Americanize,Anglicise:WhyDoBritsAndYanksSpell

WordsDifferently?
LaurenDavis

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"TheUnitedStatesandGreatBritainaretwocountriesseparatedbyacommonlanguage."Sogoestheold
chestnutcommonlyattributedtoplaywrightGeorgeBernardShaw.Oneofthoseseparationsisinthespellingof
wordslikecolor(colour),theater(theatre),andrealize(realise).Buthowdidthisseparationoccur?

SpellingBeforetheAmericanRevolution
ModernEnglishhasalwaysbeenatrickylanguagetowrangle.WhileithassomebasisinAngloSaxon,English
hasbeenalteredbyNormanconquerors,Dutchtypesetters,andorthographerswhowantedtoprettyupthe
language.AndwhilespellingtextbookshavebeenpopularamongtheEnglishupperclassesforcenturies,English
spellingwasnotcompletelystandard.Infact,theorwordendingthatweknowassociatewithAmericanEnglish
inwordslike"honor,""color,"and"labor"waspreferredbysomeEnglishlexicographers,whopreferredto
expungetheFrench"u,"anartifactoftheNormanconquest,fromtheEnglishlanguageandreturntothewords'
Latinroots.
EarlyAmericancolonialspellingwasabitmoreofamess,withsuchcreativespellingslike"jinerll"for"general"
appearinginofficialHartforddocumentsevenaslateas1716.Buteventually,twoveryimportantbookswouldgo
alongwaytostandardizingEnglishinbothEnglandanditscolonies.
ThefirstofthosebooksisThomasDilworth'sANewGuidetotheEnglishTongue,atextbookdesignedtoteach

childrenproperEnglishspellingandpronunciation.ThebookwaspublishedinLondonin1740,andthen
appearedinAmericasevenyearslaterthankstoAmerica'sgatekeeperoftheprintedword,BenjaminFranklin.The
spellerisimportantinpartbecauseitwassuchahit,withnumerousBritsandcolonistsrearedonDilworth's
approachtotheEnglishlanguage,andinpartbecauseitwouldprovidethebasisforalaterAmericanspeller.
TheotherbookisSamuelJohnson's1755masterworkADictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage.Englishlanguage
dictionarieshadexistedbeforeSamuelJohnson,butmainlyforobscurewords.Johnson,ontheotherhand,
createdacomprehensiverecordofthelanguage.Ifanyonewantedtoknowthedefinitionorspellingofjustabout
anyword,theycouldsimplylookitup.Itwasarevolutionarytext,onethatwouldgounrivaledforgenerations.
TherewasabitofaprescriptivistbenttoJohnson'smassiveundertaking.HefeltthattheEnglishlanguagewasa
mess(callingthelanguage'sinconsistencies"amarkofweakness")andthathisdictionarycouldhelpto
standardizedthelanguage.ItwasJohnson'sdictionarythatfinallycodifiedtheourinsomanyBritishwords
althoughsomeofhis"u"shavesincebeendroppedforwordshespelled"horrour,""emperour,""mirrour,"andso
forth.Healsoendedanumberofwordslike"publick,""attick,""critick,"and"chaotick,"witha"k,"something
thatdisappearedfromEnglishspellingwithinafewdecades.
Johnsondidnotmindthechanginglanguage,however.Afternineyearsworkingonhisdictionary,herecognized
thatEnglishwasachanging,growingthing,andtherewasnothinganylexicographercoulddotostopthat
change.AsmuchasJohnson'sdictionarydidtostandardizetheEnglishlanguage,hecametobelievethata
dictionarywriter'sjobwasnottoprescribelanguage,buttodocumenthowpeopleactuallyuseit.Hebeganhis
endeavor(apologiesformyAmericanspelling,Dr.Johnson)aprescriptivistandendeditadescriptivist.
OnerevolutionthatJohnsondidnotapproveof,however,wastheAmericanRevolution,whichhebelievedwould
endwith"EnglishsuperiorityandAmericanobedience."

ANewCountryandaNewLinguisticIdentity
Johnson'spoliticalpredictionsprovedlessprescientthanhislinguisticones,andafterAmericawonits
independencefromEngland,questionsofnationalidentityarose.Somethinkersoftheeraactuallywonderedif
AmericansshouldevenspeakEnglishanymore,asthelanguagesuggestedtheyokeofEngland.Moreradical
suggestionsincludedchangingthenationallanguagetoGerman(whichroughlytenpercentofthecountryalready
spoke)orHebrew(whichwastaughtinsomeNewEnglandschools).
BenjaminFranklin,meanwhile,hadhisownideafortheEnglishlanguage.Franklinproposedamajorspelling
reform,onthatmakeEnglishspellingcompletelyphonetic.Thiswouldinvolveanoverhaulofthealphabet,losing
c,j,q,w,x,andy,andaddingsixnewletters.Theideanevercaughton.

TheSpellerandNoahWebster

IntothelinguisticfraysteppedNoahWebster,lexicographer,writer,andrelentlessselfpromoter.Websterwas
thoroughlyYankeehisfamilyonbothsideswereAmericancolonistsseveralgenerationsbackandheevenhad
anancestorontheMayflower.Webster'sfamilywasn'tparticularlywealthyhisfatherwasafarmer,buthedidend
upattendingYaleandlaterjoinedtheConnecticutbar.HedevelopedrelationshipswithmanyofAmerica'smost
prominentcitizens,includingGeorgeWashingtonandBenjaminFranklin,buthehadareputationforbeingrather
obnoxious.Webstersufferedfromprofoundsocialanxiety,andtendedtocompensateforitwitharroganceand
bravado.Dr.BenjaminRushwasfondoftellingastoryaboutwhenheoncegreetedWebsterandcongratulated
himforarrivinginPhiladelphia.Websterreportedlyresponded,"Sir,youmaycongratulatePhiladelphiauponthe
occasion!"
Websterworkedasateacherandalawyer,buthecametonationalprominencethankstohisspellingtextbook.
WebsterhadtaughtchildrenwithDilworth'sspeller,butfounditpedagogicallylacking.So,usingDilworth'sbook
asastartingpoint,Websterwroteaspellerofhisown.ThiswasmeanttobeathoroughlyAmericanspeller.While
Dilworth'sspellerincludedthenamesandpronunciationsofEnglishtowns,Webster'sincludedprominent
Americancities,withaspecialemphasisonhisnativeConnecticut.
Webster'sspelleractuallyusedSamuelJohnson'sspellingsratherthananynewfangledAmericanones(althoughit
wasthesespellersthathadAmericanspronouncingtheletterZas"zee"ratherthan"zed"),butWebsterespoused
somepatrioticideasregardinghistextbook.Hefeltthat,unlikeEngland,whichhadahostofregionalaccents,
Americashouldbeunitedunderasinglesetofpronunciationrules.Naturally,hechosethepronunciationthathe
grewupwith,andhisspellersweredesignedtoteachchildrentospeakliketheyhadsteppedoutofNewHaven.
Webster'sspellerwasabestseller,andhebecameagreatadvocatedofcopyrightprotectioninlargepartbecause
ofit.HedraftedAmerica'sfirstcopyrightlawsandwasquicktoaccusecompetitorsofplagiarism(abitironic

sincehehadborrowedagreatdealfromDilworth'stext).
Websterwasn'tafanofBenjaminFranklin'snewalphabetscheme,buthedideventuallywarmtotheideaof
spellingreform.Hewroteessaysadvocatingforamorestreamlinedorthography,onethatwouldsteerAmerican
Englishinanewdirection.Heimaginedthat,onedayAmericanwouldbeasdistinctfromBritishEnglish"asthe
modernDutch,Danish,andSwedisharefromtheGerman,orfromoneanother."Andhis1806ACompendious
DictionaryoftheEnglishLanguageproposedsuchanorthography.Someofthespellingsinthatdictionaryare
familiartomodernreaders"jail"for"gaol,""plowed"for"ploughed,""humor"for"humour."Othersseemabit
oddtoday,like"speek"for"speak,""determin"for"determine,""bred"for"bread,""bilt"for"built,"and"groop"
for"group."Thedictionarywasafinancialandcriticalfailure,andWebsterwasthoroughlyridiculedforwhat
manycommentatorssawasprescriptivismgonemad.
Itwouldbeanother27yearsbeforeWebsterputoutanotherdictionary,hisfarmorecomprehensiveAnAmerican
DictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage.Althoughbythispoint,theolder(andperhapswiser)Websterhad
abandonedsomehismoreextremespellings,thisvolumecontainedmanyofthespellingsweassociatewith
modernAmericanEnglish.Wordslike"theatre"and"centre"became"theater"and"center.""Masque"became
"mask"and"offence"wasnow"offense."Andwordslike"colour,""favourite,"and"mould"eachlosttheir"u"(in
partbecauseWebsterwasstaunchlyantiFrench).
And,asDavidWolfmanpointsoutinhisbookRightingtheMotherTongue,Americawasadifferentplacewhen
Websterpublishedthisnewvolume.Foronething,manyofWebster'scriticsweredead,andthesocial
environmentwasmoreacceptingofWebster'spopulistviewsonspellingnamely,thatEnglishwordsshouldbe
easiertospell.AndJohnson'sdictionary,now70yearsold,wasnolongerthelinguisticjuggernautitoncehad
been.Althoughthe$20,twovolumetomewasprohibitivelyexpensiveformosthouseholds($364intoday's
dollars),itdidfinditswayontotheshelvesofprominentscholarsandPresidentAndrewJackson.Becausethe
tomecontained70,000entriesandincludeddistinctlyAmericanwords(includingWebster'ssolecoinage,
"demoralize"),itbecameaninvaluableworkofAmericanlinguisticscholarship,thoughWebster'soutlawspelling
wasstillnotwithoutitscritics.
Webster'sbrandofspellingworkeditswayintoAmericanhomesthankstoGeorgeandCharlesMerriam.After
Webster'sdeath,theMerriamsobtainedtherightstoWebster'sAmericanDictionaryaswellashisspellers.They
hiredateamofscholarstoreviseWebster'sbookandweedoutsomeofhismoresuspectetymologies.Insteadofa
$20twovolumework,theMerriamspublishedtheMerriamWebsterdictionaryasasingle$6volume.Itwasstill
pricey,butnowaffordabletomiddleclassAmericans.TheMerriamsalsohappenedtobemastermarketers,
gettingthousandsofcopiesoftheirnewdictionaryintoAmericanpublicschools.
BritishspellinginAmericadidnotgooutquietly,however.In1856,theUnitedStatesDemocraticReviewrana
seriesofpiecesinwhichbothsupportersandcriticsofthelateNoahWebsterdebatedproperAmerican
orthography.Questionsofrevs.erandourvs.orragedthroughthepages.Interestingly,JosephWorcester,
authorofarivaldictionary,arguedforWebster'susagesimplybecauseitwastheprevailingusageintheUnited

States.HeconcededthatWebster'sspellinghadwonout.

PresidentRoosevelt's(Doomed)SpellingReform
ThegapsbetweenAmericanandBritishEnglishcouldhaveyawnedmuchwiderifPresidentTheodore
Roosevelt'sordertoreformAmericanspellinghadtakenhold.FollowingtheleadoftheSimplifiedSpelling
Board,RooseveltorderedthePublicPrinterin1906toalterthespellingof300differentwords.Thewords
includedmanywordsthatendedined,whichwouldnowendintsothat"mixed"became"mixt,""pressed"
became"prest,""possessed"became"possest"andsoon.Andthe"ugh"wasdroppedforwordslike"although"
("altho"),"though"("tho"),and"thorough"("thoro").
MembersoftheSSBincludedfolkslikeMarkTwain,MelvilDewey(oftheDeweyDecimalsystem),dictionary
editors,publishingmagnateHenryHolt,andSupremeCourtJusticeDavidJosiahBrewer,butthatpedigreewas
notenoughtoprotectthe300wordlistfromridicule.Criticshadafielddaywiththelist,concoctingnewand
increasinglybizarrespellingsinordertomockRooseveltandthelist.(And,naturally,alotoffunwashadwiththe
spellingRoosevelt'sownname.)Thepresidentendedupretractingtheorder,andtheprinterreturnedto
conventionalAmericanspelling.It'sproofthat,whileitcananddoeshappen,spellingreformcanbeand
extremelydifficultthingtoachieve.
Sources:
MarshaE.Ackermann,HowDoYouSpellRuzevelt?:AHistoryofSpellinginAmericaTodayandYesterday
JoshuaKendall,TheForgottenFoundingFather:NoahWebster'sObsessionandtheCreationofanAmerican
Culture
DavidWolman,RightingtheMotherTongue:FromOldeEnglishtoEmail,theTangledStoryofEnglishSpelling