thng lng tng cng ca mng gim t 14 Kbps xung cn

12 Kbps.
Nt C b i x khng cng bng v tc truyn thng tin ca

n n D b gim t 7 Kbps xung cn 4 Kbps trong khi nt B
khng b nh hng nhiu (gim t 8+ Kbps xung 8 Kbps).
Ngoi ra, nguyn nhn gy ra tc nghn li l do nt B.
gii quyt vn ny, ngi ta c th dnh mt phn dung lng

b m ti X cho cc gi tin t C i n. Vic dnh trc ti nguyn
ny c v nh tri ngc vi nguyn tc ca chuyn mch gi khi ti
nguyn trong mng c chia s bi tt cc cc nt v ngi dng.
Tuy nhin, trn thc t ngi ta c th nh i iu ny m bo
tnh cng bng trong mng.
Hnh di y m t thng lng ca mng trong mi quan h vi lu
lng u vo.
Thng lng: l tc chuyn thng tin ca mng tnh theo gi

/s
104
Lu lng: l tc thng tin i n mng (bao gm c thng

tin mi v thng tin c truyn li)
Hnh: Thng lng ca mng trong mi quan h vi lu lng u vo

Trong trng hp l tng, mng s thc hin chuyn tt c cc gi i
vo mng trong trng hp tc n ca cc gi ny nh hn kh
nng trung chuyn ca mng (lu lng nh hn thng lng). Khi
lu lng thng tin n vt qu thng lng ca mng, trong trng
hp l tng th mng phi c kh nng chuyn cc gi vi tc
bng thng lng ca mng (theo ng l tng trn hnh v)
Trong trng hp thc t, nu h thng mng khng c kim sot
v c cc c ch iu khin, mng s thc hin chuyn tt c cc gi
tin khi lu lng nh hn mt ngng no . Khi lu lng vt qu
gi tr ngng th thng lng bt u gim. Lu lng n cng
nhiu th thng lng cng gim. Trong mt s trng hp dn n
tnh trng deadlock ngha l mng hu nh khng chuyn c gi tin
no na.
Trong trng hp c thc hin iu khin lung v iu khin tc
nghn, h thng mng s c kim sot v c kh nng hot ng
tt ngay c khi c trng hp qu ti xy ra (lu lng i vo mng
ln hn thng lng ca mng). Tuy nhin, do vic thc hin iu
khin lung v tc nghn i hi phi c cc thng tin iu khin nn
thng lng thc t (trong trng hp mng cha qu ti) s nh hn
trng hp l tng, thm ch nh hn so vi trng hp khng c
iu khin.
6.1.2. Khi nim iu khin lung
nh ngha iu khin lung l c ch nhm m bo vic
truyn thng tin ca pha pht khng vt qu kh nng x l

ca pha thu.
Trong k thut mng, iu khin lung c chia lm hai loi.
105
iu khin lung gia hai nt u cui (end-to-end): nhm m

bo nt ngun (ni khi to phin thng tin) thc hin truyn
thng tin khng vt qu kh nng x l ca nt ch (ni kt
thc phin thng tin).
iu khin lung gia hai nt trong mng (hop-by-hop): l vic

thc hin iu khin lung gia hai nt lin tip trn ng i
t ngun n ch.
6.1.3. Khi nim chng tc nghn

nh ngha Chng tc nghn l c ch kim sot thng tin
i vo mng nhm m bo tng lu lng thng tin i vo mng

khng vt qu kh nng x l ca ton mng.
Chng tc nghn c chia lm hai loi:
iu khin truy nhp mng (network access): kim sot v
iu khin lng thng tin c th i vo trong mng.
iu khin cp pht b m (buffer allocation): l c ch

thc hin ti cc nt mng nhm m bo vic s dng b
m l cng bng v trnh vic khng truyn tin c do b
m ca tt c cc nt b trn (deadlock).
Chng tc nghn lin quan n vic kim sot thng tin trn ton
mng, trong khi iu khin lung l vic kim sot thng tin gia hai
u cui c th. Hai k thut ny c im tng ng l phi gii hn
lu lng thng tin nhm trnh kh nng qu ti ca h thng ch.
Do tnh cht gn kt ca hai khi nim ny, a phn cc ti liu u s
dng ln (hoc kt hp) cc khi nim iu khin lung (flow control)
v iu khin tc nghn (congestion control).
V l do , trong ti liu ny, chng ti s dng khi nim iu khin
lung din t c hai phm tr. Trong nhng trng hp c th cn
phi phn bit lm r hai khi nim, chng ti s c nhng ch thch r
rng.
6.1.4. Nhim v ch yu ca iu khin lung v chng tc nghn
iu khin lung v chng tc nghn c s dng khi c s gii hn
v ti nguyn (thng l bng thng) gia im truy nhp thng tin.
Khi nim im truy nhp y c th l gia hai ngi s dng,
gia ngi s dng vi im truy nhp mng hay gia hai thit b
mng
Mc ch chnh ca vic s dng iu khin lung v chng tc nghn
trong mng l nhm:
Ti u ha thng lng s dng ca mng: trong trng
hp thng tin ch truyn gia hai ngi dng, vic ti u ha

tc truyn tin khng cn t ra. Tuy nhin, trong mt h
106
thng mng vi s tham gia trao i thng tin ca nhiu nt

mng, vic ti u ha thng lng ca h thng mng phc
tp hn nhiu.
Gim tr gi khi i qua mng: ng trn phng din
ngi s dng, tr gi t u cui n u cui cng nh cng

tt. Tuy nhin, iu khin lung ( lp mng) khng nhm thc
hin iu . iu khin lung ch m bo tr ca gi tin khi i
qua mng nm mt mc chp nhn c thng qua vic gii
hn s lng gi tin i vo mng (v do , gim tr hng i).
V l do , iu khin lung khng c tc dng vi nhng ng
dng i hi tr nh trong khi li truyn trn h thng h tng
tc thp. Trong trng hp ny, vic p ng yu cu ca
ngi s dng ch c th c thc hin thng qua vic nng
cp h thng hay s dng cc gii thut nh tuyn ti u hn.
Mc ch chnh ca vic gim tr gi l gim s lng ph ti
nguyn khi phi truyn li gi. Vic truyn li c c th do hai
nguyn nhn: (1) hng i ca cc nt mng b y dn n
gi thng tin b hy v phi truyn li; (2) thng tin bo nhn
quay tr li nt ngun qu tr khin pha pht cho rng thng
tin truyn i b mt v phi truyn li
m bo tnh cng bng cho vic trao i thng tin

trn mng: m bo tnh cng bng trong trao i thng tin l
mt trong nhng yu t tin quyt ca k thut mng. Vic m

bo tnh cng bng cho php ngi s dng c dng ti
nguyn mng vi c hi nh nhau. Trong trng hp ngi s
dng c chia thnh cc nhm vi mc u tin khc nhau
th bo m tnh cng bng c thc hin i vi cc ngi
dng trong cng mt nhm.
m bo trnh tc nghn trong mng: tc nghn l hin

tng thng lng ca mng gim v tr tng ln khi lng
thng tin i vo mng tng. iu khin lung cung cp c ch
gii hn lng thng tin i vo mng nhm trnh hin tng
tc nghn k trn. C th hnh dung iu khin lung nh hot
ng ca cnh st giao thng trn ng ph vo gi cao
im.
Nh trn trnh by, iu khin lung v trnh tc nghn thng

c s dng kt hp vi nhau kim sot thng tin trn mng.
iu khin lung v trnh tc nghn c s dng nhiu nht ti cc
lp lin kt d liu (data link), lp mng (network) v lp giao vn
(transport) trong iu khin lung hop-by-hop c s dng lp
lin kt d liu, iu khin lung end-to-end c s dng lp giao
vn v iu khin tc nghn c s dng lp mng.
6.1.5. Phn loi iu khin lung v trnh tc nghn
Trong cc phn ti, chng ta s ln lt tm hiu cc c ch v chnh
sch thc hin iu khin lung v trnh tc nghn. Cc c ch ny
c phn ra lm ba loi chnh:
107
Cc c ch cp pht b m
Cc c ch ca s
Cc c ch iu khin truy nhp mng
6.2. Tnh cng bng

6.2.1. nh ngha
nh ngha Tnh cng bng l kh nng m bo cho cc
ngi dng, cc ng dng khc nhau c s dng ti nguyn

mng vi c hi nh nhau.
m bo tnh cng bng l mt trong nhng tiu ch hng u ca k
thut mng.
V d: xem li v d u chng (v d s...) thy c tnh cng
bng.
6.2.2. Tnh cng bng v mt bng truyn
nh ngha Tnh cng bng v mt bng truyn th hin
kh nng chia s bng truyn cng bng cho tt c ngi dng

hoc kt ni.
V d 5.2: Xt m hnh mng nh trn hnh v di y. Lin kt
gia cc nt c tc 1Mbps.
Thng lng ca mng s t cc i (bng 3Mbps) nu cc

kt ni 2, 3 v 4 c s dng ton b 1 Mbps bng thng v
kt ni 1 khng c cung cp lng bng thng no c
Mt khi nim khc ca tnh cng bng l cho mi kt ni s

dng 0,5Mbps bng thng. Lc ny tng thng lng ca mng
s l 2Mbps.
Nu cung cp lng ti nguyn mng (bng thng) cho tt c

cc kt ni l nh nhau, lc y cc kt ni 2, 3, 4 s c s
dng 0,75Mbps v kt ni 1 s dng 0,25 Mbps (v c s
dng trn ton b ng truyn)
Hnh: Minh ha s nh i gia thng lng v tnh cng bng
108
6.2.3. Tnh cng bng v mt b m

Hnh v di minh ha khi nim s dng b m
Gi s nt mng B c dung lng b m hu hn
Lin kt 1 (t A n B) c tc 10Mbps, lin kt 2 (t D n

B) c tc 1 Mbps.
Nu khng c c ch iu khin lung v qun l b m, t l

s dng dung lng b m ti B ca hai lin kt 1 v 2 s l
10:1 (do tc thng tin n B tng ng l 10Mbps v
1Mbps)
Kt ni 2
D
1
Kt ni 1
10
1
E
Hnh: Minh ha v s khng cng bng khi s dng b m
Hnh v di minh ha hin tng tc nghn xy ra do trn b m.
Trong hnh (a), b m ca nt A c in y bi thng

tin n t B v ngc li. H qu l A v B khng nhn c
thm thng tin t nhau v vic truyn thng tin l khng thc
hin c (deadlock)
Trong hnh (b), gi s b m ca A y cc gi thng tin ca

B, b m ca B y thng tin ca C v b m ca C y cc
thng tin ca A. Tng t nh trng hp hnh A, trong trng
hp ny, vic truyn tin cng khng thc hin c do trn b
m.
109
Hnh: Tc nghn do trn b m

nh ngha Tnh cng bng v mt b m l kh nng
m bo vic s dng b m ca cc ngi dng, cc ng

dng hay kt ni l cng bng.
Vi vic s dng c ch iu khin lung v cc c ch qun l b
m, vic phn chia s dng b m gia cc ngi dng, ng dng
hay cc kt ni s c thc hin cng bng hn.
6.2.4. C ch pht li ARQ
Cc c ch iu khin lung v iu khin tc nghn theo phng
php ca s c hot ng tng t nh cc c ch pht li ARQ
(Automatic Repeat Request). V l do , trong phn ny, chng ti
trnh by cc khi nim c bn v cc c ch ARQ lm nn tng cho
vic tm hiu v iu khin lung v iu khin tc nghn cc phn
sau.
Khi truyn thng tin trong mng, thng tin truyn t pha pht sang
pha thu c th b sai li hoc mt. Trong trng hp thng tin b mt,
cn phi thc hin truyn li thng tin. Vi trng hp thng tin b sai,
c th sa sai bng mt trong hai cch:
Sa li trc tip bn thu: pha thu sau khi pht hin li c th

sa li trc tip ngay bn thu m khng yu cu phi pht li.
c th thc hin c iu ny, thng tin trc khi truyn i
phi c ci cc m sa li (bn cnh vic c kh nng pht
hin li, cn c kh nng sa li).
110
Yu cu pha pht truyn li: pha thu sau khi kim tra v pht
hin c li s yu cu pha pht truyn li thng tin.
c im ca hai phng php sa li trn:
Sa li trc tip bn thu (Forward Error Correction FEC): ch

cn truyn thng tin mt ln, khng yu cu phi truyn li
thng tin trong trng hp c li. Tuy nhin, s lng bit thng
tin c th sa sai ph thuc vo s loi m sa sai v s bit
thng tin thm vo cho mc ch sa sai. Nhn chung, s bt
thng tin thm vo cng ln th s bit c th sa sai cng nhiu,
tuy nhin hiu sut thng tin (s bit thng tin hu ch trn tng
s bit truyn i) li thp.
Sa li bng cch truyn li: khc vi sa li trc tip bn thu,

trong trng hp sa li bng cch truyn li, thng tin trc
khi pht ch cn thm cc bit thng tin phc v cho mc ch
pht hin li (s bit thm vo t hn so vi trng hp sa li)
do hiu sut truyn thng tin cao hn so vi trng hp
trn. Tuy nhin, trong trng hp c li xy ra vi khung thng
tin th ton b khung thng tin phi c truyn li (gim hiu
sut truyn tin).
Vi u nhc im ca cc phng php trn, sa li bng

cch truyn li thng c dng trong mi trng c t l li
bit thp (truyn dn hu tuyn) trong khi sa li bn thu thng
c dng trong trng hp mi trng truyn dn c t l li
bit cao (v tuyn). c th i ph vi trng hp li chm
(burst noise), c th p dng mt s c ch nh ghp xen k
thng tin (interleaving).
Trong khun kh chng ny, chng ti trnh by vic iu khin li

theo c ch pht li. Cc c ch ny c gi l ARQ (Automatic
Repeat Request). C ch sa li trc tip bn thu c trnh by
trong cc ni dung ca mn hc khc.
Cc c ch pht li c chia ra lm 3 loi chnh:
C ch pht li dng v i (Stop-and-Wait ARQ)
C ch pht li theo nhm (Go-back-N ARQ)
C ch pht li c la chn (Selective repeat ARQ)
Phn di y s ln lt trnh by nguyn tc hot ng cng nh

nh gi hiu nng ca mi phng php.
6.2.5. Stop-and-Wait ARQ
C ch hot ng
Trong c ch pht li theo phng php dng v i (Stop-and-Wait
ARQ), pha pht s thc hin pht mt khung thng tin sau dng
li, ch pha thu bo nhn.
111
Pha thu khi nhn ng khung thng tin v x l xong s gi

bo nhn li cho pha pht. Pha pht sau khi nhn c bo
nhn s pht khung thng tin tip theo.
Pha thu khi nhn khung thng tin v pht hin sai s gi bo
sai li cho pha pht. Pha pht sau khi nhn c bo sai s
thc hin pht li khung thng tin.
Bo nhn c s dng cho khung thng tin ng v c gi l ACK

(vit tt ca ch Acknowledgement). Bo sai c s dng cho khung
thng tin b sai v c gi l NAK (vit tt ca ch Negative
Acknowledgement).
Hnh v di y m t nguyn tc hot ng c bn ca c ch pht
li dng v i.
Trc thi gian bn pht
Packet 0 CRC
Packet 1 CRC
Thi gian
ACK
Packet 1 CRC
NAK
Pht hin
khung 1 sai
Nhn ng
khung 0
Nhn ng
khung 1
Trc thi gian bn thu
Hnh: Pht li theo c ch dng v i

5)
Cu hi: Trong trng hp pha pht khng nhn c thng tin
g t pha thu, pha pht s lm g?

Pha pht khng nhn c thng tin t pha thu trong hai trng hp:
Khung thng tin b mt, pha thu khng nhn c g v cng

khng gi thng bo cho pha pht.
Pha thu nhn c ng khung thng tin v gi ACK ri,

nhng ACK b mt; hoc pha thu nhn c khung thng tin
v pht hin sai v gi NAK nhng khung ny b mt.
trnh tnh trng pha pht khng pht thng tin do ch ACK (hoc
NAK) t pha thu, mi khi pht mt khung thng tin, pha pht s t
mt ng h m ngc (time-out) cho khung thng tin . Ht
khong thi gian time-out, nu pha pht ko nhn c thng tin g t
pha thu th n s ch ng pht li khung thng tin b time-out.
6)
Cu hi: Trong trng hp pha pht phi pht li khung thng tin
do time-out, nhng khung thng tin c nhn ng pha

thu ri (time-out xy ra do ACK b mt), pha thu lm th no c
th phn bit l khung thng tin ny l khung pht li hay khung
thng tin mi?
c th phn bit c cc khung thng tin vi nhau, cn nh s
khc khung. Trong trng hp ny, ch cn dng mt bit nh s
khung (0 hoc 1).
112
trnh tnh trng cc nhm ln gia cc khung thng tin c pht

v bo nhn tng ng, tt c cc khung c truyn i gia hai pha
pht thu u c nh s (0, 1) lun phin. S th t khung thng
tin t pha pht sang pha thu nm trong trng SN (Sequence
Number) v s th t ca bo nhn t pha thu sang pha pht nm
trong trng RN (Request Number). SN l s th t c khi to
bn pht, trong khi , RN l s th t ca khung tip theo m pha
thu mun nhn. RN = SN + 1 trong trng hp khung ng (ng vi
ACK), RN = SN trong trng hp pha thu yu cu pht li do khung
sai (ng vi NAK).
Trn thc t, thng tin trao i gia hai im thng c truyn theo
hai chiu, ngha l ng thi tn ti hai knh truyn t pht n thu v
ngc li. Trong trng hp ny, khung ACK/NAK (hay trng RN)
khng cn nm trong mt khung bo nhn c lp m c th nm
ngay trong tiu ca khung thng tin c truyn theo chiu t thu
n pht. Mt s giao thc c khung thng tin bo nhn c lp
(ACK/NAK) trong khi mt s giao thc khc li s dng lun khung
thng tin truyn theo chiu ngc li (t thu sang pht) thc hin
bo nhn (hay bo li) cho khung thng tin t pht sang thu
Tm tt c ch hot ng ca Stop-and-Wait ARQ
Pha pht gi s ti thi im u SN = 0
1)
Nhn gi tin t lp pha trn v gn SN cho gi tin ny
2)
Gi gi tin SN ny trong mt khung thng tin c s th t l SN
3)
Ch khung thng tin (khng c li, ng vai tr l khung bo nhn)

t pha thu.
Nu khung nhn c khng c li, v trong trng Request c

RN > SN th t gi tr SN = RN v quay li bc 1
Nu khng nhn c khung thng tin trong mt khong thi gian

nh trc (time-out), th thc hin bc 2
Pha thu gi s ti thi im u RN = 0

4)
Khi nhn c mt khung thng tin (khng c li) t pha pht,

chuyn khung ny ln lp pha trn v tng gi tr RN ln 1
5)
Trong trng hp nhn c khung thng tin c li, gi li mt

khung thng tin cho pha pht vi RN c gi nguyn (khung bo
sai - NAK). Khung c gi t pha thu ny c th cha c thng
tin t pha thu sng pha pht ch khng n thun ch dng cho
mc ch bo sai.
Hnh di y m t nguyn tc hot ng ca c ch Stop-and-Wait

ARQ khi c s dng SN v RN.
113
Hnh: Stop-and-Wait ARQ c s dng SN/RN

Hiu sut ca phng php Stop-and-Wait ARQ
nh ngha Hiu sut ca vic truyn tin gia pha pht v thu
l t l gia thi gian pha pht cn pht xong lng thng tin
trn tng thi gian cn thit truyn lng thng tin .
Tng thi gian cn thit y bao gm thi gian tr khi truyn tn hiu
t pht sang thu (v ngc li) cng nh thi gian x l thng tin v
thi gian ch bo nhn t pha thu.
tnh hiu sut tnh cho phng php ARQ dng v i, ngi ta
tnh cho mt khung thng tin in hnh, hiu sut ca c mt phin
truyn cho nhiu khung thng tin v bn cht chnh bng hiu sut khi
tnh cho mt khung (v c t s v mu s cng nhn vi mt h s t
l l s khung thng tin c truyn)
Trng hp 1: Gi thit mi trng khng c li, thng tin t truyn
t pha pht sang pha thu ch chu nh hng ca tr
Hnh: Gin thi gian khi truyn tin t pht sang thu, khng c li
Trong :
TF = thi gian pht khung thng tin
TD = tr truyn sng gia pha pht v pha thu

114
TP = thi gian x l khung thng tin pha thu
TACK = thi gian pht khung ACK
TP = thi gian x l khung ACK pha pht
Ta c:
Thi gian pha pht cn pht xong khung thng tin l TF
Tng thi gian cn thit truyn khung thng tin l T =

TF+TD+TP+TACK+TD+TP. V thi gian x l khung thng tin TP v
TP l kh nh nn c th b qua. Trong trng hp kch thc
khung thng tin F ln hn khung bo nhn ACK rt nhiu th c
th b qua c TACK. Nh vy T = TF+2TD.
Hiu sut truyn:
TF
1
T
=
vi a = D
TF + 2TD 1 + 2a
TF
Trong :
d
vi d l khong cch gia hai trm pht v thu; v l vn tc
v
truyn sng trong mi trng. v = 3.108 m/s khi truyn trong khng
gian t do.
TD =
L
vi L l kch thc khung thng tin v R l tc ng
R
truyn
TF =
Rd
, a cng nh th hiu sut truyn cng ln
vL
Khi a =
V d 5.3: tnh hiu sut ca phng php pht li theo c ch ARQ
dng v i cho tuyn thng tin v tinh. Gi thit khong cch t v

tinh ti mt t l 36.000 km, vn tc truyn sng trong khng kh l
3.108 m/s, tc thng tin l 56 Kbps v khung c kch thc 4000
bits.
Gii: Ta c
a=
Rd 56.103.36.106
=
= 1, 68 ,
3.108.4.103
vL
Do hiu sut
1
1
=
= 22,94% .
1 + 2a 1 + 2.1, 68
Hin ti, cc dch v thng tin v tinh c tc ln hn nhiu (R ln)

nn h s a cng ln v hiu sut s cn nh hn trng hp v d
ny.
V d 5.4: tnh hiu sut ca phng php pht li theo v d trn
nhng s dng co kt ni trong mng LAN vi khong cch gia hai

115
trm l 100 m, vn tc truyn sng trn cp ng l 2.108 m/s, tc

truyn thng tin l 10 Mbps v khung c kch thc 500 bits.
Gii: tnh tng t nh trng hp trn, ta c
a=
1
1
Rd 10.106.100
=
= 98, 04%
=
= 0, 01 , hiu sut =
8
1 + 2a 1 + 2.0, 01
2.10 .500
vL
Nh vy, vi thng tin trong mng LAN, do c ly nh nn hiu sut

c ci thin so vi trng hp truyn thng tin v tinh.
6)
Trng hp 2: phn trn, tnh ton hiu sut, chng ta
gi thit mi trng truyn l tng (khng c li). Tuy nhin, mi

trng truyn thc t lun c li v c c trng bi xc sut li
p, do , hiu sut truyn trn thc t s nh hn so vi trng
hp l tng.
nh ngha xc sut li Xc sut li p (0 p 1) l xc sut
pha thu nhn c bit 0 khi pha pht truyn bit 1 (hoc ngc
li).
Xc sut li cng ln th mi trng truyn cng khng tt, khi p = 0 th
mi trng truyn khng c li (l tng); p = 1 l khi mi trng
truyn lun lun c li (s khng dng truyn tin).
Khi 0,5 < p < 1 tc l kh nng pha thu nhn c thng tin c li s
ln hn nhn c thng tin ng, trong trng hp ny, ch cn o
bit lung thng tin thu c l ta c th chuyn thnh trng hp 0 < p
< 0,5. V l do , trong l thuyt thng tin, ngi ta ch tm hiu cc
mi trng truyn dn c xc sut li 0 p 0,5.
Nh trn trnh by, khi truyn thng tin trong mi trng c li, c
th xy ra trng hp phi truyn li khung thng tin (do li), do ,
hiu sut trong trng hp ny nh hn trng hp l tng. Gi NR
l s khung thng tin phi truyn cho n khi ng ( 1 NR ), khi
y, hiu sut ca trng hp khng l tng s l 'reality =
ideal
. Vn
NR
y l tnh c gi tr NR. n gin ha, ta gi thit ACK v
NAK khng b li. Ta thy, vi xc sut li l p th:
Xc sut truyn khung thnh cng ngay ln u l 1-p
Xc sut truyn khung n ln th hai mi thnh cng l

p(1-p)
Tng qu ho: xc sut truyn khung n ln th i mi

thnh cng l pi-1(1-p)
Vy:
N R = ip i 1 (1 p ) =
i =1
1
.
1 p
116
Hiu sut ca phng php ARQ dng v i trong trng hp thc

t:
reality =
ideal
NR
1 p
1 + 2a
Nhn xt
Nh phn trn trnh by, hiu sut ca phng php truyn theo
Rd
c ch dng v i ph thuc vo h s a =
, a cng nh th hiu
vL
sut cng ln. Ta thy a s nh khi v.L ln hoc khi R.d nh.
R nh y l iu khng mong mun khi truyn thng tin v

trn thc t, ngi ta mong mun truyn tin vi tc ng
truyn cng cao cng tt.
d nh tham s khong cch gia pha pht v pha thu

thng khng thay i c do ph thuc vo nhng yu cu
khch quan bn ngoi.
v ln vn tc truyn sng trong mi trng c cc gi tr nht

nh v rt kh c th thay i.
L ln c th tng kch thc khung tng hiu sut. Tuy

nhin phng php ny c nhc im l thng tin truyn li
s ln nu khung thng tin ban u b sai. Cng v l do ny m
mi mi trng truyn dn nht nh s c kch thc khung ti
u tng ng.
Nh vy, h s a gn nh khng th thay i dn n phng php

truyn li theo c ch dng v i khng c s dng ph bin do
hiu qu s dng ng truyn khng cao. nng hiu sut ln, cn
c nhng c ch mi nhm m bo pha pht c th tn dng c
thi gian rnh ri trong khi ch bo nhn t pha thu. Ngi ta da
trn c ch dng v i ny to ra cc c ch mi cho hiu qu
truyn cao hn, c th l c ch truyn li theo nhm (Go-back-N
ARQ) v c ch pht li theo yu cu (Selective Repeat ARQ).
6.2.6. Go-back-N ARQ
C ch hot ng
Vi c ch pht li Go-back-N, pha pht s c pht nhiu hn mt
khung thng tin trc khi nhn c bo nhn t pha thu. S khung
thng tin cc i m pha pht c th pht (k hiu l W) c gi l
kch thc ca s. Vi c ch hot ng ny, Go-back-N (v c
phng php selective repeat trnh by phn sau) c gi l c
ch ca s trt (sliding window)
Mi khi pht xong mt khung thng tin, pha pht gim kch thc ca
s i 1, khi kch thc ca s bng 0, pha pht s khng c pht
thm khung thng tin no na (iu ny m bo s khung thng tin
117
ng thi n pha thu khng vt qu W, v do , khng vt qu

kh nng x l ca pha thu).
Mi khi pha thu nhn c mt khung thng tin ng v x l xong,
pha thu s gi li mt bo nhn ACK cho pha pht. Khi nhn c
bo nhn ny, pha pht s tng kch thc ca s W ln 1. iu ny
ng ngha vi vic pha pht s c pht thm mt khung na,
ngoi W khung pht trc , v pha thu x l xong mt khung,
v nh vy, tng s khung m pha thu phi x l ti mt thi im vn
khng vt qu W.
c th phn bit cc khung trn ng truyn, cc khung cn c
nh s th t. Nu dng k bit nh s th tng s khung c
nh s s l 2k (t 0 n 2k 1) v do , kch thc ca s ti a
Wmax = 2k (v mt l thuyt).
V d s dng 3 bit nh s th t cho cc khung thng tin. Lc
ny kch thc ca s cc i s l 7 (yu cu sinh vin gii thch l
do). Ti thi im ban u, c pha pht v thu u c kch thc ca
s l 7 th hin rng pha pht c php pht ti a l 7 khung (bt
u t khung F0). Sau khi pha pht pht c ba khung (F0, F1,
F2) v cha nhn c ACK, pha pht gim kch thc ca s xung
cn 4. Lc ny ca s pha pht bao gm cc khung t F3 n F6 th
hin rng pha pht cn c php truyn ti a l 4 khung na, bt
u t khung F3.
pha thu, sau khi nhn ng v x l xong ba khung F0, F1 v F2
th s gi li ACK3 cho pha pht. ACK3 nhm m ch rng: Pha thu
nhn v x l xong cc khung cho n F2 v pha thu ang sn
sng nhn khung 3. Thc t, pha thu sn sng nhn 7 khung bt u
t khung F3. Phia thu ng thi tng kch thc ca s bn thu ln 7,
bao cc khung t F3 cho n F1.
Pha pht sau khi nhn c ACK3 s tng kch thc ca s thm 3
n v. Lc ny ca s pha pht W = 7 v bao cc khung t F3 n
F1. Gi s lc ny pha pht thc hin pht cc khung t F3 n F6 (4
khung). Sau khi pht, pha pht s gim kch thc ca s i 4 (W =
3), lc ny ca s ch cn bao cc khung F7, F0 v F1.
Pha thu gi li ACK4, bo rng n nhn v x l xong khung F3,
ACK4 m ch rng pha pht c php pht ti a l 7 khung bt u
t F4. Tuy nhin khi ACK4 v n pha pht th pha pht thc hin
pht cc khung F4, F5 v F6 ri, nh vy, pha pht s ch cn pht
c ti a l 4 khung bt u t F7.
Hnh di y minh ha nguyn tc hot ng ca c ch ca s
trt.
118
Hnh: Nguyn tc hot ng ca c ch ca s trt

Trong trng hp l tng (khng c li xy ra) th c ch ca s
trt m bo s khung thng tin t pha pht n pha thu khng
vt qu kch thc ca s. Trong trng hp ny, khng c s phn
bit gia Go-back-N v selective repeat (v chng c gi chung l
sliding window).
Khi c li xy ra, vic truyn li cc khung li ca c ch ca s trt
c thc hin theo hai cch khc nhau:
Go-back-N: pha pht s thc hin pht li khung thng tin b

sai v tt c cc khung thng tin khc c truyn, tnh t
khung b sai.
Selective repeat: pha pht s ch pht li cc khung thng tin b

sai
c th hiu r hn v c ch hot ng ca Go-back-N, ta xt mt

s trng hp c th sau:
1)
Khung thng tin b li c th xy ra mt trong ba trng hp:
Pha pht pht khung i, pha thu thu ng cc khung t i

1 tr v trc. Lc ny pha thu s gi NAK i (RN = i) cho
pha pht bo li cho khung i. Khi pha pht nhn c NAK
i, n s thc hin pht li khung i v tt c cc khung sau i (nu
cc khung c pht).
Khung thng tin i b mt trn ng truyn, gi s pha thu

nhn c khung i+1, lc ny pha thu thy cc khung n
khng theo th t (nhn c i+1 trc khi nhn c i) v
119
hiu rng khung i mt. Pha thu s gi li NAK i cho pha

pht.
2)
Khung thng tin i b mt trn ng truyn v pha pht khng

gi thm khung thng tin no na. Lc ny pha thu khng
nhn c g v khng gi li ACK hay NAK. Pha pht ch
n time-out ca khung thng tin i v thc hin truyn li khung
ny.
Khung ACK b li ACK b li c th xy ra mt trong hai trng

hp:
Pha thu nhn c khung i v gi ACK(i+1) v pha pht v

ACK ny b mt trn ng truyn. Gi s trc khi time-out
ca khung i xy ra, pha pht nhn c ACK(i+2) (hoc
ACK(i+n) vi n > 1) th pha pht hiu rng khung i c
nhn ng. Kt lun ny c gii thch nh sau: khi pha thu
gi ACK(i+2) ngha l pha thu nhn ng (v chp nhn)
khung i+1, iu cng ng ngha vi vic pha thu nhn
ng khung i. Ngi ta ni c ch ca Go-back-N s dng
cummulative ACK (ngha l cc ACK sau cng ng thi bo
nhn cho cc khung trc )
Nu trong khong thi gian time-out ca khung i, pha pht

khng nhn c ACK(i+n) no c th sau time-out, pha pht
s phi pht li khung i (v tt c cc khung sau ).
3)
Khung NAK b li trong trng hp NAK b li, ngha l khung i b

li, lc ny pha thu s khng nhn thm mt khung no sau khung
i (v cng s khng gi bo nhn). Vi trng hp ny pha pht
bt buc phi ch n time-out v thc hin pht li khung thng
tin i.
4)
n gin vn , chng ta khng xem xt trng hp ACK v

NAK b sai (nu xt th s nh th no???)
Hnh 1-8 y trnh by nguyn tc pht li ca ARQ Go-back-N khi c

li xy ra vi khung thng tin
Hnh 5-8: Minh ha c ch Go-back-N ARQ

Mt s ch ca c ch hot ng ARQ Go-back-N
Bn cnh nguyn tc hot ng v minh ha trnh by trn y, cn
ch mt s im sau khi tm hiu hot ng ca Go-back-N
120
Trong trng hp pha thu c kh nng x l W khung thng tin

th khng cn b m. Pha thu ch nhn v x l thng tin theo
ng th t (da trn s th t nh trn cc khung)
Pha thu chuyn cc gi thng tin ln lp cao hn theo th

t
Pha thu s khng nhn khung i+1 nu cha nhn c

khung i. iu ny l nguyn nhn khin pha thu khng cn
phi c b m
Pha pht phi lu ti a l W khung thng tin trong b m

ch ACK
Hiu sut ca c ch ARQ Go-back-N

Tng t nh trng hp ARQ dng v i, khi tnh hiu sut ca
phng php pht li ARQ Go-back-N, chng ta cng tnh trong hai
trng hp: trng hp l tng v v trng hp thc t.
1)
Trng hp 1: trong iu kin l tng
c th tnh c hiu sut ca phng php ARQ Go-back-N

trong trng hp l tng, chng ta da trn hiu sut ca phng
T
1
php dng v i bit. l: =
trong a= D . Nu chun
1 + 2a
TF
ha n v TF = 1 n v thi gian (gi thit thi gian pht khung l 1
n v chun) th tr truyn sng t gia hai trm thu pht l a n v
thi gian. Ni mt cch khc, khung thng tin truyn t pht sang thu
v khung ACK/NAK truyn t thu v pht mt mt khong thi gian l
a n v thi gian.
Hnh 1-9 trnh by v gin thi gian ca phng php ca s trt.
Hnh 1-9(a) minh ha trong trng hp kch thc ca s W > 2a + 1
v hnh 1-9 (b) minh ha trong trng hp kch thc ca s W < 2a
+ 1.
Quy c:
[X] l s nguyn nh nht ln hn hay bng X.
A l pha pht, B l pha thu
121
Hnh 5-9(a): Gin thi gian phng php ca s trt, W > 2a+1
Bit u khung 1
t0
t0 + a
Khung [a]
...
Khung 2
Khung 1
Khung [a+1]
...
Khung 3
Khung 2
t0 + a + 1 A
B
Bit u ACK2
Khung N
t0 + 2a + 1 A
...
Khung [a+2]
B
ACK2
Hnh 5-9(b): Gin thi gian phng php ca s trt, W < 2a+1
Hiu sut ca phng php ny ph thuc vo kch thc ca s W
v gi tr a. Trn hnh 1-9(a) v 1-9(b), pha pht A thc hin truyn
cc khung ti thi im t0 (bit u tin ca khung u tin). Bit u tin
ny n pha thu B ti thi im t0+a. Ton b khung u tin n B ti
thi im t0+a+1. Gi thit b qua thi gian x l, nh vy B cng c
th gi bo nhn ACK ti thi im t0+a+1. Trong trng hp kch
thc bo nhn nh th y cng l thi im ton b bo nhn ACK
ri khi pha thu. Bo nhn ny n pha pht A ti thi im t0+2a+1.
Gi thit pha pht lun c d liu c th truyn lin tc, khi y c
hai trng hp xy ra.
Nu W 2a+1: bo nhn u tin n pha pht trc khi W =

0. K t thi im A nhn c bo nhn u tin, c mi mt
n v thi gian A pht c mt khung thng tin v cng ng
thi nhn c mt bo nhn, nh vy A c th pht tin lin tc
122
Nu W < 2a+1: kch thc ca s pha pht W = 0 t ti thi

im t0+W (xy ra trc thi im t0+2a+1) v pha pht khng
th pht khung trong khong thi gian t t0+W n t0+2a+1.
Hiu sut ca phng php ca s trt lc ny:
window =
2)
W
khi W < 2a+1 v window = 1 khi W 2a + 1
2a + 1
Trng hp 2: trong trng hp thc t, do c li xy ra nn hiu
sut thc t nh hn hiu sut trong trng hp l tng
Go back N =
window
trong NR l s l pht trung bnh cho n khi
NR
thnh cng.
Vi trng hp Go-back-N, mi khi c li xy ra, pha pht s phi
pht li K khung (vic xc nh K s c tnh phn sau).
Xc sut khung thng tin c truyn n ln th i th ng
p (i ) = p i 1.(1 p ) (trong pi-1 l xc sut i-1 ln truyn u tin b

sai) v 1-p l xc sut ln truyn th i ng.
Vi trng hp ny, tng s khung phi truyn li s l f(i) = 1 + (i-1).K
trong (i-1).K l tng s khung phi truyn li cho i-1 ln truyn sai.
Vy s khung trung bnh cn truyn trong trng hp truyn n ln
th i mi ng l N(i) = f(i).p(i)
S khung trung bnh cn truyn cho n khi thnh cng:
i =1
i =1
N R = f (i ). p i 1 (1 p ) = [ (1-K)+Ki ] p i 1 (1 p )
i =1
i =1
N R = (1 K ) p i 1 (1 p ) + K ip i 1 (1 p )
S dng cc kt qu sau:
r = r
i
i =0
i 1
i =1
1
1 r
V:
i.r
i =1
i-1
1
(1 r ) 2
Ta c:
NR = 1 K +
K
1 p + Kp
=
1 p
1 p
Tnh K:
tnh hiu sut ca phng php Go-back-N, ta gi thit pha pht
lun c d liu pht (thc hin pht lin tc, tr khi phi dng li do
kch thc ca s = 0). Nh vy,
123
Nu W 2a + 1 th K 2a + 1 do khi NAK ca khung i v th

pha pht pht thm c 2a + 1 khung
Nu W < 2a + 1 th K = W do khi NAK ca khung i v th pha

pht pht xong kch thc ca s (W khung) v ang ch
bo nhn cho khung i pht tip.
Hiu sut:
Go back N =
1 p
khi W 2a+1
1 + 2ap
Go back N =
W(1-p)
khi W < 2a+1
(2a+1)(1-p+Wp)
V:
Nhn xt
u im ca phng php ARQ Go-back-N l hiu sut cao hn so
vi phng php ARQ dng v i. Bn cnh , c ch x l thng
tin pha thu kh n gin v khng cn b m.
Tuy nhin, phng php ny c nhc im l cn truyn li qu
nhiu khung thng tin trong trng hp khung thng tin b li. khc
phc nhc im ny, ngi ta xut s dng c ch ARQ pht li
theo yu cu (Selective repeat ARQ)
6.2.7. Selective repeat ARQ
C ch hot ng
Tng t nh c ch pht li Go-back-N, c ch pht li c la chn
(selective repeat ARQ) cng da trn phng php ca s trt. Pha
pht c php pht ti a W khung thng tin (kch thc ca s)
trc khi nhn c bo nhn.
im khc bit gia selective repeat v Go-back-N nm cch hai
phng thc ny x l khung thng tin b li. Vi trng hp selective
repeat, pha pht s ch thc hin pht li khung thng tin b li m
khng cn pht li tt c cc khung khc sau khung li nu nh cc
khung khng b sai. C ch ny gip tng hiu qu s dng ng
truyn so vi c ch Go-back-N.
Hnh 5-10 m t nguyn tc hot ng ca selective repeat
124
Hnh 1-10: Nguyn tc hot ng ca selective repeat

Mt s ch ca selective repeat ARQ
Do pha pht ch thc hin pht li cc khung b li, do cc khung
n pha thu c th khng theo th t nh khi c pht i pha
pht
Pha thu phi c kh nng x l cc khung thng tin khng theo

th t.
Do cc khung thng tin phi c a ln lp trn theo ng

th t nn pha thu phi c b m lu tm cc khung thng
tin trong khi ch cc khung b mt hoc li c pht li.
Pha pht phi thc hin bo nhn cho tt c cc khung thng tin m
n nhn ng. Cc khung thng tin khng c bo nhn trong
khong thi gian time-out tng ng s c coi l b mt hoc li
Trong trng hp pha thu nhn c mt khung thng tin sai, pha
thu c th gi NAK bo li v yu cu truyn li khung (selective
reject)
Hiu sut ca c ch selective repeat ARQ
Tng t nh trng hp Go-back-N, hiu sut ca c ch selective
repeat cng c tnh cho hai trng hp: l tng v khng l tng
1)
Trng hp 1: l tng.
Do bn cht ca selective repeat l cng hot ng da trn phng

php ca s trt (ging Go-back-N) nn trong trng hp l tng
(khng c li), hiu sut ca selective repeat cng chnh l hiu sut
ca Go-back-N v l hiu sut ca phng php ca s trt khi mi
trng khng c li.
Hiu sut:
window =
W
khi W < 2a+1
2a + 1
window = 1 khi W 2a+1

2)
Trng hp 2: khng l tng

125
Trong trng hp ny, hiu sut ca phng php selective repeat s

bng hiu sut ca phng php ca s trt trong trng hp l
tng chia cho s ln pht li trung bnh NR (tng t nh trng hp
Go-back-N). Hiu sut selective repeat =
window
. Tuy nhin NR trong trng

NR
hp selective repeat khc vi trng hp Go-back-N.
Tnh NR do bn cht ca vic truyn li trong selective repeat hon

ton tng t nh trong phng php dng v i nn vi cch tnh
1
.
tng t, N R =
1 p
Hiu sut:
selective repeat =
W (1 p )
khi W < 2a+1
2a + 1
selective repeat = 1 p khi W 2a+1

Nhn xt
C ch selective repeat cho hiu sut hot ng trn ng truyn
cao hn so vi Go-back-N do c ch ny s dng ng truyn hiu
qu hn. Tuy nhin, c ch selective repeat hot ng phc tp hn
do n yu cu pha thu phi c kh nng x l cc khung thng tin n
pha thu khng theo th t. Ngoi ra, pha thu cn phi c b m
c th lu tm thi cc khung thng tin ny.
6.3. iu khin lung v trnh tc nghn theo phng php ca s
C ch iu khin lung v chng tc nghn da trn phng php
ca s c thc hin bi vic gii hn s lng gi tin c truyn
pha pht nhm m bo thng tin ny khng vt qu kh nng x
l ca pha thu.
Theo c ch ny, pha pht s khng thc hin pht tin chng no
pha thu cn cha x l xong gi tin (hoc mt s gi tin) trc . Khi
pha thu x l xong thng tin do pha pht gi n th n s bo cho
pha pht bit v lc ny, pha pht s tip tc gi cc gi tin tip theo.
C ch ny m bo vic truyn tin khng bao gi vt qu kh nng
x l ca pha thu.
Vi vic kt hp hot ng nhp nhng gia pha pht v pha thu (c
s dng bo nhn), s lng gi tin ng thi tn ti trn ng
truyn nm trong gii hn nht nh. Nu pha thu c b m vi dung
lng ln hn tng kch thc cc gi tin ny th b m pha thu s
khng bao gi b trn.
Cc tin trnh thng tin c th chu s nh hng ca iu khin lung
gm c cc knh o c lp, mt nhm cc knh o hay ton b lung
thng tin t mt nt mng ny n mt nt mng khc.
126
Cc phng php iu khin lung c da trn cc phng php

iu khin li v pht li ARQ lp 2 ca m hnh OSI ( c trnh
by phn trn).
6.3.1. iu khin lung theo ca s (Window Flow Control)
Phng php iu khin lung theo ca s trt l phng php
c s dng ph bin nht thi im hin ti. Trong phn ny,
chng ti s ln lt trnh by vic iu khin lung theo ca s trt
theo hai c ch end-to-end (iu khin lung gia im pht v im
thu trong mng) v hop-by-hop (iu khin lung gia hai nt mng
lin tip).
Ca s End-to-End
Nh phn trn ni, phng php iu khin lung theo ca s da
trn c s phng php ca s trt ARQ lm vic ti lp lin kt d
liu. Cc khung thng tin t pht sang thu v khung bo nhn, bo li
truyn t thu sang pht c nh s th t phn bit, kch thc
ca s W < 2k vi k l s bit dng nh s phn bit cc khung.
Hnh 5-11: V d pha pht truyn tin lin tc khi W = 3

Hnh 1-11 trnh by mi lin h gia kch thc ca s v tc
truyn thng tin. Gi X l thi gian pht mt khung thng tin, W l kch
thc ca s v d l tng tr t pht n thu (dng cho khung thng
tin) v t thu n pht (dng cho bo nhn), round-trip delay.
Trong hnh v ny, kch thc ca s W = 3, d W.X. Nh l lun
trong phn ARQ, lc ny pha pht c th truyn thng tin lin tc m
khng cn phi dng li i. Tc pht thng tin r = 1/X v trong
trng hp ny, iu khin lung khng c ngha (v pha pht c th
pht tin vi tc cao nht m khng b hn ch)
127
Hnh 5-12: V d pha pht truyn tin khng lin tc khi W = 3

Hnh 1-12 trnh by trng hp d > W.X, trong trng hp ny, ta thy
c vai tr ca iu khin lung. Pha pht thc hin pht W khung
thng tin sau dng li ch bo nhn pha thu, ri mi c pht
tip. Ni mt cch khc, lng thng tin n pha thu (hay lng thng
tin i vo mng) b hn ch nh hn kh nng pht cc i ca
pha pht. iu ny xy ra khi round-trip delay ln nn khi pha pht
thc hin pht xong W gi tin ri nhng bo nhn u tin vn cha
quay tr li. Lc ny pha pht phi ngng pht v ch bo nhn v W
gim xung 0 (xem li phn nguyn tc hot ng ca ca s
trt). Nu pha pht lun c thng tin pht th tc pht tin trung
bnh s l W/d gi/s
Kt hp c hai trng hp hnh 5-11 v 5-12, ta tnh c tc pht
1 W
tin cc i khi k n round-trip delay s l r = ,
X d
Khi d tng (c tc nghn), iu khin lung s thc hin vai tr

ca n v gii hn tc truyn tin
Khi khng c tc nghn xy ra, d gim v r tng ln
128
Tc thng tin pht r
Hnh 5-13: Quan h gia tc truyn dn v round-trip delay trong

iu khin lung
Hnh 5-13 trnh by quan h ca tc truyn dn v round-trip delay
trong c ch iu khin lung. Tc truyn tin s b gim khi xy ra
tc nghn (tr tng). Ngoi ra, c ch ca s phn ng kh nhanh vi
tc nghn (trong khong thi gian truyn W gi). S phn ng nhanh
vi tc nghn kt hp vi thng tin iu khin t l u im chnh ca
c ch ca s so vi cc c ch khc.
Nguyn tc chn kch thc ca s:
1)
Trong trng hp khng c tc nghn xy ra, kch thc ca s

c chn ln m bo tc truyn thng tin t r = 1/X
gi/s.
Quy c:
d = round-trip delay khi tr hng i xp x 0 (khng c tc

nghn) y l tr tnh t lc pht gi thng tin bn pht v
nhn ACK t pha thu
N = s nt mng dc theo ng truyn t pht n thu
D = tr truyn sng dc theo ng truyn

d = 2.N.X + 2.D
m bo tc truyn tin ti a (khi khng c tc nghn), cn m

bo W.X d hay W 2.N + 2.D/X. Ta nhn thy:
2)
Khi D < X th W 2.N kch thc ca s khng ph thuc vo

tr truyn sng.
Khi D >> X th W 2.D/X kch thc ca s khng ph thuc

vo chiu di ng i.
Trong trng hp c tc nghn xy ra, th tr round-trip d > d (d

bao gm c tr hng i do tc nghn)
Phng php ca s End-to-End c nhng hn ch nht nh. l:

129
Kh m bo tr nm trong gii hn cho php khi lu lng

vo mng tng
Gi s trong mng c n tin trnh iu khin lung vi kch thc ca

s tng ng l W1, W2, ... Wn. Lc ny, tng s gi tin trong mng s
l
.W
i =1
trong i l mt h s trong khong 0 n 1 ph thuc
vo thi gian tr ca ACK. Theo nh lut Littles th tr trung bnh ca

n
gi tin trong mng s l T =
.W
i =1
trong l thng lng.
Khi s lng cc tin trnh cn iu khin lung tng ln (n tng) th

tin n gi tr cc i l tc ca cc ng lin kt v do , l gi
tr khng i (gi tr ny ph thuc vo mng, v tr ca im pht v
thu cng nh gii thut nh tuyn). Nh vy gi tr tr T s tng t l
vi s lng tin trnh c iu khin lung (chnh xc ra l kch
thc ca s ca chng). Nh vy, nu s lng tin trnh l rt ln
th h thng mng khng m bo gi gi tr T nm trong mt gii hn
nht nh v khng c kh nng trnh tc nghn mt cch trit .
Mt gii php c th s dng l gim kch thc ca s c th
gim tr khi mng hot ng tnh trng nng ti (c th xy ra tc
nghn). Gii php ny c th p dng mt mc no tuy nhin
n nu gi tr ny qu nh th vic truyn thng tin li khng hiu qu.
Trn thc t, ngi ta s dng phng php ca s thch ng
(adaptive window) thc hin truyn tin. Trong phng php ny,
kch thc ca s c th thay i ty thuc tnh trng ca mng. Trong
trng hp mng t ti, kch thc ca s c th ln cho php
truyn thng tin vi tc cao. Khi ti trn mng tng, kch thc ca
s c gim i nhm trnh tc nghn. Phng php ca s thch
ng s c trnh by trong phn sau.
Kh m bo tnh cng bng cho tt c ngi dng.
Mt hn ch na ca phng php ca s end-to-end l cha m

bo c tnh cng bng cho ngi dng trong tt c cc trng hp.
Nh phn trn ni, m bo truyn tin tt nht cho mt kt ni,
kch thc ca s t l vi s nt mng trn ng i t ngun n
ch cng nh t l vi tr truyn sng dc theo ng truyn (cng
ph thuc vo khong cch). Nh vy, trong trng hp c tc nghn,
nu trn mt ng truyn c nhiu kt ni cng hot ng th kt ni
no c khong cch ngun ch ln s c s dng ti nguyn
nhiu hn (do kch thc ca s ln hn v s lng gi tin n nt
v c chp nhn s nhiu hn).
m bo c tnh cng bng, ngi ta dng c ch round-robin
(x l vng) cho tt c cc kt ni cng s dng ti nguyn ca mt
nt mng. Lc ny, cc kt ni c coi nh c u tin nh nhau
v c x l lun phin da theo kt ni ch khng da trn t l gi
tin n.
130
Ca s Hop-by-Hop
Trong c ch iu khin lung hop-by-hop, vic iu khin lung c
thc hin gia hai nt mng k tip trn ng truyn. Mi nt mng
c cc ca s c lp dng cho cc knh lm vic khc nhau (knh
o). Nguyn tc hot ng ca c ch ny tng t nh iu khin
lung kiu end-to-end nhng ch p dng cho mt chng. Trong
trng hp truyn thng tin c ly khng qu xa (vi a phn cc c
ch truyn tin, tr thng tin v tinh) kch thc ca s thng l 2
hoc 3 (do s nt mng thng tin phi i qua l 1, tr truyn sng
khng ng k).
Ta tm gi nt c thng tin cn truyn l nt ngun, nt c nhn thng
tin l nt ch (cc nt dc trn ng truyn, v c th bao gm c
pha pht v pha thu). Mc ch chnh ca iu khin lung hop-byhop l m bo b m ca nt ch khng b qu ti bi qu nhiu
gi tin n (nh trong trng hp end-to-end). iu ny c thc
hin vi vic nt ch gim tc gi ACK v cho nt ngun. Trong
trng hp tng qut, nt ch c b m vi dung lng W gi cho
mi lin kt v n s gi ACK cho nt ngun nu trong b m cn
ch trng. Nt ch s xa gi tin trong b m nu n c truyn
thnh cng n nt k tip trn ng truyn hay i ra khi mng.
Gi s c ba nt lin tip trn mng l (i-1, i, i+1). Gi s b m ca i
b y vi W gi tin. Nt i s gi ACK cho nt i-1 nu n gi
thnh cng mt gi tin cho nt i+1 (lc b m ca nt i mi c
gii phng v c ch cho mt gi tin). Nt i thc hin c iu ny
nu n nhn c mt ACK t nt i+1.
Trong trng hp c tc nghn xy ra ti mt nt no , b m ca
nt ny b y bi W gi tin v theo h qu, b m ca cc nt pha
trc nt cng s dn dn b y. Hin tng ny c gi l
backpressure v c trnh by trn hnh 1-14.
H
Hnh 5-14: C ch backpressure trong iu khin lung hop-by-hop
u im ca phng php hop-by-hop c trnh by trn hnh 1-14.
Trong trng hp xu nht, gi s tc nghn xy ra ti ng ni cui
cng ca tuyn truyn (ng ni th n) th tng s gi tin nm trong
mng s l n.W (b m ca mi nt s b in y bi W gi tin).
Trong trng hp ny, s lng gi tin s c phn b u b
m ca cc nt v do dung lng b m cn thit mi nt s
nh hn trng hp end-to-end rt nhiu (ch rng trong trng
hp end-to-end, nu tng s gi tin vo mng, hay kch thc ca s,
l n.W th dung lng b m tng ng mi nt cng phi l n.W).
131
Mt u im khc na ca phng php hop-by-hop chnh l cho

php thc hin tnh cng bng. Vi vic phn cc gi tin ca mt kt
ni dc theo cc nt mng m kt ni phi i qua, ta c th trnh c
tnh trng ti mt nt, kt ni vi khong cch ngun ch ln s
chim ht ti nguyn ca cc kt ni khc. Trong trng hp hop-byhop, kch thc ca s ca cc kt ni l xp x bng nhau do tc
thng tin n l khng chnh lch v vic s dng ti nguyn c
m bo cng bng. iu ny khng ng trong trng hp kt ni
gia hai nt dng cho truyn v tinh. Trong trng hp ny, do tr
truyn dn kh ln nn kch thc ca s ca kt ni v tinh c th
ln hn kch thc ca s ca cc kt ni khc dn n tnh trng
khng cng bng.
Phng thc Isarithmic
Phng thc ny cng c coi l mt bin th ca c ch iu khin
lung theo ca s vi mt ca s duy nht c dng cho ton mng.
Vic iu khin lung c thc hin bi vic gii hn s lng gi tin
i vo mng thng qua vic cp pht mt s lng hn ch th bi.
Mi mt gi tin mun i vo mng cn phi nhn c mt th bi
nt m gi tin vo v tr li th bi nt m gi tin ra khi mng.
Nh vy, tng s gi tin tn ti ng thi trong mng lun nh hn
hoc bng tng s lng th bi, v vic iu khin lung c thc
hin.
Tuy nhin, phng php ny c nhng hn ch nht nh. N khng
m bo tnh cng bng cho tt c ngi dng v khng c nhng c
ch nht nh qun l v phn phi th bi. Ngoi ra, cc th bi c
th b mt v nhng l do nht nh m hin ti cha c c ch
qun l s lng th bi tn ti trong mng. V nhng l do ,
phng thc Isarithmic t c s dng trong thc t.
6.3.2. iu khin tc nghn s dng ca s thch ng (adaptive window)
Bn cnh vic s dng c ch ca s thc hin iu khin lung,
ngi ta c th s dng c ch ca s thc hin iu khin v
trnh tc nghn trong mng. Khi mng c kh nng mang thng tin
ca ngi dng, kch thc ca s s c t mt mc no .
Khi mng nng ti v c tc nghn xy ra, pha pht s gim kch
thc ca s gim s lng gi tin i vo mng, do , thc hin
chc nng iu khin tc nghn cho mng. Kch thc ca s chnh l
nhn t quyt nh tc thng tin t pha pht i vo mng.
132
Thng lng ca mng
Hnh: Mi quan h gia kch thc ca s v lu lng mng

Hnh trn y trnh by mi quan h gia kch thc ca s v thng
lng ca mng. Khi lu lng vo mng nh, kch thc ca s ln
t ra ti u do tn dng c thi gian truyn gi tin, tuy nhin, khi lu
lng vo mng tng ln, vic s dng kch thc ca s ln s gy
ra tc nghn do c qu nhiu gi tin c th c gi cng lc vo
mng. Trong trng hp ny, ngi ta s dng cc ca s c kch
thc nh p ng vi tnh trng ca mng.
Vic thay i kch thc ca s mt cch mm do cho ph hp vi
tnh trng lu lng ca mng chnh l cch thc iu khin tc nghn
ca cc thit b u cui (pha pht v pha thu). C ch thay i kch
thc ca s theo trnh trng lu lng mng c gi l c ch ca
s thch ng (adaptive window).
Vn ca iu khin tc nghn theo phng php ca s thch ng
l iu kin quyt nh vic tng v gim kch thc ca s. c th
thc hin c iu ny, pha pht da trn cc thng tin phn hi t
pha thu hoc cc thit b trn ng truyn t pht n thu thc
hin iu chnh kch thc ca s.
Khi xt n cc thit b mng trung gian gia pht v thu (tm gi l
thit b mng), ngi ta chia lm hai loi:
Thit b mng thng minh (active intermediate system) l cc

thit b mng c kh nng pht hin tc nghn ang xy ra
hoc c th xy ra v c kh nng thng bo cho pha pht
Thit b mng khng thng minh( passive intermediate system)

cc thit b ny khng c kh nng pht hin tc nghn, vic
xc nh tnh trng tc nghn hon ton c thc hin bi
pha pht.
Trong cc phn di y, chng ti s trnh by hot ng ca c ch

ca s thch ng cho c hai loi thit b mng ny
133
Thit b mng thng minh

K thut iu khin tc nghn s dng thit b mng thng minh hot
ng nh sau:
Thit b mng pht hin tnh trng tc nghn xy ra hoc sp

xy ra (v d: dung lng b m vt qu mt ngng no
)
Khi pht hin tc nghn, thit bi mng thng bo cho tt c cc

nt ngun (pha pht) thc hin pht thng tin qua thit b
mng ny
Cc nt ngun thc hin gim kch thc ca s gim tc

nghn (vi vic gim kch thc ca s, pha pht gim s
lng gi tin c th i vo mng)
Cc nt ngun c th tng kch thc ca s nu chng xc

nh c rng tnh trng tc nghn c gii quyt.
Ch rng, khi nim kch thc ca s y l kch thc ca s

cc i, hay s lng gi tin c th ng thi c pht i m khng
cn bo nhn. Trn thc t, kch thc ca s hot ng ca nt
ngun lun thay i (gim nu pha ngun pht gi tin v tng nu nt
ngun nhn c bo nhn).
Cc tham s c th dng xc nh tc nghn ti nt mng l dung
lng b m (cn trng nhiu hay t), kh nng hot ng ca CPU
(nhiu hay t) hoc mc s dng bng thng ca ng truyn.
c th cnh bo cho pha pht, nt mng c th s dng mt trong
hai c ch:
S dng mt gi tin cnh bo c lp phng php ny cho

php pha pht nhanh chng nhn c thng tin tc nghn v
phn ng kp thi. Tuy nhin, hn ch ca phng php ny l
phi s dng gi tin c lp gy lng ph bng thng v phc
tp ha vic qun l
S dng mt bit ch th tc nghn nm trong trng iu khin

ca gi tin mang d liu t pha thu sang pha pht. Bit ch th
tc nghn bng 0 th hin tc nghn khng xy ra v bit ny
bng 1 khi tc nghn xy ra.
Pha pht s da trn thng tin cnh bo no quyt nh vic tng

gim kch thc ca s.
Nu vic thay i kch thc ca s ch c da trn mt gi tin
phn hi th c th xy ra tnh trng h thng hot ng khng hiu
qu (nu nt mng gi mt gi tin cnh bo tc nghn ri li gi mt
gi thng bo khng tc nghn). V vy, trn thc t, pha pht s da
trn mt s lng thng bo nht nh t pha nt mng ri mi kt
lun v tnh trng tc nghn. Thng thng, vi mt s lng thng
bo nhn c, nu s gi tin cnh bo tc nghn vt qu mt gii
hn no th pha pht s coi l c tc nghn xy ra v gim kch
134
thc ca s. Nu s lng cnh bo ny nh hn gii hn cho php

th pha pht s coi l khng c tc nghn v tng kch thc ca s.
Vic tng va gim kch thc ca s c th tun theo mt trong hai
quy tc: php cng v php nhn.
Php cng: Wnew = Wold + I trong Wnew v Wold l kch thc

ca s mi v c, I l h s tng gim. Khi I > 0 l tng kch
thc ca s v I < 0 l gim kch thc ca s
Php nhn: Wnew = Wold vi cc quy c tng t nh trn.

Khi > 1 l tng kch thc ca s v < 1 l gim kch thc
ca s. Trong trng hp kch thc ca s khng phi s
nguyn th kch thc s c quy v s nguyn gn nht.
Trong ng dng c th, ngi ta thng dng php cng khi tng v
dng php nhn khi gim.
Hnh di y trnh by nguyn tc tng gim kch thc ca s da
trn bit ch th tc nghn c gi i t nt mng c tc nghn. Trong
v d ny, kch thc ca s ban u l W = 4, vic kt lun v tnh
trng tc nghn c da trn cc nhm 7 bo nhn gi v. Trong 7
bo nhn , nu c ln hn hoc bng 4 bo nhn c bit ch th tc
nghn bng 1 th nt ngun coi l c tc nghn v gim kch thc
ca s, ngc li th nt ngun coi l khng c tc nghn v tng kch
thc ca s. Trong trng hp ny, vic gim c thc hin theo
php nhn vi = 0,7 v vic tng c thc hin theo php cng vi
I = 1.
135
Hnh: S dng bit ch th tc nghn thay i kch thc ca s

Thit b mng khng thng minh
Trong trng hp ny, cc thit bi mng khng c kh nng cnh bo
cho pha pht v tnh trng tc nghn v vic xc nh tc nghn trong
mng hon ton da trn vic suy on ca nt ngun. Thit b mng
khng thng minh l cc thit bi mng n gin, khng c kh nng
xc nh trng thi b m, trng thi CPU hay trng thi s dng
ng truyn. Trong mt s trng hp khc, do yu cu hot ng
vi tc cao nn cc thit b mng c th cng khng kim tra v
trnh trng tc nghn c th xy ra mi khi gi tin i qua thit b.
Khi khng c s h tr ca thit b mng, nt ngun kt lun v trng
thi tc nghn hon ton da trn bo nhn c gi v. Trong
trng hp mng b tc nghn, bo nhn c th b tr ln (tr bo
nhn hoc tr gi n pha thu) hoc c th b mt (mt bo nhn hoc
mt gi nn khng c bo nhn). Trong trng hp mt bo nhn
136
hoc bo nhn n qu tr, nt ngun s phi pht li gi v vic pht

li ny c th coi l mt tn hiu kt lun v tnh trng tc nghn.
C ch tc nghn ny gi l c ch iu khin tc nghn dng ca s
thch ng da trn time-out v hot ng nh sau:
Ti thi im ban u, nt ngun t kch thc ca s bng

Wmax
Mi khi c time-out xy ra v pha pht phi thc hin pht li

gi tin th nt ngun s t W = 1
Mi khi nhn c n bo nhn t nt ch, pha pht li tng

kch thc ca s ln 1. Kch thc ca s s khng bao gi
vt qu kch thc ca s Wmax. Vi vic thay i gi tr n,
ngi ta c th thc hin iu khin tc nghn nhiu mc
khc nhau.
Trong trng hp ny, chng ta gi thit t l li bit l kh nh v timeout xy ra hon ton l do tr ch khng phi do mt gi v li bit.
V d trn hnh di y minh ha c ch iu khin tc nghn theo
ca s thch ng da trn time-out. Trong v d ny, kch thc ca
s ban u Wmax = 4, v gi tr n = 2. Gi thit rng cc nt mng trung
gian c th gy ra tr hoc hy gi tin hoc bo nhn nu tc nghn
xy ra. iu ny dn n h qu l c time-out xy ra ti nt ngun
cho cc gi tin .
137
Hnh: S dng time-out v ACK tng/gim kch thc ca s

6.4. iu khin lung v chng tc nghn da trn bng thng (rate-based flow
control)
6.4.1. Khi nim
Trong phn trn, chng ta thy hn ch c bn ca iu khin
lung theo phng php ca s l tr gi s tng t l vi s lng
kt ni cn thc hin iu khin lung. Mc d c th gim kch thc
138
ca s c th gim tr gi tuy nhin phng php ny khng d

thc hin.
c th p ng c yu cu ca iu khin lung, ngi ta
xut cc phng php thc hin iu khin lung v chng tc nghn
da trn vic hn ch bng thng. C ch kim sot bng thng m
bo lng thng tin ca ngi dng a vo mng khng vt qu
mt mc no nhm trnh tc nghn trong mng. Trong mt s
trng hp c th, thng tin ca ngi dng a vo mng c th
vt qu lng thng tin gii hn mt mc no cho php.
C ch kim sot bng thng ca thng tin i vo mng chia lm hai
loi:
Kim sot cht (strict implementation) vi tc thng tin

vo mng trung bnh l r gi/s, th h thng kim sot s ch cho
mt gi vo c sau mi 1/r giy. Phng php ny khng ph
hp cho cc thng tin c thay i vi bin ln (bursty traffic).
V d in hnh ca phng php ny l c ch TDMA.
Kim sot lng (less-strict implementation) vi tc thng
tin vo mng trung bnh l r gi/s th h thng kim sot s cho

W gi vo mng trong khong thi gian W/r giy. Trong
phng php ny, tc d liu trung bnh l khng i nhng
cho h thng cho php nhn ti a W gi ti mt thi im
(bursty traffic). C ch ny thng c trin khai vi vic s
dng go r (leaky bucket)
Trong phn di y, chng ti s trnh by nguyn tc hot ng ca
go r.
6.4.2. iu khin bng thng theo thut ton go r (leaky bucket)
Nguyn tc hot ng ca leaky bucket
Hnh 5-15 di y minh ho m hnh go r
Hnh 5-15: M hnh go r

Trong m hnh ny, nt mng c trang b mt go r dng kim sot
lu lng thng tin i vo mng. Go l mt b m c kh nng lu
tr ti a l W th bi. Cc th bi c in vo go vi tc r th
bi/s. Khi go y th bi th th bi s khng c in thm vo
go.
139
Mi khi mt gi tin n v c th c vo c mng th gi tin

phi nhn c mt th bi. Tc trung bnh ca thng tin vo mng
l r gi tin/s v bng tc in th bi vo go.
Trong trng hp go r y th bi, nt mng c th cho ti a W gi
tin vo mng ti mt thi im (burst size). Nu W nh th kh nng
kim sot tc lung thng tin vo l tt, nu W ln th kh nng h
tr burst tt.
Vi vic s dng go r, lung thng tin vo mng c tc khng
vt qu r gi/s. Nu mng c nhiu nt mng giao tip vi bn
ngoi (entry point), mi nt mng c trang b mt go r kim
sot lu lng thng tin vo mng th cho d tc thng tin ca n
cc nt c th thay i, nhng tc thng tin trong mng kh n
nh. Vi c im ny, ngi ta ni go r thc hin chc nng nh
dng lu lng.
Tnh ton hiu nng ca leaky bucket (pending)
Tr trung bnh ca gi khi i qua leaky bucket
di hng i gi trung bnh
Chn cc tham s ca leaky bucket (pending)
M hnh cng bng cc i cc tiu (max-min fairness)

Mt trong nhng vn kh khn nht ca thc hin iu khin lung
v kim sot tc nghn l m bo tnh cng bng cho cc kt ni
hoc ngi dng khi xy ra tc nghn. Khi nim tnh cng bng th
hin ch cc kt ni, ngi dng c s dng ti nguyn mng vi
c hi nh nhau. c th hiu r hn v tnh cng bng, xt m hnh
mng trn hnh v 5-16 di y
Hnh 5-16: Tnh cng bng

Trn hnh 1-16, ng ni A B v B C c dung lng 1 v ng
ni C D c dung lng 3. Kt ni 1 i qua tt c cc nt A, B, C, D;
kt ni 2 i qua A, B; kt ni 3 i qua B, C; kt ni 4 i qua C, D.
Ta thy, c tc ca cc kt ni 1, 2 v 3 u l 1/2 m bo cc
kt ni ny s dng bng thng trn cc ng A B v B C l cng
bng. Tuy nhin, trn ng lin kt C D, mc d n c chia s
bi kt ni 1 v kt ni 4, tuy nhin bng thng ca kt ni 4 c th t
n 5/2 v kt ni 1 ch s dng ht 1/2 m thi.
Nh vy, tnh cng bng khng ch n thun l chia s bng thng
bnh ng cho cc kt ni/ngi dng trn tt c cc phn vng trong
mng m n c hiu v s dng mm do trong tng trng hp
c th.
140
Vic s dng ti nguyn mng hiu qu nht c th trong khi vn c

th m bo c tnh cng bng cho cc kt ni c thc hin bi
c ch iu khin lung cc i cc tiu (maxmin flow control). C
ch ny c xy dng trn m hnh cng bng cc i cc tiu
(max-min fairness).
Nguyn tc hot ng c bn ca c ch iu khin lung cc i
cc tiu nh sau:
Nguyn tc Sau khi ngi dng vi yu cu t nht v ti
nguyn c p ng cng bng, cc ti nguyn cn li c

tip tc phn chia (mt cch cng bng) cho nhng ngi dng
cn li. Trong nhm ngi dng ny, ti nguyn li c phn
chia sao cho ngi dng c yu cu t nht c p ng, v
qu trnh c tip tc n ht. Ni mt cch khc, vic cp pht ti
nguyn mng cho mt ngi dng i khng c lm nh hng
n ti nguyn cp cc ngii dng khc vi yu cu t hn i.
Mt s quy c v nh ngha:
Gi thit mng l mt th c hng G = (N, A) trong N l

tp hp cc nt v A l tp hp cc ng lin kt gia cc nt
P l tp hp cc kt ni hin s dng trong mng, mt kt ni

bt k trong tp hp cc kt ni c k hiu l p.
rp l tc (hay bng thng) dng cho kt ni p.
Vi mt ng lin kt a bt k (a A) th lu lng thng tin trn lin

kt a l Fa = p (a).rp trong p (a ) = 1 nu kt ni p i qua lin kt
pP
a v bng 0 trong trng hp ngc li. Gi Ca l dung lng ca lin

kt a, khi y ta c: rp 0 vi p P v Fa Ca vi a A (*)
Mc ch ca c ch cng bng cc i cc tiu l tm c tp
hp cc gi tr rp (vi p P) tha mn (*) ng thi tha mn nguyn
tc ca quy ch cng bng cc i cc tiu. Tp hp cc gi tr rp
to thnh vector cng bng cc i cc tiu, k hiu l r.
Mt c im quan trng ca vector cng bng cc i cc tiu l
vi mi mt kt ni p bt k thuc P, c t nht mt lin kt a m p i
qua sao cho Fa = Ca v rp khng nh hn tc ca bt k kt ni no
trn lin kt . Lin kt gi l im nghn ca p (bottleneck arc).
Hnh 1-17 minh hot khi nim vector cng bng cc i cc tiu v
khi nim im nghn.
141
Kt ni 4 (tc 1)
Kt ni 1 (tc 2/3)
Gi thit: ng ni gia
cc nt u c tc l 1
Kt ni 5 (tc 1/3)
Kt ni 3 (tc 1/3)
Kt ni 2 (tc 1/3)
Hnh 5-17: V d v tnh cng bng cc i cc tiu

Trn hnh 5-17, im nghn ca cc kt ni 1, 2, 3, 4 v 5 ln lt l
(3,5), (2,3), (2,3), (4,5) v (2,3). Lin kt (3,5) khng phi im nghn
cho kt ni 5 v lin kt ny c chia s bi hai kt ni 1 v 5 trong
kt ni 1 c tc cao hn kt ni 5 trn lin kt ny. Lin kt (1,3)
khng phi l im tc nghn ca tt c cc kt ni v ti nguyn trn
kt ni ny cha c s dng ht (cn d tha 1/3 tc )
Thut ton tm gi tr bng thng ti u (max-min fair algorithm)
Phn ny s trnh by thut ton tm gi tr bng thng ti u.
1)
Khi to tt c cc kt ni vi tc = 0
Tng tc ca tt c cc kt ni vi mt lng nh bng nhau , lp li qu

trnh ny cho n khi tn ti cc lin kt c tng bng thng t n gi tr bng
thng cc i (Fa = Ca). Lc ny:
Tt c cc kt ni chia s lin kt ny u s dng bng thng

bng nhau
Lin kt ny l im tc nghn i vi tt c cc kt ni s
dng lin kt ny
Ngng vic tng bng thng cho cc kt ni ny v cc kt ni

ny t n trng thi cn bng cc i cc tiu
2)
Lp li qu trnh tng tc cho cc kt ni khc cha t n

im tc nghn cho n khi li tm thy cc im tc nghn ng
vi cc kt ni khc (lp li bc 2)
3)
Thut ton kt thc khi tt c cc kt ni u tm c im tc

nghn.
C cn phi minh ha bng cng thc khng???

V d: xt trng hp tm bng thng ti u trong phng php cng
bng cc i cc tiu nh trn hnh 1-17. Gi thit tt c cc lin kt
u c tc l 1.
Bc 1: tt c cc kt ni u c tc 1/3, lin kt (2,3) bo

ha (t gi tr cc i) v tc ca ba kt ni (2, 3 v 5) i
trn lin kt ny c t gi tr 1/3.
142
Bc 2: hai kt ni 1 v 4 c tng thm mt lng bng

thng l 1/3 v t gi tr 2/3. Lc ny lin kt (3,5) bo ha v
tc ca kt ni 1 t gi tr 2/3
Bc 3: kt ni 4 c tng thm mt lng l 1/3 v t n

gi tr 1. Lin kt (4,5) lc ny tr nn bo ha v tc ca kt
ni 4 t c l 1.
Bc 4: cc ny tt c cc kt ni u i qua cc lin kt
bo ha (im nghn) nn gii thut dng li y v kt qu
ca gii thut tm gi tr bng thng ti u chnh l bng thng
ca cc kt ni cho phn trn.
Di y l thut ton tm gi tr bng thng ti u. Quy c:
Ak l tp hp cc lin kt cha bo ha (cha hot ng vi tc

cc i ca lin kt) ti lc bt u bc k.
Pk l tp hp cc kt ni khng i qua lin kt bo ha no, tnh

ti lc bt u ca bc k
nka l s lng kt ni trong Pk s dng lin kt a. y l s kt

ni s chia s phn dung lng ng truyn cn cha dng
ht ca lin kt a.
r% k l phn bng thng tng ln cho mi kt ni trong Pk ti

bc th k
Ti iu khin ban u: k = 1, F0a = 0, r0p = 0, P1 = P v A1 = A
Thut ton hot ng nh sau:
nak := s lng ng p P k vi p (a ) = 1
r% k := min (Ca Fak 1 ) / nak
a Ak
rpk 1 + r% k ( p P k )
r = k 1
k
rp ( p P )
Fak := p (a).rpk
k
p
a A
k+1
:= {a | Ca Fak > 0}
P k +1 := { p | p (a) = 0, for all a A k+1}

k := k + 1
Nu Pk l tp hp rng th dng li, nu khng
th quay li bc 1.
6.4.3. Thut ton GPS (pending)
143
144
Chng 7 K thut m phng

7.1. Gii thiu
Cng c NS2 (network simulator version 2) [5] c pht trin bi
trng i hc Berkeley (M) l mt cng c cho php m phng v
nh gi c tnh ca mng my tnh v vin thng thay th cho vic
tin hnh thc nghim trn thit b thc t. Do c mt s u im nh
m ngun m, c cc module ng dng phong ph, NS2 hin l mt
trong nhng cng c m phng c ph bin rng ri nht hin nay
trn th gii, c bit l trong cc vin nghin cu v trng i hc.
Trong chng ny, trc tin chng ti s trnh by khi nim chung
v phng php m phng da trn cc s kin ri rc (discrete
event simulation). Tip theo, nhm cung cp cho ngi c mt ci
nhn tng quan v cc cng c m phng cho mng, chng ti s gii
thiu mt s cng c m phng mng thng dng hin nay v phn
tch cc u nhc im ca chng. Cu trc ca NS2, cc module c
sn cng nh ng dng ca chng s c trnh by trong phn tip
theo. Sau cng l mt s kt lun chung v phm vi ng dng cng
nh u nhc im ca NS2.
7.2. M phng da trn cc s kin ri rc v cc cng c
7.2.1. Phng php m phng da trn s kin ri rc
Trc khi i vo trnh by khi nim m phng da trn s kin ri
rc, chng ti nh ngha mt s khi nim sau:
nh ngha 6.1 - M hnh m phng (Simulation Model): l
s biu din mt h thng cn m phng bng cch m t cc

mi quan h ton hc, logic hoc cu trc ca n v mt trng
thi, cc thc th lm nn h thng, s kin lm thay i trng
thi h thng, cc tin trnh hoc cc hot ng ca h thng .
nh ngha 6.2 - Trng thi h thng (System State): l tp
hp cc bin cn thit cha ng y thng tin m t mt

h thng ti mt thi im bt k.
nh ngha 6.3 - Thc th (Entity): Mt m hnh ca h thng
cn m phng c chia nh thnh cc thc th vi cc chc

nng khc nhau (th d hng i, server, gi d liu .v.v.)
145
nh ngha 6.4 - Thuc tnh (Attributes): Mi thc th trong
mt h thng s c cc thuc tnh khc nhau c trng cho thc

th , th d nh lut phc v cc gi trong mt hng i .v.v..
nh ngha 6.5 - S kin (Event): S xut hin ca mt s
kin s lm thay i trng thi ca mt h thng (th d s kin

xut hin ca gi mi s lm tng s gi ang ch trong mt
hng i).
nh ngha 6.6 - Bn ghi s kin (Event Notice): L mt bn
ghi c gn thi gian s xy ra mt s kin trong tng lai, cng

vi n l nhng d liu cn thit thc hin s kin , th d
nh kiu s kin v thi gian xy ra s kin.
nh ngha 6.7 - Danh sch s kin (Event List): L mt
danh sch cha nhiu bn ghi s kin c sp xp theo trnh t

thi gian xy ra cc s kin .
nh ngha 6.8 - Hot ng (Activity): l mt qung thi gian
vi di c xc nh (khong thi gian truyn mt gi tin,
thi gian n gia hai gi tin lin tip) v thi im bt u ca

hot ng cng c xc nh.
nh ngha 6.9 - Tr (Delay): l mt qung thi gian vi di
khng xc nh (nh khong thi gian i ca mt gi tin trong
mt hng i khi ng trc n cn n gi ang i).

nh ngha 6.10 - ng h (Clock): L mt bin s th hin
thi gian m phng ca mt h thng.
T nhng khi nim c bn trn, phng php m phng da trn s

kin ri rc c xy dng bng cch m hnh ho mt h thng m
trng thi ca n thay i ti cc thi im ri rc, tc l thi im xy
ra mt s kin no . Nh vy qu trnh chy mt m phng thc
cht l qu trnh kho st mt h thng khi trng thi ca n thay i t
thi im ny sang thi im khc, tng ng vi thi im xy ra
cc s kin theo trnh t thi gian tng dn.
Th d 6.1:
d hiu c th ly mt th d v mt h thng bao gm mt hng

i Q v hai thc th phc v (server) A v B cng phc v cc gi
ang i Q. u tin cc gi s i vo hng i Q v i cho n
lt mnh c phc v. Thc th A v B c thi gian phc v gi
trung bnh l tsa v tsb (y chnh l hai thuc tnh tng ng vi A v
B). Khi c mt gi n, nu A ang ri th A s phc v gi , nu A
bn B ri th B phc v, nu khng gi s i ti hng i Q (Hnh 6.1).
146
Hnh 6.1. H thng gm 1 hng i v 2 thc th phc v

C th m hnh ho h thng ny bng 3 trng thi th hin bng 3
tham s:
LQ: di hng i (s gi hin ti c trong Q)
SA: 0 A bn; 1 A ri
SB: 0 B bn; 1 B ri
Ngoi ra cng c th nh ngha 3 kiu s kin lm thay i trng thi

ca h thng nh sau:
1)
S kin E1: mt gi Pi no i vo hng i;
2)
S kin E2: gi Pi bt u c phc v bi A hoc B;
3)
S kin E3: gi Pi c phc v xong.
Gi s ti thi im t1 gi Pn c A phc v xong, Pn+1 bt u c

phc v, ti thi im t2 gi Pi i vo hng i Q.
Hnh 6.2. M phng h thng vi trnh t thi gian tng dn
147
Hnh 6.2 th hin qu trnh m phng mt h thng theo trnh t thi

gian ca ng h v qu trnh thay i, b sung cc bn ghi s kin
trong bn danh sch s kin. Vic x l danh sch s kin l mt
trong nhng nhim v chnh ca bt k mt chng trnh m phng
no. Do cc bn ghi s kin l mt chui c sp xp theo trnh t
thi gian, mt danh sch s kin bao gi cng c hai con tr: mt con
tr tr vo u bn danh sch v con tr th hai tr vo bn ghi cui
cng trong danh sch. Mi bn ghi cng phi c cc con tr tr n
bn ghi tip theo nm trong bn danh sch. Cc thao tc lin quan n
danh sch s kin bao gm:
1)
Xo bn ghi u danh sch;
2)
Xo bn ghi v tr bt k trong danh sch;
3)
Thm mt bn ghi vo u hoc cui danh sch;
4)
Thm mt bn ghi vo v tr bt k trong danh sch ph thuc vo

thi gian xy ra s kin. Cc phng php m hnh ho mt h
thng thng tin cng nh cc chi tit v k thut m phng c th
tm thy trong [1][2][3].
7.2.2. Cc cng c m phng thng dng da trn s kin ri rc

Trc khi i vo trnh by cu trc ca cng c NS2, phn ny s
im li mt s cng c m phng thng dng hin nay v nhn xt
u nhc im ca chng.
OPNET [8] l mt sn phm thng mi tng i ni ting ca cng
ty OPNET, bao gm hai phn chnh l OPNET Modeler v phn m
rng cho mng khng dy OPNET Wireless Module. OPNET chy
di mi trng Windows cng nh Unix/Linux. OPNET rt thch hp
cho cc t chc cng nghip trong vic quy hoch v nh gi cht
lng dch v ca mng thc t bi n c sn mt th vin rt phong
ph vi cc module m phng thit b ca nhiu nh sn xut khc
nhau nh Cisco, Lucent, Juniper. Tuy nhin i vi cc c s nghin
cu v trng i hc, c l OPNET khng ph hp do gi tng i
t, mt khc khi m hnh ho mt h thng, OPNET yu cu phi s
dng th vin vi cc thit b c th nn vic xy dng cc m hnh
tng qut s gp kh khn.
Ptolemy II [9] l mt b cng c m phng trn nn Java c pht
trin bi trng Berkeley (M). Ptolemy II c th c ti xung min
ph, tuy nhin Ptolemy II ch cung cp mi trng m phng da trn
s kin ri rc ni chung, cc module h tr cho m phng h thng
mng khng c nhiu nn ngi lp trnh phi t pht trin cc ng
dng ca ring mnh.
OMNET++ [10] l chng trnh m phng cho h thng mng c
pht trin bi Andras Varga, trng i hc Bch khoa Budapest.
OMNET++ c vit bng ngn ng C++ v h tr c Windows ln
Unix/Linux. OMNET++ c th ti xung min ph. Ngoi ra OMNET++
s dng giao din ho thn thin vi ngi s dng (nh trong mi
trng pht trin ca OPNET), do khi lng cng vic v phc
148
tp khi pht trin mt module mi c gim nh kh nhiu. Tuy nhin

OMNET++ vn cn kh mi trong cng ng nghin cu nn cc
module c sn vn cha nhiu.
NS2 [5] l cng c m phng mng c s dng kh rng ri hin
nay trong cc trng i hc v vin nghin cu. NS2 c pht trin
trong khun kh ca d n VINT, kt hp gia trng Berkeley, Vin
Khoa hc thng tin ISI, Xerox PARC v phng th nghim quc gia
Lawrence Berkeley. NS2 l cng c m phng hng i tng, c
pht trin da trn hai ngn ng l C++ v OTcl (Object-oriented Tcl),
ch yu chy trong mi trng Unix/Linux. u im ca NS2 l m
ngun m, c cng ng s dng v pht trin kh ng o nn cc
module h tr cho m phng mng (nh cc giao thc, cc c ch
m bo cht lng dch v, cc cng ngh mng lp 2, 3) rt phong
ph. Tuy nhin n cng c mt s nhc im:
Do khng c giao din ho vi ngi s dng nn vic to

cc kch bn m phng cng nh pht trin cc module mi
phc tp hn cc cng c khc nh OPNET hoc OMNET++;
Kh nng h tr cc h iu hnh khc nh Windows km;
Do c pht trin bi nhiu c nhn v t chc khc nhau

nn cu trc NS2 tng i phc tp, sau mt thi gian lm
quen v dng th nht nh ngi s dng mi c kh nng
lm ch chng trnh, c bit khi phi to ra cc module chc
nng mi. Sau y chng ti s tp trung gii thiu cng c
NS2. Vic so snh v lit k cng c m phng v nh gi
hot ng ca mng c th tm thy trong [2][11][12].
7.3. Cng c m phng mng NS2

7.3.1. Cu trc
Hnh 3. Cu trc ca cng c m phng NS

M phng NS c xy dng trn c s hai ngn ng:
C++: NS c mt th vin phong ph v i tng mng v
giao thc c m t bng C++ (th d nh cc nt mng,

ng ni, ngun, hng i .v.v.).
149
OTcl: Ngoi ra chng trnh thng dch OTcl (OTcl l ngn ng

m rng cc chc nng hng i tng ca Tcl) cho php
ngi s dng xy dng cc kch bn m phng c th v
truyn tham s cho cc thc th C++. Mi i tng (tng
ng vi tng thc th) trong C++ s c mt i tng tng
ng lp OTcl nh th hin Hnh 3.
Nh vy C++ l phn cho d liu v l li ca NS cn OTcl l phn t

cu hnh cho chng trnh m phng. NS phi s dng 2 ngn ng l
do c hai nhim v khc nhau khi tin hnh m phng. Mt mt, m t
chi tit cc giao thc, cc khi hoc c ch ca mng yu cu phi s
dng cc ngn ng bc cao x l s liu, thc hin cc thut ton.
i vi nhim v ny do yu cu v tnh hiu qu ca chng trnh
m phng (nh khong thi gian chy chng trnh, qun l b nh
.v.v.), cc thc th bt buc phi c vit di C++. Mt khc, cc
qu trnh xy dng mt kch bn m phng nh t cu hnh cho cc
phn t mng, truyn cc tham s c th, thit lp topo cho mng th
ch s dng cc phn t c sn nn yu cu khu ny l thi
gian thit lp mt cu hnh phi thp (v cc kch bn m phng c th
lp i lp li). V vy, mt chng trnh thng dch nh OTcl l thch
hp.
Trong mt kch bn m phng di dng OTcl do ngi dung a ra,
chng ta c th thit lp mt topo mng, nhng giao thc v ng dng
c th m chng ta mun m phng v mu ca u ra m chng ta
mong nhn c t m phng, OTcl c th s dng nhng i tng
c bin dch trong C++ qua mt lin kt OTcl (s dng tclCL l th
vin gn kt d dng chia s chc nng v bin) to ra mt nh
x 1-1 ca i tng OTcl cho mi i tng C++ cng nh nh
ngha s lin h gia cc i tng .
Nh trnh by trn, mt trong nhng phn c bn ca NS cng l
bn danh sch s kin m y ngi ta gi l b phn hoch s
kin (event scheduler). NS s dng 4 phng php phn hoch s
kin khc nhau, c trnh by c th trong [4]. Mt s kin l mt i
tng trong C++ bao gm mt s hiu nhn dng (ID) duy nht, thi
gian c phn hoch v con tr tr n mt i tng thc thi s
kin .
Cu trc ca mt s kin v b phn hoch s kin c nh ngha
nh sau:
class Event {
public:
Event* next_; /* event list */
Handler* handler_; /* handler to call when
event ready */
double time_; /* time at which event is ready
*/
int uid_; /* unique ID */
Event() : time_(0), uid_(0) {}
150
};
/*
* The base class for all event handlers. When
an events scheduled
* time arrives, it is passed to handle which
must consume it.
* i.e., if it needs to be freed it, it must be
freed by the handler.
*/
class Handler {
public:
virtual void handle(Event* event);
};
Cc gi tin trong NS c nh ngha t lp Event nh sau:
class Packet : public Event {
private:
friend class PacketQueue;
u_char* bits_;
...
protected:
static Packet* free_;
public:
Packet* next_; /* for queues and the free list
*/
static int hdrlen_;
Packet() : bits_(0), datalen_(0), next_(0) {}
u_char* const bits() { return (bits_); }
static void free(Packet*);
...
};
7.3.2. Cc tin ch trong NS h tr cho m phng mng [Pending]
Cc module phc v cho m phng mng my tnh v vin thng:
Mobile networks, mobile IP, DiffServ, IntServ, MPLS, UDP/TCP/IP,
SCTP, routing protocols (mobile ad-hoc, unicast, multicast), RED, RIO,
WFQ, CSMA/CD, ON/OFF source, Pareto .v.v.
Cc chng trnh tr gip trong vic khai thc s liu m phng: Nam,
XGraph .v.v.
7.3.3. Th d (Pending)
7.4. Kt lun (Pending)
151
152
Ti liu tham kho

[1] John S. Carson II, Barry L. Nelson, Discrete-Event System Simulation, Jerry
Banks, Prentice Hall 1996
[2] Richard Blum, Network Performance Open Source Toolkit Using Netperf,
tcptrace, NIST Net, and SSFNet, Wiley Publishing 2003
[3] Raj Jain, The Art of Computer Systems Performance Analysis: Techniques for
Experimental Design, Measurement, Simulation and Modeling, John Wiley and
Sons 1991
[4] Kannan Varadhan, Kevin Fall, NS Manual, http://www.isi.edu/nsnam/ns/nsdocumentation.html
[5] http://www.isi.edu/nsnam/ns/
[6] Marc Greis, NS Tutorial, http://www.isi.edu/nsnam/ns/tutorial/index.html
[7] Eintan Altman, Tania Jimnez, NS for Beginners,
sop.inria.fr/maestro/personnel/Eitan.Altman/COURS-NS/n3.pdf
http://www-
[8] http://www.opnet.com
[9] http://ptolemy.eecs.berkeley.edu/ptolemyII/index.htm
[10] http://www.omnetpp.org/
[11] http://www.inrialpes.fr/planete/people/ernst/Documents/simulator.html
[12] http://www.topology.org/soft/sim.html
[13] Kishor Shridharbhai Trivedi, Probability and Statistics with Reliability,
Queuing, and Computer Science Applications, Wiley-Interscience, 2001
[14] Donald Gross, Carl M. Harris, Fundamentals of Queueing Theory, WileyInterscience,1998
[15] Dimitri Bertsekas, Robert Gallager, Data Networks, Prentice-Hall International
Editions, 1987
[16] Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice-Hall, 2003
[17] Joseph L. Hammond, Peter J.P.O' Reilly, Performance Analysis of Local
Computer Networks, Addison-Wesley, 1988
[18] Jeremiah F. Hayes, Thimma V. J. Ganesh Babu, Modeling and Analysis of
Telecommunications Networks, Wiley-Interscience, 2004
[19] Gunter Bolch, Stefan Greiner, Hermann de Meer, Kishor S. Trivedi, Queuing
Networks and Markov Chains, Modeling and Performance Evaluation with
Computer Science Evaluation, John Wiley and Sons, 1998
Rudolf Avenhaus, Quantitative Modelle fr Rechen- und
Kommunikationssysteme, Universitt der Bundeswehr Mnchen, 2000
[20]
153
154
Ph lc 1
155

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C s mng thng tin

Gio trnh dnh cho sinh vin i hc ngnh

Cumulative distribution function

First in first out

Last in first out

Probability density function

Probability distribution function

Bng i chiu thut ng Anh - Vit

Tin trnh nh thc

Birth Death Process

Tin trnh sinh t

First in first out / First-come-first-serve

Vo trc phc v trc

Phn b chun/phn b Gauss

Thi gian gia hai s kin ti (?)

Last in first out / Last-come-first-serve

Vo sau phc v trc

c tnh/cht lng hot ng

Probability density function

Probability distribution function

Hm phn phi xc sut

Php th ngu nhin

S kin ngu nhin

Bin ngu nhin

Trm phc v/Server

Tin trnh phc v

Tham s hnh dng

Tin trnh ngu nhin

Hiu sut knh

Kim nh tnh chnh xc

Chng 2 Cc tin trnh ngu nhin ______________________________________________________ 6

2.2. Bin ngu nhin v cc hm xc sut_________________________________________________________ 7

2.3. Cc m hnh phn b xc sut c bn _______________________________________________________ 14

2.4. Tin trnh ngu nhin (stochastic process) ___________________________________________________ 20

2.5. Cc c tnh thng k ca tin trnh ngu nhin ______________________________________________ 22

2.6. Cc tin trnh ngu nhin thng gp _______________________________________________________ 27

2.7. Kt lun _______________________________________________________________________________ 28

Chng 3 H thng hng i ___________________________________________________________ 29

3.2.2. K hiu Kendall ______________________________________________________________________________ 31

3.3. H thng hng i trng thi n nh nh l Little ________________________________________ 33

3.4. Hng i M/M/1/1 _______________________________________________________________________ 38

3.6. Tin trnh sinh t (Birth Death Process) __________________________________________________ 46

3.8. Hng i M/M/c/_______________________________________________________________________ 51

Chng 4 Mng hng i ______________________________________________________________ 52

Chng 5 nh tuyn trong mng thng tin _______________________________________________ 53

5.2. Cc m hnh nh tuyn qung b (broadcast routing) _________________________________________ 55

5.3. Cc m hnh nh tuyn thng dng ________________________________________________________ 78

5.4. Bi tp (Pending) _______________________________________________________________________ 101

Chng 6 iu khin lung v chng tc nghn __________________________________________ 102

6.2. Tnh cng bng_________________________________________________________________________ 108

6.5. Bi tp (Pending) _______________________________________________________________________ 144

Chng 7 K thut m phng__________________________________________________________ 145

7.3. Cng c m phng mng NS2 ____________________________________________________________ 149

7.4. Kt lun (Pending) ______________________________________________________________________ 151

Ti liu tham kho___________________________________________________________________ 153

Hnh 2-1. Hm mt xc sut ................................................... 9

Hnh 3-2. Round robin ................................................................32

Chng 1 Gii thiu

Mt nh cung cp dch v in thoi di ng GSM mun m rng

Lu lng u vo , c tnh bng s yu cu kt ni trong

Thi gian trung bnh ca mt cuc gi di ng . Tham s ny

Ti ti a u ca mt trm gc (base station), chnh l s cuc

Yu cu xc sut t chi dch v ti a p. y l xc sut mt