Professional Documents
Culture Documents
GRAMMAR
ENGLISH
LOGICAL
AND
HENRY
Ftrmtrh
PmuUnt
AulkOT
'A
PrmuT
'A
p^EET,
Rdil"rtf'T"ii OldatEngliik
'A
HISTORICAL
Fhti'
ami
t/ SfelHn
Primir
tj Ml
TtiU;
AT
THE
'
Cura
'A
Saaui
Middit-Engliik
Snglah,'
tf PkemtUa;
'A
Hittmy
'Slullr/i
FHONOLOQT,
CLARENDON
1900
Sadtlf
Pattstalis'
md
'
Riadtr'
af'An AnfleSaxai
PAST
DTTKODUtraiON,
PUlnhgitat
A^n^i
Prvtitr'
of Eiitliik Ssmidt'
NalHTt-Pfttry,' tlC.
AND
AOCIDXNOB
PRESS
OnHm%-
T,Goo(^le
PREFACE
work
This
English
intended
the
of
they
as
latest
on
results
of
want
linguistic
critical
investigation
indirectly,
or
Ecientific
independent
an
of
directly
bear,
the
supply
to
founded
grammar,
survey
far
is
the
on
as
English
lai^uage.
Although
historical:
will
be
it is
at
that
seen
accurately
the
the
have
hitherto
time
taken
ignored, by grammarians.
I
have
cost
found
me
to
once
book
one
realize
how
reading
Society,
in
and
which
Even
in
paper
I
on
the
and
to
who
grammar
grammar
modestly
and
more
tracks
which
it has
advanced
still
before
the
only
"
confine
generally
are
sometimes
often
conquer
often
is.
the
view
etc.,
beaten
difficulties
method,
one
unsettled
a
neglected,
teachers,
primary
'inflection,' 'sentence,'
thought
hard
Practical
partially.
to
of
years
define
to
the
also
but
It
grammar.
trouble
oflen
obstacles
many
speech,
'word,'
been
logical
one-sidedly
not
considerable
of
parts
categories
is
grammar
same
I have
only
not
grammatical
which
this
historical,
selves
them-
hardly
I
able
remember
Philological
that
cannon
in cannon-ball
my
told
think of
callingcarmon
another
and,
that
had
written
in eannon-ball
cannon
although he
comparison
support him.
Again,
in grammar
yet when
I find the
grammars,
are
Prepositions
the
prefixedto
verb
Lessons
A
3.
a
or
thing,or
some
to
speaker
that
if anything
function
of
five different
to
of
some
followingfive definitions,
:
"
so
named, because
to
modify
in Historical
prepositionis
noun
imagine
refer
which directly
contradict the others
1.
another
perfectlyclear,it is the
is
prepositions; and
would
one
got
nothing
himself
commit
to
action
or
mentary
meaning (Morris; Ele-
which
denotes
pronoun
originally
theywere
English Grammar).
word
its
maintained
meeting,
cannones/, he found
cannoner,
only
not
was
adjectiveand
an
refused
would
sense
upon
adjective.There-
an
of the
was
teacher,
English grammar,
an
amusement
finished
superfluous,
were
common
who
philologist,
to the intense
else; and
to
criticisms
in cannon-ball
eminent
schoolmaster,but
also
was
practicalteacher possessed of
no
up,
that my
me
I had
adjective.When
an
who
English philologist,
an
paper,
not
was
when
some
placed before
relation in which
thing,stands
Eo
attribute of
is
preposition
word
to
another
word
which
(Smith and
shows
the
School
Hall:
relation of
Manual
of
EnglishGrammar).
4. A
a
noun
preposition is
or
or
pronoun
or
an
pronoun,
word
so
that
together
can
that
the
make
adverb-phrase
(Abbott: How
placed before
be
can
prepositionand
adjective-phrase
an
up
to
noun
Speech).
5. A
is
preposition
word
prefixedto
noun
or
its
PREFACE.
equivalentto make
A
up
VII
or
adverb-phrase
{Bain:
qualifying
Higher EnglishGrammar).
It
is also
the above
worthy of
that,with
note
definitionsinsiston
the
althougha prepositionthat
the Latin tmus) is
of the prepo^tion,
prefixing
(suchas
much
as
exception,all
one
as
preposition
that precedes
one
it
This
is
with
definition harmonize
some
the
etymology of the
fact that
singular
the
In
name.
speechare
parts of
of those who
some
make
quibblingetymolc^es. It is
than
more
to
attempt
an
grammars
literally
nothing
a
of
the result
evidently
againstthe servileimitation of
loudly
protestmost
Latin grammar
are
the greatest
is
of the
one
the etymology
explaining
reallyno
such
the
more
word
is
oxygen
from
granmiaticalterms, which
than
the
respects,it has
affordinga
and
etymology tH
part of chemistry.Although
certsun
at
least the
practicalmerit of
of technical
number
and
generally
acceptedapplication,
such
a
substituting
misleading term
of
terms
no
see
as
definite
advantage
pouessivt
whenever
the
case
existing
it is
terminologyis confusing,
ambiguous, or defective,
possible.Where
the best
to
the
I have
myselfbeen
I
usage varies,
nomenclature,and
with the
common
Mun
use
it
our
conservative
as
adopt what
seems
Thus,
consistently.
in
subslanlive
"
not
however
quibblingetymologicaldefinition of
of
is
is objectionable
existing
grammaticalterminology
enough
in many
in
of
part of grammar
as
I have abstained
why
reasons
for the
a
noun
sake
as
i( is shorter.
of
'the
Where
the
name
the
coin
obliged to
grammatical
expressions. The
new
is
terms
it is
one:
I have, of
defective,
is
existingnomenclature
that
shall
we
my
new
as
when
as
attain
ever
names
are
I shorten
convenient
the verb.
include
to
always tried
of
as
by popularlanguage. On
altogether as
'
new
of
names
I have
prefer to
the
is not
into
good Englishones
the various
of the
endless
arbitrary
meanings
its popularmeaning.
former
'
'
complex and
only,and
I have
compkx.
hand ; thus I
to
warranted
I reject
principle
phrase
same
by using the
sentence
use
include 'clause,'
rather than
ening
short-
lasdy avoided
common
there are
distinction between
arbitrary
sentence
compUx
the
Thus
it by diiferentgrammarians and
compound
the
"
make
to
use.
to
given to
the 'un-finite'forms
distinction which
attempt enforcinga
to
'
adjectivesinto verbal
existing
terminology.
familiar
general term
of
alreadyin
terms
setteenct
avoid
to
by
terminology. Some
and
nouns
avoidable
un-
uniform
verbal
name
I have
an
mere
'
it is
of
multiplication
evil,but
certainlyan
been
course,
terms
when
prefermuialion
to
As
or
I have
alreadysaid,this
historical. The
ianatically
historicaland
but
the
old
comparativephilologyas
been
philologyis
with
belief in
an
one-sidedly
the value
aid to the
rudely shaken
even
practiceof interlarding
Englishgrammars
is not
grammar
of
practical
of late years;
the most
elementary
comparative
stillalmost
universal.
In
the
good
old
days
T,Goo(^lc
of Schleichei
Arian
and
Brachel, when
and
with
this practicewas
delusive
be mastered
has
be
to
other
liable
analogicalinfluences (which we
are
common
irregularities),
as
give
to
us
philologyand
And
endless
to
etymology
that it is
now
the
up
of language and
its
and
learn
much
as
as
we
comparative
development
that
be
can
the known
from
can
to
mand
honestycom-
make
to
of
complicationsby
and
sense
generallyadmitted
proceed from
host
the
better
Law
longer allowed
no
attempt
hardly
can
Grimm's
Law
Vemer's
supplementedby
symmetry,
French
by specialists
themselves,and
dismiss
to
nowadays, when
but
Latm
in
tabulated
be
and
simplicity
plausibleenough;
even
principlesof
main
etymology could
Romance
the
the
principles
explained
most
seems
the unknown
to
"
to
befcK^ attempting
a wider survey, for which the student will then
be
(" 863)?
meagre
to
profitable
etc. from
done
so
results of
an
ance
acquaint-
Englishchange
Comparative Philologyare
in
problematical
treat of the
the
than
analogous Modem
precisely
Again, the
and
Law
many
cases, that it is
so
more
originof inflections,
parts of speech,
as
I have
in this book.
less
ambitiouB
English grammar
at
English (Anglo-Saxon)
of Old
would
program
were
one
its
further
limits.
narrower
an
the
If historical
ledge
elementaiy know-
Englishmight reasonablybe
preludeto
of
definitely
by Old
bounded
end,
allow
made
historical study of
the indispensable
English. It
strange that
seems
to
cramming up
for the
the
Middle
is
English text
subjectsand
reformed, the
radically
put
In
1 have
English foundation
eliminatingthe
from
have
from
also
dialect,and
the
grammar
system
has
them
be
cannot
friend of education
true
pains
make
to
the Old
possible,especiallyby
as
that
hours
the
or
been
have
resulted from
verification. I
words
hunting up
in
and
find that
merely to
grammar,
handed
have
they
attention
is the
first to
do
the
between
in
English
make
different
well
as
periods of
German
literaryand
"
spoken
completely reformed
been
which
Old
grammars
English as
"
again has
the
spoken language
in
has
far,at least,as
and
the
between
for the
same
distinction
This
the
English
teaching. This
historical grammar
English,allgrammars
language.
distinctions of
of the Middle
the discrimination
is well known
ignoring the
the
to
complete confusion
As
in
dictionaries without
paid great
part of
period. It
Modern
taken
grammar,
weary
alreadymade
dialects
whole
our
existence.
no
I have
has
to
given in MStzner's
forms
tion
prepara-
tiian it ia for
movement
every
errors
numerous
spent many
have
Extension
sound
as
grammar
taking words
until
that
assume.
this grammar
down
more
no
examining
on
wishes it to
as
indispensablefoundation:
been
it should be necessary
day
of teaching these
this time or
at
not
this grammar
grammar
which
purely descriptivecan
is
elementary,
strictly
is scientificand
be
said
to
torical
his-
answer
T,Goo(^le
'W-'
PREFACE.
.
this
to
bear
As
Present
on
of the
one
As my
do
throughout endeavoured
English grammar
Old
to
of the
English
relation of
treatment
mood
language
of
uses
praclicaj
to
as
English,
cases
to
general
languagesthat
in my
seen
are
be
may
of the subjunctive
("agn).
expositionclaims
to the statement
'
as
serves
studied in England,and
most
to
direct
foreignlanguages,I have
grammar,
main
most
the
bringout clearly
the
on
as
English.
is that it
grammar
of
being based
development;and
much
It confines itselftherefore as
description.
and
I confine myself
scientific,
to be
of
such
ungrammatical expreswon
If
divergent
usages.
as
it
an
is in
general
such, dmply
me
educated
people,I accept it as
adding that it is avoided in die literary
language. So also
use
among
in
leavingthe
comments,
no
from
the
retention of the
draw
to
the
natural
older
which
reader
spellinghonour
is inconsistent with
is
our
English
piece of
ference
in-
abandonment
servatism
con-
of
tmperour, etc.
I have made
my
embodying every
there
is
are
not
expositionas
rule
or
in
principle
enough examples I
defect which
could
concrete
not
am
as
possibleby
example. That
but this -,-,
fully
aware;
an
be avoided
in
firstedition
of limited space.
I
am
German
in completely
philolc^^ists
the descriptive
and logical
separating
partof grammar
xii
PREFACE.
from
seen
and
explainfullythe grammaticalcategories,
of the parts of
speechin
historicalquestion,
on
the origin of
det^l before
the
a
it is
single
no
use
plaining
ex-
some
enlerit^on
that
principle
treat
even
have
to
seem
the
in the section on
generalities,
as, for instance,
referred us
to Professor Max
of Language,and
suited
I have
grammar.
in my
MUller's Leclurts
Professor Earle's
not
respects,are
to
own
serve
PhiMo^
as
on
simply
the Science
of the English
tlieyare
as
history
in
some
introductions to
my
obligedto introduce
therefore been
the fundamental
to
say, 'have
may
Tonguei'
readers
reader
much
too
gone
my
of lii^;uistic
science
principles
way.
treat of the
apart from
characteristics.
In
my
treatment
method
new
sentences
I may
call attention
to
the
ally
which instead of mechanicorganicanalysis,
of
cuttingup
complex
sentence
into
singlesentences
or
a
of
definitestructure
An
of itsown.
phoneticbasis. It is
now
is that it is
generallyrecognized,
except
that phonology
hopelesslyobscurantist circles,
foundation
or
my
scientific above
"
as
exposition
of the
all,of historicalgrammar.
in
pensable
is the indis-
of all linguistic
study,whether
brief and
on
practical
I have made
in consideration
simpleas possible,
and
of gettinginstruction in the subject,
difficulty
the lamentable
want
of teachers.
T,Goo(^le
xiii
PREFACE.
The
In the section on
all detailsthat do
been
(ullyprepared,I
follow
to
have
been
purely historicalexposition.
to exclude
whatever
Dotbing
has
In
so
quarters,that it vould
of
most
use
and
Morris.
the
I have
wUl
also to
Parallel Grammar
^^'P
day
some
acknowledge my
My
show
what
The
to
owe
to
historical
.sections.I
must
Professor
any
also
my
debt
nearlyall
which
treatment
Ntw
more
SprachgachichUthan
English grammar
EnglishDictionary.In
to
H. Paul's
one
book"
Frinaipiender
least in the
at
mention
specially
most
in English grammar
investigation
stimukuing
for a
made
obligations
to
Series,especially
taken.
^^
owe
Ihe Introduction
StuJier ovtr
I have
grammars
are
quotations
ledge
to acknowpossible
are
Sonnenschein's
Latin
influenced from
been
be
not
obl^ationsfully. The
my
prefixtpi-.
I have
preparingthis grammar,
many
to
to do with the
Jespersen's
and
original
long time.
in the
prefacesto
my
History
of EnglishSounds, etc.
There
is
is,on
the other
original Many
of course,
been
weakening of
of my
hand, much
in this grammar
have,
grammaticalinvestigations
alreadypublishedelsewhere,such
Old
English
eo
into
ea,
Philological
Proceedings,1880-1,
Society's
call specialattention
Grammar
(Phil.Soc.
to
that
my
Transs.
paper
on
as
(" 1068)
p. 75.
the
in the
I may
1875-6),in
which
will be
found
been
the gcmis
of many
into
re-imported
'
views
new
In conclusion,1 need
for any criticisms and
of the
which
have
Germany.
suggestions.
HENRY
South
'
SWEET.
Park, Reigatb,
16 Dtc.
iSyi.
T,Goo(^le
CONTENTS
INTBODtTCn
GRAMMAR
AND
Definition
LANGUAGE
Grammar
of
of
Giaminai
In
Grammai
and
and
Isolation;
Lc^cal
Meaning
iietween
Form
j 9.
5
7.
anil
Irregularity {
Meaning
matical
Gram-
10.
Divergence
34.
nition
Defi-
Province
between
| 16.
Categories
Oat"gorleB.
Ideas
by Words
Kxpressed
and
Substances
and
General
Special
Adjmict-wotds
Words
Qnunmatioal
to
18.
Tlioughts
Express
{ 40.
(Attribution) {
44.
Snbject and
16
...
Predicate
SnbordinatioQ
and
CategorieB.
13,
-words
f "|S.
Word-formation
CompositioD
24
i 63.
Derivation
Cq.
28
Infleaions
Relations
34.
i 45.
Words
Foim
Qnalilien f
{ 37.
Head-words
and
AssumpdoD
41.
Coordination
I2
Itieir Attrtbntes
of Words
Combination
Connection
S ig.
of Grammar
Objects
Form
Logical Categories {
Grammatical
Logloal
{18.
and
i i6.
Langnage
of
O W.
between
Words
....-"
3o
Parts
of
Speech
of the Parts
CUssificstloii
the Puts
Relations
of
35
Speech $
between
of
Speech (
1 00.
Conversion
of
log.
Logical and
Grammaiical
gories
Cate40
UDifotmityof Ez-
FnllnesE of
preBuou
betweoi
tions i 116.
PARTS
OF
IN
SPEECH
DETAIL.
Form
49
lodecticHi* f 116.
Gender
{ 141.
Fonn-wotds
$ 147.
Meaning
54
Oonoreto
Noonaj
ICaniiB
153;
Abatraot
{ 150
CUss-douds
Material Nouns
( ijj
i Igl
; CollectiTe
ProperNames
( 156.
i 165.
Noima
Function
62
A^eotives.
Form
65
Meaning
67
Function
Fronouiui.
/Form'".
"
69
""".,
Meaning \
Function/
Classes
of Pronouns
PerstHial Pronomu
Pronooos
i 105.
dprocal ProDomiE
Relative
nonns
Pronouns
aad
loo.
no.
PosMuive
Reflexive
i 103.
ProDouna
i 107,
Prononas
"
Interrc^ative
ConjunctivePronouns
S 114.
{ 131.
Pionoiuis
Indefinite Prononns
Negative Pronouns
{ ai6.
{
119.
DeRoite
phatic
Em-
Reiii.
Pro-
Quantitative
| 236.
ITumeralB
Verba.
T,Goo(^le
COlfTENTS.
XVII
Meaning
S9
--'
.
Tntosilive and
Intranailive%
Verbs
Reciprocal
148.
Reflexive Verbs
Verbs
Impeisonal
( 156.
S 854.
" 157.
FuDctioD
93
Form-classes
96
" iGg.Parson
NunbeT
Tenses
Componnd
5 274
Completeand
{ 379;
Mood
S 308.
Imperative
MimeUaneona
f 311.
(Active,
Fasdre, ReflezlTe)
J 317.
(Negative,
Interrogative)
Empliatii^
jnnctive,
etc) !
1 183.
SnbThongbt-mood(Indicative,
and
Fact-mood
Primary
Simpleand
SecondaiyTenses
{ 171
and
Tenses! 181;Tense-aspects
Incomplete
(Duration,
etc)f 183 ;
Mood:
( i'jo.Tense
"93 ;
Voice
Forms
Verbala
11;
Infinitiveand
Snpine }
Gerund
331,
J 314.
Participles
Adverb*
Form
118
.
Meaning
119
120
Function
123
lodepandent
Correlative Adverbs
{ 373.
Parti
1 377
Connection
5 370 ;
between
between
Adverbs
between
Connection
Connection
i Connection
SenCence-modi^ngi 364 ;
Adverbs
% 369 :
Relative and Conjnactive
Adverbs
:
36S. Dependent
Oonnaetton
of Bpsaoh
{ 376
S 35S
Adverbs
Sentence-adTerbs
between
between
Adverbs
Adverbs
and
and
Adverbs
Adverbs
and
and
other
tives
Adjec-
Pronouns
and
5 380;
Prepositions
{ 381.
Conjunctions
FrapoBitlons.
Form
134
Function
136
Meaning
139
ConjODotlons.
Form
Function
Meaning
140
"
140
144
COJiTTEJi^S.
xvm
Conjunctions
149
Conjunctions
150
InteijeotlonB
151
WORD-GROUPS
153
SENTENCES
155
Relations between
Sentences
160
CIrhscs and
of Sentences
170
{ 496. Relations
Pait-of-SpeechRelaiiims
and
HISTORY
Subject
between
Predicate { goo.
LANGUAGE.
OF
Changes in Language
176
Effects of
between Words
a
of
Means
{ 533.
Expression
f S"8.
I-f^calControl of Changes
"
Ellipse
534.
Analogy (
535.
Languages to
one
Originof
551.
another
2i
Influenceof
"
DIVISIONS
AND
Language
METHODS
another
OF
OF
589.
GRAMMAR
Giammatical
and
Cerate Langaages{
DictioDaiJ
matical
{ 586. Gram-
Analy^
ENGLISH
Periods i 594.
and
DifRcnlties i
HISTORY
on
Accidence
one
t 591.
595.
T,Goo(^le
"i
CONTENTS.
Old
Ensliah
ChamcCeiistics of Old
English % 605.
f6o6. Celtic Inflnencef607. ScandinsTJui
Influence
Inflnence { Gd8.
French
Ulddle
Latin
EngUsli
between French
Struggle
Dia1ect"ofMlddleEnglisliStii4.
of
Dialect { 619.
London
the
Rise
English{ 617.
and
Scandinaviui
Influence
Influence
Frmch
% 611.
" 61:;.
Latin Influence
If odem
{ 6ai.
BngllBh
3:
Influence of other
Periods %
Languages{ 634,
638.
BngllBh
Fresent
Strata %
646.
PHOHOLOOT.
PHONETICS.
Analysis
s:
Throat-ionnds
Breath
(653. ConBonante
I
"nd
Voice
Vowels
S fijj.
651.
i 654.
Nasal Sounds
sonants
Vowel-like Con-
655.
SyntheaiB
3:
Glides
Vowels
a;
{ (170.Tongne-heigbt
Rounding % 669. Tongue-retmction
ofVowelij 673. The Vowels in
i67". Acoustic Qualities
Detail % 674.
OonooiUUltS
Form
3;
f 691. Place {
698.Compound
Consonants
ing,
Round-
Fronting{ Joj.
LAWS
OLD
OF
SOUND-CHANGE
ENGLISH
.....
SOUNDS.
Orthognkphy.
bs
The
a;
CONTBJfTS.
XX
Fronunolatlon
.241
Streea
243
Qviantit?
245
ToweU
245
Mutation
{ 7gl.
Consonant
Inflnnice S 754.
Consonants
249
Oradation
MIDDLE
ENGLISH
251
SOUNDS.
Orthography
253
Stress
255
Quantity
356
Vowela
357
Consonants
MODERN
261
ENGLISH
SOUND-CHANGES.
Orthography
267
Vowels
374
Consonants
279
PRESENT
ENGLISH.
Stress
383
889.
ponads "
f
and Compounds
Word-groupl
{ 918. Gronp-comsumptive
Componnds % 916.Asand
Gronpa % 919.
(Attributive)
Compounds
Extension
of
Compound-
itnas
in
Quantity
397
AOOIDEKOB.
NOUNS.
Old English
'
Gender
301
| 945.
IS
Strongand
Weak
$ 94S.
Cases
i 949.
5 950.
T,Goo(^le
XXi
CONTENTS.
Eftply Middle
lAt"
Kiddle
Uodeni
English
305
Ibigllab
311
Sngllsh
312
........
ADJECTIVES.
InfleoUons.
Old
English
Middle
322
English
Modem
English
324
325
..,.,.,.
Comparison.
Old
English
335
Middle English
Modem
English
326
IiT^ularComparison
327
(331^
PRONOUNS
Fersoaal
Old
PronounB.
English
Middle
Modem
FoBBesBlve
Old
326
English
English
Modern
334
338)
'
PronovuuL
English
Middle
333
343
English
English
344
,
345
Sell
Old
English
Middle
Modem
English
English
DemonstratiTa
Old
346
347
347
"Ptvaovna.
English
343
Middle English
349
Modem
35
English
'
One,
and
Interrogatlvo
Definite
No
None,
352
Pi-onouna
RelaUre
353
Fronouiui
Indefinite
355
Fronouna
355
Pronouns
Quantitative
358
......
NUMERALS.
Cardinal
359
Ordinal.
363
VERBS.
Old
364
Verba
llngllBh
Inflections S 1177.
Strong Verbs ( 1 190.
Preterite-Present Verbs ( uii.
i 1301.
Middle
374
Lale
f 1139.
Engllsli
Middle
383
Verbs
Bngllah
English Verbs
Present
In
Irr^pilai- Verba
391
English
Modem
Verbs
Consonantal
i 1301
of d
{ 1311.
Witbtinstead
Ee
and
With
i 1293 j
instead
and
393
; o
Wilh
i 1311
394
" 1300
00
of d { 1304.
t
; o
coosonuit-Ion
f 1333. With
of-ded
coa"onuit-lois
i 1335 ;
Towel-chsnge: pret,vowel
loEtead
i 1334.
With
J 1301,
on.
.'
: pret. vowel
vowel-change
With
vowel
Vo-bs
Verbi
Engliah
Modem
Weak
: prat.
vowel-change
1336,
Invariable Verbs.
401
Verbs
405
ptet. vowel
an
i '405 ;
* '408 ; a
i M"
5 1446;
{ 1450.
S 1438;
Mixed
S '354;
""
"
J 1364;
nw
"
J 136S :
; o
"
S ij8a
S M'3
i 1395;
; "^
'418 ;
oi
0
418
Verbs
Isolated Forms
qnotli{
1473
4^
;
hight{
1474
idept % 1475
; wont
1476.
T,Goo(^le
xxiii
CONTENTS.
Verbs
Anomalous
can
i 1479
i 14SJ;
430
dare %
ahaU
14S3; ought
f 1486; need
438
Adverb-endinga
and
Nouhb
from
Adverbs
Adjeotivea
431
FroDomlnal
Adverbs
433
Corralatlve
Fartlolaa
436
CotdimottonB
Fronomlnol
AfBrm"tian
N'egatloii "nd
GomparlBon
436
......
437
438
of Adverba
FrapositiouB
Old
440
Engliah| 1518.
Inteajeotiona
and ModeiD
Middle
English{ 1535.
443
........
COMPOSITION.
OldXngllBh
of
Meaninc
444
CompoimdB
448
..:...
DERIVATION.
Native
Elementi.
Prefixes
450
.........
for- S i573 ;
51581.
S 1580; wan-
456
SufGses
Nonn-fonnmg.
a)
Concrete
-ten
% 1590
; -end
f 1591 ;
{ 1595 ; -en
; -ing{ 1594 ; -ling
(1596. b)Abstract:-nisii597;-n"iS98;-o|-,-|"Ji599i
dom " 1601 ; -hid f 1601 ; -Hie f 1(03;
.nag, -ing{ 1600
-radeo ( 1604;-icipe
" 1605.
-ere
"
: -ede
i
Adjective-fonnlTig
t6io"
-at
i 1609; -som
f
-leu
{ 1613
{ iSiSj -sUn
1608 ;
1607 ; -ij}
; -ea
-feald
i 1615.
1614; -WMTd
; -lit i
: -m
Verb-fonning
Toreisn
1606
1617;
IxitB
f 1618,
lilflinantB
468
Prefises
468
1613 ; ad-, "- { 1614 ;
$1616;
i 1617;
"pOd"- t
an-
i 1631
1635 ;
amb-
i 1615 ;
amphi-
MU-
bi- {
com-
demi-
1 1639 ; di- j
Suffixes
479
-ier
Nonn-fonnliig.a) Fenonal : -ee } 1681 ; ~ar, -e(e)T,
1 1683; -or S 1684; -ard,-art i 1687; -ewS 1688; -ist
-cule
S 1689 ; -ite f 1690 ; -trii { 1691. b) Dlmiimtire : -ule,
1 1691 ; -et,-let S 1693. c) AbitracC : -7, -ey { 1694 ; -icCi
-ite i 1698; -cy, -sj { 1699; -ad, -id i 1700; -ade
-as,
( 1704; -ion { 1706; -ana
t 170a; -age t 1703; -menl
{1707;
-ence
-aace,
{ 1710!
708
{ 1711;
-ory
{ 1714; -icism
( 1718.
-ry
I 1715;
r -ble
AdjecttTe-fonning
; -ancy, -ency
-ate
f 1711;
i
1716;
709 ; -01,
{ 171J;
-itnde " 1717;
-u(e
1716;
1 1719, 1720;
-bund, -bond
-our
-lam
-qr
S i7"i ;
171S;
-old
I1746;
-". -te
-ete
i 1747;
-ose,
-ona
i 1748; -eaque
{ lygoj
i 1751.
-ise j
1758.
T,Goo^le
nf
INTRODUCTION.
GRAMMAR
AND
Definition
1.
a
is
be
may
practicalpoint
view
to
Grammar
regarded
of view.
either Trom
the
From
of
S.
The
to
observe
firstbusiness of grammar,
to
the
facts and,
and
clarify
w^cBTuiiflneriBeTf
to
Thus
would
show
such
state
facts
of
them
meaning
most
"
or, in the
Modem
as
'
in
general,as
with
which
dealing
When
Md,
phenomena,
to
go
on
to
past instead
place in the
that I go
to state
the
express
is made
change of
same
form
their
that
'preterite'
by adding
or
'irregular'
respectively.
clear statement
we
have
we
naturally wish
English
into / called
htld
to
grammar
Modern
with
8.
it has
English verbs'
and
opposed
other science,
of every
methodically. A
callingtook
'
wmi
preterites
point of
theoretical
or
descriptivegrammar
as
gheaomena
state
theoretical
language.
deal, and
"
Grammar.
of
is the soieace
grammar
LANGUAGE.
to
know
of
such
the
grammatical
reason
of
them,
T,Goo(^le
INTRODVCTIOff.
and
how
[(4.
In this way
theyarose.
descriptive
grammaT
lays
There
are
of (a)historicalgrammar, (^)
comparative
by the help,namely,
and if)generalgrammar.
grammar,
tries to explainthe phe4,. (a) HiBtorioal grammar
nomena
of a language
them back to their earlier
by tracing
go back
Thus, if we
stagesin that language.j
in the
turn'
meaning
"
few centuries
of thcEngliahlanguage,
we
history
the preterite
of
originally
was
verb to
still partially
preservedin such
literary
The
phrasesas to wend onis way, to wend homewards.
of go is therefore that
historicalexplanation
of the preterite
the preterite
of another verb of similar
it was
originally
But if we take the preterite
held,and trace it
meaning.
bacifeven to the oldest Englishof the eighthcentury, we
the helpof
itsorigin.To do this,
cannot explain
we
require
6.
(J)Comparative
which compares
grammar,
phenomena of a languagewith
is,languageswhich
that
arisen from
common
parent
are
those of
the grammatical
guages,
ihpcognate lan-
relatedto itthroughhaving
Just
languag^
as
FrencKTetc.
languages lulian, Spaniali,
"
"
the Romance
are
cognate
to
of their
throughbeing independent
developments
parentlanguage Latin,so also Englishis cognate with Dutch,
German, Danish, Swedish,and the other Germanic languages.
of hold
Now in the oldest Germanic
languagesthe preterite
such form as hchald,beingformed,lilte
^any
appears in some
that is,
other Germanic
preterites,
by reduplication,
repetition
of the beginningof the word. The Germanic languages
selves
themone
another
are
of
the Arian
'
"
Parent Arian
formed
preterites
ancestor
language" the hypothetical
part of the
of all the
GRAMMAR
f 7.]
AND
LANGUAGE.
lajiguagesmentioned
in this paragraph.
comparativegrammar
is really
a branch of historicalgrammar,
only
it takes
us
long
explanation of
to
Historical and
form.
with
themselves
could
we
The
go
historical
comparative grammar
by
contraction
then that
see
than
language.
one
afforded
htld
therefore,that it is
further back
way
by confining ourselves
We
of
is,
originally
reduplicated
an
comparativegrammar
tracingthe phenomena
of
content
language
or
"
of
or
group
forms
"
(r)Q"Qeral
6.
To
lich'l
(philosophical
grammar), which
grammar
concerned
is not
do
one
speciallanguage
which
family of languages,but with the general principles
grammaticalphenomena
the
underlie
phenomenon
a.
what
grammar'asks ("i)
languages in which
the factsabout
are
we
as
observe
can
it
of all
*~-)fr
languages.
reduplication,
gerieral
in those
reduplication
what
clearly?and {fi)
"
of all tells us
that
languages all
over
the world
in various ways,
words
than
'more
very
express
big,'and
past time
because
so
definite
more
than
"
to
express
to
regarded as
was
primitive
Hence
on.
in verbs
is used
man'tnan
'many
or
in
strengthenthe meaning of
to
when
as
man'
one
'
Arian
is widely used
reduplication
emphatic
more
"
so
was
by reduplication.
expressed
7.
seems
The
self-evident
"
originof
the
to
But
even
any
^own
that
eui
matter
preteriteof
one
in such
historical and
who
cases
is
as
of
'
common
be
the
plained
ex-
acquaintedwith UteraryEnglish.
this
we
can
comparative grammar,
examination
Thus
sense.'
hardlyrequiresto
wml
often"
never
dispensewith
for
experience has
language
".Gotit^l
\\ E
mTRODUCTION.
seem
tciai is
it is ;
to suppose
of
sense
of its regular
meanings in Old
cognate Gennan
word
which
something,'
'
Ki^lish
"
still
J^s, so
was
was
one
obsolete.
8. Considered from
is
practical
pointof view, grammar
Objects or Grahmak.
0. The
main
rather,help to
"^
is to give or
objectof practical
grammar
give a mastery of foreignlanguageseither
"
"
earlierstagesof the
including
li^ng_ordead,
aa
when
modem
Englishman
sets to work
native
to
language,
grammar
only to under"
spoken form, or may
amount
or
the
science
the
and
of
art
scimjificstudjof languageis
language. But
as
the
definitely
expressedby
more
is generallyused to imply
grammar
language, in which
mainly practicalanalysisof one special
the term
'gjulology;'
a
and
study general principles
subordinated
/ 11. We
to concise
f languages. We
a
statements
than
/objects
do
not
practical
mastery of
theoretical
our
of
of
our
own
explanationsare
and definiterules.
facts,
own
studythe
study grammar
we
'
languagefor other
grammar of foreign
in order
language,because
to
get
in the
T,Goo(^le
GRAMMAS
(1+)
LANGUAGE.
AND
of
12. In
what
are
borne
mind
in
exceptas
in
correct
language is for that very reason
grammatically
A vulgarism
and the correspondingstandard or politeexpression
are
equally
grammatical each in its own sphere
if only ihcy are in general use.
But whenever usage is
a
"
not
fixed
whenever
"
or
expression,
grammar
is most
hesitate between
we
have
t"
find
in accordance
ambiguous,most
with the
difi'erent
ways of
new
in,and helpsus
comes
"
"
to
generalgrammar.
granmiatical
phenomena of
other
that we
and' to
languages,
We
our
thus learn
own
point
compare the
languagewith those d
to
criticizeimpartially
its defects,
so
are
better
Grammar
ia scientificmethods
a
language;as
He
and
gave
which
speecheuaitd ihougkl,
Universe.
"
Man
is the
speech,
measure
of ike
(Shelley,Prometheus.)
INTRODUCTION.
16.
teaches
and
originof
take
to
us
day of our
every
Lastly,
grammar
structure
our
interest in what
an
the
other languages,and
and
own
hear and
we
utter
lives.
Definition
.6.
tS '5-
is the
Language
Language.
op
expressionof ideas by
of
means
thoughts. Thus
of ideas
into
expresses
the idea
idea
'
'
words
two
word
the
rotunda
Urra
the
expresses
combined
are
rotunda,which
ferra
sentence
Latin
the earth,'and
round,'and these
form the
in
togetherto
the thought
expresses
Different
combinations
sounds
into
words, and
words
of
into
sentences,
Form
17. There
lookingat
with the
are,
Meaning.
and
sides
then,two
to
outer
side,which
word
certain sounds
in
standing
followingone
another in
form of such
sentence
its
being composed of
in
another; and
we
can
ways of
two
is concerned
the
logioal
with their inner lueaningT 'Tfiiis
is concerned
a
"
of words
language
side,which
as
as
man
certain relation to
one
certain order,etc.
the
up of
another"
is that it is made
So
also the
man
certain words
followingone
another
of
Sentence
in
one
by merely
psychology
"
the science
of
mind.^-Sulphonetics
and
D,g,i,7?"iT,Goo^le
\
Si8.]
GRAMMAR
AND
LANGUAGE,
Frovince
of
Grauhar.
But it is
"
"
"
constitute what
we
may
of
la^^B^
and derivation,
by composition
of grammar as opposedto the
province
new
words
by the addition of
is thereforea
once
learntto
t :
partof Englishgrammar.
jointhe words
of
plural
nouns
So aUo if we
have
in such sentences
growing, we
as
we
like on
are
the
to make
ifiweonly know the words required
patternof these,
them up: the fonnation of sentences is thereforean essential
of all languages.
The
business of
which
on
principles
grammarianis tOifindout lije^^eneral
logy
terminosuch processes depend,and to frame a grammatical
the
in the form
for statingthese general principles
of
[" i?.
INTRODUCTION.
Englishnouns
IB.
We
by adding/.'
is formed
CoKNECnoN
FoRM
BETWEEN
have
to
now
regularplural oT
'the
as
consider
meaning
MeaNINO
AND
GraMHAK.
IM
the connection
closely
more
This connection is
in grammar.
often'imperfect.Different grammatical
functions
marked
form, as in Irtt-s and grow-t
by the same
s
in irets has
On
grmjs.
; for the
we
often
are
it has in
meaning
same
'
'
used
are
to"build up
wherever in
we
man
we
exactly the
way;
instead of tree,there also
same
"
function. So
grammatical
as
in
put Irees
^^t put children instead of child,and nun instead of
in other words, all these forms have exactlythe same
a
Eentence
sentences
from / call,
the change of
distinguished
/ hold into /
held,
Isolation; Irregularity.
We
have
that the
phenomena of languageare of
kinds : those that can
be brought under general
rules,
two
and those that cannot
(18). The only phenomena that can "'
be broughtunder generalrules are those that have something
in common
by which they are associated togetherin the
mind
by the psychological
process of group-aBsooiatioii,
ao.
seen
by which
aa80oiatiou"gn"ui)Hare
formed.
There
are
in
once.
Thus
group
same
'
an
association-
"
having
T,Googlc
GRAMMAR
1 ij.]
the
meaniog
'
formal and
The
one.
logical
trets,
plurals
but
logicai,
as
"
this group is
in common;
on
formal, group
'
more-than-oneness
therefore both
children,men,
LANGUAGE.
AND
not
con*
for
"
by
iheir
meaning only,but
word Irte
single
different association-groups.
see
When
31.
is said
group
stands
word
be isolated.
to
can
outside
Thus, if we
different way.
its
as
meaning
is
association-group, it
take away Irte from the
an
concerned,no
We
intoat leastthree
enter
tree,wood,forest,
etc.,and put it with
is,as far
of
in
and ioy,it
tcwn
longera
althoughthe
member
three words
in -s
together
plurals
with other grammatical characteristics that they have in
common
"
makes
them
members
"
of another
group, which
express
we
more
such
to
see
Hence
every word
other word
some
in
the
we
mean
speakof isolation,
generally
Thus (he plural
forms part of the
men
when
we
partial isolation.
group
with
something in coniinon
23.
from
by
as
grammaticalfunction is performed
of words
is
caJlgii-tL''
rngular
form.
Thus, as the majorityo^jfjfflfs^^
thingsin English
form their plurals
plural
by addingj^lijg
jg called the regular
ending. Those forms w|rfth
in the minority such as
are
the pluralchildren aif^alied
irregular forms or irrega"
"
INTSODVCTION.
10
larities.
But
althoughsuch
in children is
-rm
word
so
f* i4inflection as
irregular
an
no
ihe
other
in which
by
it occurs, it still
forms part of the group constituted
the whole
both
body of English noun-pIurals,
regularand irregular,
by virtue of
But if every noun
way, BO that we
would
in
grammaticalfunction.
Englishformed its pluralin a difTerent
could
not
tellbeforehand
as
be, then such plurals
be called
because
irregular,
its
men
what
its plural
there would
be
hardly
generalrule
no
which
primarywords tree,
man, etc.,are in meaning ;
and the formation of the plural
of nouns
would belong rather
than to the grammar.
to the dictionary
as
We
the
sec
draw
what
and
always easy
to
and what
'
Logical
Categomes.
.
34.
meaning
having the
"
same
^ame
ejtpres^ing^^t
n
Junctionjh^onfifinifwi
gram-
constitute
"
or
I held,etc.
inflection.'So also the inflections in / called,
tense of verbs.'
constitutethe grammatical
category'preterite
'
2S.
Every grammatical
category is tljeexpressionof
some
generalidea"
some
'
'
'
quantity ;
the logical
responHTto
category time.'
'
:v
'
GRAMMAR
Divergence
AND
LANGUAGE.
Grammatical
between
Logical
and
Categories.
But in actual
86.
instrument
of
gories do
not
Thus
in the
another.
always exactlycorrespond to one
word-group a ten pound nok compared with ten
poundt, pluralityis
of
of /".
"
not
In such
wuid-f^roupas
the grammatical and
between
many
the
than
more
is the
'
one
is meant,
the
man,
divergence
corresponding logical
flection
in-
expressedgrammaticallyby any
and
that
shows
many
regulargrainmaticalexpressionof 'oneness'
man
or
the
number.
singular
For this reason
27.
itwill be advisable
to
of the
"
say
and
is, to learn
how
we
to
distinguishbetween
it.
say
Under
the
what
head
of
we
logical
the
regard-Kords-soIely"om
them
_byLtbeJikas.
bgical_Eoint_pf..wew
entirely
lo^classifj
wili.learn-to.
categorieswe
"
thex_?JHS^' making,
a
in many
man
them
both
Under
hand,
as
man
and
mm
such
in many
but
men,
'
grammatical categories,on
will regardman, not only in one man
man,
as
divergencesbetween
explainthe originof
them.
form
and
the
course,
and
regarding
more-than-oneness.'
the
of
belonging to one
'singularnumber,' although,of
many
distinction between
the head
we
for instance,no
we
same
other
but also in
category of
shall
point out
meaning, and
try
to
INTRODUCTION.
12
LOGICAL
Ideas
The
^f***
CATEGORIES.
Expressed
Substances
38.
]\*\-
Attkibutis.
thsir
and
Words.
br
ideas of which
cerned
thoughtsare made up are conand their
mainly with subBtaooes
(material
things)
to U9
Suhstances are known
attributes.
solelyby their
on
'gold'is known to us by
its attributes of 'hardness,'
'heaviness,'
etc.,
'yellowcolour,'
idea of the substance 'gold.'
which togethermake
up our
our
Thus
senses.
Such
words
the substance
gold, man,
as
yeilow are
20.
hard, hardness,heavy,heavily,
weight,
as
attribute-words.
These
There
pencanentaUnbiites.
jast^^l^xpress
Thus 'man'
changing attributes or phenomena.
Is known to us not only by'^a
of permanent attributes
number
ment,'
'shape,''size,'
etc., but also by the phenomena 'moveetc. Hence
callmove, movement,
we
'thought,'
'speech,'
also
are
"
"
thoughtfully,
etc., phenomenon- words.
30. For convenience,words denotingpermanent attributes
and those denotingchanging attributes or phenomena, are
included under
which
is not
word.
In
concrete.
'
Concrete
the
common
subsfance-word
therefore be
must
substance- words
are
grammar
Thus gold is a concrete
word.
'
and
'
abstract
'
between
an
abstract
called
generally
different lo^cal
totally
of the
is the original"
sense
also have
Every word
abstract.
name
Substances
as
and
well
concrete.
Attributes.
their
to think of
81. It is evidently
impossible
as
out
substance with-
"
thinkingof
equally
impossiHeto
D,o,i,7."i-,Goo^le
*34-]
7-
LOGICAL
CATEGORIES.
substance,we
reminded
are
paring hair
'
'
to
think of
wc
perhapsonlyone
"
we
gold,'
minds.
our
think
Thus
of its hardness
It is
82.
form
can
thinking of
'
idea of any
number
a.
"
com-
of
gold,
weight.
or
equallyevident
an
in
not
differentcircumstances different
prominent in
'
When
once.
onlyof some
of
that the
only way
in which
we
is by
yellow,'
yellow substances,such as 'gold,'
such
attribute,
'
as
etc,
buttercups,'
But
33,
itjseasier
than it is
substances
attributes.
to
think of
th"ink of
to
Phenomena
attribute
an
substance
stillmore
are
apart from
apart from
its
independent than
that what
and
call
we
with matter
the distance,a
inclined
to
"
only show
can
electricity
(substances),
yet
or
moving light,
consider these
when
we
itself in
see
fire in
flash of
phenomena
as
we
are
lightning,
independentobjects.
When
84.
we
and a
between
/all man
a
distinguish
But
short are cvjdi-ptly
fltjrihntp-wnrds.
between
distinguish
few
mm,
words;
we
cannot
they
Englithmen are
of Englishmm
are
many
mm,
all mm,
and
all,seme, few
When
only^^oaliflOT^
tali,
or
manjTEnglishmen are
are
fire
even
QiuuniRs,-short
we
tall and
man,
nection
con-
Englishmen are
tall.
some
are
we
when
mm
or
attributesome
say
the majority^
tall,
mostlytall,the words
mar^,
'
.H,le
/NTXODVCriON.
14
[I 35.
V Attribute-words
by Etiglishmen.
well
as
Thus
substance- w("ds.
as
be
may
a
very\a
pressed
ex-
qualified
Ursng
very
add
man
see
the word
by
In
yiaulA^
~'jig2ukr-ei^
be
th^se tall
make
men
can
same
infer these
men
we
at
all
Thus
tall,but
are
we
or
some,
ftom
cannot
halfthe
which,
called miark-worda,
qualifiers
mark
on
the word
and there,
as
they
associated
are
it in various ways.
pointingto
or
with
statement
nated
desig-
young,
are
Indeed, a qualifier
cases,
many
we
to
the word
seven,
the persons
as
way
it is easy
The
36.
of
we
are
we
seme
"0
all
timtafe
used
as
Thus
anything about
at
with ?
statement
reallytell us
not
we,
it is connected
in such
even
does
seven
to
in this house,the
as
pat
it
with, singling
Thus
this and
there,
are
man
it were,
out
that,here
mark-words
of
place; now, then are mark-words of time; while such markin thought,
in give me the
words as the pointout an object
as
book,meaning the book .you know of,'the book we were
'
'
speaking about.'
a word,
qualifying
word he may
be
Sdme
act
used
mark-words, instead
as
substitutes for it
as
Thus
it may
be
used
as
merely
the mark-
man,
of
John, the
substiCute
when
Attribute-words
we
say
give
me
may
used
qualifiers.Thus
as
be
about
the
two
although
books, theyare
one,
between
simplyto distinguish
",
^w
i
LOGICAL
39.]
the
books
two
CATEGORIES.
15
are
mark-
as
words
at tribute-
General
Some
others.
there
than
are
there
that
also the
are
we
red itselffallsunder
So
of
things that
more
can
the stillmore
or
call rtd\
can
we
yellowishred,and
qualifiers
many, few,
iron
call
than I
general application
more
we
Words.
Speqal
and
attributesare
Thus
in this way,
attribute-words.
qnahfying
87.
used
are
fall under
some
The
Thus
the
more
gradationsare
same
wrought
with gold,silver,
lead,etc
go under iron; iron,t"^ether
metal itselfgoes
under mineral,and
on.
so
38.
The.
Thus
haa.
wordJSr tiie-more
maaning it
'
impliesall the attributes impliedby the
apeoial
more
iron
make
the
distinction.Thus
same
'
in
man
particular
man,
as
the word
as in
general,'
when
man
man
talk of this
we
suggest
mortal,or of
may
is
man
or
the man.
the latter 1
generalizing (abstract),
of the word man.
The|
use
the apeoisUsiiig (concrete)
We
the
use
evidently
specializing
puts more
the man
common,
not
but also
'the
distinguish
It must
be
impliesfurther
man'
observed
of the terms
attributes that
from other
that
the
attributes
men
by
have in
which
we
men.
logicaland
the
grammatical
distinct and
abstraot
ooiioret"
are
meanings
in the abstract
talk of man
we
even
we
contradictory.When
abstract
are using abstract in its logical
sense, while in grammar
of includingattributes and phenomena
is a convenient means
and
'
'
INTRODUCTION.
(SO).
me
restrict these
words
[S ^o.
Hence
it is best
in grammar
to
their graniina.tical
meaning, using
gmtraliiingajid spiiialimngto express their logical
meaning.
to
OombiBatioo
of Words
to express
Adjunct-WORDS
-words.
The
40.
from
Head
and
Thoughts.
most
bead-word,
or,
as
we
all mm
sirotig,
also express
in the sentences
Thus
modified.
may
men
and
always
adjunct-
not
art
strong,tall,
strong,and all are
not
art
tall
it,of modifler
mm.
So
is
in
41.
distinction between
The
only a relativeone
sentence
one
.'
and the
word at the
an
time.
same
even
word
same
context, and
or
word may
same
the
adjunct-wordand head-word
be
Thus
an
a
As
48.
is round
or
'
we
have
is made
'roundness.'
what
and
we
seen
va
he is very
All
two
ideas
time
to
head-word,
itselfbe
head-
'
the earth
'
'die earth
and
'
round
'
we
strong,strongis
thoughtas
(5)what
head-word
Predicate.
such
(16),
up of the
adjunct-wordin another,
head-word and an adjunct-
Subject and
be
may
in this case
'
the earth,'
i44.]
CATEGORIES.
LOGICAL
I7
'
Hehce in such
sentence
as
round
subject-word,
the
the earth is
word.
predicate-
as
predicate-wordor predicate,
we
"
sake of shortness
be also
is
"
callear/h
round,we
In this
may
an
example
predicate
as in he is here,
we
art
seven.
qualifier,
48. Subject and
predicatemay be joined togetherin
In the above example the connection between
various ways.
may
them is affirmed
as
a fact) such a sentence
as the
(slated
beingthereforecalled an affirmative sentence;
earth is round
but itmay
"
also be stated
as in perhapsthe earth is
doubtfully,
in the earth is not fiat,
and the relation
round,or denied,as
between
'
'
subjectand predicate
may
be modified in various
other ways.
/
[
qualification
Assumption.
If instead of
M.
the whole
so
attributeor
statingsome
round
by gold chains
"
God,
(Tbnnyson)
the
'
predicatebecomes
an
attributive
'},and the word
be used
as
round
"
as
(commonly called
also whole
From such
assumptively
(attributively).
the mund
rotmd.
assumptlTe
earth
we
can
"
is said
to
collocation
the earth is
Thus
must
be
head-word.
But
'
every
ia
adjunct-word
we
an
necessarily
assumptive,for in grammar
with .'predicative,'
that when
so
contrast
VOL.
I.
use
we
this
call
term
a
not
in
word
l8
INTRODVCTION.
tS+S-
we
'assumptive,'
generallyimply that it can be used also as
a
predicate.Thus the and very in the earth,very good are
them
adjunctwords,but there would be no objectin calling
in
such
words
But
as
assumptives.
qualifying
grammaT
whole,
In such word-groups
all,seven are said to be used attributively
as the whole
earth,all men, seven men ; for althoughwe cannot
all
make
statement
are
we
men
there
seven,
The
relationof
stand
you
in
no
eitherof the
the olher :
then
'
we
join I
justas
we
two
'
on
words
do
to
not
one
connected
to
to
one
the other
"
another.
of
think of the
two
we.
t"^ther
theycan
Thus
in
cannot
'you' firstand
simultaneously,
of
say that
and is subordinated to
by
think
necessarily
we
is one
also be connected
can
the others,
we
before
should do ifwe
also coordinate
etc
Coordination.
relation
but
it,
by the singleword
are
good men,
subordination of
I will be there
and
lo head-word
adjunct-word
coordinate
art
seven
and
But ideas
subordinatioii.
with Utileor
are
is anaI"^ous
to
Subordination
45.
*men
men
throughhaving the
same
1'
sentence
in
predicate
common.
46. Even in
theirhead"words.
D,g,l,7?"lT,G0t"^le
,
51.]
CATEGORIES.
GRAMMATICAL
Wb^n
assnmpttve is,as
an
it were,
19,
from its headword"as
detached
GRAMMATICAL
The
CATEGORIES.
generalclassificationaccordingto grammatical
categoriesis into words, word-groups, and
4S,
most
sentenoes.
Sentences_are_macle
up
40.
of
words,
but
speak jn
we
sentences. j"t
it may happenthat a
wnrHg^gltlimigh
is made
up of
singleword.
of words
cornel,he went
is
sentence
come
sentence
bination
com-
or
that is,a
capableof expressinga thought,
mth
combination of a logical
predicate
Thus
is a word
sentence
away
expressedby
both
arc
logical
(42).
subject
When
sentences.
singleword,
as
in the case
When
of
two
single
express
completethought,theyconstitute a complex sentence, the
simplesentences of which the complex sentence is made up
or
sentences
more
are
joinedtogetherto
the
complex
sentence
if you
When
words
connection
come
between
word-eollootitlon.
61. In
between
continuous
discourse there is
we
no
pause to take
separation
breath,or
"
INTRODUCTION.
ao
in
same
of
sentence
the
as
way
are
do
word
one
63.
or
_A word
two
een"e-nmt.
words,but
Such
the
as
two
being identical in
groups
"
we
cannot
an
mltiinate
as
such
sentence
We
as
not
cats
tellwhether
even
it cannot
and
calch mice is
an
inde-
independent sense-units
call arbitrary
an
for arU
inctependent
an
call such
reason;
way
kU
words.
(orcat),calch,mice.
same
same
the
sense-units. We
Thus
are.
"
but it is
"pendent sense-unit,
be
word
meaning of (telG)which
sufficient context
we
not
only
be defined
may
two
know
we
without
divide it into
cannot
it is
tdkr, the
(tela).Until
"
cannot
we
word
actly
togetherex-
run
of the sentence
words
two
togetherexactly in the
run
of the
syllables
sound
are
of
syllables
ordinarypronunciationthe
her I
[" %*.
sound-groupas
be
can
calt
cai
an
trary by themselves
make
sense.
non-
as
further
tripodare
anywhere in
sound-group
sentence, and
that
are
not
enter
into any
stand
combinations
to
divided
contrary
of Englishgrammar,
principles
inflected word
The
cais
be
can
an
and
independentsense-unit,
co/f and
the
as
two
cannot
distinct words.
possiblybe divided
so
the
connection
intimate that
Besides, such
into two
we
a
between
cannot
plural as
regard
mice
sense-units.
",
570
GRAMMATICAL
CATEGORIES.
to
of
21
and by
syllables,
{^abstract,
stress
intonation.
have seen
(61),there is no necessary separation
in sentences, yet in aU languageswords are to
marked off by their form.
Thus
in some
languages
AJthough,as
we
of words
soine
the
extent
is
word,
polysyllabic
that a strong stress always shows the beginning of a new
so
word, justas a loiidernote in music shows the beginningof a
And
in all languages certain sounds
and certain soundbar.
ever
occur
only in certain positions.Thus in English,whengroups
hear the sound
know
that it
we
wc
("]) as in king (kiq),
form the beginningof a word.
cannot
stress
always on
"
64.
word
may
have
in
Englishwe
as
in it is his,not
In
mm.
such
in
occur
than
more
form.
one
emphatic(hiz),
cases
do
we
not
Thus
regard the
in H is his
forms
two
as
different words,
65.
form when
it is abBOlate
it has when
it is
Thus
word
has
from what
"
"
different
"
oonjoint
happens that
It sometimes
that is,grammatically
associated
have
we
conjointform
mine,
my,
as
in H is my book.
66.
sounds
If, on
expresses
a5scv:iatedtogether,
as
we
feel the
for in
two
combination
same
in bear
(theanima!)and
sound-combinations
languagewe
cannot
go
by
to
form
to
cannot
of
be
bear,then
be distinct
words,
we
we
call words ultimatesense-units,
do not
D,o,i,7."i.,G
im-RODVCTlON.
aa
\s 58.
implythat theyrepresentultimate
words
many
ideas at
indeed
"
Such
once.
word
the elements of
in itself
in the form
'
drops of
of
words
most
On
"
sentence, thoughof
Tain
or
but because
primitive
ness,
whenever it is convenient
word
well
bread,biscuits,
buns, and other food of the
fact,we
making
kind.
same
In
simplicity
of theirimportance to us;
to express a
put
baker
as
as
because of their
not
not
course
roughlyspeaking
means
water
is stillmore
the contrary,
as
statement:
ideas.
and
group'of ideas by
finds the
word, language generally
single
do
to
means
so.
FORU-WORDS.
In such
66.
sentence
as
earth and
in recognising
difficulty
round
as
have
no
ultimate independent
the two
sense-units expressing
essentialelements of every
and predicate.Such words as /he and is,
thought^subject
on
the other
in meaning:
independent
is
are
by themselves do
not
not
We
callsuch words
as earth and round do.
convey any ideas,
because theyare words in form
the and is form-worda,
as
When
only.
form-word
devoid of meaning,
entirely
word, as opposed to full words
the earth
is round
Although
is
It is easy
belong
in Troy is
'existence,'
as
it has
to
has
sometimes
is
no
no
to see
this class of
the
form-words.
independent meaning
it is easy to
meaningof its own,
more,
see
and
that in
serves
"
"
it is
other
form-word.
grammatical
hand, has
not
even
the
grammaticalfunction,and serves
T,Goo(^le
6i.]
GRAMMATICAL
CATEGORIES.
33
otherwise have;
tarlh
for
"
like the
derivativeprefix,
in unkttawn
un-
(h^
trial
terres-
it
might
can
"
of
mould,' which
'
althoughformallyindependentof
that
so
of
sense
we
whole earth
if it were
in that of
not
'
(68).
m^j..MiirinHqi^iifl^m
is an
as
in ke htcamt primt minister,
juILword;""^come^
full
for
it
such
of
combines
the
full
form-word,'
a
example
meaning change with the grammaticalfunction of the formword is ; ke became means
he changed his condition,'
and
the fullsentence implieshe is (was)prime minister.'
ao. In most
languages there is a natural tendency 10
'
'
'
'
'
subordinate
form-words
the
especially
in
case
-iz -raund)
we
(-Si'asjj
and
such
sentence
strong
have
61. Another
Troy
as
wb^n
Pitrpw
it hapi
"
two
fullwords
^ne^^
more
(5S),is itselfhas
-is
no
with strongstress,
anH^
as
lyP
in
RT
full mi-aninn-
wiihout
soiiitFtTra
e s
cf in
is
wPaV
other
transla'tTng'"~inlo~some
word
This
in stress.
Thus
they may
practical
t^ of.form--.KQrdgJj_that
English.
"'^b
form-WOr'l'^
two
full words
to
change
language.
is omitted
of honour
man
any
all" oir'in
at
Thus
the form-
in the synonymous
both form-words
omitted.
are
peoplethink differently,
being a
weak
stress,and
might
as
be
Even
such
words
in such
as
groups
me
omitted
fonn-word
of the,'
in du pain
literally
'
words
fu!iword
cannot
'
some
So
also
some
has strong
some
more
in
stress
some
and
bread it has
du,
bread,'bread.'
'
INTRODUCTION.
24
as
by their diminished
is shown
almost the
practically
strei
meaning
same
of course, be understood
that it is not always easy
will,
draw
definiteline
between
full words and
a
even
possible"to
It
or
"
form-words.
Word-formstion.
62.
We
is,words which
words, that
attention to
our
sim]^
But there
are
also
oom-
Complex
plex words, which can be divided in this way.
words are of two kinds,(n)oompound
words or compounds,
such
fonned
blackbird,
as
words
and {^)derived
by composition,
such as unknown, ktrptr,
formed by
derivatives,
or
Compoution
-er.
and
derivation
included under
are
of word-formation
designation
the common
as
or
word-forming
processes.
Composition.
68.
compound
the words
word
of which it is made
up
of the
are
"
as
compound
distinct as
"
in the
Iripodthe
two
closelytogether.
another,and follow
one
forms
tripod
another in
one
elements of blackbird
follow
Justas
are
another in
an
are
a
in the
simpleword
from
inseparable
fixed order,so
one
also the
from one
another and
inseparable
fixed order. Just as
absolutely
its plural
also such
so
tripods,
compounds
as
GRAMMATICAL
S67-]
CATEGORIES.
25
blackbird,
ha/box,foim their pluralsblackbirds,
the
halboxts,
of these
first elements
in
separated
word-groupa
various ways,
as
The
formal unity of
strengthened
by its havingonlyone strongstress. Thus, just
the singlestrong stress in the simpleword
makes
as
-Iripod
feel that it is a single,
indivisibleword, sp also the single
us
stress in -blackbirdmskts us feel that it is a single,
indivisible
word as opposed to the group -black -bird,
in which both
have the
syllables
But
unityof
strongstress.
same
compouD^^
; rli""
stress, and
yet
""
we
itselfis
by
stress
'"""
rr""p
'*"
not
"""
enough
to
tEMnr^nly
constitute
one
strong
cacn
of its separability
and
of comWejiay sum
up the formal characteristics
isnlatinti fhf
formal
pounds by saying that thev^^mplv
elements of a compound are brought into suc^ close connection
with one
another that they are isolated from the
66.
ppniv
sentence
HIta a
rnmpniinflvitaA ia nnt only inflf;rtf^
frCsh COm^BipplAvnT(\^ hilt irr rnpnkU r,t tntiaan^ i'"tft_
pound
pounds,and of takingderivative elements. Thus the comword man
combined
are
midship and the simple'
07.
moonlightthe
blackbird.
as
From
the
compound
compounds
added
as
the whole
"
a6
\_\68.
INTRODUCTION.
It is evident that
68.
compounds
have
must
special
for instance,between
Hence
"blackbird and
we
meaning of
'black -bird.
such
word-
from
of course
group as black bird is inferred as a matter
the meanings of ihe separate words of which it is made
ap,
this is not the case with a compound such as blackbird i
bird
yellow beak.
to
tell
us
that
blackbird is
Blackbird is,therefore,to
ultimate sense-unit;and
ytt it consists of
some
two
bird with
extent,
a
an.
words, each
itselements.
without formal,isolation is not enough to constitute
Logical,
The meaning of such a sentence
how
a compound.
as
doyou
inferred from the meanings of the words of
do t cannot be fully
which
it is made
sentence
modifications
yet
we
do
not
pound,
com-
differ formallyfrom
not
other
any
of
Independentwords and capableof various
up
of form.
Again, although The Red Sea means
bec-iuse
made
up ; and
it does
DERIVATIOtl.
69.
Such
ultimate
on
derivativeelement
as
im-
in un-knoum
is
an
with a
sense-unjt
D,r,i7-"i-,Goo(^le
while nol
stand alone,and
can
be
can
37
generalrules of Englishgrammar
unassociated,
be
CATEGORIES.
GRAMMATICAL
7^^
cannot
thus
stand alone,and
fonn
cannot
we
allow it to
be used
can
only
such derivativesas
not white,
"umahilt,'unrtligious,
answeringto the word-groups
aiihoughthere
religioiu,
not
to forbid
grammar
When
70.
such combinations.
derivativeelement
sniQx
and become
are
Thus
ending.
or
-er
prefixes,
and
before the
comes
English
it comes
and
un-
in
-ness
body of
after it,
it is
in unknown
and goodness
keeper
suffixes.
are
Derivation
71.
is
sometimes
accompanied by
sound-
to
addition
by
by sound-change alone
an
together,which, again, is
addition
nation
tendency
72.
alone.
Present
can
to
generallybe traced
by sound-change and
of the earlier
in the first
English
of longer
syllables
alters
necessarily
the
it is not
easy to see
be- in such words
in the prefix
words,
The
as
become,befall,
beset,
nor
The suffix
complex become and the simplecome.
in goodness,
-ness
badness,redness,etc. is an example of a
derivative wliich is much
more
regularin its meaning, but
here we should not be able to infer the meaning of
even
between
the
businessfrom that of
buty.
INTRODUCTION.
Xnfleotions.
78.
By inflectionwe
class of words
some
expressing
meaning so generalas
the inflection-t is added
of
understand
not
to
to
addition to
an
whole
grammaticalfunction,or
constitutea
tru, etc.
new
woul.
Thus
the meaning
exprrf?
to
feel treit to be
one
that
we-
the same
word
the uninflected
essentially
as
So also the preterite
inflection-ed is added to
tree.
singular
,
fall,live,stop,etc.
inflection-i
the
"
to
pluralinflection
making
such words as tree,
class of adjunctday,etc. into a particular
words, and thus of connectingwords togetherin sentences,
in the same
as in a day's
journey,where dajfsdcSaesj'ourrtey
way as longin a longjourney.
"
words
are
74.
initial
at
"
but
the
of the
beginning
flnsl
generally
example of
"
at the end
We
have
"
an
of the Greeli
I was striking'
verb,which expresses past time,as in /-/w^/cn'
'I strike,'
and the German
comparedwith the present tiipio
Old
"
'
'
languages
cognate with
it,initialinflectionin
T,GoO(^le
178.]
"
GRAMMATICAL
CATEGORIES.
29
ge-mac-od. Hence
4-tupt-on,
regard
ge-
etc. as
derivative
to
restrict
word, and
to
prefixes.
75.
in the
leaves
plural
Sometimes
as
tendencyto
the term
in
there is
in
As
from man,
nun
from lea/,
from think.
though-t
preterite
from
laio
sound-change,
see.
of later origin.
76. Sometimes
inflectionalfunction is performedby
an
Thus
went,
saw
called,
to
again,
we
the
do not
often
as
absence
has the
relation to _goes, is as
and the uninflected me stands in the
same
hesitateto call
case
objective
77. The
the
sees
calls,
relationto /
same
me
stand in the
was
same
absence of the
went
does
the
to
he.
Here,
oi go, and
preterite
of /.
of inflection negatiTe infieotion
"
function
"
inflection. Thus
positive
as
pluralinflection-j
singularnumber.
78.
form-words.
Thus
the
functions
Eame_^-ammatical
inflection-s in
genitive
function
exactlythe same
zvork ^ a lifetime.
has
as
the form-word
as
day'swork
"/ in
Iht
1/
[( 79.
INTRODUCTION.
30
When
fonn-word
is much
Inflection is very
78.
similar
to
derivation,
not
only in
in
as
some
cases,
new
an
80.
independentword.
there are
Conversely,
very similar
has
some
has
genitive
genitivemetis,as if it
man
derivativeelements which
inflections. Thus
change of xohite
into whileness,
good into goodness,
etc.,can hardlybe said to
to the |ame thingwhether we
form a new
word, for it comes
are
say
snow
to
is while
or
give greaterfreedom
But, on
snow
of Che
the
in the
use
of the word
In
is to
in sentences.
derivativesas business,his
Words.
the relationsbetween
indicating
words in word-groupsand sentences
: (a)
word-order,
or posi81.
'
There
between
are
of
lion,{b)stress,(f)intonation,
{d)the
V (*)inflection.
use
of
form-words,
and
S 85.]
GRAMMATICAL
The
CATEGORIES.
abstract way of
relations between words is by their order.
We
82.
Amplest and
$1
meaning of
sentence
by comparing /Ae
where
man,
depend on
may
the distinctionbetween
We
can
how
see
see
how
the
man
stress
by comparing thai
the word-order.
on
predicatedepends entirely
88.
sfaowingthe
most
altersthe
meaning of a
tence
sen-
is -my
else's.'
We
84.
can
see
words by
uttered with
how
comparinga
rising
tone, with
the
tone
falling
of such
the
tone
falling
expresses
such asyou
sentence
the
sentence
same
sentence
are
as
am
ready?',
utteredwith
rtady^. While
statement, the
tone expresses
rising
question,so that the risingtone in you are ready has the
same
meaning as the change of word-order in are you ready?
The
above
'
Stress and
85.
fiuence
on
the
intonation,however, have
grammaticalstructure
not
much
in-
of sentences, sentence-
and
intonation
are
The
[f 8".
WTRODVCTtON.
3*
distinctiODGthat
that if a
limited,so
order
the
be
can
made
show
to
same
meanings. Hence
these
on
relyexclusively
languagecan
no
tions,
three,but requiresthe helpeither of form-words or inflecwhich afford as many grammaticaldistinctions as are
necessary.
86. The
nature
of f"sm-wordfi
as
an
inlleotional
iaolatiiiglanguage
languagesuch
isolating
languagewhich
The
classificationof
87.
We
as
has
as
Latin.
from an
distinguished
English is mainlyan
matical
"
havejiow
to
connidtr how
these
means
(A gTsm-
OOBneotiro
and
in the earth is
words.
round,you
So also ihe
and
modifyingform-word
I, are
pluralinflection in
is,
connective formtrees is
msdifying,
GRAMMATICAL
(9'-]
make
33
sense
words in
CATEGORIES.
sentences
therefore shown
are
relalionsbetween
mainlybj connectives,
When
words
two
be
(45).
only,or by
associated
are
Bnbordiiiatioa
Coordination
word-order
the
womtn,
and
togethergrammatically,
either of ooordinatioii
one
use
is
shown
either
by
impliesthe rel^ion
(40).
adjonot-word
When
But
there
the subordination of
its head-word
to
aic
in mm,
are
nected
con-
connected
and.
Subordination
word
of
the "fonn-word
00.
or
of form-words, as
by
(88).
is
so
of head-word
degreesof
are
and
nation.
subordi-
assumptive(attributive)
slightthat the two are
an
the adjunct-word
is said to be in tion
coordinate,
apposiThus
in kirigAlfred the adjunctto its head-word.
word is a pure assumptive as much
so
as good in the good
king"an^ has the usual position6ran assumptiveword in
almost
"
in
differentposition
and in
more
independent
and
adjunct-wordsthese and
bookselUr's and their head-words is shown _byeach adjunctThis repetiti"Hi
word takingthe inflection of its head-word.
of the inflectionof
two
between
head-word
words
the
in its
are
said
in
common:
adjunct-wornis called
to
agree
in whatever
the concord
havingpluralinflection; and
the concord
tween
be"
tween
be-
having
INTRODUCTION.
34
[| 9*.
genitiveiDflection. In such
the
same
the
treet
groups
concord, as
no
as
gretn treet,
if
we
to
were
inflected
say 'thit bookt instead of these booki. In a highly
such as Latin,green in the above examples
concord-language
would
pluralinflectionof
take ihe
trees
just as
much
as
this
vould.
concord-inflectionof
99. The
is not only
adjunct-word
an
than
'
'
and consequently
greenness
inflection
that the plural
of this in these trees Is in
this
one
itselfdevoid
indeed
of
of
than
more
one
Soch
"
concord-inflections have
indirect grammatical
the
indicating
the
'
meaning.
only an
word:
of
or
connection
between head-word
pluralinflection of this
modifyits meaning
function,
namely that
and
adjunct-
not
connect
the
namely trees.
When
S8.
words
shown
1^
word-order,concord is not of much
use, and consequently
limits in such a language as
is reduced to very narrow
in a highly
inflectionallanguagewith a
English. Conversely,
highlydeveloped system of concord, such as Latin,fixed
word-order
between
to
required
is not
words.
Even
sentence
same
inflectim. Hence
in
such
in
in
show
are
considerations of
84.
When
word
assumes
is said
to
governingword
be gordmed
is said
to
another
the
",Goo(^lc
in
GRAMMATICAL
S 98.]
question. Thus
the
to
govern
tf/'also
governs
the
is said to govern
see
case.
objective
FartB
As
So also
case.
genitive
him.
case
objective
OS.
the
sie
35
itselfis said
and work
in I
in
CATEGORIES.
"a
SpeMli.
"Uf
in
which
common
the members
a
of the
of its
name
own
verb,etc.
adjective,
noun,
86.
from
Each
other classes.
"
them
distinguish
Thus, if we
compare
such
with adjectives,
as
of it agree
formed
by adding
have
which
l"igg'i')
nouns
inflections of their
big,white,green,
in* having
inflecdons,but
"
such
as
and
we
melt,grow, speak,
admits
nouns,
own
snow,
tree,man,
verbs,such
whose
as
meaning
pluralinflections"generally
have
(trees)
; that adjectives
no
plural
not
tree ; to grow,
is
in the sentence
less definite position
or
speech has a more
with regard to other parts of speech {whitesn"w, the snow
melts,the green tree,the tree is green).
of these three classes,
examine
the funotlonB
B7. If we
see
w^
that they
Ihat^llvertewejiredicaliKejKflrds
at once
"
alHiliTa"subjectstate"sofflethinjj
word, which is generallya
notm
{thesitow
assumptive words
08.
to the
'If we
are
melts);that adjectives
{whitesnow),and so on.
examine
oflen used
as
belonging
nouns
36
as
tNTRODUCTtON.
tretimow,
and
are
man,
[(99.
all Bubstance-worda,
while the
tives
adjec-
the
given above are alt attribute-words,
the verba changadjectives
expressingpermanent attributes,
ing
attributes or phenomena. We can easilysee that theie
is
verbs
natural connection
between
the functions
see
that the
and
most
meanings
natural waj
make
to
statements
about attributes as
substances.
well
whtU
as
as
stance,
or any other subimplyingsomething about snow
we
may wish to state or imply something about the
when we
attribute itself,
as
say whilentss is an allribuie of
tohitenessofthtsnow.
It is easy
snow, or talk of the dazzling
difference of meaning between wkiteto see that there is no
and snow
is an attributeof snmo
is white : the difference
ntss
between white-^dthe noun
whiteness is purelyformal and
not logical.
functional gilkmmatical,
nutans
of
"
Classification
The
parts of
of
the
speechin
Parts
of
Speech.
inflectional
languages are
divided into two main.groups,
deoUnable, that is,capableof
and indeoliiiable,that is,incapable
of inflection.
inflection,
101. The declinable pajts of speech fallunder the three
100.
main
been
nouns
divisions,
nouns,
alreadydescribed.
and adjectives,
and
noun-pronoans,
such
as
my
and
such
as
have
class of
special
are
as
accordinglydistinguished
and adjeotlTe-prononna,
7, th^f,
tiat in my
Ptodouiib
book,that
are
man.
ITiuQerala
,Goo(jle
are
Sioj.]
GRAMMATICAL
another
class of
special
0/
is
us
9.
CATEGORIES.
Verbals
verbs
the other
ue
Ihree in Ihree
adjectives:
three
not
express
adjeotlTe-
an
men
class of
on
they do
in
aoun-nmneral,
nnmeral.
between
and
nouns
37
intermediate
words
and
nouns
on
adjectives
such
tirfiB,
sach
as
going
as
in / ihink
the
as
is melted.
snow
Indeclinable words
102.
gemndB,
prise
comof going. Adjective-verbals
various partioiples,such
ing mow,
lo go, and
adverbs,
partioles com^mse
or
joinedto
to make
nourw
other
in
as
particles,
PrepositionB, such
them
will repentit.
you
sentence-words
For
103.
gerunds
also
So
as
used
(f,are
sentences,
luteijeotiona,such
mainly
ifyou do
as
in
a"
aht
alas
so,
I,are
(49)expressingvarious emotions.
convenience
the
of
sense
of,are
as
as in man
adjunct-words,
equivalent10 the adjective
show
snow
into
the
we
include
wofd, nonn-pronouns,
under
the
in the limited
nouns
noun-numerals
and
designationBfflUX-vQcd.
common
include
wa
numerals
adjectives,
adjective-pronouns,
adjectiveunder the common
participlss
designation
and
artjflnMTfl-woi'H.
^
The
term
sometimes
'
verb
'
is sometimes
to exclude
imder the
is
flmte
term
finite verb
althoi^hboth
are
as
them.
as
used
to
include the
verbals,
When
tive
necessary, the predicathe
verbals
included
to
are
opposed
verb:
opposed
thus in I think
to
the verbal
'
of goif^, think
(gerund)going,
verb' in its wider
T,Goo(^le
INTRODVCTIOff.
3"
104.
The
of speechin
is,then,our
following
English:
:
t" ""4-ciassification
of the parts
noun,
noun-pronoun,
noun-
Inonn-wo
numeiul, infinitive,
gerund.
adjective,
tdjective-pioparticiples,
noun, adjective-numeral,
verb : finite verb, vertxUs (infinitive,
gerund,
participles),
adverb, preposition,
(psrtioleB):
(injunction,
adjeotiTe-wonJa
indeclinable
interjection.
The
distinction between
for convenience
of head-words.
GOHVERSION
PaSTS
THE
SpEECH.
OV
instead of
of the snow
vnkik into the
sayingtht smoui it white,we make the adjective
But
whitmesi by adding the derivative ending -nets.
noun
o^en oonin Ei^lish,as in many other languages,
wiMcan
vert a word, that is,msike it into another part of speech
106.
When
01
we
walk
in hi walh
formal
into
noun
walks e/lifi. We
walk, three differmi
collocations a
been
made
into
Conversion
the
make
mere
a
converted noun,
a
bears
change of
new
word
by
noun
some
a
as
teek a
in ^
meaning
word
which
has
conversion.
resemblance
verb into
of it.
the
by simplygivingit the
other nouns,
characteiisticsas
the
noun
derivation,
although
can
hardly be sud to
to
% I07.]
GRAMMATICAL
CATEGOX/ES.
39
walk
and
lOe.
The
the abstract
walk.
noun
test
characteristics(inflection,
etc.)of the
walk is a
walk in fielook
Thus
because
noun
into.
the before-it,
The
pluralending s, and so on.
which part of speech a word belongs to is thus one
question,
in silk thread,gold
of form, not of meaning. The nouns
it
because
watch
are
take
can
used
attribute-wordsvery much
as
collocations :
could
we
not
not
as
the
in
adjectives
adjective
the above
'more silk,
as we
say "very silk,
silk by itself
silken ; in fact more
larger
quantityof silk.'
107.
Butjiereare
cases
of partialoonTergioaf in
which,'
of two
reallypartakesof the formal peculiarities
different|Artsof speech. Thus in tie good are hapj"y,
good
a
word
of
subject
like a noun,
sentence
and stands
as
of
Goods in
not
a noun.
pluralinflectionit is an adjective,
the other hand, shows completeconveron
sion
goodsand challels,
of
an
into
iidjective
It is sometimes
to.
The
more
noun.
doubtful what
less marked
the
formal characteristics of
belongs
word, the
Hence
T,Goo(^le
INTRODVCTION.
40
[i 108.
difficuk to
Belatioiu
between
Iiogioal and
in Latin.
Qnunmatioal
Gstegoriefl.
We
have
do
(26). Even vben tbe graimnaticaland logical
categories
contradict one
not
another,the expressionof ideas
directly
times
Somein languagemay stillbe imperfect
in various ways.
express the
while sometimes
(61),
we
same
do not
we
express
it at
in concord
all,but leave
have
we
more
expressingthe same
idea; and sometimes
idea only imperfectly,
not at ill.
an
or
way of
one
can
express
It must
that defective
be assumed
between
correspondence
and
ttr'
logical
necessarilyinjurious
considered
of
On
the
a
as
means
trary,
conlanguage
e;tpression.
and
constructions
often
add
illogical ur^ammatical
gready
to accuracy, of expression
to ease, and even
(E28).
not
grammatical categoriesis
Fullness
The
109.
extremes
two
redunduioe
are
on
the
/ will know
the
reason
'
as
regardsfullness of expression
side,and ellipse on
one
the otl^r.
Bedundanoe
110.
Expression; Elufsi.
or
why=I
'
will know
is expressedtwice
tht
reason
ph^se
of it\
by rtason
itselfand by why. The best example of grammaticalredundance
is afforded by concord (91). From a logical
pointof
view there is redundance not only in such constructions as
Oust
frets
numeral
reason
over
"
by itselfis enough
to
show
without
plurality
tbe
the
noun-inflection.
Tbe
GRAMMATICAL
5 iia.j
assume
longer
form
Thus
one.
of
is
cannot
we
Ihou !
come
redundant
41
idea,one
same
CATEGORIES.
'.
say
thou I
come
form of comtl
an
always safe to
variation of the
elliptical
that cornel is an elliptical
is rather
extended
an
is
addressed
being g^enerally
person
"
is the normal
comtl
expression
the
as
it,is,on
the
meaning
more
because
is not
use
The
give rise
Thus
much
to
the
govern
of the frees
without
it the
genitive
case, which is im-
expanded into
more
are
expandedwithout change
form of this
elliptical
form
green is an elliptical
Hence
trees.
green
an
are
construction
in the parallel
ellipse
be
unmistakeable
In
be
cannot
hat,any
frequent
more
ellipses
grammaticallyimpossible
most
is in
not
this is mine
harmony with
in
but because
effort,
an
at seems
to
preposition
pos^blein English.
must
and
/, but still
he is
suggests itselfwithout
word
to
constructions.
so
one
expression.Such an
hear it^I
am
glad to
of Englishgrammar,
principles
not
some
the
those
to
hear
are-
really
superfluous"commands
of
form
colloquial
glad
or
we
cannot
assume
an
hat,etc.
From
rule is,never
to assume
an
practical
unless It seems
grammatically
ellipse
necessary.
is often a
to be ellipse
lis. What mightat firstsightseem
different
phenomenon, namely what we may call oondensfr-
this we
tioE.
can
We
see
that the
"have"
that in sentence-words
seen
are
expressedby
predicate
'
sentence-wordas
a
'
come/
shortened form of
but onlyas
elliptical,
coTne
one
is not
ihou
condensed
"^
subject and
word
INTRODUCTiOH.
4a
true,which
IB
it stands in
to it.
to
nearlyequivalent
Bat it would
be
not
in this case.
ellipse
All
'
say it
tomelUng which
dutyfor two
words
we
is
at once:
in another
tt^, and
you
So there is no
say, that is true.
do is to acknowledge the
can
what
sentences
unites the
and which
something
relativepronoun
ordinary
which in
Uniformity
118. In
say
what you
as
by callingit a
you
grammaticaifelation to
one
is true
the
constniction
trvt.
say
[" 114.
grammatical
; and
'
as
we
do this
opposed
which
something
to
it true.
Expression.
of
of expression
meaning. But this uniformityand simplicity
in any actual language. We have
is never
carried out fully
alreadyseen that in inflectionthe same grammaticalfunction
is often dischargedby a variety
of distinct forms, and the
form used to express a variety
of distinctgrammatical
same
functions (76). In languages of mixed
moiphological
as
"
0/
life,nightwork
"
and
the
tion
grammatical rela-
same
is often shown
Thus, while in
which
the two
word-order
as
in he
nouns
only,the
same
helpedhim,
are
are
shown
by the
relations between
shown
by
noun-pronouns,
inflection as well as
word-order.
Adequacy
of
Expression.
As
T,Goo(^le
llj.]
matical
GSAMMATICAI.
relations between
by word-order
a
CATEGORIES.
word
; for
take in
can
words
sentence
is
of
limited,the
necessarily
be used to express
that is,if any great use
relations,
must
position
same
order.
in the
Thus
the
and pronouns
nouns
following
Englishsentences
saw
only imperfectly
differentpositions
be shown
can
the number
as
43
varietyof grammatical
stand
in various different
; he became
man
shown
clearly
gave
him
languageas
stand would
house
tiey
lajvyer;
In such
gave Aim a house ; theymadtMm a bishop.
Latin the differentrelations in which these words
be
of word-
is made
would
object'case, house
be
in the accusative
or
in they
'indirect
'direct
object'case.
In Englishthe distinction between direct and indirect object
is expressed,
but imperfectly
not by inflection,
by word-order,
the indirect coming before the direct objectin such sentences
constructions the order
as that givenabove,althoughin some
between the
is reversed,as in give it met We can distinguish
direct and the indirectobjectby the latterbeing able to take
the preposition
to before it; iheygave the house to him ; give
it to mtl
Hence, althoughit would be quiteincorrect to
say that
in
or
give it
relation,
althoughwe
116.
cannot
So also,when
case
objective
or
me
we
we
English,
in
case
objective
vn'fh me,
nominative
me,
to Mm.
and
him
"ut
pronoun such as /
be put in the
must
preposition,
mean
that
there is
in
objective
the
nouns,
in
distinction between
no
we
/, he,as
cannot
objective
case, and
itis hardlycorrect to say that theyare governed
consequentiy
with me, etc.,
althoi^:h
grammaticallyby these prepositions,
would justify
stand in the
in saying that these nouns
us
nouns
in with
to
pleasure,
sea,
are
in the
T,Goo(^lc
[1 ii6
INTRODVCTION.
44
nouns
would
assume
and
relation,
objective
we
are
But the
the latterinflectionafterprepositions.
and noun-word
is
k^cal connection between preposition
justas strong in vaith pltamre as in wilh nt : vn'lk governs
/Aarar;logically
justas much as itgoverns nu. layouand T,
with me, there is no
which means
the same
practically
ayou
grammaticalgovernment, and yet au/ may be said to govern
/
almost
logically
will be most
as
much
convenient to
with
as
'
use
governs
government
of
Bat
mt.
'
in the
strictly
express logical
grammaticalgovernment, and to
government by the term nukUflofttiim. Thus we
that and \ayou and I modifies /, while vaith in wilh
sense
me,
can
nu
say
both
modification
government alwaysimjdying
well.
DiVZKOENCZ
BKTWieii
LOGIC
logictriumphsover
grammar,
have
we
as in thtparty were
construction,
is associated with
plural
Ijofri)
GRAMMAR
AND
Constructions.
Antigrahmatical
lie.
it
logic and
an
antagnunnutioal
where
asttmbled,
a
noun
grammar,
in the
verb in tt"e
Angular{party)
the
of concord.
From
a
grammaticalprinciples
in this,
for
logical
pointof view there is no inconsistency
party combines the idea of a singlebody of peoplewith that
gainst
word
is made
otherwise
to
^ree
be connected
in the opinion
as
grammatically,
of several eminent lawyeri were in his favour, where were,
althoughgrammaticallyconnected with the singularnoun
as if itwere
Ionian, is put in the plural
governedby lawyers.
118.
not
Antigrammaticalness
may
lie not
in any
one
con-
.vGoc^le
GRAMMATICAL
laa]
CATEGORIES.
tions.
token
Thus
in such
ht htard
makes
us
makes
us
il,ht
consinic-
more
or
sentence
as
colloquial
my friend,
the beginningof the sentence
lattghtd,
a
which again
expect laughedinstead of hi laughed,
expect a different beginning: my friend htard il;
of grammatical
il,he laughed. This want
call ^wosLatbia,
the ponstructionitselfbeing
he heard
when
sequence
called
we
grammaticalbreak.' Anacolustruction,
beginningwith one grammaticalcon-
ansoolitthoiL
an
thia,then,consists in
or
'
then changing
and
Anacohitbia is the
to
different one,
remains
so
that the
two
45
it not
grammaticalform" or
of confusion of thoughtcaused by a complex arrangement of
clauses. Thus the anacoluthia in the example given is the
result of my friend being separatedfrom laughed by the
statement
dause
that is,forgetting
its
"
when
he heard
it; and
have
marked
more
anacoluthon
in the
ofthem^the
sentence
grammatical
tence
sencolloquial
gel anything
he is always polite
io
can
Batil"^oal.
constructions
antilogical
is shiftiilg. In such a sentence as the majorityof Englishmen
pared
comtall (or the majority
are
of Englishmen are short)
with most Englishmenare tall.
Englishmen are mostly
in its most
have shifting
rudimentary form, namely
we
tall,
lao.
The
most
cause
frequent
of
T,Goo(^lc
4.6
INTRODUCTION.
\\ i*a
'
Ushnen
a
and
'
of the
qualification
mere
words.
words
In the last
made
are
two
seotences
two
logically
prominent
grammaticaDypraainentas
well
as
"
far,at
the
sentence.
relationsof head-word
and
reversed
adjunct-word
the word
"
'tallness'is what
about
state
we
purelygrammatical
point of view tall cannot be a predicateword, for it is not a finiteveri". If the term
grammatical
is
be
restrictedto a singleword, the only word
predicate to
'
'
in these sentences
be
must
that
regardedas
be called predicate
is are, and tall
can
adjunctto it,justas it is an
an
in the
adjunct
entirely
in
state
only way
tall as
make
the
we
"as
'
of tallness
of
anythingof
or
gettingout
of the
in which
group-predicate,
tall into a predicate.
Are in
liinction as
the
in the
-s
are
are
is
boygrows
"
are
tall
as
the
kind of prefixto
and justas
tall,
the
by itself
in
we
are
justified
grammaticalpredicate.
not
-s
'
So also in the
have teen,
group
tall has,indeed,
much
and
regardthe combination grows
also
the predicate,
so
constituting
regardingthe
that the
is by regardingare
diCGculty
same
the kind, so
'
T,Goo(^le
the
regardas
may
we
CATEGORIES.
GRAMMATICAL
(laa.]
the verbs
10
see, saw,
groups could
is shifiedfrom
gravity
be used
not
of
centre
logical
47
as
yet these
We
form-words am, have, shall.
insignificant
prominentelement of a group the nucleus.
logically
have
Englishmenand
are
seen
Thus
majority
of Englishmen,I shall
the nudei
call the
So
seen.
group
"
another.
It will be
121,
etc.,both
subject,
that
seen
in
we
the terms
use
and
logical
head-word,
tinguishing
grammaticalsense, disand grammatical
logical
j
necessary between
We
able to do this because
are
when
head-word, etc
terms
have
of the
most
definite gram-
no
for instance,
a grammatical
expression,
adjunct-word,
j
of parts of speech,while dif-i
by a variety
being represented
in predication. Hence we;
ferent parts of speechshare even
word s,|
cannot
recognisegrammatical head-words, adjunctmatical
etc.,
mechanicallyby their
inflection or
any
inflections as
the
form
as
we
recognisean'
can
Such
have
grammaticalfunctions
less definite meanings of their own, but
and often more
or
when we say that such a word as fohn'sis in the genidvecase,
think
we
else.
genitivecase
that it ends in
of the "ct
more
than of
were
to
anything
set
up
'
to a.grammatical genitive,
ing
callgenitiveas opp"osed
logical
for instance the group of John a logical
genitive.The
should allow ourselves would be to call ofJohn a
utmost
we
*
'
genitive-equivalent,'
132.
the
We
Latin
can
observe
lauddium
more
marked
'to be about
to
kind of shifting
in
be
which
praised,'
48
INTRODUCTION.
[(
'
literally,
to-be-goneto-praiseinstead
'
means,
of
'
nj
to-go
to-
be-piaised.'
In
las.
extend
Thus
the
over
in such
wider
than
area
sentence
as
the
words
purelygrammatical ones.
home
camt
grammaticalpredicateto / is
between
yesterdaymorning,
home
and
yetlerday
beinggrammaticallyconnected with the predicate
only,while
meming is an adjunctXo yesterdayonly. But in thought""rlerdayis
much
as
eanu,
came
itself,
tame-
which,
homeyesltrday-morningbeing the logical
predicate,
from a grammaticalpoint of view may be regarded
either as
an
extended
124.
or
predicate
Hence
such
group-predicate.
sentence
as
means
quietor / like qtneiboys practically
as
much
'
as
'
I like
theyare
'
quietness
logical
pointof view / likeis connected directly
to which
with to be quiet,
boys is
dte
Ic^caladjunct,
tence
sen-
'
I like quietness
of boys.'
to
being logically
equivalent
We may call this phenomenon 'indirect government.'
and
oflen arise
"y 126. Grammatical
logical anomaUes
throughthe blending of
in colloquial
Enghsh the
two
differentconstructions.
two
constructions
these
Thus
thingsand
blendingof himsel/aaAourselves
T,Googlc
^
J-
PARTS
OF
SPEECH
*!
"
IN
DETAIL.
in
English are
ITouiu.
Foul
The
126.
inflectioiis
of
and
number
nouns
case.
regardsnumber,
137. As
those of
tween
belanguagesdistinguish
most
the diuL
The
singlirar
expresses
as in
indefinite,
The
ones
is
man
would
'
'
ears
in the dual
The
pluralexpresses
'
more-than-oneness ; in those
it expresses
'
jw
plural
'
we
'
'
have
in the
of the distinctionbetween
trace
tcKh
reciprocal
noun-pronouns
dual and
plural
othgr (dual)and
one
another (plural).
128.
The
in
importantcases
most
are
languagegenerally'
the nominative,
mental,
instruvocative,
accusative,
dative,genitive,
locative.
120.
The
is the
nomiaatiTe
fonctionbeing to mark
noun
its main
subject-case,'
of
the subject
expressedby
'
round
earth would
ball,
in the nominative
such
which have the nominative inflection,
inflectedin such
ballwere
VOL.
I,
Thus
sentence.
by
as
all
be
languages
Ladn ; and if
it also would
language,
X
in
be
put
INTRODUCTION.
50
in the nominative
there is no
that it is
earlh \ and in
nominative
sentences
show
to
[| 130.
an
concord-languageround in both
Id English
would ftlsobe put in the nominative.
specialnominative inflectionof nouns, so that all
can
The
UO.
words,itis a
is the
TooatlTe
used
noun
callitthe
'
as
exclamation-case,'
or, in other
'
sentence-word ;
fore
might there-
we
noun
The
181.
aooiuatlTe
expressedhy
follows a
verb
in
saw
heal and
English is
lawyer,he fwned
may
the
object of the
which
Every noun
direct
saw.
in the object
necessarily
not
stand in the
in such
Thus
relation.
tive)
sentences
(nomina'
subject
John
as
Meihodiil,althoughthe
to
serves
(348). Thus in
Ihe ioy,boyis in the accusative
relation,
being regardedas
actions
objectcase'
transitive verb
man
'direct
or
became
hnoyer and
nouns
with the
a
he
than
more
subject-words
John,he,the verb being little
link between the two pairsof noun-words John
lauiyer,
.
Methodist;whereas
very
in the
only,justas
such
sentence
a^
182.
in any
nected"except
con-
he is
laayer,where
is has
to
no
meaning
modify that
way,
If another
meaning of
meaning
noun-word
is
requiredto completethe
transitiveverb, it is
in
generally
indirect object'relation,
in that
as
the dative
my brother
an
orange, where brother would be put in the dative case in
As we see from this
such a language as Latin or German.
or
'
example,the
dative
man
gave
T,Goo(^le
JVOWKT.
138.1
interested in the action
or
is therefore the
'
51
interest-case.'
Hence
in such
; the dative
sentences
as
would be put
injuredthe man, the noun
in the dative in many languages. In Englishwe
should call
lit man
in such constructions simply the objectof the verb,
for in Englishwe
recognisean ^indirect
objectonl)'by its
helpaiIhe
fu
man,
of
standingalongside
in
noun
the direct
tion
objectrela-
^1).
The
188.
fhows
genitiTe case,
that the
in
noun
in
as
JoMs
the genitivecase
{John's)is
it may
"
equivalent
too/ a day (78),and 0/ honour
honourable (102).
to the adjective
The
184.
of
manner
the
mBtmmental
case
Thus
action.
an
The
fore
there-
da^s being
beingequivalent
the instrument
in struck by lighlning,
by
or
degrees,
are
lightning,
degrees
nouns
expresses
an
looBtive
case
locative relation.
"
136.
The
may
be
instrumental
regarded
in these
nouns
cases
the former
locative"especially
'adverb cases,'
for, like adverbs,
and
as
used
are
to modify verbs,and by
chiefly
is exactly
to
degrees
equivalent
187.
There
are
gradually.
many other meanings which are expressed
by case-inflecdonsin
have
by,'and
the adverb
different languages.Thus
case'
'comitadve
to
guages
lan-
some
'accompanied
express
when
we
many
The
meanings of
give a
case
cases
certain
indirect
the dative
case
axe
name
an
expressedby that
not
to
on]y denotes
name.
an
Thus
interest or
S%
INTRODUCTION.
instnimental and
locative
[J
of
cases
139.
All
140.
139.
highlyinflected
more
inflected case,
are
the genitive,
the common
the uninflected base constituting
{man's,
men's),
case
{matt,men),which is equivalentto the nominative,
in that
But
find
we
pronouns
languageas Latin.
called personal
specialclass of nouns
different system of case-inflection,
totally
namely, a
nomin"tive
a
originally
strict
or
/ is hardlyvsed except
as
nominative
form,
conjoint
"
sees, he saw,
of its grammatical
J have
as
as
kind
the
seen),
case
being always substituted for the nominative
objective
in i7 u mi, and
in vulgar speech,
when used absolutely
as
speech.
Qander.
143.
of
means
143.
such
as
is the
Gender
expressionof sex-distinctionsby
grammaticalforms.
In nature
thingsare
distinguished
by
'hen';
'daughter,'
female,such
as
and
sex
as
as
male,
'woman,'
nor
'hand.'
'tree,'
'stone,'
denoting^
groups
compounds,such
mark
or
the distinctions of
sex
as
in pronouns,
as
in the
T,Goo(^le
Hfovifs.
146.]
With
Ei^lishht,she,it.
able
mark
to
and
tuoman
did
should
we
daughter,
we
are
are
thus in English
we
words
know
be able to tellwhether
not
lifelessthingsk fint in
female, or
or
languagesthere
fomi
these pronouns
compounds aa he-goaf,
the-gaai.
know the meanings of such words as
not
helpof
in such
sex
If we
146.
the
53
which
show
hy their
sex
as
auihorest,
female
baroness,lioness denote
the
of the pronouns
use
he,she,it,by which
we
can
distin^
as
he-nouns,she-nouns,and it-nouns,
guishnouns
according
as theyare
spoken of or referred to as he,she,or i/. Thus
baroness is a she-word,but burgess is a he-word, although
it
has the
he-words
words
are
business is an
In grammar,
it-noun.
itfenjiiiiike,
neuter.
146.
nouns
ending,and
same
In
gender.
agrees with sex in this way, it is caUed natural
But gender and sex do not always agree.
Thus, even in
/botis
he-noun
masculine,and
or
such
languagesnot onlyare
and
feminine,but
even
names
names
of
hand
is feminine.
thingsmade
of male
In
masculine
'
'
"
divergesfrom
gender;
thus
sex
in
the Old
this way,
it is called
Englishvii/mannis
granunatioal
a
grammatical
INTRODUCTION.
54
[| 147
Englishmann
'
'
man
is
natural
Torm-worda.
nouns
Tbe
147.
moat
tbe
are
148.
such
prepositions,
meaning of
as
"^,to,wUh.
is often modified
nouns
by the pretence
OT
compared with
absence of
iron
an
the daker
live?,iron it
presence or
in band with inflection
;
an
dius the
pluralof
articles
a
or
the in the
and
is mm,
man
melal,
The
iron imfh.
to
live f
the absence
of the
shows that
generally
singularman
it
before
Puttinga preposition
same
as
man's, and
noun
inflection. Thus
to addingan
equivalent
exactlythe
to him
is grammatically
of a
means
man
the
means
same
as
So also with
in such
case
difficulty
correspondsto
languageas Sanskrit.
Meaning.
Oonorete
ISO.
as
Tbe
primary and
are
such
as
nouns,
man,
again,are
crowd,are
main
two
such
as
such
as
oommon
stance-nouns
Sub-
nouns,
Plato.
Common
into olass-nouns,such
iron.
as
notins
tbeyare generally
called,
classesof
Colleotive
as
nouns,
man,
such
subdivision of class-nouns,
all other class-nouns
individaal
/ common
nouns
X
\ proper
\ material
names
{Plato)
nouns
f individual (nan)
I class-nouns 1
concrete
of
express substances.
namefi,
subdivided
nouns,
a
is to
nouns,
and proper
and material
as
oonorete
characteristicuse
most
regardsiheir meaning
or
Vooiu.
"
,,
\ collective \croum)
nouns
(irot^
Class-Nouns.
We
ISl.
call such
it stands For
because
word
as
class
'
other
trees,'houses.'
words.
AD
to
such
plural
pluralnouns
mn
nouns,
and
are
to
the
if
even
old
are
nomy
agro-
on
to
the
bodies
and moon,
names
as
and moons,
suns
sim
"
extend
should unhesitatingly
speak of other
imaginary resemblingour
or
are
class-words
as
moon
occasion
moon
Singularnouns
two.
pluralnouns
as
and
sun
called
Thus
nouns.
briefly,
singular
and moon
are
as
singularnouns
such as
tree,man, althoughin
the other
as
class-nouns
much
justas
(1S3).
crcrwd
as
dis-
as
more
also class-
are
denotingonly a singleobjectare
popular language
opposed
things
class-words
individual
class-words
Bingnlar class-nouns,or,
in
of individual
common
are
ooUeotive
Class-nouns
IBS.
number
monkey, tree,house
these words
from
tinguished
(class-nonn)
class-word
'
Hence
'
or
tinguished
by which theyare disclasses of things,such as
monkeys,'
man
these
"
we
new
objects.
must, of course, not bo confounded
Singularand pluralnouns
in the singularor pluralinflection.
with nouns
ColkcUve
Collective nouns
163.
togetherso
that
of human
number
they
number
nation
of
means
are
be
regarded
as
collective words.
solid
So
mass.
shipssailing
togetherunder
a
of
number
thingscollected
singleobject.
Crowd
that
beings so close together
form
to
seem
express
they may
Crowd, fiut,nation
Nouns.
number
of
also
one
at a
means
distance
fiat means
command;
and
mon
com-
etc.
language,government, habits of life,
164.
Collective
nouns
are
as
much
class-words
a?
indi-
5(1
INTRODUCTION.
vidual
such
nouns
of crowds
as
Crowd
etc.
singlecrowd, fleet,
time pluralnouns.
same
singularcollectivenoun.
Such
words
etc.
be
may
thus
theysuggest than
do not
Thus
possessing
iron
not
means
have in my
I may
do, but
etc.
of matter
mass
press
ex-
hands
at
Ihe form
Material words
regardedas
the hammer
of
Nomu.
nails and
as
therefore,at the
are,
onlythe
number
well
as
iron,glass,bread,water
as
as
any definite thing,
each of them
think of
can
Vniversi rtay be
Material
156.
we
of different nations
fleets or
or
are
man
[j Ijj.
or
make
think
us
of the
of the attributes
more
thingitself. Thus
makes
iron
us
words
approach very
When
material
"" definite
Thus
noun.
or
with,'
is used
noun
shape,it is no
iron
in the
glassin the
in
near
meaning
Hence
to
material
attribute
pure
individual
object
longera material noun, but a classof 'implement to smooth
cloth
sense
to
of 'vessel
sense
an
express
to drink
out
of'
are
pure
class-nouns.
JVames.
Proper.
166.
Such words
as
and
man
crowd
number
nouns
and material
"
in
by portionsof
an
the term
designationas
by
common
under
nouns
an
iron suggests
as
include class-
common
notins,
is shared
man
indefinite number
as iron
designation
indefinite
suggestan
"
may
of individual
is shared in
indeflnitel)'
largemass.
or
None
common
of these
NOUNS.
S 159.1
57
is
it with
by qualifying
when
as
IMt
make
we
such
(86),
the indeliniteman,
But
the river.
the man,
mem,
mark-word
ihis
as
is referred
and
to ;
the,
mark-words
define
only
its equivalenthe, by
the man,
not
or
:
relatively,
absolutely
the person
itselfdoes, not enable me
to identify
exactly who
or
tillI know
the
mean
the
also
mean
"
where
as
he
'
lives.
ITBme-words
Plato,London, Thames
and
or
also mark
proper
off individuals of
such
names,
class,
class,but theyare
same
marks:
we
piermanent,not relative and shifting
shiii the designationthe river from the Thames
can
to the
Rhine, and from the Rhine to the Nile,but we cannot do this
absolute
or
Ike Thames,
with the designation
168.
need
name
proper
include
but may
individual,
etc.
be confined to
not
definite group
single,^
of individuals,
as
the members
oolleotiTS
name-words,
such
name-words,
the christian
name-word,
as
Virginia,
etc.,which
1S9.
number
It often
of unconnected
find
the
to
the
same
name
have to
we
John, and
state-names
the
tive
collec-
Maine,
name
is applied
to
is
so
distinctivename
perfectly
indiTidual
individualname-words.
happens that
that we
objects
to
opposed
are
name
to
Plato,London, etc.
names
of
as
opposed
as
fore,
are, there-
use
has
not
sible
great that itis imposfor each, and to be
been
T,Goo(^le
58
INTRODUCTFON.
this
appliesto proper
there b
Boston
well
as
[5
as
England and
in
Thus
names.
common
160.
name
is
John
as
given
more
giving
christianname,
one
the
imperfect
But however
mjohn
as
Sluart Mill.
result may
all proper
that is, to exclude ordinary
names,
and it is this intention which
individuals of the same
class,
in
same
on
Plato.
make
As
fall imder
names
language.
same
and such
Violet,
ocmneot"d
only name-nouns
being an
patienet
so
The Strand
castle.
as
all these
abstract noun,
connected
names.
The
unconnected
names
were
proper
of
applicadon some
because
firstman
first man
of his brown
who
love of horses
the
was
or
have
word
common
who
hair
or
brown
words,
smith a
adjective,
as Nemplace-names
that all
; that is to
limitingthe
object.
particular
arisen from
to
one
called BrovM
was
be called
an
connected
originally
names
Patience,
as
conmion
hi"tory^f
languageshows
say, that aD
Just as the
on
was
so
called
"
name
sound-groupsexpress
braaon
So also such
on.
names
as
words in
common
of
variety
Philip,
John,London, Thames,
oonnsoted.
no
words, proper
as
but also
are
with
christian
because
not
and
class-noun,
Such
surnames
namefl.
there is
sun
common
unconnected
or
not
well-defined classes,according
two
connected
they are
the
regardstheir relation to
in
was
firstformed
meanii^
an
(jihilippos)
originally
adjective
'
"
it
was
fond of horses.'
f 163.1
NOUNS.
Proper names
it
thus
be
can
are
firstgiven,however
was
the
59
in their origin:we
arbitrary
for a name
when
always a reason
never
was
fanciful this
meaning
and
use
reason
of the
may
have
name
may
been,
have
changed afterwards.
lai.
names
'son
formed
from
of William'; geographioal
such
names,
as
Wiiliamson
includingplace-
river-names,
England, London, Islington,
of natural
objects,horses,
mountain-names, etc. ; names
such
names,
as
of
Burnkam
artifloial
beeches'),
stars,con-
ot^eots, such
as
ships,
steam-engines,
guns, bells {Big Ben).
168. Such classifications
evidently
givepart of the meaning
Thus
it is part of the meaning of such
of a proper name.
that they denote persons,
as John and Plato
proper names
than this : theyimply
and not places,
etc. But theymean
more
'male human
being,'
justas Mmv implies'female human
being.'Each
name
has besides
vast
number
of
special
"
men.
60
INTRODUCTION.
Propernames
164.
are
One
words.
way in
the metaphorical
of
use
mon
H 164.
proper
attribute or
persons who possess some
the proper name.
Thus, as Plato was a
that he
say or any other philosopher
a Plato.
briefly,
more
be called a
same
we
philosopher,
may
is a tecond Plata,or,
way
strong man
may
Hercules.
be made
may
In the
exprcBB other
attributesimpliedby
to
name
china,which
kind of earthenware
particular
which was originally
broughtfrom China. In such cases as
is made
into a noun.
these,a proper name
Proper names
as
also made
are
means
in Ai boycoli.
as
Propernames
directly,
more
or less arbitrary
way to form names
articlesof trade,
as in
Gladstone Ix^ ;
or
are
often used
in
of
newly invented
shortened to vxUingion,
boot,
Wellington
of
plants,trees,minerals,etc.,as in
new
Prussian
Marlboroughat Blenheim),
duke of
It
be bome
must
in mind
BieS^m orange
is
that every
that
name
name
blue.
is
not
proper
givenarbitrarily"
than
such
leas
a
name
as
arbitrarily
though
Wellingtonboots
but as it includes all individualapples
kind of apple,
to a new
of the same
or
kind,instead of excludingthem, it is
apple-trees
name.
was
"
not
common,
proper
name.
So
also such
nickname
as
to all men
of certain political
appliedindiscriminately
Tory
views,and is therefore an ordinaryclass-word. But when king
caLed Longshanks,this nickname
Edward
the First was
was
him from the other Englishmen of the tim^
used to distinguish
or
whether longlegged
and consequently
shortlegged,
was
a true
is
proper
Such
name.
an
T,Goo(^le
jvoi/jvs.
167.]
61
"
or
proper name,
definite
single,
Abstract
The
165.
secondar]ruse
IToana^
of
regards their
meaning is to express attributes and phenomena, attributeand phenomenon-nouns being included under the
nouns
abstraot "Otms.
common
designation
attributes being primaril]r
166. Permanent
expressedby
attribute-nouns
most
adjectives,
by
various
derivative processes
formed
are
;
as
nouns
from
adjectives
redness,length,
height,
stupidity,
prudence are formed from the
butes
red,long,high,stupid,
adjectives
prudent. Changing attrior
phenomena being primarilyexpressedby verbs,
most
phenomenon-words are derivativesof verbs ; thus the
conversation,
phenomenon-nounsreading,
proof,speech
action,
formed from the verbs read,act, converse, prove, speak.
-are
Many
sion
abstract
of
to
ride,
nouns
are
verb into
sound
are
noun
formed
also fonned
;
the
b^
in such collocationsas
When
ah
good run, to go for a ride,a loud sound.
becomes
adjectiveis converted into a noun, it generally
concrete, and often undergoesfurther changes of meaning,
a
as
in the
noun
adjective
goods from the^
good,the
reds and
which means
the yellowand red portions
yellowsin a picture,
of the picture,
redness xaA yellowness
beingpurelyabstract.
167.
But there
many
converted from
derived nor
nouns
are
are
"
abstract
nouns
which
are
neither
T,Goo(^le
63
INTRODUCTION.
ditfost,
fevtr; joy, hop*;
lainler ;
sumtner,
[(
and
nouns
framed
were
tost,
are
1(8.
energy.
sable
indispen-
so
them
to express
them, such
168.
may
be
as
Some
meaning,
intermediate
or
regardedas half-abstiact,
abstract and
Thus
concrete.
are
between
abstract if
and setting
of
regardedfrom the point of view of the rising
the enn, while they are concrete
if we
regard them merely
the horizon or in the sky.
as partsof the earth or points
on
160. Particlesand interjections
converted
are occasionally
into nouns.
Thus we
meaning
say, there is an ^ in that,'
'
reservation or condition.
some
Leave
Now
to
So also in
has Forever.
(Browning)
to
belonging
170. Words
as
nouns
when
we
say
'
j)ris
all parts of
speechmay be used
itselfapartfrom itsmeaning,as
'
the objective
case
conjunction,'
of/
is me!
Function.
171. The
serve
as
primary grammaticalfunction of
A
head-words.
nouns
is
to
head-word
may be modified by
stated about it. Hence
havingsomethingeither impliedor
a noun
may be modified cither by an assumptive(attributive)
word or a predicate.Thus the nouns
sntwa, height,
action,
ride are modified by assumptivewords in meltingsnow,
a
and by predicative
a longride,
a generous
action,
greatheight,
ike heightis
in the snow
has melted,
words and word-groups
the ride was
loo long.
enormous, such an action is not justifiable,
The
as
word
or predicative
assumptive
are
may
be
a mere
qualifier,
here.
T,Goo(^le
i 173.]
172.
63
NOUNS.
The
function
secondar)'
of
Bdjimat-woTdfl, by modifyingother
is to
nouns
nouns
or
serve
as
verbs,
"
178.
When
is called
noun
Thus
noun.
(attributive)
aBBumptive
an
it modifies it
noun
is assumptive. When
king
in
material
noun
Is used
in slow
as
assumptivelyit resembles an adjective,
the generaldifference
see
wall, gold chain. But we
can
between an assumptive
and an assumptiveadjective
noun
by
comparing gold chain with golden hair. Golden is a pure
attribute-word,
expressingone only of the attributesof gold,
namely its colour; while the assumptivenoun
gold in gold
chain impliesall the attributesof gold,a gold chiun having
not only the colour of gold,but also its weight,hardness,
etc.
There is the same
distinctionbetween silkenhair or silky
hair
and silkthread. As thinkingof all the attributes of a subis practically
the same
Stance
thing as thinkingof the
substance
it really
does
itself,
regard slone
or
and
gold in
noun-compounds
regard stone
It
whether
much
matter
wall,gold chain
stone
as
we
concrete
abstract words.
In
as
not
wall, etc.
in slone
such
is
adjunctto the
an
It is in "ct
wail
as
the
as
cattle-market,
second exactly
difficult
to decide whether
element
an
has something of
certainly
cannot
man-servant,
as
of
of
fixity
we
can
compound or
compound:
to
not
we
separate those of
hardlyeven
both
make
elements
'
stone
'.
of such
T,Goo(^le
64
INTRODUCTION.
[I"74-
which we
need not be surprised
grammatically,
at when
material nouns, and that
consider that ^0/1/,
etc. are
we
these niaterial nouns
approach very near in meaning to pure
attribute-words
resemble
(166). Material nouns
adjectives
in
that
while man-servaiti
so
formally not taking any articles,
of the
etc are
clearlyshown to be compounds by the want
articles a or the which man
would requireifit were
independent,
caUy,but
also
the absence
^^~
s/
"
only does
make
the material
wall
slant,etc.
nouns
the
not
a
following
noun
verb a]one,as
in /
Unk
the
to connect
in 1^ btcamt
in which
a
a
varietyof
stand
to
its
saw
the
verb may
with the
adjunctnoun
as
to
adjunct
or
man,
serve
be
the
on]y a
subjectnoun-word,
stands
noun
verb-modifying
important are
most
of distinguishing
these
difficulty
174. A
as
stent
to
its verb
indirect object,
verb, most
of which
an
make
the
can
adjunctnoun
the adjunctnoun
to an
adverb, as in " staffedthe
equivalent
grammatically
long,he walked all day, he ran
nighicomparedwith ht stopped
a race
(262, 268). For the use of a noun as complement lo
a
see
noun-word
governed hj
verb,as
in
"
are
Iheymade
him
'
king,\
" 267.
relation
or oblique
case
obliquecase
is always an
or
adjunctword.
governedby a preposition
Thus dt^s and of honour in a days work, a man
of honour,
are
adjunctwords or word-groups,as also boy in he beat the
In fact,the only noims
that
ioy compared with ioy-ieatii^.
those that are in the subject
relaare
are not adjunctwords
176.
noun
in an
"
"
D,g,l,7?"lT,G(.""
178.]
don,
an
is
65
as
Even
nominatival
noun
is
as in the tarth
adjunct-wordwhen it is not a subject-word,
where globe
is an adjunct
to earth.
a globe,
t/
AdjeotiTes.
Form.
The
176.
are
as
those of
in English
inflectionsof adjectives
onlyregular
oomparison, which,however, inaybe regarded
being almost
(78).
as
There
much
two
are
tion
process of derivation as of inflecdegreesof comparison,the oom-
contrast
said to be in the
to which
the
uncom-
nouns^though generally
the
in
form.
The
rule
in
such
not esacdy
same
general
that is,
langui^s is that adjectives
agree with their nouns"
whether assumpthe nouns
to which they serve
as adjuncts,
dvelyor predicativelyin case, number, and gender, Thus
he has beautiful
in such a sentence
as
daughters,
beautiful
inflections as daughters,
would take the same
namely the
accusative case, pluralnumber, and feminine gender. English
in the adjectivestillhas a trace of adjective-concord
as in
these,
those,
pronouns this and that,which have plurals
"
Otherwise English
compared with this Toan.
have no inflectionsof case, number, or gender,
adjectives
inflect their adjectives,
the
17 B. In languageswhich
is often dropped when it can be easily
accompanying noun
"om
the contest, the adjective
inflections being
supplied
tions
enoughto show the gender,number, and grammaticalrelaof the resulting
in such Ianfree aclJeatiTe. Thus
these
VOL.
men
1.
T,Goo(^le
66
INTRODUCTION.
these
noun
the
noun
keepsits own
singularwotild
masculine
in the feminine
the
be understood to
as
such instances
into
'
[" 179.
in
'
good things.*
there is no conversion of the adjective
and the adjective
is simplydropped,
mean
inflectionsunchanged. Thus
in German
gUU
'
'
'
without
the want
ambiguitybecauseof
of
inflections;
adjective
Englishan ordinary
adjective
adjective
[for
pronouns
without being converted
be used as a noun
see " 193]cannot
into a noun, and even
then its
either whollyor partially"
hence in
"
is often much
use
chattelsor
as
so
of
accompaniedby
frequently
in the
as
When
restricted.
of goods.
case
we
plelure,
good,red,yellow
complete conversion,which
is
speak of the
we
Irui
beautiful,
meaning what is true,'what is beautiful,'
or
say that Ihe good are hapfy,meaning good people are
for aUhough the good
the conversion is only partial,
happy,'
has exactlythe same
in this sentence
grammaticalfunction
and Iki
'
'
'
in the plural,
it does not take the
any other noun
if it were
inflectionwhich it would require
a real noun
;
plural
as
or
men
and in it as well
the has
noun
different funcdon
; for we
180.
in
as
could
Another
Englishis to
not
the fcxm-word
beautiful,
say the
men
in the
sense
have with
of
'
men
in
T,Goo(^le
183,]
ADyECTIVES.
this.pr"9-word,
and
of
in
as
two
prop-word.
being transferredto
may
book,an
In such
ones.
employ
course
we
give me
short
noun
x"
between
ones,,
67
the
These
one
interesling
"
tall man
one
would
concord-language
without any noun
inflected adjective
or
cases
used
prop-formsare generally
in
Engbsh
only
can
when
good
use
the
in the
ones
reference to
of the good,but
general sense
onlywith
noun.
preceding
Meanihg.
18L
is to express ^
of
Such
attributes of substance-words.
as iig,
adjisctives
green, good xce pure attribute-adjeotiTeB :
theyexpress simpleattributes apart from the substances in
These
fonnallyindependent of
Adjectivesformed
nouns
182.
When
in
meaning
formed
adjective
from
to a
substance
to that noun,
attributes belonging
with it in
meaning. Thus
the
as
same
the
exactly
(he
from
goldenhair.
it
group of attributes,
substance-word,and when
adjective
expresses
an
approachesnear
an
nouns.
also
are
adjectives
-noun
it is
allthe
expresses
identical
practically
same
as
the
thread
0/ silk.
We
call such
adjectives
oonorete
or
substance-adjectives
adjectives. It is evident
thatthese adjectives
fallunder the same
classes as the nouns
human
in the
to which they correspondin meaning. Thus
human
mind
wooden
in wooden
is a
is
as
name-adjective,
also Crimean
in Crimean
war
'
the
In EUcKa
combination
as
ForeignOffice='ofBc^ for
68
[| \Z^
INTRODUCTiON.
adjectirc
may be called
+ noun.
nnpliesadjective
the
164.
In
we
OHuidering the meaning of adjeciives,
which do
not
it
most
attributiveadjectives,
racb
between
distinguisli
caiefiitly
we
for
adjective,
ooudAtued
ms
and QiuUiyins
considering,
implyor
state
adjective*,
but merelylimit
attributes,
define the
such
as
noun
mofl)', while
otben, such
as
the articlesa
and
Ikt,
Auctions,most "rf
only more or less vague grammatical
tbem belongingto the class of adjective-pronouns.
be impUed
186. The only words of which attributes can
have
stated
or
Hence
every
must
noun
are
which
adjective
be
regarded as
is associated with
not
qualifying,
as
nouns.
abstract
an
an
attribute-
rath aetiont,
FuKcnoN.
186.
Ute
is
grammaticalfunction of adjectives
to
serve
We
as
adjunctsto noim-words.
distinguish
adjectives
and predicative accordingas
aanunptive
(attributive)
ofthe nountheyimplyor state an attributeor qualification
as
word.
many
err
Thus
we
have
in good
assimiptiveadjectives
men,
quickmotion,and predicative
tives
adjecgreatgoodnest,
in ht is good,his goodnest
is great,riding is healthy,
to
men,
it human.
In ridingis
heallhyexercise,
hecdilff
is,of
itforms part of
assumptive
adjective,
although
predicate-group.
modifies
187. An adjective
a verb logically
following
course,
an
an
the
the
rea^,
independent
T,Googlc
151.]
^though
extent,
as
subject-word,
that
us
'
he
then it is
even
in ^
turned
of
use
red.
If
word
as
adjective
complement
governed by
verb,as in
When
188.
which
adjective
to
follows it,it
must
regard these
jective
adjunctto another adregardedas an adverb,
as
be
But
compounds.
as
groups
For the
noun-word
preceding
to paint a house
serves
adjective
an
adverb.
an
as
an
in he breathtd hard, it
an
an
certain
adjunctmainly to the
Here red not only tells
an
independent verb, as
be regardedas converted into
must
modiry it to
(262).
follows
said to
'
tamed.
verb
fi9
PHONOUXS.
we
such
preferto
groups
as
muth
retain their
as both elements in such groups
adverb,especially
on
group
as
Pronouns.
ISB.
Every pronoun
sim[dy pronoun,
Many
pronouns
which case the
are
an
used
noun
"
noun-pronoun
or
adjectiveodjeotive-proiioan.
both as nouns
and as adjectives,
in
"
is generally
the primaryand the
use
adjective
important; thus that is a noun-pronoun in / know that
more
an
or
is either a
in that man,
adjective-pronoun
thatfact.
Form.
190.
Pronouns
are
from ordinary
nouns
distinguished
adjectives
by various formal
characteristics.
of the noun-pronouns
distinctions(A
(h, htm),and special
IBl.
Some
and
inflections
special
gender{he,she,it).
have
[|
INTRODUCTION.
TO
When
IBS.
an
is made
adjective-pronoun
into
as in
noun-inflections,
ordinary
iqi.
noun,
the
it
other,
as
indeclinable,
think
some
iMni
nun
difftrenily=:tovu
differently.
differfrixn ordinaryadjectives
adjective-pronouns
The
198.
in the
followingfeatures :
"
of them
(tf)Many
absolutelywithout
be used
can
any
too. Some
Books,I have
either.
(b)Most
of them
be converted
can
apply to ordinaryadjectives
(179): msteh
remains
to be
done,many
into noun-pronouns
think differently.
Some
be converted into
nouns
or
used
of them
never
as
this,
that,and,
difificult
to
draw
the
line between
adjectiveadjectivedoes
it cannot
be
peculiarities,
pronouna
and
ordinaryadjectives.But
show
any
of the above
not
formal
if
an
it may
resemble an
regarded as a pronoun, however much
in
adjectivemeaning. Thus several is a pronoun
pronoun
it can
be used absolutely,
becauM
in / have several ; but
as
cannot
we
althoughdivers has the same
meaning as several,
than we
can
say "/ have good in
say */ have divers any more
of I have good books
be regardedonly
the sense
so divers can
as an
ordinaryadjective.
"
T,Goo(^le
PRONOUN'S.
MSANING.
If
194.
and
ordinarynouns
always have a very
we
we
adjectives,
generd meaning.
Thus
the
noun-pronoun
means
you
We
nouns.
view
define pronouns
general
as
purelylogical
pointof
and
nonnB
adjeotiTes,
and adjectives,
ordinaryspecialnouns
and adjectives
that some
nouns
are
more
opposed to
as
the
bearing in mind
of
general in their meaning than others. Hence a noun
generalmeaning is often almost equivalentto a pronoun.
Thus
much
the same
men
as
th^
say, people say mean
in
say, and
book
speaksof
author
whether
he
it does
himself
as
speaks of his
formal
we
restrictthe
however
man,
have also
draw
the line
always have
(he
or
name
as
pronoun
much
whether
the
aulhor,the writer,or
you
say and
men
of its own
peculiarities
as
nouns
We
matter
reader
not
to
the reader.
or
is
/heysay
In
purely
Iheybecause it has
which
generalthe
"
more
or
less generalmeaning
"
and
adjective-
pronouns.
Function.
190.
The
function of pronotms is to
granunatical
marfe-wordis'(35). When
serve
as
man
"
him by
calling
his name,
or
saying the
man
who
was
here
Justas
the
cross
or
one
name
or
INTRODVCT!0!f.
73
one
any
one
whose
noun
another
he may
John Collins at
pointto
another.
William
They
noun
stand
for any
shifting or
fised mark-words
or
nouns.
time
same
Pronouns
are
to
able
move-
(propernames), such
is at the
noun-pronoun
or
group of
time,and
at one
thus
are
Smith
name-words
mark-wordB,
A
/, he may
appliedto it,and
106.
[( ip6.
as
(167).
substitute
used
partly
the
as when
we
brevity,
say jiou instead rf
speakingto now,' partlyto avoid the repetition
person I am
of a noun, and
197.
As
the
'
to
partly
avoid the
at
cross
of definitestatement,
necessity
of
the end
or
receipt
similar
document
know
us
generallymeans
'
female
is made
when
we
what
noun
'male
but
being,'
it refers
It is
to.
being' and
the distinctionof
she
sex
that Ae
true
generallymeans
in these pronouns
distinctreference ; and
only for the sake of more
refer to a shipas she,the word she is as devoid of
meaning
independent
as
the
cross
name.
is equivalent
to a noun
Adding an adjective-pronoun
the noun.
to puttinga mark
on
Thus, to singleout one
book in a library
itthe book or
particular
catalogueby calling
house in a row
this book,
out one
or to single
particular
by
to tickingoff the name
of
it the house,is equivalent
calling
the door of
the book in the catalogue
or chalking
a cross
on
be shiftedfrom one noun
the house. Adjective-pronouns
can
10 another in the same
way as a penciltick can be shifted
from the titleof one book to that of another in the catalogue.
and adjective-proThe
difference between
nouns
noun-pronouns
lakes the
is,of course, that while a noun-pronoun
it:
can
only qualify
placeof a noun, an adjective-pronoun
196.
T,Goo(^le
aofc]
PRONOVyS.
onlyput
we
man
Ae,she
for the
for
of
nouns
are
the
man,
as
Ike woTnan,
talk of
wc
So also when
substitutea moveable
he,we
Thus
woman.
man,
but when
cross
name.
the man,
as
nouns
we
talk of
generalmark-
man
and
umman
comparatively
generalmeaning,the
approach very
woman
groups the
and function
in meanmg
near
he,she.
of
Pronouns.
As
fallunder
woman
she,we
Classes
109.
the
on
the noun-pronouns
to
or
fixed,specialdesignation.As
making
simplyaddingit to
woman
as
that between
as
man
nouns
Wiiliam Smith
word
mark
ieoi
as
and
name,
talk of
we
Same
73
main
two
sentence
clause introduced by
or
stand
divisions,
independent
and dependent.
dependentpronoun
cannot
without which
us
the
such
some
the man
who
clause
principal
was
here
as
/ know
wliilea
yesterday,
the
sentence
man
"
duced
intro-
eonjunotiTe.
anij
All pronouns
The
also fallunder the heads of definite and indefinite.
more
tative.
Thus
divisionscross
emphatic pronoun
an
possessive,besides
and
independent,
They
The
have
may
necessarily
being either dependent
or
definiteor indefinite.
Personal
200.
one
Fronouni.
all noun-pronouns.
and some
of them
case-inflections,
personal pronouns
plural-and
are
T,Goo(^le
INTRODUCTION.
74
[f aoi.
gender,
The^ zre distinguished
distinguish
by peiwm,
The pronoun
of 41
as
first,
second,third pcison pronouns.
the flrat person
the speaker,'
that is,
/, means
singular,
first
from the point of view of the speaker himself. The
the phirai
of I, whose meaning
is not really
iw
person plural
'
'
does
not
admit
of
tee
:
plurality
either
means
'
I + you
'
or
is you,
penon
of the woMid
The pronoun
pronouns.
='
which is both singular
you man,' 'you
/Aou
the old singular
woman,' etc.,and pluial='
you people,'
being preservedonly in the higherliterary
language. But
in combination with the emphaticpronoun
uff^(SOS)we
nJpke a distinction between the singularyoundf and the
tinguish
displiiral
yourstlvtt.The pronouns of the third person
but not in the plural:
gender in the singular,
singularmasculine ht,feminine sht,neuter it,pluralfor all
gendersIhgi, The reason of the gender not being marked
is that a number of persons may be of different
in the plural
sexes, and itis not worth while stoppingto consider whether
the men
the women
the men
and the
""
or
Ihgimeans
'
'
'
'
'
together.'
women
Gender
is to
some
extent
in
distinguished
interrogative
pronoun "wke,which
personalpronoun (201.i).
Most
301.
of the
is
of the
plural
a
really
specialkind of
personalpronouns
Ae
definite
are
definite person
nouns
pro-
thing, The
French on \a. on dU 'they say' is,on the other hand, an
of the third person
indefinite
singular.This
pronoun
indefinite personalpronoun
is represented
in Englishsometimes
by ont, sometimes by the definite personalpronouns
you and Ih^ ; oiu would Ihink so,you would 'ihinkso, Iheysay.
;
theypoint to
some
or
to
the
above pronouns,
there
are
several other
pro-
T,Googlc
M3.)
far convenience
which
nouns
*
PROyOUNS.
are
75
Such
reallypersonalpronouns.
and relative mho, what (211).
interrogative
and
yet
It must
a02.
be observed
always refer to
not
pronouns
aie
definite thing,but
pronoun
is often
are
the
il does
entirely
prop-word,
in rains
itself(67).
Fosaoartve
Pronoona.
The
to the
parallel
possessive
prcniDuns are exactly
personal pronouns, each personalpronoun having its own
that the possessive
so
possessive,
pronouns make the same
distinctions of number and person aa the personalpronouns.
Thus to the personalpronoun he correspondsthe possessive
third person his in his book. The possessive
pronouns
may
in the genitive,
be regarded either as noun-pronouns
or
as
made
That is,
into adjectives.
we
personalnoun-pronouns
may regardkit in his hook either aa standingin the same
208.
relation to
into
or
the
him
as
John'sdoes
It
adjective.
an
does
pronoun
than
of
not
genitivecase
master
to
of John^or
be observed
that
aa
he made
possessive
necessarily
imply possessionany more
must
does
when
of his headache,
itdoes not
mean
"
mine. The
comes
when
conjointform
is used when
there is no
The
the
possesdvepronoun
absolute form
is used
76
INTRODUCTION.
either to
in thi hook
as
adjective,
ht dots not
noun:
and
an
[| ao^.
fkitu. Those
seem
to know
pronouns
is
mint, or
pore
httuieenmint
Iht disHneUtm
to
genitive
ending
in the
Some
of the others,such
absolute form
as
i in the
her,take the genitive
As
there is
not
trace
of
/heir (absolute
neuter
its,
(absolute
hers),
plural
iheirt).
Thy,thine occurs
Xmpliatia Prononna.
206.
The
personalpronouns
are
made
emphatic by
these
T,Goo(^lc
BeflsxlTe
The
307.
also used
are
ourselves
reflesive pronouns,
2S
others
as
us, whefe
see
corresponding
\^
refleiive pronoun
to
object-relation
as
Fronoune.
the
to
is
as
in
should
itv
self
try to
see
us.
standing in the
personal pronoun
with
preposition^
dme
same
see, and
refers
verb.
In
see
we
selves
our-
object-relation
which
subject
of the verb,
In John told him to give himselfplentyof time,
the reflexive pronoun
himselfSiia.n6sin the indirect objectrelation to the verbal (verbrefers us
to give,and
equivalent)
back
to the logical
subjectof give,namely him, told him ia
give himselfbeing equivalentto told him that he should give
himself{AA").
to
us
It will be observed
308.
pronoun
refers back
to toe,
is the
the
sentence
flexive
re-
himself
such
Latin the
in
was
to
sentence
have
as
be
he
would
sentence
imply
to
him.
that
So
also in
in lAixa"^avit
ut
si
John
take
defenderem which
"
the verbal to
him, and
above
cannot
are
therefore be
therefore
logioftlreflexiTM.
is not
of the
repeatedby
granunatioal
it.
same
The
person
Latin
as
flexives
re-
INTRODUCTION.
The
the
emphaticfonns of
possessive
pronouns are
used also as reflexives,
as in ^ goes in his mm
carriage
; but
when it is not necessary to emphasizethe reflexivemeaning,
the simplepossessives
in a reBexive sense,
we
use
generallj
ht drivts kit carriagehimself.
Au sold his carriage,
as in ^
In all these sentences
such a languageas Latin would employ
S09.
'
the reflexiveforms.
Beo^^rooal
The
210.
sentences
as
group-pronouns
Frononna.
eath
in such
othersone another,
iheyhelpeach oiherf
theywould net speak to eaeh
reciprocal
pronouns.
to
stand
as
time
But
the reciprocal
as well as
subject,
pronouns themselves,
must cUways be in the plur^. Each ether generally
tmpUes
than two persons, though this
only two, one another more
observed.
distinctionis not always strictly
Reciprocalpronouns
is
because there
are necessarily
phiral,
alwaysa cross*
relation between the subjects
and the reciprocal
pronouns.
B
each
A
Thus th^ help
other means
helpsB, and
helpsA.'
this
'
Interrogative
PfonounB.
'
in English
or questioning
interrogative
pronouns
Who is used only as a noun.
It has
are whoi what, which.
the penional, including
masculine and feniinine,
two genders,
by who, and the neuter, expressedhyjvhal; who
expressed
is that woman?, what
is that thing?
is thai man?, who
These forms are pluralas well as singular
those
: who
are
men?, who are these women?, what are those things? We
21L
see
are
The
in the
interrogative
pronouns
T,Goo(^le
iaij.]
PRONOUNS.
tions made
79
in the
the
pluralenables it to distinguish
neuter from the personalgender in the pluralas well as the
of this greatervagueness of the interrogative
singular.The reason
terrc^tive
pronoun
naturally
a
certain
of
spoken language,as
212.
well
as
who{m) do you
in
as
but in
mtan
being used
In both functions it
noun.
personalsense,
in
is substituted in the
can
as
an
adjective
be used b
is that?
woman
213.
it is used
It is both a noun
and an adjecas well.
personally
tive,
and is indeclinable,
not having even
a possessive
form,
what has : which (ofthose thirds)
do you want?, which boy
as
do you
mean
interrogative
pronoun is used to introduce
the interrogation
is said to be
an
independentsentence (IBB),
When it introduces a clause dependent on a prindirect.
cipal
clause containing
the interrc^a statement
or question,
When
214.
tion
an
is said
to
be
in such
interrogation
and what
he
sentences
who
notm
sentence
as
ve
indirect
are
who
you i",
be borne
is he
was
in mind
an
interrogative
pro-
is alwaysthe^^^rediMte
of the sentence
it
introduces,
whether
the
have
It must
216.
Thus
indirect.
sentence
is
INTRODUCTION.
BalfttlTfl and
ConJnnotlTe
In English the
2ie.
thai
(andconjunctive)
pronouns.
men
to their
as
use
that
: the
interrogatives
the
adjectives,
as
only as
the
relative
not
as
an
relativesis parallel
as
is used
as
onl^
and
nouns
as
pronouns
when
same
as
relative who
of these three
use
relative
noun,
noun,
also
used
as
hertyttttrday
compared
were
use
as
used also
are
Tliat ^vhen
adjective.The
who, what,
inteirogative
pronouns
Fronaona.
regards
relative
they are
as
when
iht man
217.
"
who
knows.
The
relative pronoun
the relativeclause
"
hum
who
into an
"
was
makes
/ know
"
adjunctto
noun-word
some
clause. Thus
principal
the clause who
yesifrdqy,
"
in the
in /
here
was
is an adjunctto
here'^esiirday
clause
principal
to
the
man
the antecedent
; and
man
in / say it who
in the
know
it,
for
a
adjunct-woid"generally
participle
(adjectiveverbal)
the relative clause without change of meaning, as in the
"
window
lookingon
locks on
was
the
lost.
garden,the
child that
was
which is then
constitutesthe antecedent,
dent,
where
as
which
in / said nothing,
/ said
made
lost or
sentence
principal
eenteooe-^nteoe-
him
stillmore
to such
nothing is equivalent
(noun-group)
a^ nty sayingnothingor
my
ivhich
angty,
wor4'group
silenct.
1 s"o.]
218.
as
well
But in
8l
PSOM"U?/S.
In the above
as
some
cases
clause which
is
is used to
joinon
Thus in the
clause.
relative pronoun
sentence
the
wife,the relativepronoun loho has exactly
We call
same
sentence,
meaning as and A^ in the following
such relatives which are equivalent
to iini/+
personalpronoun,
being thus relatives in form only progressiTe
"
"
relaHve
In
noun-pronouns.
omitted in
arc
spoken English relative noun-pronouns
I saw yesterday
="i!bK literary
as in the man
;tions,
I saw
ft whcm
yesterday.
319.
make
The
the
function of
relative adjective-pronoun
is to
it qualifies
the combination
relative,
noun
relative
being thus equivalentto a relative nounThus in the last example in " 217 we might refer
pronoun.
to / said nothingby the relative group which proceeding
instead of the simple noun-relative which: I said nothing,
wluch proceeding
limine made him stillmore angry. So also
'mste3.dof simply
we
might refer XaPlalo as whic A philosopher
adjective
+ noun
aswhc,
tive
happens that the antecedent to a relaeither by a noun- word or
noun-pronoun is not expressed
sentence, the relativeitselfdoing dutyfor the antecedent as
3S0.
It Bome^mes
well. Such
relativeis called
oosctenaed
relatlTe
(112).
what
Only tDho and what are used as condensed relatives,
The clause
beingthe more frequentof the two in this use.
introduced by
relative
condensed
precedes,instead of
clause:
the principal
following,
relativewhat
objectof
the
83
[| mi.
ItfTRODUCTIOff.
time the
same
of
subject
the
verb U in the
sentence
as
at the
of itsform, while itsprominentposition
the
seems
clause-group
make
to
of
beginning
it belong to the
principal
-
clause also.
221.
The
interrogative
pronouns
also used
are
as
oon-
English. A conjunctive
pronoun
clause into
makes the clause itintroduces the conjunctive
which we may
to the verb in the principal
an
clause,
adjunct
JtmctiTe proQcnms
in
"
"
verb.
conjunctive
pronoun
Thus
in I know
the
same
as
In / wonder what hi
you in / know you.
meant, I asked what he meant,what is the objectof the verb
the noun-word
of the
nominative relation.
222,
Such
sentence
as
this is what
is this with a
changed into what I mean
instead of a conjunctive.So also / say
I say I
these,we
mean.
II we
Ii mean
may be
condensed reladve
what I mean^=tbhat
as
T,Goo(jle
\
MsO
condensed
as
which
know
are
83
PRONOUNS.
But
mean.
who
do
we
be
to
ar^
you
/ know
or
or
feel such
not
to / know
equivalent
the man
who you
exactlythe same
are
; and
is that
sentence
him who
as
you
/ say what /
what I say I mean.
even
meaning as
with condensed
238" So far from identifying
conjunctive
do not feel them to be relativeat all,
relative pronouns, we
but rather associate them with the interrogative
pronouns.
the
which
same
Not only do we use
pronouns conjunctively
but the form of a conjunctive
sentence
we
use
intenogatively,
Thus I
is identical with that of an indirect interrogation.
asked whai he meant is both an indirect interrogation
sentence
All indirect interrogation
tences
sensentence.
and 2 conjunctive
are
conjunctive,
althoughall conjunctive
necessarily
But even
in an
affirmative
not interrogative.
are
sentences
has
mean
not
sentence
conjunctive
such
is feltto introduce
sort of
what
as
The
does he mean?
sentences
Interrogative
/ know what
answer
to
between
affinity
is also shown
and
conjunctive
in such
sentences
as
in the
grammaticalpredicate
clause is the unmeaning fonn-word are, the real
conjunctive
logicalpredicatebeing v"}",exactlyas in the interrogative
wAd or^.^tw? (216).
sentence
/ know
who you
are, where
Definite
234.
The
the
Freneona.
definite pronouns
Mix, that,the
aie
primarily
some
qualifying
226.
noun.
Definite pronouns
^DemoiurtratiTeprononnB
fall under
various subdivisions.
84
tNTRODUCTTON.
0it
meaning
man,
As
man
reference pronouns.
are
we
(| "i6.
are
are
pronouns
Brtioto.
only.
reference
Reference
bacdc-pointing and
for-
that
mrds-poUitiJig,accordingas dieyrefer to somethingr
has been said or to somethingthat is to follow. Thus thai
while
back-pointing,
is forwards-pdnting.
in / kntiw thai is
mean
The
S20.
distinction between
appliesalso
in thit is what
definite and
Thus
personal pronouns.
to
fMs
indefinite
he
is
distinction between
definite,
donon-
reference pronouns
'
the former
is that
definitepronouns
Such is
227.
used
when
heard such
as
are
a
primarilynouns,
primarily
adjectives.
are
definite pronoun
as
adjective,
an
In its larer
nonsense.
of
in tuch
use
as
while
quantityand quality
I tuvtr
a
yuaniiiy,
a
noun
it approaches
in meaning to an ordinarypersonalpronoun,
very near
"^ suth is the kingdom of heaven.
The same,
228.
be
redded
as
as
in the
same
definitepronoun
Xndeflnlto
The
the
as
in
Fronouna.
mark
thus
a
man
on
a
most
noun,
function
wants
not the
man
but without
or defining
identifying
having
it,
to
to
nearlycorresponding
most
indefinite^rsonal pronoun
iadefintte otu
(237); it is
and
used both
as
The
on.
the numeral
one
indefinite personalpronoun
an
Other indefinitepronouns
280.
from
distinguished
be
must
French
(hey
one,
prop-word (180).
as
85
PRONOUNS.
"33.]
are
in
some
Srtad.any
some
no
bread,I have
The
to these
corresponding
formed with prop-words:someone,
none.
nouns
arc
adjective-pronouns
somebody, iomelhing; anyone, anybody,anything; no one,
nobotfy,
nothing.
in the sense
of 'different,'
2S1. Other {/heother,
another),
as
in
other
give
is an
best,
{book)
of
sense
give
another plate,this
me
quality.In the
of the same
kind,'as in
indefinite pronoun
'another
'additional,'
another
me
(236).The
(210).
one
pieceof bread,it
group-pronoun
one
is
of
pronouir'
quantitative
another is used
as
reciprdcaL^
-^
"T
QuantdtaitiTe Pronouns.
'
such
words
as
number,
nouns
Many quantitative
^,
*%?!l"^i
numerous,
grammaticallyfrom
others,such
as
numerous,
count, three,both,many.
such as size,
numadjectives,
them
have nothing to distinguish
and
ordinarynouns
and
both,many, have
much, less,
while
adjectives,
more
under
or
less of
the other
classes
the expression
of
onlyimplyquantity,
distinctions of
86
INTXODUCTtON.
[( "".
(unction,and therefore it U
quantitative.
necessary to class them as specially
284. The chief pronouns of contintiousquantity
are much,
and
\niore
ntoit
are
in n UHk
a
as
littlt,
pronouns of number],
itselfis an ordinaryadjective,
as also in a
bread
\lilile
by
Utile
loaf,etc],
as
more,
in
bread, most
more
also
ordinaryadjective],
enough.
an
The
285.
pronouns
of number
as ocAdistinguished
are
and aeparstiTe.
leotive
The
one.
collectivepronouns
pe"^lethink
saw
some
the
are:
more, as
sense
the
emphaticsome,
as
in
sonie
many,
are
of
every,
'
so
in more
men
additional '
than women,
(281).
most,all ; both,other in
The
each,the alternativeeither="'
separative
pronouns
cme
one,
nobody,nothing.
T,Goo(^le
34"J
8?
NUMERALS.
Numerals.
The
287.
mimerals
one,
(he
in expressing
pronouns of number, such as some, many, all,
distinctions of discrete quantitydefinitely
instead of indefinitely.
The
diiference between
the pronoun
'
'
one
numeral
the numeral
one
makea
and
us
one
think of
'
one
as
that we
forgotten
use
as
one
'
prop-wordin
the
plural some
"
good ones.
Numerals, being intended to give definite informaiion,have nothing of the character of mark-words about
them.
In fonn, however,theyhave all the characteristics
of
both as adjectives,
as in
pronouns. They can be used freely
the three,
all three,
three men, we are seven, and as nouns:
three of us, by twos and threes.
The above remarks applymainly to cordioal
2S8.
merals"
nuten,hundred,etc. Ordinal numerals
enf, two, three,
first,second,third,tenth,hundredth, etc. arc primarily
288.
"
"
their
adjectives,
other
use
as
nouns
of the
adjectives.
Verbs.
Form.
340.
The
verb
ordinaryinflectionsof an English
the verbals
"
(a)Third
are
person,
mood
{h)Preterite tense
as
"
ing
includ-
follows:
"
tive
singularnumber, presenttense,indicasees.
calls,
:
saw.
called,
In
most
verbs
have the
same
form
"
ciple
partipreterite
called.
T,Googlt
88
tS 14'-
INTRODUCTIOff.
The
241.
foim
common
in I call,
as
Iheycali;(6) presingukr {eatls),
sent
mood, as in
as in if^ call; {c)imperative
subjunctive,
third person
as in
infinitive,
(rf)
call I ;
243.
"
"
constitute the
and
make
forms together
periphrastic
of
verb.
the
to
form
common
the
or
infinitive. The
term
The
periphrastic
spoken language,
fixed
pre-
as in / wish
infinitive,
periphrastic
tive
grammaticalfunction as the infinisee, which has the same
in J will see.
Hence we often include the supineunder
the supine
constituting
to
up the oonjugatioc
is
in {preposition
or
adverb)
form-particle
The
243.
Inflections
form-verbs used
negativeform of
When
be,have,do,will,shall,vtay.
with
that
/ knma.
modifythe Englishverb
to
into the
are
chief auxiliaries
fullverb is
ciated
asso-
it is always made
into a verbal,so
auxiliary,
the function of predication
is transferred to the auxiliary.
an
in the
participle
definiteindicativehe is seeing,
and
preterite
word, but
combinations
ii,ivhelher
full word
do
not
used
like it
you
meaning
also
'
am
as
or
full verbs.
not
is
determined
not
Thus
a
to.'
verb-conjugation.
T,Goo(^le
formSuch
have
We
a preposition
putting
grammaticalfunction (78),so that
and
a noun
inflecting
that
seen
89
MEANING.
VERBS:
148-]
relation
same
s"
ke has
seen
to
in meaning.
he saw, althoughthe two verb-forms differ slightly
convenient to treat of noun-inflectionsand
But while it is most
the inflectional and periphrastic
of prepositions
the use
separately,
(rfthe verb
forms
the
meanings
Thus
of verb-forms
and
see
so
are
of
treating
it is
differ
/ rfp see
up that in
mixed
emphatic.
In
246.
If there is
be used
Hence
The
such
tie
other
no
man
came
noun-word,
;
J know
panied
always be accomthe imperative{sett).
must
in
personalpronoun
who
came
he
most
came.
Meaning.
regardstheir meaning
as in come, fall,
attributes),
express phenomena (changing
246.
is to
The
die
grow,
primaryuse
of verbs
as
In
contrast
ofphenomenalityonlybythe
247.
Verbs
tronsitlTe
and
are
with non-existence.
as
intranfiitiTe,
reflexive,reciprocal, im-
personaL
TnuultiT"
218.
Tranaitive
noun-word
serve
and
Intranatttre
verbs,such
as
Terba.
slrike,
requirea
see, like,
tNTRODUCTlOlf.
90
/ do
hair cut.
he
an
Jill,the
without
form
to
tence
complete sen-
transitive verb, as
But transitiveverbs
only when
not
object-noun,
called intmuitiTe,
are
intransitivethan vith
tree lives.
Verbs
[$ J49.
in
also stand
can
the
object-noun
may be understood from the context, as in / ste, meaning
I see what you mean,' but also when the objectidea is so
any
'
uncertain
or
vague
that it is not
it,as in blind
in
'
where
saw,
taw
'
easy
'
means
of
power
or
to
so
press
ex-
things
saw
sight.'In /see=
while in Hind
"
men
necessary
men
it may
saw
be
half
regarded as
intransitive.
Transitive verbs
249.
are
sometimes
without
used
an
'
for the
saw
men
same
We
reason.
call sellsand
keepin
such
expressedby a
(8U).
Intransitiveverbs
360.
tives by
thorn
can
objectis
slightchange of meaning, as
subjectand
So also in Iran
walk
means
'
cause
in Ihe groom
to
walks
walk,' make
'
ran
tive verbs.
For the
as
converse
in to slopshort,see
an
tive,
intransi-
""
T,Goo(^le
353.]
VERBS:
When
MEAXmG.
9I
requiresa. noun-word to
complete its meaning, the noun-word is joinedto it by a
2S1.
intransitiveverb
an
preposition,
forming a prepoeitioiLalcomplemeot,
he
to London
came
0/going abroad.
thinkt
that the
We
can
distinction between
sec
as
in
Hhoughl of that ; he
from these esamples
intransitive is
transitive and
consider in
the same
meaning,and think
practically
in some
itselfis iised transitively
phrases,as / Ihoughias
much.
meaning of
be extended
or
transitiveas
defined
the combination
by
well
as
group-verb.
When
an
Thus
run
as
in to fill
a
is
preposition
transitiveverb,we
call the
bination
com-
of is the group-verb
think
consider.
after it,as in ts
form
intransitiveverb may
an
an
nottung to do
prepositiongroup,
accuse
equivalentto
logically
a
saw
the
beingintransitive,
verb
one
he
ht
noun
in the
mon
com-
horse,to
ordinarycomplement-nouns,as in lo sti^a
stop in the house, but are equivalentto adverbs.
Thus
nightin
nouns
to
are
the
not
to
stopthe nightstands
or
Sometimes
in the
as
night in such
structions
con-
an
by
a noun
form which
common
Is
noun
simplythe
run
hattle,
race,
where
the
cognate obj^ta.
an
abstract
noun.
noun
noun,
and
va.
fighta
called
are
object-nouns
cognate object-nounmust necessarily
not
be
the
to
relation
same
adverbial
268.
in
adverb-group
in the
Such
[| ")+
INTRODUCTION.
9a
BallexiTe
In such
254.
tranadve
sentence
Verbs.
have
he contradictshimsttf,
we
as
verb followed
-'
by
reflexive pronoun
in the
in
to keeponeself
relation. So also in to wash oaeself,
objectthe background. But in to wash in cold water, to keep in Ik
iae^ound,
to
is not expressedby
the reflesivity
keepquiet,
any pronoun,
changed from
transitive into
an
which
itself,
is thus
intransitive reflexive
verb.
marks
to
show
the Greek
as
specialinflections
languages have
Some
'
when
verb is used in
middle voice'
or
other
formal
(318).
It often
definitively
but rather to
to keeponeself,
etc
remain,' stay,'
equivalent
So also there is nothingspecially
reflexivein to stopthe night,
flexive
althoughin he stoppedshort=' be pulledhimself up,'the reverted
meaning stilllingers.We may call these verbs conThe greaterthe changeof meaning
intr"nsitlTeB.
'
in
converted
of the
flexive
re-
the intransitive
side in ht stole away
detached in meaning from the transitivesteal that we do
meaning.
is so
not
'
regardthe former
now
In
Thus
as
reflexive.
the combination
IaTig:uages
some
reflexive pronoun
of
transitiveverb with
is used
Thus
in French, se "vend,
passivally.
'sells itself,'
is used to mean
'is sold,'
valent
literally
beingthus equia
to
Beciprooal
ace.
In
such
sentences
as
Varbs.
theyfought each
other,they
have the
If these
a59-]
VERBS:
dropped,and
are
pronouns
in the verb
FUNCTION.
93
the idea of
itbecomes
itself,
13 implied
reciprocity
time,
becoming intransitive at the same
verbs in such sentences
quarrelare reciprocal
Fi'ghland
verb
as
those two
and made it
dogs alwaysfightwhen theymeet; we quarrelled,
up again. In such a verb as meet in we shall meet againsoon,
the reciprocal
meaning is less protninent,
Verbs.
Imperoonal
Impersonalverbs,such
267.
words
thunder,are
to
as
!o
sky,'
or,
the
water.'
briefly,
'falling
more
So also to freete
means
while in it thunders
'
sky
subject.Hence, when
only does
verb, it not
'
freezing-point,
might be regardedas
such
into a
take,a logical
not
logical
rain is made
as
noun
the
kind,the unmeaning
some
it is
prefixedas
"
empty subject-word.These
purelygrarmnatical
Nor
person.
Of
course
made
as
into
when
we
theybe
can
used
in the
of
prop-word
as
no
verbs
are
variations of
plural
there is
The grammaticalfunction of
258.
as
that ts, in
predicate-word,
to state somethingabout
which
is expressedby
group
the
sun
the
noun-word
that you
subjectof
or
verb
the sentence,
wordnoun-equivalent
should think
Althoughin Englishthe
serve
tence
ordinaryafllinnativesen-
an
to stand
shines;fie sleeps;
standingtires me;
2B0.
finiteverb is to
so
must
all
day tires
one;
tHe.
surprises
have
subject-
INTRODVCTION.
94
word
(| a6o.
be
imperative(800),it must
is equivalent
observed thsttthe inflection^ t in comts
to a
pronoun, for itteUs us that the verb
if it does not refer to
it as subject
Hence
in he
='he
come-he.'
In
260.
the
eomes
sentence-word.
does
command
are
come-I
'
stand alone
can
in
I
come
English the imperative
requirea pronoun, because it would be superfluous,
in the second person.
beingnecessarily
not
But
361.
Even
personal
thereforeprefixed
only ias
'
vmid
over
Ladn, wheie
as
"x
other noun-irord.
some
such
highlyinflectedIa]ig:nages,
ht, she
subjectis reallyexpressedtwice
as
refer ^
must
althoughthe
the
Englishetmul
element predominatesin
sentence-words,the predicative
In such
them.
comes,' where
as
the
Latin sentence
subjectis
many
Althoughverbs
verbs which
of
thou
noun
comes.
English,
too, we
In
I, making come
into
an
can
sively
exclu-
there
necessary for predican'on,
of forming Ii^ca) preincapable
dicates
are
are
some
other
noun-word.
or
partof speech generallyan adjective-word
which is absoThere is one
the verb to be
lutely
verb,indeed
"
"
"
We
he is a laujyer,
he is hen.
he is reatiy,
pure
to connect
call such
the
verba
with
predicate
T,Goo(^le
a66.1
VERBS:
andother
shades of
FUh'CTION.
95
in he
meaning, as
here
was
compared
with he is here.
Other Imk-words, vliilehavingthe same
363.
function of
grammatical
and predicate,
have also definite
connectingsubject
Thus
lum
red combines
'
'
he
in he lookspleased,
seem
verbs have
them
a
'he
or
meanings be
red.'
was
So
also look,
seems
some
stand alone
none
of
alone only by
no
'
'
'
the
cannot
we
changingits meaning
and
longera link-verb.
264.
"
used
occasionally
are
"
link-TOrbs.
Examples
saint,and died
being
not
merely
moAifygrew.
Verbs
verbs
half
tall;he lived
tences
sen-
taU
tall,'
grew, and became
predicateto tree,but servingalso to
'
In such
again,grew is a
265.
call such
are:
martyr. We
is equivalent
to
We
such.
as
the tree
strong
to becapte.
beingequivalent
pure link-verb,
are
sentence
as
often'
followedby
more
than
one
noun-word
The
followed by
where
most
a
direct and
an
is when
verb ia
transitive
indirect object,
as in give it me,
objectstandingin
the
one
case
frequent
two
me
objectsdo
not
same
tions
combina-
another,being connected
beingobjectsto the
its indirect
verb.
togetheronly indirectly
by
9*
INTRODUCTION.
867.
[( jj;.
as
ih^
made
king,
the firstnoun-wotd
prtsident,
him
the second
is a
thtexaminers
comptemeat
verbal; /
seat)
It
quiet.
can
be
him
can
asked
an
also
coming;I
him
infinitiveor
; I want
come
: to paini a
participle)
taw
three questions.
me
verb
are
The
other miscellaneous
; I Hie
doys to he
an
ASSES.
of a finite
conjugation
the grammaticalcategories
of nnmber,
tense, mood,
person,
him to come
noun-
it dene.
saw
classed under
supine,that is,a
object
verba]
adjectiveor adjectivehouse white ; th^ made him angry; 1
be
FOKH-Cl
368.
The
and
up the
voioe.
There
included
categories
are
under
also
some
the head
of
'forms.'
The
T,Goo(^le
{ 873-]
I
'
and
set
TENSE.
VERBS:
There
see, etc,
we
: ht
preterite
is
97
distinction made
no
in the
some
There
are
there
are
forms
as
saw,
dtslinctionsof send"r
no
in the Arabic
mfr"tus
est
There
370.
'
verb,
he
Englishverb,as
periphrastic
Latin
wondered,'mirsta
est
'
she wondered.'
of verbs,first,
second, and
three persons
are
in the
in such
and
third,corresponding
to the three persons of the personalpronouns.
The onl^personal inflectionof the Englishregular
verbs is the
"
no
singular
present indicative
In the other forms of the regularverb there are
he sees.
distinctionsof person.
Some of the irregular
verbs make
s
further distinctions: I
are, he
am, you
is,we
are.
The
formed
are
of auxiliaries,
thus the
by means
by the combination
of the auxiliary
shall or will with the infinitive,
the perfect
consists of have+ilie preterite
tense {I have seen)
participle,
future
(7 shaH
see, he
will
(/ am
is
see)
formed
I
seeing,
consist
seeing)
was
of ie
+tht presentparticiple.
Tense
873.
is
distinctions of time.
S7".
Every
considered
from
pointof view
the
of time,must
wiU
occurrence,
the verb
be
to ie
"
using 'past'as
general term
"ent, and
VOL.
I.
tense
H
to
include
preteriteis the
of the
"
same
verb.
pr""
9"
tNTRODVCTtON.
(f v^.
574.
But there
are
tenses.
important of
perfect-group,
compriuDg the p^e"^,
and future perfect. These
pluperfect,
compound tenses
which
beloDg
the
to
^iritha time
respectively
anterior to each of these periods: perfect
peTfeGt)=
(present
(pastperfect
+
+ present,pluperfect
)=pFe-pretcrite
preterite
and future perfect=pre-ruture+future.
preterite,
575. The perfect (/iiai""
fff")combines
past and present
time.
future
present,past and
combine
Thus
combines
/ have
ccwu
ideas
ttietwo
in the
'
I came
here
good many
/ have
senteitce
'
and
yean
'
to steyou
com*
here now.'
am
that ht
means
occurrence
which
The
began in tbe
to
in the former
in itsresults,
as
example,where aldioug^tbe
its result-^namely
action of coming is completed,
'being
bere '"is feltto
on
any
belongto
die present.
The
simplepreterite,
the other
reference to
cuts
entirely
away
without
hand,expresses a past occurrence
tbe present Ofieti,
indeed,the preterite
an
occttrrence
he livedhere/or
l^eterite
that he is dead,or
implies
has gone to live somewhere
else. Although the preterite
in
/ came
does not necessarily
to see you
imply I went away
it certainly
detaches the coming from the present,or,
again,'
at any rate,throws more
emphasison the coming here in the
past than on the being here in present. Hence / eame to m
to see you really
rdayou and / have come
express the same
tibns of time,but from differentpointsof view.
stands in the same
276. Tbe idnperfbot (/ had seen)
tion
reladoes to the present,
to the Bibi[de
as the perfect
preterite
that is,it expresses an occurrence
which took place before
some
time
'
'
T,Goo(^le
"r9.]
VERBS:
the time
denoted by
TEJVSB.
99
preterite
tense, and yet continuing
into the latter;thus in the sentence
when I had sem tvtrylking
in Edmhurgh, I went m
h
Glasgow, the action expressed
by had seen is shown to have taken placebefore that expressed
a
actions
two
felt
are
be connected
to
leather.
The
277.
stands in the
parfisot(/ shall ham seen)
ibt simplefiituie; that is,it expresses an
fbtnre
relation to
same
by
278.
languages.
of compound
liiture-group
as
the ftitnto
I knew
il would turn
Primary
When
have
must
When
when
we
we
turn
and
point of
is
an
occurrence
time
from
an
as
which
seoOQcUry
past
or
consequendy a
us
fiiture time
sentence
expect another
to
measure
it
tense, on
we
past,etc.,we
from the time
occurrence
it
simplefuture.
that is,from
speaking,
primarytenses.
in
SecondaryTenses.
the time of
measure
have
apeak of
we
some
are
occurrence
tense
S70.
regard sm
preterite
how
we
is represented
tenses
are
perfect are
^ wAich we
tetue makes
containinga secotidiu-y
sentence
containing a verb in
pnmaty
INTRODVCTIOlf.
lOO
tense
show
to
both
are
is to be measured.
tense
[f jSo.
The
finished
writing my
leHtr makes
such
containinga preterite,
such
he
These
came.
two
sentence
as
expect another
us
when
he
tenses
sentence
came
/ had
toas
"
writinga letkr
both measured
are
perfect(/ tiaU
future primary tense.
The
had
finished
The definitepreterite
{I was
aa
secondary
Thus
secondarytenses.
thai of the
future
from
have
is measured from a
teen)
The primarytense
280.
tense
the
at
context.
been
wailing
for you
longtime.
Cannot
indicate
primary and
Verres
subordination
secondary
into
came
this
tense
without
closelytogether: when
more
his
tkefitrum,
^es
the
associating
were
gleaming.
Tenses,
Completeand IneemfiU/e
S81.
It is evident that
thf clock
is
an
of which
occurrence
at
incomplete
the
we
speak
lime,for if it were
T,Goo(^le
VERBS:
(aSj.]
know
and that we
Striking,
be, and probablywill be,
TENSE,
beforehand
lOI
that there
twelve strokes.
As
obligedto
use
are
ought
soon
the
lived tny
as
to
the
perfect,
perfect
perfect.
In LatiD
called 'perfect'{vfdl)coirespondsnot
the tense
only
English perfect(/ have seen),but also to the
Englishpreterite
{Isaw), so that the idea of past time is more
prominent in it than in the English perfect. Hence it is used
only as a complete perfect,the English incomplete perfect
being expressedin Latin by the present, as in jam din Mc
habite 'I have lived here a long time,'Uterally
'I live here
alreadylong,'
to
the
When
we
Thus
tenses.
action of
in / had
writlen my
tense.
complete(pluperfect)
on
going on
as
was
he came,
the
klter when
so
In /
was
writinga letterwhen
time shown
writingis here
by
the
preterite
came,
so
that
tense.
incomplete
(definite
preterite)
an
Duration, etc.
Tense-aspects:
Thus
the duration
of
an
speakingor
of which
occurrence
is independentof the
occurrence
to
we
we
are
im-RODVCTION.
lOa
llm^t
marly
am
W rf+
between
hour,or
laugh and
to
to bunt
out
dtemselves.
tinclions of
meaning
But in
some
such
languages
dis-
shown
by inflection. Thus in
Greek tbe present infinitivegtldn means
to
laugh,'the
aorist infinitivegelisai
to burst out laughing.'We
means
are
'
'
'
may
'
tense.
In
generally
expresses duration,as in / have bee* lOr/AV^leilers
all d^ compared with / hmt
wriliin only me
teller to-day.
I have wrillat,
Have
been writingis,therefore,
a longtense.
the other hand, is neutral as regardsduration,being
on
sometimes a short,sometimes a long tense.
Long tenses
or
reoumnt,
denotingrepemay be either oontinnooB
tition,
habit,etc.
Thus
we
continuous present in ht
presentin ?u goet to Germai^
have
even
succession of
a
This
instantaneous.
occurrences
arc
that is quiteshort
the
is generally
narrated.
we
journey,
passedIhrotigh
.
is
occurrence
of considerable
in language,
an
occurrence
disregarded
lengthbeing often put on a level with one
often
or
an
Thus
case
in
when
describing
a minute
stopped
are all regarded
for
we
three days
set out
we
stopped
umply as pointsin a series. When tenses are used in this
we
way, without regardto theh absolute duration,
may call
we
..
them point-tenses.
284.
There
meaning.
pointsof
the
are
many
other tense-aspects
of
more
special
Thus
futurity
may be regardedfrom various
of
or
view,accordingto the certainty
uncertainty
impendingoccurrence,
or
its
nearness
or
remoteness.
In
T,Goo(^le
"88.]
TBJVSB.
103
or
only justbeginning,
only attempted. Those languageswhich have
express
as
VERBS:
forms
occurrence
action
an
as
speciaj
incomplete
not
tenses
used
an
to
attempt, as
express
in comules
sidahant tumulium
'
the disturbance.'
We
260.
which
can
from
see
this last
example that
tense
meant
originally
only to express distinctionsof
time may
of specialmeanings.
to imply a
come
variety
Thus, as present time is necessarily
incomplete
(381),
past
time naturallythoughnol necessarilysuggests completion.
was
"
"
an
occurrence
pressed
ex-
387.
difficultto compare
another,or
die tenses
it often
languagewith those of
meanings.
of
make
one
and Indefinite
Tenses.
Definiie
in definiteness. The
Tenses differgreatly
288.
tense
and
is,the
definite
it
Long
tenses
more
generally
definiteand
"
whether
indefinite.
indefinite tense
is both in duration
generally
futm%.
are
more
shorter
past,present,and
continuous
The
is
or
recurrent
"
difference between
by comparing the
leiler with the
Englishdefinite present in / am ivriiitig
a
indefiniteI write my Utters in the evening;the former means
I am
writingat this present moment,' the latter means
when I write letters,
I write them in the evening.' So also
an
seen
'
'
more
more
(( 1S9.
INTRODUCTIOtt.
104
it is to
likely
come
definitethan the
more
We
388.
ordinaryfuture.
see
to some
do
not
and
predication
in verbs that we
together
most
in
"ke
This is
present
Ihe
tun
verbs
in such
at
tences
sen-
all,and
tense-disiinctionsare
are
tht
ritts in
it
ciated
asso-
sentences
sUtementB
as
is only because
such
fiitare(384) is
some
tense.
When
For
employedas
neutrtd tense
as
received
meaning.
expressed
by tenses
albescS '
is
begin to
grow
-sco, such
as
tense.
In
T,Goo(^le
293-]
these
VERBS:
verbs, and
in the
'
"fitasclbatbegan
After
I05
to be part of pure
came
'he
imperfectilfimssait
Latin
so
MOOD.
to
seeinghow
to
as
tense-inflectioDs,
to
which would answer
finishedi'
the leal Latin imperfect
finish,'
tenses
tions
express ideas which have no connection at all with distincof time. Thus the preterite
htteioin ifI knew his address
202.
in
are
following
simplestatements
the chief
tenses
used
tn
English
"
Present.
Pretirile.
Perfect.
Pluperfect.
Future
Perfect.
Preterite Future.
293.
forms
I shall have
1 should
seen.
see.
I shall have
been
seeing.
I should be seeing.
commands
as
irom
distinguished
statements,
we
to
express
include the
while the
In many
statement
he
grammars
comes
the
is
term
which
is accordinglycalled 'the infinitivemood,'
infinitive,
the
which is a noun-verbal,
has nothing in
although
infinitive,
n
of finiteverbs.
",Goo(^lc
io6
ti J94.
iNTxoDircnojf.
From
SM.
fallunder
somethingas
main
two
divisicma,
accordingas
ments
state-
the^ state
fact
of mood-distinctions
oa\y as
or
"
"
sentences
express
clause
')it is true instead of if it is true. A hypothetical
clause to complete the sense, the whole
a principal
requires
combination being calleda oonditiooal
Thus
sentence.
^
yeu
are
theticalclauses.
Another
396.
it as
stating
way
wish,
of
as
true,where / wish
were
wish.
stating
somethingas
in God
states
Clauses of purpose
save
a
are
we
can
to him
do
in different ways.
true expresses
it
a
tences
specialclass of wish-sen-
at home ;
might know I was
lesthe should cut himself.
theytook away the knife
287. When we repeata statement made by another person,
:
/ wrote
thoughtis by
fact,it were
a
so
that he
We
can
T,Goo(^le
aggO
VESBS:
words,
in
MOOD.
direot
said
was
tlon,
'
of facts.
sts^tements
called
/ohtisaid,
lOJ
to
This
in his
of
way
When
nar^aticm.
him
am
speakerrepeaU
the
worda
own
is
repeatingstatements
have indirect
we
what
norra-
he was
aijohn said [thai)
sorry. Here John'sbeing
is not stated by John himself at all. Nor is it stated
a.a
sorry
feet
even
of all indirectnarration is
statement
not
of facts but of
thoughts.
We
398.
will
now
consider the
kinds of statement
two
moods
and
and
Old
in
in
of
expression
language.
When
ferent
these dif-
there
are
only
English,these moods
as indioadistinguished
are
and anlijunctiTeJthought-mood).
Some
(fact-mood)
moods to distinguish
differentkinds of
languageshave special
Thus
statements,
Greek has, in addition to the
thoughttire
indicative and
subjunctive
moods, an optatlTe mood, used
primarilyto express wish,which in such languages as Latin
is expressed
by the
290.
dicativeMid
verb
are
subg'unctive.
so
But the
subjunctive^
scanQ' that we
need
are
inflectionsof the
not
be
indicative and
the
in;
English
very
Thft onlyregular
jiiflection
slight.
by which the_subjunctive
Englishis
that of the..
T,Goo(^le
I08
INTRODUCTIOif.
[( 300.
onlyin
and
English,
combination
we
the
use
inflections surviving
subjunctive
only in
and
wtrt
subjunctive
such
constructions,
God
(801),the
few
other
special
phrases
saoe
optative.
800.
The
few
(lisCinctionsthat
"ct-Btatements and
English makes
between
are
thought-statements
mainlyexpressed,
but by auxiliaries(periphrastic
by inflections,
moods),
and hy peculiar
of tense-distinctions.The following
uses
are
not
the
forms :
auxiliary
(a)The combination af should and would with the infinitive
when
used in the principal
clause of
{shouldste^tVQuld
set),
conditional sentences
(S9S),is calledthe oonditiopftl mood.
has the sanieTdrm
(278).
(J)The
the
combination
of may
and itspreterite^m^^Ladlh.
is
infinmVe'(may
nt, might see)
m.6o^Ts~m
may you
iJiedog loose thai he
looM
as
that he
mighl
he
called the
happy ! where
about
may
run
mtt
about
it expresses
little;
naitntnniga
we
lifik,where it expresses
purpose.
{c)The combination of the finiteforms of the
to su, wert
vrilhthe supine (t"to see, was
to
This combination is so
mood.
"e^jmicdTe
it primarilyexpresses
I to do f, what
am
be considered
compulsion
is fy be
mood.
we
301.
iV
In this
were
verb
to be
see)is caQecfthe
callei)
because
as
iawhal
obligation,
But it is used
conditionalsentences, as in
what
or
donef
wish, let
sense
as
to
it can
hardly
in
pure mood
rain,I do not know
a
shall do.
We
use
tenses
to express
in the
thought-statements
in i/ 1 knew
T,Goo(^le
VERBS:
{ 304.]
MOOD.
to him
in this way,
IO9
I
(3"1);if it were possible
would do it. In the latterexample (as also in i/ ii were
to
" SOO) the hypothesisis shown not only by the preterite
which ia really
tense, but also by the subjunctive
inflection,
is expressedby a
statement
a
supeifluous.When
thoug-ht-
tense
call it
we
is a gabiTinotiTe
were
Aa
802.
we
see, in
Were
tenaa-mood.
in
it
tame-mood.
some
conditional
aQ three
sentences
of expressmg
used
inflectional
are
thought-statements
mood (conditional),
and tense(subjunctive),
auxiliary
mood
For convenience we will include all these
(preterite).
under the teim thought-form.
methods of expression
We
understand,then,by thougbt-fonnany grammtUical form
is of a thoughtas opposed
to show that a statement
meant
ways
mood
to
"
fact.
As
find that in
might be expected,we
language
the correspondencebetween
fact-statements and thoughtthe one
on
statements
hand, and fact-forms and thoughtis not alwaysperfectly
forms on the other,
logical,That is
do not alwaysfind
to say, in such languages as Latin,we
"ct-statements expressed
by the indicative mood and thought
statements
expressedby the subjunctive
mood, other languages
showing divergencesof their own, so that the details of the
of the subjunctive
in different languagesnever
use
entirely
agree, in spiteof the agreement in generalprinciples.
of an occurrence
804, The mere
as a thoughtand
stating
throw any doubt on the
not as a fact need not necessarily
SOS.
Thus when
I repeata statement
made
repeatit in indirect instead of
and
else,
direct narration (3B7), I may
to me
by
someone
do
so
because
I doubt
the
want
to
shorten
it. Nevertheless in
some
cases
[( 305.
INTHODUCTIOff.
no
is folse. Thus
Statement
the
in the indicativebecause
which
in
speakerbelieves
the
Latin,while
thought,not of
him itis
to
fact,a
is pot
reasixl
be
neceBsarily
a
of a
statement
fact. Hence
folse must
be
because
put in the subjunctive,
tnie reason
stated is
reason
to
that
rejected
reason, ai
in the sentence pugilisingemUnmt, nm
fnod deltani ("abj.)t
tid ^mia profMndeni"
vote
omnt
(iodic).,
corput mlendHvr
in
subjunctive
Ae
causal clause
states
in
'
Hence
SOS.
the
subjunctiveor
may
possess
"
to
imply doubt
affirmation. This
or
(a)those which do
the
one
not
use
thought-formsthe langfuage
opposed to
noticeable in
especially
d"iial
or
is
Conditional
sentences.
the
whatever
"
tendencyto
as
sentences
are
of two
tain^
cerditional
con-
binds
such as
condition,
speakerdoes not let us know whether he thinks the other
to be in the rightor not; {S)those which imply the
I should
of the hypothesis,
such as t/you were right,
rejection
be wrong, which may be expanded into ifyou were
right"
is net the
which
these
and
two
ease
"
/ should be wrong.
kinds of sentences
as
sentences
We
of opmi
distingui^
OtoiditioB
of r"}flotedoonditioD.
sentences
statements
"
express
for even
nothingmore
sentence
portant
confirmingit ^yetas it is just as imto distinguish
between
conditions
open and rejected
to distinguish
as
between
acceptedand rejectedreasons,
most
languagesuse the indicativein sentences of open condition
not to imply that the condition will be fulfilled,
but
merely to show that it is not rejected.
"
"
306.
In
Englishthe
distinctions between
and
tliongbt-form
T,Goo(^le
309.1
VERBS:
fact-form
to
are
verb makes
between
MOOD.
levelled. Thus
great extent
dtetinction between
no
direct and
distinctionbetween
Ill
and
true
indirect narration.
the
English
ftilsereasons,
In
or
fact,the whole
indicativeand subjunctive,
as carried
out
the
and
study of inflected
The
between
and
true
false
reasons
the
same
EngUsh
reason
finds it
direct and
modiGcation of mood.
Such
hand,
shown
marked
clause
{^1
because
,).
maMI
wMiecessary't"
indirect
by any
nanati^
the other
distinction,
on
that between
as
by
condition is not
open and rejected
the context, and beinga useful one
is accordingly
by grammaticalform.
ImperaHotMood.
tn the imperative
mood
SOS.
the relationbetween
subject
The
imperativedoes
but addresses it direcUyto another
request,etc.
the statement
logo I)or of
the queen
not
of
a
command
not
state
person.
mand,
com-
Hence
subjunctive
{God
which
I) are quitedistinct from the imperative,
implystatement
the
save
does
of any kind.
As
INTRODUCTION.
Iia
perativedoes
pcTson,
as
[( 3Wto mark
requirea pronoun
not
it would
in
mood
distinctions of
of statement, but
form
can
that may
or additional words
bf itseir,
any defining
be requiredeither for clearness or emphasis includingtbe
sentence
"
come
personal
pronouns"being added separately:
I; eotiu,
John!',come, you boysI The inflectionof the imperativeis,
then,a purelynegativeone (77),being merely the common
aa
sentence-word
being made
in the second
singularand
than in the indicative (youset).
plural,
any more
of the first
810. Although there cannot be any imperative
there can
or third person singular
or
plural,
person singular
"" tbe firstperson pluralwhen it is equivabe an imperative
lent
to / or we-k-you, the bortation being addressed to the
is expressed
implied
"'0". In Englishthis form of the imperative
no
person,
by
the
verb
ansUiary
between
Voloa.
By
811.
voice
differentgrammaticalways of
mean
we
object The
chief voices
two
pressing
ex-
are
the ootlTe
(A*saw^
812.
{hewas seen).
Englishthe passiveis formed by combiningthe
finiteforms of the
dple of
Thus
the verb.
Seen, I shall
see
become
In
teen.
with
fully
expressed transitive verb,
such as the dog kilkd the rat,although
there is only one
ject,
subment
namely,dog,yet from a logical
pointof view the staterat as well as
about killing
appliesto the object-word
to the subject-word
dog ; and it may happen that we wish to
818.
state
the
It may
sentence
itwas
know
to
killed. In
short,we
was
may
dog.
killed,
with
Saifi.]
VERBS:
make
to
the
do by
we
II3
into the
object-wordrai
This
sentence.
VOtCE.
sobject-wordof the
UHtdiDiD
the
kiUed.
of the
\
tiUlgtTC"vtMce
a
13, therefore,
grammatical device for (a)bringii^the objectofa transitiveverb \
gnhjftAt.
Tig
Tfli;|"il
into
tmA
veiK
.aJiaiuitive
When
514.
into the
changed
passiveform
nouns
he
madt
was
both the
kttig,
of the accusative
instt^ad
lation,
re-
of them
the object-words
can
be made
into the
of
only one
sentences
subjectof the
passive
sentence.
But when
515.
made
sentence
itrW
ihrjrnmitter
as
by the examiner.
toe
senlflliLTIhB
-"
made
im
is
Jhrtegues/ions
niaybe
such
It will be
pustions^
sittf
observeSTHatTnthe last
is kept unchanged,and
me
oTjje^^word
preceding
sentence,ajthoughthere
is
in the
of
feel it to be parallel
with
certainly
callme
me
va
the other
tence,
sen-
them,
disdngoishing
if necessary,
as
retained
uulJiectand
retaineddirectol^eclsrespectively.
For the
816.
VOL.
passiveconstruction
Some
I.
languages,such
I
-was
as
spokento,see { 886.
Greek, have
reflexive,
INTRODUCTION.
14
or
[i317.
middle
the
various ways.
In the
direct iwflexiTe the impliedpnmoun
stands in the direct
transitiveverb becomes
objectlelation,
by which the necessarily
to
in
subject
intranaitive
; thus in Greek
'I wash' is fonncd
from
the transitive bM
intransitivelo"omai^\
wash
myself).
I make.'
for
myself,'gain,'from the
'
active
priUS
In Greek the
'
remains of
an
In Greek
nearlyidentical
are
and
example that reflezivity
often approach in meanii^, for /persuade myself ^lA
passivity
lam
much
the same
persuadedmean
thing. It will be observed
it becomes .equivathat when a transitive verb is made passive,
lent
is seen, for instance,
to an intransitiveverb,iV
beingequivalent
have seen, when a transitivevetb
to it appears. So also,
as
we
is made into a direct reHexift,
itbecomes
intransitive. Lastly,
We
we
can
have
tee
seen
from
that
this last
it is often diGGcult
to
decide whether
intransitive is to be regarded
transitiveverb that has become
AU
this
shows
the close cannection
reflexive
not
as
or
(366).
and
passive verbs.
reflexive,
intransitive,
generallyto have deveUped
Historically,
passiveverbs seem
verbs (compare 266. 1).
out of middle
/
there
is
between
HiseaUanaoua
817.
The
Englishverb
7oTnu.
has
negntioD, emphasis
forms
auxiliary
special
and
intnrrogntion,
as
do ncl
su
'
to
press
ex-
in
the
the
un-
tee, and
T,Goo(^le
These
818.
Thus
difTetent forms
lio not I
ste
are
is negative
intcrrogalive.
(dountai sij)
VwbalB.
Tile verbals
8ie.
the
hand
one
and
between finiteverbs
intermediate
are
and
nouns
the other.
on
adjectives
on
They
But
mood.
and
person,
verbs
from
which
remaining transitive
complement by means
it becomes
when
and
the
^uch
as
of
a
preposition
keeping that preposition
verbal,and
so
sentences
as
when
him
the verbs
Thus
on.
constructions in
same
thoughttf
think (infin.)
ofyou.
saw
and
you
(gerund)him made me
sieittg
of the verbals apart from the finiteverb,
320, In treating
exclude the verbals used in the periphrastic
forms / shtdl
we
see, I have
the
logical
seen
construction.
periphrase-verbala
the latter
we
InnNITIVB
The
in / wish
or
can
passive participle,
We
and
must
have
AND
it came
therefore
independent
S21.
is
without historicalinvestigation
how
used in such
between
/ have
now
and
to
to
distinguish
TerliaUi,
adjective-words.
deal
SuPINX.
to tee
it,are
noun-verbals.
be
as
lid
INTKQDUCTU"/f.
[1 1"-
The
823.
the
'infinitive
mood'
The
phut"I
mplne,
as
in Ihithotut
lo Ui.
also
periphrastic
tenses, both active and
of the supine,
such as the perfectactive U" kavt tte"
pasfiive,
isiidthe [H^sentpassivein Ihit keua it ta it kt or sold.
328.
There
are
GXKUNS.
and
The
of
more
noon,
inasmuch
as
it
can
be
joined to
rut tie
as in / iad
by means of a preposition,
plauurt of knowing Um, which cannot be done with the
infinitive
or supine,
another
noun
person.
S2B.
noun
But when
an
abstract word
and is associatedwith
fiers without
keepingany
it
verb constructions,
must
be
T,Goo(^lc
VERBALS.
(SSsl
regardedas
in I
117
doings. But
untila verbal has been isolated fTOm its verb by change of
a
c""crete
meaning; especiall]'
by takitig
meaniDg,:as in
wire
footingas
netting it is not entirelyon the same
a
noun,
as
never
such
saw
"
"
ordinaiynouns.
Pakticiplrs.
are adjective-verbab.
Participles
880.
The
SSI.
'
'
man
man
who
There
are
escaped.
884.
the verbs
formed
from when
theyare equivalentto
the examplesjustgiven,where, for instance,
they are
as
clauses,
in
having seen
is equivalent
to when
885.
On
constructions of
we
had
seen.
man,
an
as
runnit^
ill-built
house the
like
adjectives,
being put before nouns
and several of them being capable of
ordinuy adjectives,
comparisoni^ore,most charming),while theyare all isdated
stance
from dieir verbs in meaning except perhapsin the firstinfor there
in construction alst^
and In the case of ill-built
are
participles
pure
"
"
is
no
pasuve
used
participles
as
11
INTRODUCTION.
[( 33*-
of their verb
retain
adjectives
traces
mueh
to very as
originin preferring
pleaud sounds better
me
say it pleased
we
mueh,
Adverba.
880. There
are
two
corresponding
and ordinary
adjective-pronouns
to
'
or
'
(104).
specialadjectives
Qflnerol
adrerlM,
such
as
resem-
Me
same
as
way
this
('generaladjectives') and
pronouns
the
that
adjective-
modify the
837.
Most
generaladverbs
adverbs, showing
no
are
at
connection
the
with
same
the
time primary
other
parts of
Thus
used also
are
eamt
as
the adverbs
junctions.
con-
not
related to
ordinary
nouns,
verbs.
or
adjectives,
888.
likeness
the Other
BpeotaX adverbs, on
to
as
opposed
adjectives
of them
to
hand, show
their
adjective-pronouns
by
from adjectives
directly
by adding 'ly; thus from the adjectives
bright,quick are
adverbs brightly,
formed the special
quickly. These adverbs
ore,
at the
therefore,
same
are
formed
time
seoondary adverbs
"
formed
ADVERBS.
(34".]
'
home
as
from
formed
are
to
Other
veiy
such
II9
and
nouns,
seconder
verbs
ad-
from verbs,
occasionally
in go
hang.
Adverb-groaps
aSB.
is,word-groupshaving the
that
"
in various
"
sometimes
as
combinatbns
of them
the
however, the
by
two
as
general as
much
written
are
in
general
more
of
It will be
340.
Bot it is difficult
words.
and
adverb-groups
that
compound
secondaryadverbs
others,althoughnbt
primaryadverbs.
The
seen
some
generalmeaning
same
restricted in its
more
Such
nevertheUst,hffmever.
as
the above
as
because
draw
to
an
in
as
noun,
some
or
in short;
today,upstairs,
into which adverbs themselves
by other combinations,
adjectiveused
adverbs
noun
are
so
adverlry^//has,
as
very,
It
application.
althoughit is
be
must
served
ob-
preservedin
the
same
adverb
the
very
has
"
divergedso
much
in
between
felt
Form.
The
841.
form
but
are
be
the special
adverbs in -ly,such
it must
be
for there
borne
are
in mind
several
reci^nizedby their
as
that tins
brightly,
gia'ckly
;
"
test
is not
in -ly,
such
adjectives
as
cisive,
de-
goodiy,
manly.
343.
Most
primary adverbs
advertis formed
from
are
indeclinable. But
are
adjectives
dary
secon-
compared like
INTRODVCTJON.
lao
[( J43.
in tomi
as
quickttt,
pack (or
adjectives:quick,quichtr,
will tee who
is done juiekett,
more
we
usefiiify,
quickfy),
in more
most
as
usefully,
usefully,
usefully
employed. A few
primaty adverbs are also capableof comparison: wdm,
toonett,
sooner,
MEANINa.
Adverbs
are
classed
several classes :
"
(a) AdrerbB
844.
of
such as up,
Many of these are used also as prepositions,
outside,
down, in, inside,
above,below. Most of the adverbs
of placeexpress moticoi as well as rest, as in he came
here,
he went away, he went in,th^ flocked
together
compared with
he stood there,he is away
on
a
holid(^,he is in,theystood
together.In the hterarylanguagethere is a group of adverbs
motimi
thither,
whither,with a
to, namely hither,
expressing
motion
flrom
hence,thence,
corresponding
group expressing
whence,which in the ordinarylangu^e are expressedbyfrom
When
these adverbs are used, the corresponding
here,etc.
"
here,there,where
There
are
is often used
of its own.
weakened
to
When
restrictedto the
meaning of
rest.
as
which
(%3r],
we
call
'
the weak
there
'
as
ing
mean-
and
is
guished
distin-
Thus
in the sentence
from 'the Btmag there'^^f^iea).
there is no one there ("3 z nou
wwi
""), the firstthere is weak
mere
845.
{i)Adverbs
of
time
second
of
there
is strong and
place.
admit
various
other
suh-
now,
T,Googlc
ADVERBS.
347']
121
time,=now+in the future. Such adverbs as al onei, imnudiatelymig-htalto be regarded as adverbs of immediate
which
as
impliesdela^.
compared with prtstHtly,
fiitarity,
adverbs of continuous
are
Ecer, never, always,conlinuousfy
time or dnratioiL,while often,
frequentfy,
occasionally,
seldom,
periddieally
j/earfy,
annually,
rarefy,once, again,twice,daily,
adverbs
are
of discrete time
continuous
between
that between
be
It must
are
observed
frequ^it
other
day
that
adverbs
some
time,such
as
rap"tition:
; it rains
{c)Place
he
which
would
seem
to
continually,
incessantly,
petually,
per'
comes
incessantlyalmost
"
but express
continuously,'
here
continuallyevery
"
without
ceasing.
of (nrder.
sucii
place"adverbs
where and the time-adverbs now, ihn, when.
here,there,
Hence
as
discrete time
to
reallyequivalent
not
vtaf
318.
repetitioii,the distinction
being analogousto
continuous and discrete quantity(S8S).
continuous
express
and
or
Hence
the
also the
use
of
some
adverbs
of
placein
temporal
meaning, as
in here he
'
such as
degree,measure, some
express definite measure,
least,
happy,less hap^,
less,
eqnaify,
more, most, as in equally
such as Ultle,
indefinite
most happy,some
a lilSe,
measure,
in littlethe worse,
as
much, very, greatly,
tightly,
excessively,
much pleased,
littlebelter,
a
very glad. Rather in I would
in rather good of indefinite
definite,
Others express oaosal quantity, that is,quantity
measure.
in itsrelation to purpose or result,
such as enough,sufficunlly,
in its
lee,ioo much, too little. Others,^ain, express quantity
relation to unity (partand wbole^ such as wholly,,
quite.
rather is
an
adverb of
tNTRODVCTlON.
1 sa
[( 548.
compldely,
perfectly,
exactly,
almost,nearly,
hardly,scarcefy.
To these are
allied adverbe of addition, such aa alto,
besides,too (which is also used
sxoluion, such
to
express
and
excess),
twice
as
adverbs
as
some
many,
quantity,
used
are
also
as
of time.
will be
It
in twice
discrete
express
obserred
adverbs
that many
such
quantity,
adject
ive-pFononniof
of
time
also
are
less,least,more,
as
most,
enough.
(")AdverlM
848.
Hie.
So and
are
you
These
as
adverbs of
are
toldI like is an
are
unlimited
of
how, thus,so,
as
in it is done so, do
manner
adverb of
generaladverbs of
number
such
of muiner,
in
manner
specialadverbs
of
as
singlike a bird.
There
manner.
as.
is also
manner,
such
an
as
(y) AdTerbfl
of
oanse,
such
why, because,
accordingly.Adverbs
other classes
you
are
also used
fore,
wherethere/ore,
which belongto the
as
to
spo^n languagetakes
the
so, which
manner
in the
in soyou
as
placeqI therefore,
will
not do it?
350.
sdch
a,s
(f) Adverbs
yes, yea;
of
denial
aasertion
or
express
Delation, such
as
afflmiation,
no, nay,
not;
certainty,
doubt,etc.,such as surHy,
asseveration,including
indeed,
assuredly,
truly,
undoubtedly,
perhaps,
possibly.
certainly,
Of these ^M,^Ai,
no, nay
are
sentence-adverbs
(368).
T,Goo(^le
ADVERBS.
357-1
Adverbs
361.
also used
are
23
to
metaphorically
express
iogethtrin they cm-
spirtdtogether
expresses the idea of cooperation,derived
from the idea of proximityin place.
metaphorically
vbich
those under
to
Genejal adverbs
863.
adverbs,such
deflnito
Thus
htrt,there (ofplace),
nno,
as
hare
we
then
(of
to
(ofmanner),corresponding
the definitepronouns
here
in
thai ;
thisf^ace,
to
to
now
Ikii,
beingequivalent
time),
so,
thus
fall
pronouns
time,thus
in this way,
to
so
Ut in
that way,
adverbs
Zndeflnite
868.
and
any
pronouns
are
formed
definite
by combining the inwith interrogative
adverbs,
some
by combining interrogative
pronouns with the adverbs
and -soever : anywhere, somewhere,wherever,wheresoever,
and
ever
NegatlTe
S64.
by prefixing"- and
nouns,
nc
is
are
no-
n-ever,
nowhere,nohow.
It
of the adverbs.
8S6.
Most
beginwith wh,
when (of
interrogative
pronouns: where (ofplace),
why (ofcause)
; how (ofmanner).
time),
like the
FtmcnoN.
856.
into
such
as
very
word, but
at
the
division
adverb,
independent
word (or
tail,
simplymodifies some
dependentadverb not only modifies some
sense.
time makes
same
talimakes
of the
An
ia he is very
complete the
he is as
of
and dependent.
independent
while
sentence),
to
General
sense.
us
Thus
expect somethingmore
us
the
dependentadverb
expect as I (am)or
CoirelatiTe
adverbs
such
some
are
at
tion
comple-
class
special
dependentadverbs.
387.
beads of word-modi-
IffTRODUCTtON.
134
[J "!.
10
All
admbt
^lecial
Ae
two
cluaes.
word-modifiera.
indepeadcnt
are
litdspondant AdvwriM.
Wwd-Modifywg.
gtanuiMticalfunction of independentwordadrcibs,vu'bB,
modilyingadverbs is to modify adjectfrcs,
868.
Their siost
imp("tantfanctioB is
in connection with verbs,adverbs landing in the same
iriation
to verbs as adjectives
do to nouns, as we see b}rcomparing
he toalh quickly
with ht is a piiciwaiter,hi htu a gmeh ^.
The great majority
of adverbs indeed especially
secondary
and
"
The
nouns.
occauonall)'
"
adverbs in
aie
used
cannot
with verbs.
be used
These
'm
ht is quitein the
modify a group-adverb,33
kal/tkret^hmy work, where the adverbs quiU,
can
wrong, lam
Ao^ do not
and Mrofff
M
A,but modify
modifythe prepositions
he
verbs,as in " came quickly,
home yeslerd"yi,
and precede adjectives
and adverbs,as
came
in very quick,qw'cily
in gwd
: enough,however,follows,
as
enei^h,not quickly
enough.
861.
Wh6n
an
adverb modifies
noun,
the
noun
is generally
feltto be
to an
or verb,as in jb ir
equivalent
adjective
he ii quite
the genlleman='ht is a complete
a gentleman,
quite
he is fiiUymaster 0/ the subject,
pared
comor perfect
gentleman,'
with he is quitegentUmanfy,he has fulfy mastered the
subject.
862.
near
adverb evidently
noun-modifying
apprmches
in function to
an
adjective.In such
very
construction
as
ADYBRBS.
{36j.]
1X5
Stnictioiis
as
muEl
we
course
an
Hence
you
are
the vny
wta"
I want, he is
ontj/
son,
an
we
Bee
that
althoughthe adverb
loeS ia used
as
an
are
standi
etc"
ihtre,
Smtence-Modi/yitig.
Aa
assertion,
denial,
\ certain
etc.,consist in stating
relation between the subjectand predicate
of a sentence,it
864.
modifyeither
were
to
equivalent
so.
sentence
/ think with
is equivalent
meaning
with which
can
certainly
be moved
about
in the sentence
to any one
belong specially
I think so, I certainly
think so, I think so
word in it : certainly
certainly.
seems
866.
to
In the
same
la
I do not think so is
the connection
servingto deny or negative
Here also
/ and the predicate
think s".
between the subject
a
sentence-modifier
way
not
Iltf
[J 366-
JNTRODVCTtOK.
for
tbe grammaticalform confinns the grammaticalanalysis,
noi is joinedon
866.
to the
in such
sentence
ht is not
fool,the
not
with
be associatedwith the noun
as well as
might fbrmally
the verb,being in a position
which would enable it to modify
either. In fact such sentences have in the spoken language
forms
two
(hijiznt
not
fnwl)and (hijz
"
fiiwl).In
the
the
'
where
the
at
sentence
there
verb,and is thus
that the
sentence
can
not a fuwl)is
pronoun no modifies the noim, so that (hijz
'
of a
almost equivalent
I assert that he is the opposite
to
from
as
'
Senevolentebut
he does not
We
not
from ostentation,
from
see
'
givemoney
be sometimes
to
seems
own,
it cannot
"
of
opposite.
exact
sometimes
sentence-modifier,
be
course
by the
an
when
any
modification
that
an
adverb
of
ordinary
adverb.
if the
But
verb
adverb
in distingreat difficulty
and sentence-modification
modified.
modified
regarded
would imply
sentence
the
not
be
cannot
while it means
gnisbingbetween word-modification
the case
generally.This is especially
be
his meney
these
but
word-modifier,
that
he gave
as
may
sentence
it almost
sentence.
of motion
such
has
sentence
I"^callyequivalentto
Thus
as
there
home
can
in its
be
no
r^ular
T,Goo(^le
369.]
ADVEXBS.
137
Jokn-came
that
came
home
as
home,
modifies
praaically
but it
\aJohn that
any
one
at
home, and
came
not
as
came
any time
he came
yesterday.
In grammar
much
as
and
home
day
as
we
possiblefrom
a.
to consider such
questions
purelygrammaticalpoint of view,
from the
that homt
grammatical
pointof view there can be no doubt
vajohn came home modifies came, and came only.
Some
SentenceA dverls.
The
to the
answer
sentence-words Uke
come!,John I,alas!,
^me
wXL
There
to the conjwnt
corresponding
to yes,
conjointadverb corresponding
no
because
the
taken
implyaffiimation. The
to
in the above
lohe
exampleis equivalent
is
no
ordinaryform of the
sentence
is
{he is here)
approachto such a
emphaticassertivecertainly
nearest
affirmativeadverb is the
conjoint
{he is certainly
which, like many other adverbs,can
here),
also be used absolutely though without any change of
"
form"
as
in the
answer
to
the
willyou
question
Dependent
860.
Dependent adverbs
are
come
toof
Advsrbi.
of two
kinds,vord-intro*
sentence
containing
laS
INTXODVCTIOlf.
[f 371X
CoXXKLATin
870. These
are
two
or
another in
at
correlation we
of
the
{are),
so
{are),
more
the merrier,tie
(809).
so
more
tail
you
examplesof correlation-pairs.
are
tail as you
as
in he it no/
at
,.
to that between
parallel
course,
of
use
similar
tie in the
distinctionbetween
is,of
the
/all as you
understand
ntarlyas
yott
By
form-words
more
belongingto
he is
pendent
despecialclass of word-introducing
adverbs.
AOVXKBS.
It will be observed
and
that
tail
as
as
you
to 'he
being equivalent
is tall in the
correlation-pair.
form
independentmeaning
more
such
correlation-pairs,
now
tomelimes,
now
now,
as
in he
also
sometimes
partly partly,
did if partly
from benevoknct,
,
{jum
gay).
S72. The
fixed
reladon
as
may
osltntation
; sometimes grave, sometimes gay,
Jrom
partly
graot,
of
Adverbs
871.
of
members
so
as
to
form
compounds,such
as
sometunes
correlation-pair
aorrelation-grotipBor
to
andjre; up
come
becor-
and everywhere.
"there,
T,Goo(^le
3730
ADVERBS.
No
119
be
can
r^arded
as
cotrelation-
that in such
More
construction correlatives.
than
in he
is
than
industrious
more
his brother
cannot
itself. So
further
that in /
cxKctaX
be
was
tired
so
regarded as
that
reason.
Relative and
Advtrbs.
Conjunctive
adverbs
Dependentsentence-introducing
878.
into
relative
and
divided
sub-
are
adverbs, corresponding
oonJimotiTe
that in
whtre
went
we
we
adverb
relativeand
to
corresponding
to
on
conjunctive
pronouns
which
Rome,
in
we
stoppeda week. In /
isa conjunctiveadverb answeringto the
who
or
what in / know
adverbs
place he it. All the interrogative
it was
done,how
are
used
in / know
why, how is conjunctive
/ asked how
to
relative (progressive)
and conjunctively
as well.
relatively
reason
on
went
we
is both
how
it is done.
and
conjunctive
In
an
indirect
adverb,justas the pronoun what isboth
intenogation
and indirectly
in /
conjunctive
interrogative
VOL.
asked what
it wot.
[* 371-
INTRODUCTIOff.
JO
conjunctiveadverb of affirmationthat,as in
/ know that it it trut,thai it is true is a /tut,and the conjunctive
adverbs of doubt t/ and whither,as in / wonder ifit
The
874.
know
is Irue,I do not
whether
it is true
adverb,because
interrogative
corresponding
In such a sentence
would be superfluous
where
sacb
no
adverb
an
is it true?
as
by itselfshows that it is
of tbe sentence
the form
tat, have
or
iotenogative.
adverb of affinnaCompare the analogouswant of a conjoint
tion (868).
Tbe conjunctive
that is often dropped in Spoken English)as
in / know
it is true.
In
375.
the
cases
dependent adverb,
the
word-group,
or
hitherto been
have
we
where
does
word
it is a
one
modify some
sentence-modifyingadverb ; but
in
some
clauses which
In
order
in
so
word,
to
word-modifying,not
"
introduces
it
sentence,
considering,
definite
cases
contain relative
reference to
between
distinguish
a
singleword {theman
who) and reference to a whole
cedent
sentence
(/ said nothing,which
), because the anteit is easy to
pronouns
to
relative pronoun
can
recognize it
by which we
independentlyof its meaning ; but when
relative and
with
singlewords
/ know
when
to the house
came
when
we
as
adjunctsto
came.
out
are
was
we
we
as
an
have
was
such
sentences.
In
do not
hesitate to
out,he
inclined
to
came
was
often
are
theymodiiy
sentence
In he
as
hi
yesterdaybecause
regardbecause
sentences
we
out
was
he knew
he knew
came
cam
out
was
out,while I
he
deal
to
regard when
while I
came
regard when J
But in he
we
tellwhether
can
with
specially
also inclined to
are
he
associated
as
came
whole
or
some
no
extent
to
was
yesterday,
or,
as
together
T,Goo(^lc
377-]
ADVERBS.
151
singleword
conjunction,not
adverb.
an
mnst
we
But
he
came
because I was
imply that he came
may
should have to regard while as an adverb
meaning and
conjunctionin
clause to
regardbecause as
while I
out,
in
so
was
out
that
we
shade
one
of
the other.
Oonneetton
between
Adverba
and
other
meaning
to
of Speech.
Adjectives.
an
independentmeaning,
some
Parte
stood firm,compared
the link-verb
has
in "
well
as
of
adjunct-word
equivalentto the
point of view
an
as
its own,
pure
some
as
logically
used
are
adjectives
cases
take
link-verb is,so
is fell to be
In
adjective.
is,on
to
as
complete
where it can
be done
cheapest.
We
pronouns
have
alreadyseen
(386).
In
some
that
cases
generaladverbs
the
resemble
of adverbs
similarity
pronouns
in
such combinations
as
so, the
to
can
adverb
In
so
[| 378.
im-RODVCTIOH.
13a
does not
if / think
as
"
'
but answers
'I think in that way
the question
'
to a pronoun
think what ? ',so that it is logically
equivalent
and we might changethe above
io the directobjectrelation,
so
meant
"
sentences
change of meaning.
iS/ondt^H,and so am I, so is
that without
In he likes it,and
feltto be
so
ceptible
any perdo
I; he
equivalent
partlyto
that
(Le.liking)
'
longerthe
to
to
'
of
sense
but
otherwise,'
(comparethe
convenient
man
in
valent
equi-
as
no
else,etc.
The
whosoever.
has
is almost feltto be
It is moat
another,although
the pronoun
regard who
eltef,what
In who
87B.
Modem
German
where-in ; such
there-in,
combination
such
made
binations
com-
into here-in,
as
come
Hence
house'
be looked
instead of
or
at
from
saying be
'
'he is in that
'
room,'we
(this)
the
may
say ^
there
or
Old
Englishusage
'here
instead
inside,'
adverbs
case
togetherso
as
of in
to
here,and
form
then
ran
the
two
singleword.
In such
sentence
ADVERBS.
381.J
T^mat
tlienoun
: it
to a preposition
aimilarit)'
evident
an
into
in such
in such
preposition
*Joht
objective
sentence
strong beyondITiomas.
like a
justas
adjunctto stronger,
an
preposition
beyondmight do
case
133
construction
as
an
as
Beelxebub,than whom.
Salon
Than and
as
also be
may
(Miltok.)
highersal.
except,none
advcibs
regardedas case-governing
ConnectionietweenAdverbs
When
861.
of
not
adverb introduces
an
vord
and
a
strong at
heic
as
CoHJuncliont.
sentence
as
modifier,
in tlie preceding
sentence, but of the whole
from a conjunction
sentence, the adverb becomes indistinguishable
to distinguish
tween
be(S7S); and as it is often difficult
ordinary
grammatical
purposes
most
convenient
to
adverbs as conjimctions
regard all sentence-introducing
correct to call the
(40B). Thus, althoughit is not strictly
like in do lite I do! a. conjunctionas
sentence-introducing
opposed to the adverb likein shs singslike a bird,yet the
'
'
'
it is vulgarto
use
like
in standard English,'
conjunction
as
cannot
conjunction,'
382.
Word-connectingadverbs
correlative as
bear
such
as
to
than
be
call the
and
equallyclose resemblance
word-connectingconjunctionssuch as and (403). But
.
.as
an
is regardedas
sentence-connecting
function
conjunctions,it is
of
'
not
the
usual
the
to
aa
characteristic
most
pressed
ex-
to
extend
the
[(383.
llfTRODUCTlOlf.
J34
Fnpotitioiu.
Form.
of two kinds,primaTy
like adveibs,
are
Prepoutions,
such as of,in,on,
and secondary. Primary prepositions,
lo,HU,for,with, by, are connected only with the two other
adverbs and conjunctions.Most preclasses of particles
positions
in
adverbs
thus
is
used also as
a preposition
are
^
;
ht paatd by Ike house,an adverb in ht pastedby. A few are
388.
"
such as
adverbs),
(orconjunctional
conjunctions
of because.'
/('//in waii till he tomes, for in the sense
Some
not used as
are
adverbs,such as ^
prepositions
used also
as
'
fo,for.
however,offyiMthe adverb correspondingto of,
Originally,
But now
to to.
and too was
the adverb corresponding
offxaA
from the corresponding
too have divergedso much
prepositions
that there is no
them.
clinable
formed from the deare
prepositions
is formed from the
parts of speech. Thus across
round the gardm, alongare formed
noun
cross
; round in waH
from the adjectives
round,long; ^uA excepting,
during,
except,
fast in halfpast one, are formed from the verbs except,dure
884.
Secondary
endure,pass.
885.
There
are
also
oompound
some
prepositions,
"
I jSy.]
135
sait
but
FREPOSITIO^rS.
logically
by the fpoap/or-lhe-take-of.
The
him.
In
Thus
of meaning.
as
preposition
in Latin
and
German
the accusative
in governs
such
when
case
ciated
asso-
noun-word
expressing
the end or goal of the motion
expressed by the verb;
while it governs some
case
equivalentto the locative(in
a
or
Latin
expressed,the
dative)when
the
same
is
and
on
tions
Through want of the necessary inflecpreposiiions.
that a new
pound
comso
Englishhas lost this distinction,
other
with
rest
in ^
came
wiieTt:Latin would
motion,
have in the
compared with
"
house,where
denote
to
ht is in /he
But
still
we
A
the adverb in to express motion, as in he earns in.
need not be prefixed
immediatelyto its noun,
preposition
use
but may
as
noun,
in
declinable
the
a
same
from
separated
be
on
very
a
adjuncts
case
as
with
preposition
it by
intervening
adjunctsto
high hill. In
and
hill
iigh would
We
the words
may
concord
of
the
-language
course
be
put in
it governs
the
of
prepositioQ-
sroup.
instead of preceding
languagesprepositions
follow,
the noun-words
or only in special
theygovern, either generally
in it
to in there,
Even in Englishtherein is equivalent
cases.
In
some
1^6
\\ 388.
INTRODVCTIOtf.
(879),altbonshm
in therein is
not
but
preposition
tnte
an
adverb.
e^"ecially
Frcpo^tionsBometimes govern sdjectives,
adverbial groups such as in thorl,afterall. They also
888.
in
since
as in lillntm,
govern adverte,
lhfn,/romhere.
In such
be regarded
and adverbs must
adjectives
:
to nouns
converted nouns, beingalso logically
equivalent
'in few words'; tiUnmr^
ihor/=''m a short,
statement,'
constructions the
as
in
'
tillthe
presenttime.'
FuNcnoH.
The
889.
function
grammatical
it governs into
the noun-word
make
of
is to
preposition
adjunct-word.A
an
preposition-group
may serve as adjunctto
{a)A noun-word,as in a man of honour,a widow
three children,
freedomfrom care.
in black in t}^ face,
as
freefrom
(i)An adjective,
"
goodfor nothing.
(c)A verb,as in climb up
with the greatest
ease.
{d)A
sentence,
in /
as
tree,I
itoppedat
thought
of it,he
home
because
with
care,
did it
of the
adjunct-
rain,for instance,
generallya sentence-equivalent,
and throughgetting
word (367),
-wet
predicate
beinga subjectEven if
to the clause because he got wet.
being equivalent
is made up with a concrete
the preposition-group
noun-word,
is
group
in /
'
in the
in such constructions
Prepositions
and we
to conjunctions,
therefore,
logically
equivalent
out
make
rain.'
the firstsecMoixinio
widi the
are,
can
"
T,Goo(^le
394.]
PREPOSITIONS.
137
we
change of meaning. Conversely,
(he lighining
Heard fht thunder,
can
we
before
express we saw
where hefert
is a conjunction,
in the fonn of we saw
the
where be/oreis a prelightningbe/orehearingthe thunder,
position.
In such
sentence
as
a noun
qualifying
preposition-group
thus 0/ honour m man
an
adjective;
880.
of
to
to honourable
equivalent
the
as
same
red-nosed
; and
with
man
is often
valent
equi-
of honour is
red
nose
means
man.
As
much
is
the
to
equivalent
same
3.5
the instrumental
case
bf those
languages
serve
Prepositions
'm
the
quiteas
it governs, it is in
with the word modified
closely
group
in
"
some
cases
even
more
so,
meaning associated
138
INTRODUCTION.
bead-woid is a verb.
fy
pan
the window
verbs
preceding
without
that
we
run
omit
can
across
so
across
legudpass-fy and
may
as
hm
ssm
tell Mm
la
nouns
that folbw
saw
we
and
in such sentences
here,the prepositions
are
come
Thus
B MS-
make
it vaguer:
here.
come
in such
run-across
them
So
constnictions
to such simpletransitiTe
equivalent
group-Torba, logically
verbs aafiass and cross
in he passed the house,he crossed iht
as
etc.
consider,
In
89G.
Englishsuch group-verbscan
passivevoice
resemble in
put in the
be
they
attended to.
In such
396.
followsthe verb
group-verbsthe preposition
closelythat
it is often
ticm,as in he
thoughtof,where
was
prepo^tion
case
objective
the detached
longerable
to
in
constructions in connection
some
dependent pronouns
off,I
with
and
interrogative
are
you speaking
is he
going lof,
where
he
came
man
we
were
in the
speaking
of,that is theplacehe
came
from, which
J98.]
in the
.PREPOSITIONS.
literary
language would
of whom
we
become
139
"o"
are
the very
man
wert
of the independentclause.
tached
logical
subjects
Although deprepositions
approach very near to adverbs,yet tbey
that
be regardedas fulladverbs for the simplereason
cannot
those prepositions
which are otherwise never
used as adverbs,
such as if,can be detached with perfect
freedom.
MEANIK6.
The
are
meanings expressedby prepositions
very
but they may be classed under the three heads rf
numerous,
(d)space, including
place,rest,and motion, (i)tdme, and
such as quantity,
(c)other abstract relations,
manner,
cause,
897.
deprivation.
898.
to
York, he
went
from London
lo Fork.
As the space
preposition
from expresses the beginning of a sequence or
directionand the starting-point
of motion, so also as a preposition
of time it expresses the
Ihat lime
"
and
as
an
abstract
of change,while
beginning
of
beginning
it
preposition
to in accordance
ptt'icA"
from
expresses
with its
the
primary
infer
from.
inference,
origin,
etc.,as in
INTRODUCTIOlf.
Form.
3B9,
are
only,such
used
are
and and
as
and
conjunctions,
as
Some
or.
junctions
con-
as
tions
Englishconjunc-
are
of
such
prepositions,
as
(881).
400.
some
are
simple, such as and and or,
conjunctions
mnnponiLd, such as although. There are also group-
Some
oonjunotiom, such
in order
as
or
more
Both
soon
as,
if,most
as
such
simpleconjunction,
as
or
adverbs.
and, though
correlatively
(870).
examples of correlative
often used
Conjunctionsare
401.
thai,as
yet
are
junction-pairs.
con
precedethe word
Conjunctions
generally
tbeymodify.
402.
sentence
or
Function.
403.
The grammaticalfunction of
therefore of
sentence-eoimeotiiig. A
with
sentences
two
is to
conjunctions
nect
con-
junctions
Con-
sentences.
kinds,word-conneotiiig and
sentence
introduced by
con-
is called
to a conjunction)
jun"^on(orany particle
equivalent
a
prepared
Nntence,
which
sentences
are
not
introduced
in this way
senlence-conrecter.
and
three maie
Thus
Jive,and
and
is
word-connecter
'
"way and I went another (wvy). By connect
of any kind of relation;hence such
statement
in two
in he wen/
sentence-connecter
'
we
mean
one
the
conjunction
T,Goo(^le
CONJUJ^CTTOfTS.
405.]
as
in
or
answer
yti
141
not, which,in
or
one
sense,
separates
between,
governing; and
without
connect
this is what
they
distinguishes
from prepositions.
These two
word-connectingconjunctions
as
we
dasses of words resemble each other closely,
see by
and I went
comparingJohn
Ihert with
John
went
there with
the two
coimects
John with me, the preposition
noan-words onlyin4ireclly,
by combiningwith the pronoun to
But in
me.
form
an
to
or
logically,
even
far
subordinate
one
of
necessity
leads to putting
puUingone word after the other necessarily
and so making it appear to be
the less importantword last,
subordinated. In two and three make jivethere cannot be any
Ic^calsubordination^/^rw being,indeed,a more important
factor than two
althoughfrom a grammaticalpointof view
are
we
obligedto regardthree as joinedon to the other word,
as
as
the unavoidable
"
and
subordinatedto it
so
Such
sentence
as
of he is, so that we
ct^nge of form except the repetition
contracted
or
might regardbut not strong as an elliptical
as
a
necting
sentence-consentence
(488),and but,accordingly,
instead of
such
sentence
whikyou
and
first,
were
then
be
generally
Mrt.
as
out
word-connecting
conjunction.So also
Mr. Smith and Professor
Green called
Green
Professor
taken
to
mean
called by
that
but
himself,
called (0 take
it would
broughtProfessor Green
Smith
called
the
leave;
"
with him.
and
would
In Mr.
almost
'
INTRODUCTION.
142
have
necessaril)'
[*40*.
be absurd to
expand he
he ate three
piecesof bread,and
alt
while to
grammaticalstructure of such a
Pompey were both great men makes
ft into two
full sentences
sentence
regardbut
makes
two
Again,the
Caesar
as
grammaticalpointof
also
most
word -connecter,tall-but-not-strong,
lall-but-weak
to
predicates
logically
equivalent
with-weakness
in such
such
sentence
and
to
as
being grouptallness-
as
group
he combines
as
new
correct
five
to expand
impossible
it
completelyrecasting
but
onlysimplestand easiest,
not
butter;
it
without
It is evident,
that from
therefore,
it is
evidenlty
lallness
with weakness.
400.
The
sentences,
which
connect
sentences
he went
sentences
made
are
one
407.
But
.the verb of
is
of
having the
ifI
is true.
knew
or grammatically
logically
by
of
the
at
end
of the
clause,so
such
positionas
as
in
it is true.
as
true is,the
'ifil
Sometimes
an
pendent
inde-
the addition
in other
languages,
individual words
it,if it were
change of
that such
English in
is attended,in Englishas
conjunction
in
-combination
in either sentence.
by changes in the
as
cannot
of which the
conjunction.Thus in German
clause introduced by such a conjunctionas
always put
sentence
in the sentence
another,we
it sometimes
clause ssif it is
verb
Thus
modifies either
is modified
sentence
if
word
those
conjunctionsare
or
connect
and I went
way
one
as
up.
is associated with
any
unmistakeable
most
relations with
special
is to
conjunctions
are
me
we
chanical
me-
T,Goo(^le
409.]
CONJUNCTIONS.
143
metiiod of
change of htmo into knew is only an imperfect
In fact,
the change in if it
the whole sentence.
modifying
true is really
wen
independentof the conjunctionif,which
il
the sense, wtre
may be droppedaltc^therwithout altering
the same
tme havingexactly
meaning as ifH wtre trut.
have
We
408.
alreadyseen (876) that the distinction
between pure conjunctionsand dependentadverbs is that
togetheras wholes,the
jointhe
sentence
sentence, so that
extent,a
secondaryone.
he
in I knoivwhtn
who
pronoun
latter
in /
when we
specially
consult John, who
wc
conjunction,
came
know
who
to call the
conjunctionalso,
such a sentence
as why
came
observe that in
knows
ought
call when
nothingabout
it it has
the full
sentence
John, because he
consulting
knmvs nothingabout it. In fact it is only the difficulty
of
between dependentadverbs and conjunctions
distinguishing
to
beingequivalent
that makes
them
include'
There
409.
which
us
it is
is also
no
use
resemble conjunctions,
such
closely
as
adTerbi
stilland
ncTter-
'\a.
theless,
as
arguments are strongj still {nevertheless)
your
theydo not convinte me, compared with your arguments are
strong,but they do
may
not
convince
For
me.
convenience
we
difference
also,as fullconjunctions
logically
only,not formally
do. Two
clauses connected by a full conjunction
run
on
without a pause and constitute ^ singlecomplex sentence,
coimect
while two
be
"
and
often
are"
group is felt to be
in
connected
sentences
separated
by
a
logicalnot
connected
sentences
writing,
generally
separatedby a comma,
oy
a
half-conjunction
may
by full conjunctionsare
while sennot
at all,
or
U 410.
iNTRODUCTIOff.
144
connected
tences
semicolon
are
bj half-conjunctiona
separated
by
full stop.
or
The
difference between
these two
classes of
'
to
which
sentence
the
they introduce
one
introduced by
and yet the sentences
contradict;
these three words
all formallyindependent of Ihe
are
precedingones.
is one
410. It will be observed that half-conjunctions
are
pendent
closelyallied to full conjunctionsthan derespect more
adverbs arc, namely that they never
refer back
to any one
word in the precedingsentence.
grammaticaUy
411. Half-conjunctions
are
sentence-modifying
necessarily
stand at the
adverbs. Many of them do not necessarily
beginningof the sentence,as is always the case with pure
in English. Thus the half-conjunction
haaxvir
conjunctions
stand at the beginning,
in the middle,or at the end of a
can
to
seems
sentence
however,il would
not do
il would
not do
"
/ told him,
"
at
in he
sentence
buiif.
oflen
arc
half-conjunctions
full ones, as in ^ however,
=
.
often single
out one
half-conjunctions
particular
word in the sentence
they introduce. Also, too,which are
the half-conjunctions
correspondmgto and, often have this
as in / alto will go, I will go too,where theysingle
function,
412.
out
But
use
of
even
in
even
Homer
sometimes
Meaning.
418.
The
and
adverbs)
dependent
(mcluding
conjunctions
T,Googlc
416.]
CONJUNCTIONS.
145
classed
are
half-conjunctions
as
accordingto tlieir.nie^inj:
alternative,
adyersatiyei
afGrmatiy^ (copulative),
negative,:
concessive,hypothetical,
temporal,and causal.
The chief affinnatlTe
414.
or
I9
copulative
cojijuocttQit
without implying any special
and, which simplyconnects
kind
of
connection.
It is thus
generalin meaning
correlativep^rs both
meaning
and, but
as
the
are
conjunctions. The
.
emphatic. The
more
have the
are
besides
Barabbas
Thus
was
now
The
in not
adds
thief,
step in
are
this
but Barabbas
man,
an
is
conjunction
.
Thus
words,
more
is to be
sentences
answer
yes
impliesthe expectationof
or
one
no!,
ansTver
examples of strong
in give me
as
impliesindifference,
are
altematiTeB.
or
three
or
and
will be
answer
two
is to
eitheryes
of these answers,
whose
Alternative
or.
or
or,
joinedtogetherby them
it being left open which
taken into consideration,
word-groups,or
; the
etc.
argument,
chief oltematiTfl
now
circumstance
explanatory
an
These
voell
ai
more
selected.
is
too
emphatic. There
of affirmative half-conjunctions
largenumber
shades of meaning, such as further,moreover,
same
with various
noto, well.
function,but
same
half-ccn-
and
abstract
most
be
no!
one
given.
When
or
nails,it is
strong meaning.
are the correlative
conjunctions
being in less frequentuse.
nor, the simple nor
of course
formed from the alternativeseither,
or
by
41fl. The
neither
They
are
chief negatiTe
J46
JNTRODVCTtON.
[vefiziagtb" negative"-,
and
[| 417therefore be included
may
the members
Thus
of it
"
is
to negativingall of
equivalent
them.
not
he has
relations,
not any
Hence
the
negationof
negationof
an
not any
he
friends,
alternativesimplyamounts
an
that
10
the
to and
equivalent
he speaka single
word,
aEBrmative,so
is
nor
did
nor
not,as in / remained silent,
417. The chief adTeisatiTe
conjunctionis hut.
Advei-
satives add
does
not
seems
etc.
and
'succeeding,*
these two
by and
words
word-groupsexpres^g
sequence are joinedtogether
on
to
hence
or
al last suteeeded.
b felt
result of trying,
thougha frequent
is joinedon
tried
the
not
statement
prepares
unsuccessfulattempt,then the
statement
us
of failure
oi but: he
means
foregoingcontext
so
of attempt by
to a statement
Failure,
anythingin
as
still,
nevertheless,
however, only,and
conjunctiongroups,
such
as
al the
same
several half-
spile
of that.
418.
The oonceBslTe
adversative.The
and
alliedto
are
closely
conjunctions
the
T,Googlc
by
CONJUNCTIONS.
410.]
with
one
I47
an
in
1 dislike
allhough
of the
thoughdeepyet clear (said
itonce
was)the.deepnessof the river is admitted,
warned againstinferring
that the river is therefore
as
we
are
So also in
concessive
is that
conjunction
the latterforwards.
Hence
adversative
an
yet is
to although
reallyequivalent
hut,so that if we drop the
is almost identicalin meaning with
the remaining^yf/
though,
bui : deep
yet clear= deepbut clear.
.
4ie.
a
unless I
negatiTO hypothetical conjunction
=i)^"e)/:
of
variety
such as in case, supposing
hypothetical
group-conjunctions,
tM, providedthat,which are often shortened into supposing,
misiaken=i/1
not mistaken.
am
am
There
also
are
provided.
suppose,
420.
There
are
which
conjunctions
some
express
Otherwise,for which
expresses
the
is
or
meaning
'
if
bypotlietioal difPerence, as in
where
late,
if we
otherwise means
that is, if we do
act
differently,'
not make
haste,'the negation impliedreferring
back, so
in
that otherwise is quite distinct in meaning from unless,
which the negationrefersforwards.
The correlative pair
whether
or
hypothesisi aa in he
expresses alternative
must
we
make
spoken language,has
thesis
hypo-
we
haste,otherwise (or)
shall be too
'
'
will have
to
ocmoesBicai
you
is
expressedby
expressedby
The
as
so.
if: he
even
if:
even
HypotlietloBl
if ht is mistaken,
Hypothetioal oomparium
started
as
if he had
is
been shot.
hypothetical
^and whether,which are pure conjuncliona,
from the dependent adverbs if and
must
be distinguished
ivhetker (874).
148
INTRODUCTIOlf.
\_\43I.
of time,
or conjunctions
t"mponl conjunctions,
cMinected partlywith adverbs,such as when and as,
are
till.
such as btfore,
with preposidonB,
unlit,
sinct,
partly
after,
While is associated n-ith when throughbeginningwith tbe
chance,while
same
consonant, which is,however,a mere
a noun
beiQK originally
meaning time quiteunconnected
with when. The most markedlyadverbialof these is when,
which is used (d)as an independent
adverb,as
interrogative
members
in vhen did he eome / ; (J) as a relativeadverb,as in " rethe Hmt when Iherewere no railways
tive
; (f)a conjunctinctly
adverb,as in / know when he came ; and (iQ less dis: he
as an
adverb,thoughhardlyas a pure conjunction
when I was
out ; I had scarcely
came
begtm,when I was innot at home.
While,
terrupied
again; when he came, I was
4ai',The
'
used
are
prepositions
onlyin constructions similar to those givenabove imder (d):
oul ; as he passedby,he looked in at Ike
while I was
he came
I had finished
wail tillI
be/ore
window; he came
breakfast;
There are many
have finished
secondaryand
my letter.
of time,most of which express Immedigroup -conjunctions
in directly
he came; immediately,
at
ateoMB, such as directly
etc.
soon as, justas, j'usl
after,
as, and tlK
formed
conjunctions
'
Adverbs
428.
Oaosal
from
even
regardedas conjunctions
constructions
as
while,etc.,as
am.
subdividedintofour classes,
are
conjunctions
of result,
and of purpose.
effect,
of oatue
are
498. The two chief conjunctions
because,
which states an immediate and direct cause, xadfor,whidi
adds an explanation
thought
or
reason, often as a kind of aftertook our
because we were
: we
umbrellas,
afraidit
would rain ; for the barometer had beenfalling
for some time.
For is,
used after a pause, and is therefore
accordingly,
freely
Since and as, which are primarily
only a half-conjunction.
of cause,
conjunctions
of
T,Goo(^le
5 HiS.]
CONJUNCTIONS.
of time,are
conjuncdona
which
chief
The
424.
io
used also
I49
of
conjunction
is subsiitoted in the
SO I will go home.
late,
The
of
pure craijunctions
as
e"feot is
for
thtrifori,
spoken language:ilis gef^ng
as
I will go home.
gettinglate,
clause is
only one
independentclause
In
Old
:
prepared
is
sentences
in the firstsentence
langUE^eswhich
only the
it is leftunprepared.
such
correlation,
favour
sentences
are
as
often prepared,
of these two
sentences
with the
we
The
436.
more
may
we
is that
sow
together
that
(inorder)
avoidance is expressed
or
for which
that
not is generally
substituted in
so
by lest,
the spoken language: theytook away the knifelest he should
.
Mmself=they look
himself.
cut
COOHDINATIVE
We
426.
does
not
have
'
knifeso
SuBOBDINATlVE
(404)that such
goes before.
the word
Thus
strong,strong is as much
tall,neither adjective
being, from
subordinated to the other,so
affectmgthe
sense
CONJUNCTIONS.
conjunctionas and
that
sentence
or
in such
tall and
without
AND'
seen
the
subordinate
logically
to what
'
away
sentence
it introduces
as
he is
as
predication-element
logicalpoint of view,
we
can
he is strong and
transpose them
tall. We
call
INTRODUCTION.
150
such
LI 4*7-
ooradinatlTe
conjunctions
conjunctions,or,
more
oo-ooEjonotioni.
shortly,
427. A sabordinatiTe
or "ab-oonjnnotion,
conjunction,
the other
making nonsense.
Of
ocdinative :
the pure
and, both
nor;- but.
The
classes as
these
438.
the followingare
conjunctions
,
nor, neither
half-conjunctionsbelonging to
also
are
such
coordinative,
as
co-
the
same
less,
also,neverthe-
however.
whether
if,unless,
or;
classes as the
half-conjunctions
belongingto the same
those
above are often regarded as sub-conjunctions,
especially
of cause"
/or,therefore,
accordingly.
The
we
If we
480.
in
conjunction
may
subordination
Conjunctions.
Detached
The
481.
detached
and, or,
co-conjunctions
from
what
precedesthem
but,are
that they are
nor,
otten
so
almost
to half-conjunctions,
as in the following
equivalent
pass^e,
where
Jf
the detached
any
I do
artist,
they not
planets,
canvas,
not
say had
in Roman
letters:
"
upon
are
conjunctions
the
the spectacle
now
by
afforded
the
nightlycofx of
T,Goo(^le
INTERJECTIONS.
(434.1
I^I
(Shsllii:
48a.
On
Life.)
have
if
consider
we
detached
undetached
one
etc.
.....
relationto
stands in the same
conjunction
relative (318) does to
a
as
progressive
an
an
ordinaryrelative.
InteijeotioQS.
488.
are
Interjecdons
emotions,such
as
sentence-
words
expressingvarious
"
Joy: hfrrahl,huzza!
: bravo !
approbation
grief:ah !, alas !,heightI
These
are
all emotional
is also
of more
definite
interjections
meaning,which,instead of merelyexpressingan emotion of
to imperative
the speaker,
are equivalent
sentences, and may
484,
There
interjeotions.
class of
INTR0DVCTI6N.
15*
[( 435-
Thus instead
thereforebe calledimperstiTe inteijeotioiia.
of the
look!, behold I ve
imperatives
from which
ASS.
number
English,are
in function between
oaths,of which
and
EzpletiTes
in
writinguse the
is huh!
imperativeinterjection
Another
hi
inteijeclion
in
may
there is
targe
class of
intermediate
interjections
former classes,
being used partly
the two
486,
Of the above
secondary. Primary
of the sounds
we
make
primary,some
are
mostlyreproductions
interjections
when
involuntarily
such
interjections
as
"
lut!
Thus
tut I
are
It will be observed
of various emotions.
written
some
interjections
"
are
occur
that many
imperfect
attempts
in the non-interjec-
represents one
of the
known
as
are
interjections
ordinarywords which
have come
to be used as interjections
by various processes
the old-fashioned expletive
of isolation. Thus
utarryl is
simplythe name of the VirginMary with the vowel shortened.
is an Italian adjective
adverb meaning 'good,'
Bravo!
or
437.
'
Seaondary
well done,'which
in Italian itselfcame
to
be
used
as
an
beingisolatedeither in form
"
as
in the
case
"
of bravo 1
"
as
we
in marry
cannot
"
or
in
meaning
regard it as
hill
T,Goo(^le
++1.]
WORD-GROUPS.
153
example of
being,an
exclamation-noun.
For
dxolamation-groap.
489.
of the
iaakjnel
case
an
an
Good!,
; alas ! takes a
as in
preposition
_/^/-,
alas
in alas the
as
noun-adjunctby
of the
means
heavyday 1
WORD-GROUPS.
440.
"
theyare
word
to
or
word
new
to be introduced.
We
for
such
and
sake
as
groups
saucer,
be
can
no
elements
them
distinguish
to
The
from
essentialdifferencebetween the
in the
is
seen
is
independent
enough to
have
two
kinds of
sons-in-low,
plurals
etc.,where
take
an
Most
of these
stress
441.
compounds
the firstelement
no
use=:
We
useless,
etc.
resemble
:
blackbird.
whatsoever,moreover,
as
true
bread
'son-in-law,
can
Word-groups (and group-compounds)
be
put
INTRODUCTION.
154
C*44"-
before a singlenoun
so
it,by which
althoughfor
cat and
to
man
form
to
priieman,etc.
Even
in
singlewords,
whole
than
compoand with
member
kind of
convenience
These
442.
the members
united together
more
Thus
as
one
predominant stress
cai atid
derivation,
word-groapsare treated
derivative ending being added to the
like
last
Thus from
old-maidish.
in artificial
peculiarkind of group-derivation
is felt
correspondingto artificial
fiower,in which .^tw/rf
floriit
the
whole
to "Jiower-ist,
to be equiv^nt
group meaning not
bnt artificial-flawcr-maker.'
'a floristwho is artificial,'
have
We
'
in Englishto treat a
quitecommon
word.
Not only group-compounds
word-grouplike a single
443.
such
as
In infiectionit is
son-in-law form
their genitives
sm-in-law's,
etc.,but
the
I
to
ytslerday's
father,
regardyesterdayas the
saw
Here, as
singlev/oidyesterday.
in
old-maidish,
of the
together.
closely
In this way a word-groupmay be grammatically
444.
to a part of speech:in the example just given
equivalent
the word-groupnot only has the meanings and grammatical
group
functions of
singlenoun,
noun.
an
T,Goo(^le
SENTENCES.
448.]
155
Word"group9often approachvery
445.
If
function to sentences.
take
near
in grammatical
simplesentence and
Torbalchange its finite verb into a verbal,the resulting
has rcallj'
as much
meaning in it as the correEponding
groap
home
sentence, as we see by comparing the sentence he came
his cemmg
In a verbal-group
with the verbal-group
home.
in the objective
relation
a noun"word
containingan infinitive,
I want kirn lo ge home=I
wish
as m
maybe a logical
subject,
we
he would go home.
SENTENCES.
Sentences
446.
"
"
significant
elements,or words.
A sentence
447.
is
word
group of words
or
capableof
'
is,therefore,a word
sentence
makes
expect it
us
it
because
'expect,'
such
sentence
shows
he
sentence
one
any
'
means
some
ask
us
coming,J
as
express
full
the
depends on
of words whose
forml
meaning.' We
context
whether
or
say
not
one
'
who
complete sentence
well
group
on
makes
'as
to
or
incompletein meaning,for
who has been mentioned before,'
and
is keV
Nevertheless he is coming is a
because
it has the
coming,etc.,which
am
form
"
as
are
far,at least,as
same
form
aa/ohn is
completein meaning
any
one
sentence
can
as
be
said to be complete.
448.
As
T,Goo(^le
I5fi
INTRODUCTION.
and
(S449.
the
the
on
principles
joinedtogether
grammatically.Thus
are
who knows
up and
any
the
such
of 'OUendorffian' sentences
number
as
I have
special Mntenoea
how do you
be
cannot
fact,in /
idioms,
or
do f, I canttol
on.
meanings of
helpit,helpmay be said
cannot
so
hand, such
the other
on
book;
its elements.
to
In
be used in the
sense
'
'
whole isisolatedagainst
that of the parts,
justas in
compound
in meaning,
words (as). But most idioms,though irregular
are
quiteregularand normal in form, / cannot helpit,for
instance,
being formallyon a level with such a general
I cannot
sentence
into
Such
an
justas
him, theycannot
see
be made
helpit can
cannot
etc.
cannot
we
him:
see
idiom
as
into
how
we
do you
Hence
we
can
make
made
be
how do you
we
fossilized,
more
could
do into
hardlysay
word with
in hoto-do-you'do'
"were
s
as
plural inflection,
exchanged.
the name
of a flower,is an example of a group
Forgelmenot,
from
.compound with isolationof meaning formed directly
"
"
sentence.
460.
Justas
Sentences
"
there
are
like words
"
differin fulnessof
empty words, so
also there
are
meaning.
empty
Thus in the
as opposed to fullones.
(orclauses),
want ? the firstclause is
complex sentence is it me {thal)you
is l"^can
clause,
independent
itmtf, though grammatically
seotenoee
-SENTENCES..
US'O
and the
allysuperfiuous,
I57
meaning"might be expressed
by gettingrtd of it,and puttingthe mt into the dependent
.doyou
clause,which then becomes an independentsentence
The clause is it mef is evidently
made
want me?
up solely
same
"
in order
make
to
the
me
prominent by bringingit
and making it the logical
more
nearer
devoid of
contain
meaning, theynecessarily
cUttseS,
as
emphatic full-
an
word.
As every
461.
as
thoughtconsists
and
as
is the e^cpression
of
sentence
thought,and
in
joiningtogethersubjectand predicate,
the idea of predication
is expressed
in Englishby a
verb.
predicative
contains
453.
verb
In
some
pressedby
='I
Hence
cases,
"
Bentenoe-word
come,' where
to
you
In
ask
Jokn!='\
John
to
such
as
exr
come!
being self*
subject
the
which
is,grammatically
a sentence.
speaking,
word
single
command
of words
to constitute a
to
come"
'
attend to
you,' I
'
are
so,'etc.,no, alai/='l
will do
sorry
is felt
subjectand predicate
it,'
etc.,the distinctionbetween
only vaguely. We
of
two
see,
In yes=' I
of its vagueness.
am
kinds,consisting
(a)of
definite
or
cate
predisubject
as
it were, in
one
word,
From
sentences
are
grammaticalpoint
hardlysentences
may
also
be
group of words
equivalentto
without
a
sentence
word
finiteverb
"
may
at
and
(orverbal)
constitutea
158
IfiTRODVCTION.
"entenoe-groiip. Tht
[(453.
the merrier is
mart
to
sentence-groupwhich is equivalent
clauses.
exampleof
combination
afforded hj
of two
proverbs,
tellerlak Han
as
never,
for Meature.
A sentence
468.
is not
but
only a logical
(81). For
ot
separation
is no
breath tillwe
groap,
phonetic
vtavy.
sists
phoneticpointof view cona
there
breath-groups
that
succession of sounds
by the pauses
so
sn
to
come
the end of
wait
generally
to
take
statement, question,
etc,
breath-groupis generally
equivalentto a MnNthat is,a sentence.
In a dialogue,
which ia the
and
simplest
sentences
most
completecessation
by
statement
the
In
statement
writingwe
various marlu
A
4S4.
of the
falling
ton^ while a risingtone shows that
that a questionis intended.
is incomplete,
or
mark off the end of a complete statement
by
of
the fiitl
especially
punctuation,
slop (.).
longsense-group
smaller sense-groups by
slight
pause. The slower
the
are
pauses we make.
marked by
generally
end of
tells as
sentence
change of intonation,
etc.,or by a
or the more
we
speak,
emphatically
these smaller divisims
writing,
comma
showing the rise of
(,),
In
more
or
that
though we
sense
is not
completetillwe
come
to the
complex sentence.
466.
The
may be
regarded
."i-+Go6gle
1 458.]
from
159
SENTENCES.
of view,interna] smd
points
two
of
Theintemftl
external.
by the relationsbetween
the words of which it is made
in English especially
up (81),
in the internal
by theirorder. The most importantdistinctions
of sentences
those by which they express the
structure
arc
structure
is determined
sentence
differentrelations between
and predicate
in statement,
subject
etc. (18).
question,
But
460.
must
we
sentences, by which
we
regard each
sentence
relationsof
as
whole
or
up.
from
find that
this
point of view,we
same
relations
words
do
to
other sentences
to
Thus
another.
one
When
as
iw
at sentences
stand in the
they can
and
in /
the noun-word
singlewords
to
see
are
look
we
mislaken,
are
jmt
as
grammatical
same
Ihaf.
There
467.
are
tions
ways of showing the external relaOne is by their order. Justas words
two
of sentences.
in
sentences
have
more
or
the sentences
groups of sentences
in a certain fixed order. Thus
or
in the above
also in
are
example the
in other
ready,we
binations
com-
will
once.
Another
456.
sentences
way
is by the
of
all of which
conjunctive
pronouns, adverbs,and conjunctions,
A sentence
at the beginningof the sentence.
come
generally
is called a prepared
modified by a form-word
sentence.
Thus in /jM thaiyou are mistaken,thai you are mistaken is a
preparedsentence
or
mistaken in I
external
clause,as
relations of
because
inflection,
an
compared with
see
you
sentences
inflected sentence
are
cannot
is
the unprepared
mistaken.
be
shown
by
connecessarily
l60
[|459.
INTRODUCTION.
they arc
incapableoifderivation. Sentences are also incapableof composiiionin the way words are compounded ; in a complex
isolation of the meaning of the whole
there is no
senEence
againstthat of the clauses of which it is made ujx
verted into
word
(440).
Relatiohs
the
of two
are
same
reason
Sentences.
between
Simplesentences
45B.
For
and
kinds,independent
is one
dependent [cp.IBB]. An independent sentence
whose grammatical structure
allows it to stand alone. A
dependent
makes
is
sentence
that cannot
one
tence
an
independent sengenerally
in the complex sento complete its meaning. Thus
tence
whtn I came
hack, I found no one at home, the first
is dependent,the second independent. All presentence
pared
introduced by dependent
words,whether prosentences
nouns,
expect another
us
"
"
adverbs,or
are
necessarily
conjunctions,
dependent.
when I
Thus in the above example the dependentsentence
bad is introduced by the dependentadverb or conjunccame
tion
when.
Unprepared dependentsentences may generally
expandedinto preparedsentences.
be
in you
sentences
may
be
Sentences
I want, I
man
are
see
you
also
are
as
distinguished
unprepared
are
mistaken
mistaken,
ooordinate
introduced
by
relative pronoun
by a progressive
be regarded as coordinate (218,878).
adverb
must
461.
The
subordinativeconjunction
(420).
introduced
Sentences
not
the
I waTii,thaiyou
coordinativeor
does
the
480.
and
are
Thus
distincdon between
or
independentand dependent
between
coordinate
sentences
are
coordinate,it does
necessarily
pendent.
indenecessarily
introduced b^ conjunctions
sentences
not
are
464.]
grammatically
dependent. Thus
are
I will ride
and
as
BUbordinate
a
161
SEffTE!^CES.
such
one
can
no
shall walk
and
So also it makes
without
to
introduce
to
nonsense
alone than
ride,both equallyrequiring
sentence
preceding
independent
you
coordinatesentence
stand
more
while I
as
such
with
sentence
or
introduced by
sentence
must, of course, be
regarded
462.
form
Two
or
independent.
as
ClaUBM
and
ComplexM.
sentences
more
conjunction(481)
detached
may
be
to
joinedtogether
in
together
this way
we
we
call
may
joined
are
call then;i
olauseB.
which
clause,
prindpalclause.
The
dependent clause
subordinate.
or
We
adjunctto the
be either
may
coordinate
a
";all
ordinate
co-
clause
Thus myou
00-olAiue, a subordinate clause a Bab-olaose.
shall walk, and I will ride,the first clause is the principal
is a co-clause.
When
the
is a sub-clause.
second clause^/wiiff/"
ivaff/i'the
walk
in_yo"s/iall
Inj-iware
man
So
also
while I ride.
clause
principal
is followed
by one or more
it
co-clauses as in the"first of the examples givenabove
as being coordinate with the
may itselfbe called a co-clause,
40i.
"
"
"
,
VOL.
I.
sentence
as
Ihe
more
you
beat
l6a
tNTRODVCTION.
44S.
by
complex in
co-clause
is
eomplex, and
which
in which
one
is a co-complex,the other
in
clause is modified
principal
is calleda milt-oomplex.
As it is most
406.
the
[(465.
00-
it is modified
Thus
two
are
by a sub-clause
the firstcomplex in " 468
sub-complexes.
clause first
principal
call attention
to
to
the order
complexes, but
sub-clause
is
with sub-complexes.
frequent
before
comes
its
When
clause,the fonner
principal
can
is
Thus
it,the hypothetical
is called the front-clause,
and the principal
sub-complexif I
sub-clause if I
can, I will do
4fi7- When
as
to cut
hope,if
all goes
clause
principal
hope to
it tomorrow.
finish
4flB.
If
we
expand
this
have
the
three-clause
inserted
clause,
instead of
a
interrupting
simple sentence, only breaks the
clause and a sub-clause which
between a principal
continuity
is more
with the principal
clause than
connected
intimately
it may
be called
When
middle
clause.
be inserted into
dependent clause,
he is a man, who, if he chose,might do great things.
9S va
Here the inserted clause tfhe chose is put immediatelyafter
469.
A clause
may
is
of
frequent
position
inserted clause.
T,Goo^le
an
1 47".]
163
SENTENCES.
When
470.
an
an
inserted clause
"
called an
471.
a
incapsulation-comples.
When
an
independentsentence
parentiietio sentenoe
ia inserted,
it is called
Thus in J shall
parenthesis.
of the week, I hopeis a parenthesis.
or
contains
transitive
"
"
"
...
"
and
where
am
sure
may
we
you
time,of
a
you
must
apologiu,
for the
half'Conjunction_/or
In this we
which
parenthesis
have
co-
middle
in the wrong"
substitute the
conjunctionand.
be called
are
is
an
complex
instead of
being
simplesentence.
472.
In such
second
clause is
that it
comes
appended
at
olanM.
sentence
as
/am
exactlyanalogous to
the end.
We
may
doctor,
you know, the
a
parenthesis,
except
call such
clause
an
1^4
[| 475.
tffTRODVCTtOfr.
Exlenitd
A
473.
Compltxts.
compIeiEwfaich consists of
is called an
extended
clauses
two
complex.
which
474.
consists of
principalclause followed by
than
more
walk.
for a
specialrelation to
formingpart of the same
But if
I wrote
or
more
co-
ietUr,and then
In such
no
475.
two
one
complex.
extended
an
complex contains
sub-clause,
be speciaUyconnected with
necessarily
other clause which acts as principal
clause to it,fonn-
the sub-clause
some
ing with
Thus
it
must
in such
extended
an
Utter,but I could
not
sub-clause because I
with
the extended
complex
as
finishit,because I
complex.
began to
write
the
interrupted,
was
is inseparably
connected
interrupted
was
the
/ could
cannot
is
do
can
"
put in
so
of which it forms
in the above
part
"
example
letter by
of the
means
coordinate
sub-complex, which
we
may
express brieSy
thus
We
not
call the
it
finish
"
clause of
principal
the eeoondary
the lesser
complex
prinoipat olamse,
as
"
I could
opposed
primary
T,Goo(^le
I 480.]
165
SENTENCES.
Bub-clauses admit of
which
complex it u
hope to
read
book which
I have
read onee,
again, we
+ subordinate co-complex. In
principal
Jam
anxious
became
the letter I
("7".
We
477-
can
also have
clause,as
principal
principal
complex instead of
in the earth
sun
in
scheme
a
or
can
is a
at the
same
is
always
round
moves
principal
sub-complex-f co-clause. This
be varied by substituting
of course
a co-complex
ffVf/^=
sub-clause.
478. But
an
of
entirely
arrangement consisting
order'is
plexes
co-com-
from
indistinguishable
extended
were
zvrittena
substitutedfor
of the co-clauses,
thus I hone
one
in
was
"t
coordinate sub-complex.
^Br/j'=principal-f
In the examples given above, the principal
clause
479.
but its place may be taken by a front-clause or
precedes,
front complex: 1/ it is a mistake,
/or it,
you are responsible
and
so
480.
of
two
that it
/^front
clause -f-co-
complex.
Four-clause complexes containing sub-clauses are
kinds.
of them
consist of two
plexes
com(a) Some
have always thought,
and I always shall think
: /
am
was
mistake
which
could
have
been
t/
we
avoided
watch
co-
ship
l66
U 481.
INTRODUCTIOH.
when
she
out
sailing
"
to sea,
we
can
see
front
+ subordinate
sub-complex).
of
complexes consisting
Extended
481.
flian four
more
clear ;
not
the clouds
In
not settleon
it.
as
are
\nyou
sentences
piendent
way
in
as
the
are
man
1 want.
When
is called
I wrong
adversative sequence \a am
f which is logically
to the
equivalent
right,or
am
Thus
we
an
I wrong
or
more
in the
associated together
logically
have
two
Such
indesame
oequenoe.
right,am
complex am I
is therefore equivalent
sequence
to a
of it:
/am
sub-complex
of these
sure
of it,becauseI
it myself In both
.
is unprepared.We
examples the adjunct-sentence
saw
The
sequence
sequences.
only preparedsentences
are
those
which
are
form part of
introduced by a halfthat
can
T,Goo(^le
4B7.]
16?
SENTENCES.
in the preparedsequence I
as
conjunction;
"went
tiredi so I
was
to
tired: I eannoi
When
464.
go
am
paitlyof unprepared
prepared
sequeaoe.
Bolatfoiu
iMtwMn
senlences,
it is called
and
Bentenoei, Complexes,
partially
Bequeaoea.
and
Although the distinction between sentence
simple
complex is generallyquite clear,there are some
to complexes.
which approach very near
sentences
A word-group containinga verbal often differs
486.
with the verbal
only grammaticallyfrom the same
group
460.
made
into
Hence
can
come
home.
be
also / wish
So
him
of
his
can
ship when
the
into
unextended
can
for
round, if
sentence
by
the roundness
four-clausecomplex
can
be
watch
to
sea,
be tiirlher
reduced
ship sailingout
into
shortened
slightchange ;
extended
we
sub-complexcan
see
are
simplified
by
lesser complex.
ship sailingout
itself can
be
sometimes
to sea, the
watch
we
sentence
back,which
come
often be
sentence
verbal-group
by watching
can
can
sailingout
if
this extended
complex
to
as
dependentsentences,
see
she is
be shortened
and
complexes
extended
an
substituting
we
of
him
panded
ex-
sentenoea.
Extended
in
back may be
Such sentences
come
hack.
called extended
Thus
to
come
467.
(446).
sentence
such
home
is,from
thus
complex could
to
sea.
to
ordinary
the principal
an
be shortened
T,GoO(^le
l68
\\488.
tNTRODVCTIOlf.
lence
tot
tte
can
saiHt^ami
Ihe ramdness
earth
by toaUhinga ship
sea.
Another way
488.
(^At
shortened
complexesare
in which
is
junctions,
by making sentence-connectinginto word- connectingconwhen
the complex he is loll,but he is not
as
cate
Strongis made into a simple sentence with a group predi-
be
ht is tall,but not strong. Such sentences
may
regardedas a kind of extended sentences, but itis better to
"
them
distinguish
been
consideringby callingthem
When
sentences
have
we
contracted
just
aentenoes.
therefore better
and
such
form
as
so
them
distinguish
and,to
"
to
some
from
strong,which
extent,even
plexes,
com-
contracted sentences,
are
in meaning
"
in
distinct
really
from
complexes.
must
easilyshortened than
of
complexes contain more
the latter than of the former, especially
in the spoken
plexes.
long comlanguage,which always avoids unnecessarily
co-complexesare
extended
most
sub-complexes,
48B.
As
490.
between
is
containinga parenthesis
sentence
a
complex,for
the two
more
is
any
connection
not
grammatically
there may
be
not
logical,
grammatical:
it remains
T,Goo(^le
i 493.]
simpleBenteace.
a
complex it
So also if
an
from
happens that
such
to
the context.
where
answers,
detached
Detached
the
question; why do
il,because lean
not
are
in
frequent
most
can
"
diiferentfoim by
slightly
the
complex /rfu
is elliptical
"
the
Here
not.
can
beii^expressedbecause
not
in
already
expressed
clause is understood
do iif because J
not you
the principal
clause
clauses
The
is detoohed.
"
independent sentence
clause
principal
grammatical
not
It sometimes
if it were
as
is introduced into
parentheais
does
relattonBbetween
491.
169
SENTENCES.
it has been
the
question
itself.
The
492.
often very
is made
distinctionbetween
slight.When
are
up
no
of which
sentences
uttered with
or
togetherwith little
onlyby
the
sequence
risingtone, and
is
are
tun
pause"
to clauses,
they are practically
equivalent
in the unprepared sequence / came, I saw, I conquered,
as
commas"
and the
preparedsequence
tkert was
no
one
thntiso I went
away.
483.
extended group
An
of sentences
is often
composed
of dependent clauses,
either unprepartly
partlyof sentences
that the whole
pared or introduced by half-conjunctions,
so
We call such
a complex, partly
a sequence.
group is partly
according
oomplexes or mixed
sequenoea,
groups mixed
to
which
element
predominant. In
is
the
two
following
of a complex
examples we have mixed complexesconsisting
followedin one instance by an unprepared sentence, in the
other by
one
doit if I
were
we
came
went
hack.
introduced
you
Mixed
: / would
half-conjunction
you
out /or
by
are
sure
sequences
he
to
are
conquered.
or
we
generallycoordinate
not
other
soon
:
lie
INTRODUCTION,
Classes
The
Sentences.
of
according to the
is
sentences
dassifjring
form-wordt by which they are introduced.
Thus
an
beginningwith but is necessarily
404.
most
sentence
obvious way
sative
adver-
with htcaust
(or clause).A clause beginning
sentence
of
complex.
such
complex of which
Sentences
and
it forma
part is
with affirmativeconjunctions
beginning
called
Those
sentences.
copulative
such as itor are
beginningwith negativeconjunctions
as
included under
or
are
alternative sentences.
by dependent pronouns
clauses.
conjunctive
and
Unprepared sentences
are
406.
of the form-word
nature
is an
waul
arc
classed
inyou
uianl
either relative
accordingto the
Iwant^iohom
Thus
sentences.
duced
Clause^ intro-
adverbs
ally
gener-
into
prepared
aretheman
is trtu=lkai
unprepand relativec\a.\ix,H
itis true
in I think it it true is an
also /
I taw,
come,
clause. So
unpreparedconjunctive
I conquered
is a copulative
unprepared
sequence.
principalcUuse in
were
afraid it would rain
clause of effect (424).
The
Part
We
406.
stand
to
have
of
loe
ma.y be
alreadyseen
umbrellas
our
regardedas
because
we
unprepared
an
Bslattona.
Bpeeoh
singlewords stand.
which
took
From
this
point of view
clauses
adjectivenoun-olai^seB,
we
call
to imply that it
We
to
be
ihe
use
:e
and
clause
noun-
partakesof the
etc.
we
clause,
inflections
do
not
terms
noun
beciiuse
ihey cannot
cause
mean
other formal
or
any
it
evident
itwould
for
is
that
;
sentence, and would be converted into
ch^acteristics of
cease
thereby
a
notu.
of their
con-
misunderstanding.
",
1 499-]
SENTENCES.
A noun-olaiue
497"
the relationof
171
stand
may
itsprincipal
clausf in
to
{b)predicate,
(a)subject,
(c)direct object,
(rf)
:
apposition
"
(a)subjectnoun-clause:
should think
what
you
is true
say
thai you
"
is quitena/ural.
so
noun-clause
(J)predicate
thisis what I
mean
my^nion
"
is thai he is mistaken.
(f)objectnoun-clause
wants I cantu)/ make cut
/ kn"fw what
I think you
"
{d) appositionnoun-clause
"
AdjeotiTB-olaQMs
door which
garden,the
the town
man
he lives in,the
does
foreigner
alwaysmodify a
why I did
meaning between
clause is often veiy slight,
as
adjectivein I knovf
in I knoiv
the
he
succeed
not
excuse
as
noun,
in j^
leadinginto
where I
not do
was
the
bom,
it,the way
in
it it done.
difTerence in
noun-clause
door
garden=the
reason
what
"
that he may
the home
yesterday,
saw
means
mistaken,
are
the wish
488.
he
a
we
noun-clause
see
and
an
by comparing the
adjective-dause
place where
he lives.
distinction between
The
more
409.
tbe
he
same
came
An
adveTb-
relation
while I
was
to the
equivalent
are
classed
as
are
an
clause
an
lo
according
etc.
stands
adverb.
out,he
adverb
lime,place,cause,
the former.
to
itsprincipal
clause in
Thus
the adverb-clausea in
came
then in he
came
their meaning
Thus
adverb-clause of cause,
Hence
are
then. Adverb-clauses
as
adverb-clausea of
the adverb-clauses
out
givenabove
beginningwith because is
etc.
clause introduced
by
relative
expressingcause
INTRODUCrrOtf.
BelftUoiu
600.
betwMn
SultJ^ct ctnd
In
thought,subjectand
in
another
indicated in
Fredioate.
predicatestand
and
varietyof relations,
to
one
these relations
are
imperfectly
\"^changes in
the form of sentences.
In their function of expressingthe
relationsbetween subjectand predicatesentences
fallunder
the four main
of statement, oi
(a) sentences
groups
languagemore
or
less
"
declarative
sentences,
ezol"matiTe
sentences,
sentences, and
rogatiTe
(fi)sentences
(c)sentences
("/)sentences
of exclamation, or
of
or
question,
inter-
of faortationor
perative
im-
sentences.
(a)SeolBratLve
BOl.
of
sentences
sentences
positivestatement,
are
or
such
as
the
moon
and
is fuli lonight,
such
as
the
moon
is not
with
of
kinds, (a)
two
afOrmative
sentences,
(3)negatiTe
sentences,
ing
contain-
sentences
negationare
a
mal
negativepredicate(886). The word-order of a norin English is that the subjectpredeclarativesentence
cedes
the
predicate.
sentences, such
as
(")l^olamative
602.
moon
is
may
be
!, how
tonight
regardedas emphaticaffirmative
express wonder,
brightthe
haw
fool hi
sentences:
and
joy,grief,indignation,
looks !,
they
other kinds
of
Englishthe
In
comes
grammaticalpredicateof an exclamative sentence
is
in a declarativesentence
the moon
after the subject,
as
but the word which is emphasized by the exclamation is
gative
put at the beginningof the sentence precededby an interro"
"
word
such
as
how
or
what"
how
bright
what
,
fool
In these two
T,GoO(^le
504.]
SE^fTENCES.
in this case
as
logical
the
Kxclamative
(603)-
sentences
with which
the
as
gmmtnatica)
predicsUe.
sentences
rc^ativesentences
well
173
In
mark
writingwe
of exclamation
also mark
inter-
to
ezclamative
admiration
or
(I),
the
sentences.
imperative
imply ignoranceabout
608^ {c)Interrogative sentences
Ac predicate,
and express the desire of enlightenment
about
it. They are of two kinds, generaland special Qaner^
we
between
the
not,
from
is affirmative or
answers
yts
General
etc.
negative,that is,they
no, it is
or
or
it is not,yes it is,no it is
are
interrogative
declarative sentences
pect
ex-
formallydistinguished
cate
by having the grammaticalpredi-
at the
sentences, such
as
is not the
moon
which I believe it is
say so.'
"
General
gative
interro-
not
are
uttered with
only declarative
and
exclamatorysentences,
but
also
sentences.
special
interrogative
804.
he?, what
It
does he
who
as
Uve?, when
is
did he
word,
comet', how did he come ?, begin with an interrogative
whose meaning indicates what kind of information is sought.
Thus,
if the sentence
speakerwishes
to
thingor
know
occurrence
know
that the
of the person
identity
begins with
that information about the place of some
where, we
we
is
sought, and
sentence
so
on.
Hence
these
word
questionsare answered,not by yes or no, but by some
which specializes
the meaning indicated by the Interrogative
INTRODUCTION.
174
word.
Thus
the
whtrt
to
answer
[1 505.
dots
he livtf may
be
not
speakersaying I
the other
by
sentences
do not
know,
from generalinterrogative
distinguished
are
sentences
interrogative
Special
etc.
(who
tone
falling
they
did he
'
time
some
other ; I want
"
thus what
answer,
it his name'?
came
when.*
to know
sentence
spedalinterrogative
lone, it impliesthat the speakerwishes
When
is
is uttered with
for the
rising
of an
repetition
'tell
means
bis
roe
name
again.'
which
class of
is another
There
SOS.
are
special
interrogative
tions
ques-
stillmore
by
'
I know
the
answers
he is one
to
or
these questions
are defined even
definitely
the question
more
weak
is substituted for
one,
is uttered with
no;
it ht
"
risingtone, and
Oxford
or
as
opposedto
the
is answered
Cambridgeman'
studied at Oxford
'has he
which
an
or
with^tvor
meaning really
Cambridge
"
I do
of London,
University
n^
care
the German
requirevery definiteanswers
answer
must
be either
class of altamatlTe
; thus in the
example given,the
Oxford or Cambridge.
But there is
such
%vdisc9^ questions,
as
art
you
T,Goo(^le
SBNTBffCBS.
JS09.J
uttered with a
yeu ml?
however, answered in the same
way
riady,or
are
falling
tone, which
75
are,
generalquestions;
receive an emphatic
being emphatic,theygenerally
although,
/ am
allkinds of quesanswer"
ready,etc. In writing,
^f,
tions
marked by the note of interrogation
are
(f),
those which contain
are
Imperative sentences
(rf)
in the imperative
mood, expressinghortadon,by
606a
verb
which
aa
deavour
appealto others by which we eninfluence their actions,
especially
entreaty,
request,
understand
we
to
and command,
as
any
do that!
tiotdotbati,do
not you
uttered with
tone.
felling
marked
by
It
607.
the note
must
do it at
in come!,you
In
omet, do cornel,do
sentences
Imperative
writingtbey are
of exclamation
generally
(I)
be understood
are
divisions
are
uttered with
are
the
with
ht quietI
v^l^ouhejwtt1=
as
note
tone
falling
the two
So also
in the
will soon
doubtfiil^cw
there at
declarative sentence
imply a question,
true
uttered with
is accordingly
therefore be called
may
sentences
sentences.
S09.
of
such
"
and may
classes,
fanperatJTO- interrogative
tone
as
being accordinglywritten
of exclamation"they are
mediate
formallyintera
between
as
But
rising
decided you
wHl be
and
""" for granted,
tone.
falling
T,Goo(^le
lyfi
INTRODUCTION.
The
above
divisions
[| 510.
apply
independentsentences.
For dependent declarative clauses (indirect
narration)see
clauses (indirect
terrogation)
in"397, and for dependent interrogative
see % 214.
610.
ffiSTORY
to
LANGUAGE.
OF
Olianges in Language.
011. The
of language is
importantfact in the history
that it is always obaoging.
flections,
inWords, parts of words
derivative elements,
etc.
and sentences
word-groups,
are
alwayschanging,both in form and meaning : the pronunciation
flections
of words changes,and their meaning changes; inchange both in form and meaning: word-groups
and sentences
change their form in various ways
by altering
the order of their words, by changes of stress and intonation
and are liable to change their meaning also,so that the
meaning of the word-group or sentence can no longerbe
most
"
"
"
"
inferred from
These
of which
it is made
up.
fil2.
changes,changesof
(phonetic
Sound-changes
are
nunciation)
pro-
of the organs of
positions
and the slightest
deviationfrom the
or
sound
which produces a
position
the vowel-sonnd
the
by
expressed
in
is producedby
Thus
drawing
month-passage
narrower,
and
at
the
same
time
narrow
closer together,
the sound
lip-opening
by bringingthe lips
passes by degrees into the u in ruU ; while if we open the
the sound of 0 passes into
lipsand widen the mouth-passage,
the
diat of the
m/alher.
always to
impossible
bit
Now
in
utteringa sound
exactlythe
same
it is
as
positionof the
T,Goo(^le
"'
5*3-3
HISTORY
OP
CHANGES.
LANGUAGE:
I??
organs
of
so
even
when
this deviation is
to escape
"
"
"
nothingto
changed,but
are
associatedin
some
way
of the sound
of meaning
generally
by similarity
"
extending
or
the
or
specializing)
(generalizing
often quiteunconsciously.
use
narrowing
go
to
as
include what
morn-
in Scotland is
called Horforenoon,
the word morning originally
still
denoting
the time of
differentdmes at differentseasons
between
word
the
sun
risesat
morning 9x^6.
forenoonwas
We
as
have
an
in the modem
qiecialkind of
wild
"
vol,. i"
fused.
alwaysliable to be conexampleof narrowingthe meaning of
Englishuse of dur to signifyone
'
wild animal in
"
being
general,'
T,Goo(^le
178
INTRODUCTION.
[| 514.
stilluses
as
more
deer ;
Shakespere
generalmeaning
"
teTitn
longyear.
which
the
of
(KingLear.)
important,
more
mMaphor,
by
material
objector an attributeto
abstract idea suggestedby the original
more
express some
a fox, or
meaning of the word, as when we call a sly man
ofl^ht and heal on the analogy
say that the sun is the source
of source
of a river,thus using the ^mihar word source to
we
use
express the
also when
name
abstract idea of
more
speak of
we
'
'
cause
idea
brigfil
or
or
'
origin.'So
dark schemes.
Rnd
for each
expression
an
The
616.
same
way.
the
not
and
use
Thus
the
as
it arose
was
to
aa
in his mind.
functions as
same
idea
new
It
English. So also
with
derivative elements,etc.
Linguistic
changes ofien lake the form of the loss of
sounds, sound-groups,
parts of words, and completewords.
By phoneticchange a sound may be so weakened as to
become almost inaudible,
evitable.
so that its droppingis almost inSounds and syllables
may be droppedbecause they
without them,
because the word is intelligible
are superfluous"
is shortened to exam.
Words may drop
as when examinalion
616.
out
of sentences
The
617.
when
for the
addition
it is the result of
same
of
reason.
sound is generally
only apparent
the
change "A
Old English
Englishthunder from
is really
a change of the second
Imnor, genitive
fiunres,
in
(nr)into (ndr)
of the
But
Modern
(n)into (d).
soimds
"entices
may
be
half
added
to
by external influences.
words, and
words
added
to
1519-3
HISTORY
61s. Most
gradoal in
changes
LANGUAGE:
CHANGES.
I79
"
that
so
"
OF
of them
most
carried out
are
and
soioasly bj those who speakthe language,
are
tmoni'
therefore
therefore
are
Thus
if
of through,we
if
to a
one
The
child in
children will
probably"nd
the same,
to do
it easier too.
instead
community says (fruu)
wild animal
'
in the
sense
of
word
So also if one
which
man
meant
originally
deer
deer,'because
'
because
other
(f)than (}?),
one
in their operation.
nnifonn
great extent
the
are
changewill generally
get
one
the upper
more
or
it is
Each
linguistic
change is regular in its operation.
If the meaning of a word is changed in one
sentence, wc
619.
So also if
occurs.
sound
sentences
changed
is
in
child learning
to speak makes
(]?).If
"
as
can
is generally
the
be
less
out
with
no
case
"
into (f)in
{{")
tolerable
may
One
we
find'
the words
that
certainty
that contain
it is evident
(^),
exception. But
while
into (f)'B,
0))'s
the
word,
Thus, ifwe
carried
with
assume
one
in which
that it must
bt
sound-change may
child may charge all
one
pronounce
such words
as
l80
INTRODUCTION.
Ihtnk'i.TAIhingcorrectly,
while
[| sao.
substituting
(f)in thrciigh
and
child
might change
Ihroughinto
Agun,
(]"r).
Ih in ihink into
sound, and
one
third
M
in
containing
(]").We
see
same
differentcombinations
"
we
kH, as
in know
in two
or
combination
dropped in the special
Thus
in
another
differentways,
more
Englishthe
word
accordingto
indefinitearticlean
beginning with
surroundings.
consonant,
as
in
before
a
tnan
splits
up in this
called doublets
(64).
and
521. Stress has a great influence on sound-change,
often givesrise to doublets. Thus in the Middle Englishof
Chaucer
with
and
theywere
word
in the transition to
of these words
of were
(wi[),
of),but
consonants
When
its
EarlyModem
became
voiced
sounds
original
'
case
of an,
of form is not
and function,
but in the
been
case
of Middle
in both
differentiation
English0/ was
'
'
'
T,Goo(^le
fflSTORY
s"".]
OF
LANGUAGE:
l8i
CHANGES.
restricted
EarlyModem Englishthe weak (ov)was gradually
marked adverbial
to the less emphaticmeaning, while the more
which was
by the strong(of),
meaning was appropriated
it from the preposition
written off
to distinguish
o/= (ov).In
the present English (of)has become
(sf),and the two
have divergedso
words
the adverb and the preposition
completely in fonn and meaning that the connection
them is forgotten.
In fiictof itselfhas split
between
up
into stress-doublets in the present English the strong(ov)
and the weak (sv,
a).
"
"
"
"
Effects
Chamgb
on
the
622.
each
of
other in form
relation
modified
to
one
or
Relations
two
or
more
words
resemble
stand in
meaning, or
changes,which
by linguistic
must
of otmvei^noe
in the directioneitlier
them
Words.
between
any other
liable to be
are
further
or
modify
divergeiioe.
English the
two
words
no
and
know
have
been
common
form
(nou). We
call such
levelled
phonetically
bear (theanimal)
as
Such
homonyms
in spellingas well as sound.
and lo bear show levelling
Convergent change of meaning, if carried out as far as
possibleto the point of levellingresults in a synonym.
pairshomonyms.
"
"
Thus
to
buy and
fo
purchaseare
synonyms.
noticeable in doublets. Thus
change is most
divergentsound-changein
the Modem
Divergent
we
have
Englisho/,off.
l8a
INTRODUCTION.
["S"3'
have,
directly
opposite eiFects. Convergent changes fomi
association-groups,
by bringingwords into connection
with one
another which originally
had littleor nothingin
new
Thus
common.
of
group
assocJation-
an
throughhavingexactlythe
'to pursue,'
meant
purchase originally
meaning, but
same
form
'
well
as
'
form.
as
524.
and
groups
another.
to
Thus
addition of
stress,as
in
English words
derivative
we
see
that
so
weak in another
element
association-
of
of
foreignoriginthe
often
from
group
one
shiftingof
by comparing "photograph,pho-lographer,
the stress fallson
where
pholc-graphic,
each word,
break up
to
and
which
vowe!
weak
as
causes
different syllable
in
is
strong in
vowels
one
word
oflen weakened
are
is
tc
more
lead
As
("fbntsgner,
fa-togrsfs,
fouts-grsefik).
skeletoD
of these words
the
unaltered
remains
to
us
expect:
consonant
t(^etherwith
imt
members.
has
the
change
assodation
broken,
merely loosens
In
been
bo
has
not
been
that
of
case
the
the
connection
between
off(621),where
of and
its
there
words
are
isolated from
one
another.
626.
IsolatioiL
often leads
categories.As
essence
of
we
to the
have
creation of
seen
compositionas opposed to
new
grammatical
(68),isolation is the
mere
word-grouping.
SjiS.]
HISTORY
OF
LANGUAGE:
'general
whole
of proper
Is also
adjectives
OT
in
man
particular
other brown
and
when
out
names
process
Brrnvn
surname
and
an
of
(448).
common
The
and
nouns
of isolation: when
Smith
ordinary
meaning of the
is isolated from
development
idiom
an
sentence
183
CHANGES.
the nickname
specially
assignedto one
community, althoughthere were perhaps
or
was
men
these
had
appellations
become
iixed
familynames,
use
in
hand
of
hand
nouns
with
and
etc.
as
particles,
adjectives
isolation. Thus
the
all
conjunction
cause
but in Modem
cause
of the group
that,*' throughthe cause that,'
Englishit has
completelyisolated from
itselements by and caust
not only by changeof grammatical
function,but also by the weakening of bl into be and the
of the vowel in the second syllable,
formal isolation
shortening
being carried stillfurther in the careless colloquial
been
pronunciation
(fcoz).
538.
Linguistic
changesgiverise to grammaticalirrega*
laritieB. The
two
main
classes of
consists of
number
of differentforms
'
havingdistinctthough
similar meanings, which graduallyconveiged so that they
came
to be identical in meaning and grammatical function.
Thus the originalreduplication
in the preterite
held,the
all
vowel-changein saw, and the addition of ^ in called,
a
184
ItTTRODVCTION.
althoughthere
grammaticalfunction,
837-
[| S'?-
theyeach
bad
distinctmeaning
can
can
originally.
divergent
Bound-change
4 in eaUti,stopped
preterite-endii^
the
originalunity has
the
been
broken
up
by purely
phoneticchanges.
Effects
Change
of
on
Lakouaoe
as
Means
of
Expression.
638.
We
see
can
from what
has been
said that
lingui^c
effectson languageconsidered as
changes have two opposite
of expressingideas. They have a oonstmotive
a means
and a deatruotiTe
effect: sometimes Iheyhelp to build up
the language,and make it better fitted to express ideas;
sometimes, on the other band, they tend to break up its
and make it unfit for the expressionof ideas.
structure,
It is evident that many of the changeswe have been
are
considering
mainlyconstructive. Thus the differentiatioD
G9".
of Old
English0/
offenables
words
So
us
to
the Modem
mto
express two
Englishdoublets ^ and
distinctsets of ideas
by
The
instead of
also such
distinct
guage
lan-
change.
we
are
able
to
that
also made
itmore
But
it
syllable
mono-
concise.
19
superfluous
one,
and
and
strong (wifi)
an
is
is emphatic or
weak
(wiS)is
by itselfis enough la
noL
The
equallysuperfluous.In
distinction
fact doublets
63I-]
HISTORY
LANGUAGE:
OF
185
CHANGES.
tinctions
always superfluous,
except when theydevelopuseful disof meaning, which,in ihe nature of things,
they do
only occasionally.When convergent changes result in the
are
various
"
"
but injurious.
Many changesare not only superfluous
formation of homonyms, such as a dear,to bear,although
681.
The
destructive,
positively
alwaystends
not
to
make
the
And
language
"
"
be
as
pecuHarly liable
do
When
to
be
the
in
and
mesa,
were
'
accusative
'
that,for instance,
the accusative
table,'
nominative
the
mensam,
form
common
dominus
'lord' and
accusative,dative,genitive,
dominum, between
ablative kominem
so
levelledunder
the
finally
popularLatin of
those
vowels,they are
are
inflections consist
"
same
expression.Among
important
most
affectinflectionalelements.
they often
the
therebydevelopedin
were
by
degrees entirely
being that
lost,the inevitable consequence
the feeling
first
for the grammaticaldistinctions of case vas
those case-endings
weakened, and then lost,so that even
which from their greaterfullness
"
such
as
the
genitiveplural
INTRODUCTION.
of Changes.
IiOgicftlControl
Now
"
"
ciations of their
and when
children,
boys
at
school ridicule
and expressions
of those boys who
the pronunciations
conform
do
not
and expressions
of the majority,
pronunciations
theyare all doing their best to preventchange. In "ct,
if theydid not, the languagesof two successive generations
Hence
would become
mutuallyunintelligible.
every generation
tolerateonlya certain amount
of change,so that if
can
in one direction,
it has to make up
a languagechanges much
for it by being conservative in another direction. Thus
to
the
Englishobscures
French,on
Modem
as we
freely,
see
into Middle
and
English,
the whole
the
by comparing
imported
unimpaired
was
stillkeeps itsconsonants
in the Modern
gone
Englishbeast,
althoughthe vowel has underFrench many
considerable changes.Again,in Modem
of the Old French final consonants
which are preservedin
the
writingare not pronounced, as in mats (m"). Now
is as natural to English
tendency to drop final consonants
peopleas to French, but as consonant- dropping and vowelweakening leatherwould have made English unintelligible
and unfit for the communication
check
one
or
other of these
of ideas,it was
changes. From
necessary to
a
varietyof
it was
found more
causes
complicated
necessary to check
consonant- weakening than vowel- weakening in English.
is successful
T,GoO(^le
S535-]
not
or
HISTORY
OF
depends,of
controlled. Thus
LANGUAGE:
187
CHANGES.
course,
the
and
have been,
The
EUipH.
tences
languagedrops words in groups and senbecause these words are
not
absolutely
requiredto
make sense, we have the phenomenon of ellipse
(111).We
between
must
distinguish
logicaland historical eHipse.
word is wanting to
Ziogioal ellipse implies
only that some
as in at my unclt's.
complete the grammaticalconstruction,
Historioal
ellipse impliesthat a word is missingwhich at
of the languageactually
formed part of the
an
earliefperiod
sentence, and itdoes not matter whether the missingword is
In the example just
grammatically
necessary or superfluous.
is historicalas well as grammatical. But in
giventhe ellipse
such a phraseas go to sea compared with go damn to the river,
there is no historicalellipse,
because such phraseswere framed
definitearticleat all in English,
at a periodwhen there was
no
and a few of them becoming isolated from the rest,were
able
5S4.
to
When
shorter form
to the
so
have
keptthe
presentday.
Angiogy.
6S6.
The
mdn
factor in
is
gettingrid of irregularities
exercised
by
l88
[" 53S.
INTRODVCTlOfr.
another. We
on
one
as3ociation^;ronp
consists in partial
have alreadyseen
(33)that irregulaiity
isolation from an
association-group through some
formal
etc belongto the
difference. Thus the irregular
nu"
plurals
trets etc.,bnt stand outside
same
plurals
group as the regular
extent
itto some
throughnot havingthe same ending. The
and isolationof such plurals
is the more
as
mm
irregularity
plurals
conspicuousbecause of the small number of irregular
in Enghsh,and the overwhelmingly
largenumber oT nouns
This preponderanceof die
that have their pluralin -t.
of
the members
an
only one
of nouns, the
certain masculine nouns,
considerable number
confined
to
added
were
ending -as
such
itselfbeing
slan
as
to
'stone,*
shtep. In Middle
of grammadcal gender were
soon
we
Englishthe
lost,and
as
distinctions
it
was
found
inconvenient
not
to
distinguish
Afif
as
singularand plural,such neuter nouns
'house' instead of remsuningunchanged in the pluralwere
allowed to take the ending .^=Old
English-tff of the correspondingmasculine nouns, whence the Modern English
pluralAfwj'M=0!d Englishkus; and this ending was bf
degreesextended to all nouns
except a few such as man, ox,
that the ending -en in oxtn=0\A
so
Englishoxan, instead
of beingon an equalfootingwith the ending-es, as it originally
to be an
isolated that is, an irregular
came
was,
inflection. The change therefore of such an Old English
(singular
pluralas tiaman
English
ttama)into the Modem
between
"
"
noma
be
is
not
phoneticchange of
impossible but
"
is
an
into
"
which would
external,
analogical
change due
Englishinflectionin
tianas etc.
to
'
I 538.]
in
OF
of
cases
LANGUAGE:
foim in
Which
586.
hand
HISTORY
189
CHANGES.
associaiion-group
gets the u[^t
an
on
analt^,dependspartly
used
those words
which
greatestnumber
which
is used in
words
are
in
of words, or
most
frequentuse,
small
comparatively
preponderateover
may
of words.
greaternumber
The
by being used in
that
so
of very
number
which
one
of
efficiency
form
tant
impor-
is used in
form
depends
such
partlyon its phoneticdistinctness a hissingconsonant
obscure vowel"
to an
as
J
being,for instance,preferable
that is,its freedom from
partlyon its logicaldistinctness,
to be confused with other forms.
ambiguity and hability
From thispointof view the Englishplural
-s is objectionable,
form as the genitive
because ithas the same
singular
(man's).
687.
Analogy is not onlyan instrument of change, but is
lifeof language. In speakinga language
a part of the daily
modified words
learn only a few of the grammatically
we
"
ready-made;
allthe others
think whether
as
we
we
form
on
we
zebra,in the plural,
we
do not stop
used in the
plural
before,but
6SS.
we
form
of inflecting
wise
or Other-
we
have
to
deal with
lead
us
which
irregularities
into
are
Thus an uneducated
in very frequent
use.
speakerwho
ot fungus would naturally
make it
had to form the plural
not
insteadof
the analogy
of mushrooms,mosses, etc.j
on
"funguses
in the language
form is so frequent
fungi- But if an irregular
not
so
[( 539.
INTRODUCTION.
igO
used
to such
effort that
as
irregular
plural
an
could make
we
that itisonlyby
men
if
by
an
any
obsolete,it
partially
take the plural
would certainly
and inevitably
-s, at least m
guages"at
the vulgarand colloquial
language. This is why in all lanform
the irreguleast in their natural colloquial
larities
forms
words, irregular
alwaysoccur in the conmionest
of rarer words being confined to the higherliterary
language.
S88. No one would mistake the change of n into s in the
for an organic soundpluralnames=:0\d English naman
ternal
exchange,but would at once recognizeit as an analogical,
soundchange. In some
cases, however, analogical
change might be mistaken for internal organic or imitative
with the
sound-change
by anyone who was not acquainted
internal sound-changesof the languagein question. Thus
the change of a into o in spoie='ihs
earlier spake,broh=
brake,etc.,although at firstsightit looks like an organic
chance
such
word
became
rare
or
"
"
"
in many
these
name,
into
beingfrequent
to
Englishconfined entirely
to
their preterite
so there
participles,
can
be
have
in
no
cases
spoken.
we
the
considering,
which may
one
purelyformal
of
word
or
be
totallydifferent
there is also
is modified
Eut
by
to
that of another
the other.
Thus
word
the meaning
because
'
'
to boil
thoroughly.'But
now
the
the
parbctt
the word
formed by prefixing
so
originally
per- throagh,'
meant
originally
that it
meaning
HISTORY
5S43-]
LANGUAGE:
CHANGES.
I91
throughitschangeof form,.
prefix has been forgotten
of the
and
OP
it has
word
been
has
taken the
now
part,so
noun
exactlyoppositemeaning
that ifae.
of
'
boil
imperfectly.'
We
S41.
of
phonetic
analogyin
also see
can
the fomiliariia-
as
commonly known
'popular
etymology,'as in the change oi asparagus into sparrow-grast
form which, though now
in generaluse
in
a
was
vulgar,
the last century. Familiarization consists simplyin substituting
tioa
unfamiliar wonJs,
"
regard
by some
meaning,althoughthe
or
without
syllables,
process is often
helped
chance coincidence,as in the present example,
where the fact of asparagus being a vegetablehas helpedto
fix the change of the unfamiliar gut into the familiar and
sigiuficant
grass.
B42.
Althoughanalogyworks
fiMms
are
or
group,
"
as
when a few
vigorously
broughtunder the influence of a largeassociation-
we
one
from
see
it
analogy
"
most
When
instead of
one
frequent
use, yet
the
also
can
in very
and mutually,
partially
blending.
eflectof blendingon
The
ah-eadytreated of
grammaticalconstructions
has beeri
(126).
natural
words
neut^.
such
and in German
gender (146). Thus in Old English
as
Old
Englishmagd-en,German
of animals
made
are
neuter,
mdd-chat,which origiwere
ft 544.
INTRODUCTlOlf.
I9"
littlemaid,' littlegirl,'
bat afterwards came
to
nallymeant
be appliedto full-grown
stillhavingtheir neuter
women,
gender, though it had become unmeaning. But in both
'
languagessuch
well
'
it
'
as
on
'
words
the
to
came
analogyof
be referred to
'
as
were
she
'
as
grammatically
German
beings.
has not gone any further than this : although in German
she,'it always takes a neuter
'^ mUdthen is referred to as
find such
articleand adjective.But in Middle Englishwe
"
grammatical neuters
into
metden
as
'
'
girland wi/
'
'
woman
made
regularfeminine nouns.
of Lsngoage.
sounds
6M.
in imitatiTe
words, such
as
cuckoo,buxz,hisi. We
symbolioal words,such
as
where
the Latin bibere ' to drink,'
in drinking.
b symbolizesthe action of the lips
the hp-c(Hisonant
We
enemy'
Englishy/twt/'
"
which
wag
similar to
fonned from an
originally
pah I or fieI So also the
words mamma,
m
infants.
mother,all seem
because
when
to
English"fm^
of dislike
interjection
pronoun
be made
and
it is easiest,
"
the
one
sounds
languagefirstarose, the
names
we
and the
me
sonant
up with the confirstuttered by
between
the Old
as
may
or
be
blance
resem-
sure
that
attributes,
given to things,
chance.
But there
some
association,
646.
At firsteach sound
"
thoughtthan
an
must
idea.
always have
or
Thus
been
somt
connection
rather
sound-group
expressed
when
men
HISTORY
(48.]
OF
in order to communicate
LANGUAGE.
I93
an
theymeant
to
same
be
There
primitive
speech was thus partlymade
up of gestTiro. Such a sound-gronpas cu(koo was, therefore,
can
not
doubt
'
no
true
word
and
tence
sen-
kind of Bentenae-vord.
"
that
When
peoplebegan
joinsuch
soundsignificant
sound-groups as, for
group as cuckoo to other significant
instance,to a sound-group meaning 'sing' or 'song' so
fi46.
to
"
"
that the
meaning of
the
one
might be
taken in connection
'
to be
being sentences,came
spontaneouslyin individuals
of associating
sounds with ideas through
thus
This
arose
done
at
firstmerelyfor amusement
to
communicate
mimicr^jetc.
parts
worda.
or
Language
tbe idea of
'
was
mation,
wishes,infor-
thought
after-thought This aftertbe result of community of impressionamong
was
different individuals : the sound-group cuckoo naturally
gested
sugetc., to
others
an
was
the sound
to
all who
fiimiliarwith it
1148. Of
vague
"
as
'hiss,'but
course,
when
the conitection
hist were
if,for instance,
also
necessary to make
done by a number
used
to
not only
signify
'cat,'and 'steam'
'serpent,'
it more
definite; and
or
foncifiil,
was
"
it became
this could
cmly be
of individualscon^antlymeeting together
what meaning to give to each soundand settling
definitely
group.
Of
course
and
itself,
unconsciously,
choice
and
was
time when
about of
which
consultation,
at a
imposrible
not
came
[( 549.
lNrRODUCTIOl"f.
194
When
649.
between words
longerself-evident,
except in
the language had
to
be learnt
was
theyexpressed
cases, and
few
\"jone
one
nection
conno
the details of
the infants of
\"'j
SSO.
but
Dbyklofhknt
As
Grahkaticai.
of
have
Catbgobixs.
we
seen,
"
in
out
of separate sentences,
number
evekoo
'
the cuckoo sings
tingwould mean
cuckoo,'and sing(orsong)cuckoo would mean
of
singing)
sometimes
singing
the song
(or
other principles
of word-order,which
are
contradict this
word-order consists in
prominentin
as
'
the
the cuckoo.'
But there
664.
'
or
thai
the
order. Empb"tia
purelylogical
puttingfirstthat word which is most
Thus
mind.
speaker's
man
is
good
is evident that
good
is
accompanying
man,
because
more
man
or
in
it is
such
good
important word
the
idea
tence
sen-
man,
than
it
the
expressed by the
SS6.]
HISTORY
latter word
Hence
has
OF
LANGUAGE.
195
been
ht.
or
alreadyexpressedby Ihal man
languageswhich generallyput an assumptive
many
after its noun
adjective
often
firstwhen
put the adjective
it is
mouse
may
admit
of
of
variety
natural word-
orders.
out
If the
cat catch ; if he
sees
dead
mouse
and
cat
at
of each
firsthave been
language
primitive
a
fixed one,
not
"
"
And
not
never
have developed
but composition,
onlyinflection,
Primitive
language consisted,
then, of series of lull-
At firstsentences
were
formed
with
"
eld
brother,
young
ig6
[( 557.
tNTSODUCTtON.
of such groups
other word
which
words,
or
subordinate
felt to be
were
be
to
came
the
to
tween
stress,so that a distinctioncould be made, for instance,behere '
'l
"iere =
'me
here,'and
un
-A^"='the
'inait
man
this man.'
'
words
groups in the
of the group
off from the other words and wordWhen
sentence.
accompaniedby
members
this formal
isobtion
was
isolationof
into oomponndfl,
so
that
tltiei bird
that between
distinctions as
ordinate,
sublogically
and
Nackbird
in
English.
thus subordinated in
and meaning
stress
others.
Such
some
would be in
as
adjective
an
generaltise than
more
while would
ordinated
apedallysubsuch an adjunct
be
Bubstance-wwds ; bat
ffus would be connected with almost
to but few
here
as
or
all sudi
All
of such
show a greatvariety
primitive
languages
demonstrative words, whose meanings become
and
more
words.
more
definite and
word
which
be used
as
here meant
also when
fixed
as
the languagede^'elops.When
originally
pointedto
a
an
objectin
space
to
came
reference-word,
so
that,for instance,
mux-
mere
such
some
became
distinction
form-word.
made
was
as
So
between
form-word"
lopbecame
word
in this case,
its way
on
to
become
mere
"
as
When
its sound
stress,it is natural
in various ways.
to
Such
to
other words
T,Goo(^le
SS9-]
OF
HISTORY
subordinate words
as
LANGUAGE.
English(dgonz
here,John will come,
observe in the
can
we
I97
666.
an
inseparable
partof the word
it ceases
be
to
itforms part of
nized
number
words
new
part of
becomes
shop makes
when
as
"
it into the
in
word ; and if
easily
recc%-
either a derivativeor
the words
If it makes
same
weakening,
to be
as
generalmodifier,itbecomes
that it becomes
and is at the
it modifies,
of words, so
inflectional
element.
into
to
as
word, and
much
so
isolated from
time
an
is obscured
form-word
it modifies
new
shopman
itis
"
deriT"-
least a
itsway to become
on
composition-element
if it leaves the special
a derivative;
meaning of the words it
modifies unaltered,
and merelyadds some
generalqualification,
and shows that they stand in certain grammaticalrelations
tive, or
to
at
other words
in the sentence, it is
inflection. Thus
enough
not
Mere
inflection.
an
to
constitutea
will,does
(1)in (hijl)=^
because it is added indifferently
not constitute an inflection,
to all words, and because we
can
change the unemphatic
into the emphatic(hij
and so break up the con(hijl)
wil),
nection
between
form
of the
the
words
two
the
and
(1).(^man) in shopman,
the fullword
used
as
can
see
how
form-words
the
full
original
on
thoughonlya weakening of
anywhere in a sentence
and is inseparably
connected
the
restore
(man), cannot
unemphaticform of
develop into
it modifies.
true
divide aimerai
(I)have,'but
from
aimtr
'
and
to
words
from
comes
love,' We
aimer
We
at,
still
can
'to-love
avons,
isolated,
though to
a
hoBeo, I have
amare
man,
inflections in
'
be
we
less
have.' Aimerai
itselfis
construction in French
as
really
as
possible
im-
198
in
INTRODVCTIOK.
English. The
it b
fonn, as
in
never
of
the
Parts
except after
occurs
isolated
(wount)compared
Origin
in the
sentences
dependent to
are
Spezch.
or
the fullwords.
Thus
in
extent
some
tracted
con-
(wilnot)v)iU
with
660.
garded
re-
well as
as
grammatically
themselves
are
be
may
infiectionalelement,for
on
as
be
[S 560.
on
full-words in
the meaning of
primitive
language there would
6(11. These
not
be used
The
as
would be
used as predicates
frequently
phenomenon-words,such as /all,melt,come, which cannot
so
words
most
therefore
connection
with theirheadwords,
therefore be staled
expressly.
and
Substance-words
phenomenon-words would
have different posidohsin the sentence, and by
must
degreesdifferent form-words
Substance-words would
would
cluster round
them.
of 'tree'would
one
be
'more
tree,'
than
words, on
'
'
requirethese modifiers,
distinctions
by other words expressing
of time and other accompaniments of phenomena ; thus the
idea
'
HISTORY
sS6.]
'
'
would
come
199
'
past,'
in the
come
etc.
future,'
in the
come
LANGUAGE.
OF
But
be very
the
felt; itwould
soon
convenient
to
"
be
soon
between
distinguish
necessary
the
man
least,
or, at
"
here and ty
man
be desirable to distinguish
even
'
'
'
'
'
'
languagesall over
the world.
We
can
still
see
firstperson pronoun
in the English a-m,
'exigence of-me' or' my being.'
meant
Such a thoughtas 'the tree is
666.
the primitive
which
originally
green' could
but such
i/s-green{ness),
expressedsimilarly
by the tree
is there' would
be more
thought as 'the man
expressed by a construction equivalentto the
there
the
or
man
stays there.
So
be
a
naturally
stands
man
green'
meaning
how
and
this happens
imply standingor
not
to was
equivalent
to find
surprised
'
and
that
was
to
rest
words
In
came
English
be.
stood
We
need
not
itselforiginally
meant
meant
remained,'and that be originally
666.
see
easily
He stood convicted,
to rest content,
etc, where
phrasesas
does
can
pure link-verbs. We
by thinking of such Modem
became
therefore be
'
dwelt
'
or
'
grow.'
this way verbs that were
originally
phenomenonto have the purelygrammaticalfunction of predication.
So
also form-words
or
inflectionswhich
marked
[( 567.
INTRODUCTION.
aoo
came
onginalsubstance-words gradually
to
'
conceptionof subject-vord;
'
matical
suggestthe gram-
and when
it became
"
marks
which
substance-words
were
marked
tru
as
longer
no
sarily
neces-
as
'
897.
The
further
developmentof
parts of speechis
the
analogy,
etc.,which
have been
described. Thua
already
(81),by which declinable
isolationmade
Belations
seS.
of
and
nouns
LaogoageB
It is evident from
indeclinable adverbs ;
what
another.
to one
has
into
adjectives
been
said about
the
as
the number
of such communities
indefinitely
great in the earlyperiodsof
must
have been
nected
languages. But
necessary
immense
obscure
can
number
to
use
of
communities
observe
669.
indefinite number
an
The
as
civihzation
must
man's
have
been
there
history,
of separate, imconcame
increased,and it be-
single
languagesover wider areas, an
languagesspoken only by small and
became
extinct
"
process which
we
going on sdll.
difference between
languagesis
not
always the
571-1
HISTORV
OP
result of difFerenceaof
language bears
other
LANGUAGE.
aoi
more
or
to
certain
guages
language. We call such lanbelongingto the same fbmily of
cognate languages,
and descended from a common
languages,
parent language.
Thus English,
longing
Latin,and Greek are cognate languagesbefrom Parent
to the Arian family,and descended
of
Arian.
and
can
and
one
We
have
the
same
no
only reconstruct
it hypothetically
by comparing its
and so finding
out what original
together,
featuresofthe parentlanguageare preserved
in them. Id other
cases, however, the parent language has been preserved
though,of course, only in a dead,'written form so that we
do not requireto construct it hypothetically.
Thus
French,
and Portugueseare all Romance
Italian,
languages,
Spanish,
extant
descendants
"
'
"
Lingnlatio Separation
Cognate
870.
and
The
uniform
unityof
Languages.
languagecan
intercourse between
be
of the
farthest away
fi71. If
from it
dialect
govenunent,
or
or
if communication
is checked in any
other
: the
corresponding
linguistic
divergence
iNTRObUCTtON.
lOi
dialectsthus
developmany
attains
and
divergerapidly
But when
S72.
don
cut
\s 5J3.
nation thus
of dialects
speakinga variety
that unity
and
highdegree of civilization,
which
results in
centraliza^
results
becoming the capital,
also in one
definitedialect generally,
of course, that of the
itself being used as the general
of communication
means
capital
one
town
"
"
the
throughout
whole
as is generif,
territory,
especially
ally
the case, the dialectshave alreadydivergedso much from
each other that some
at leastof them are mutually
unintelligible.
If this centralizationgoes on
long enough, this
dialect swallows up the local dialects,
standard
common
or
fluenced
inalthoughbefore that happens it is generally
considerably
673.
Englishwe
in modem
whoU{^'i\.1).
674.
There
and language.
is
no
dialeot
a
divergentchanges,so that a group of dialects becomes
"mily of cognate languages. When we descrit"etwo or more
forms of speech as
distinct but cognate languages,'
we
and that
generallyimply that they are mutuallyunintelligible
theyare spoken by distinctnationalities,
of intercourse between the speakersof a
676,
Uniformity
languagemay be checked in various ways besides separation
in space.
Even
in only moderately civilized communities
class separation
leads to the distinctionbetween aristocratic,
refined, or educated speech on the one hand, and vulgar
coterie,
speechon the other. So also each trade,profession,
technical language or slang.
etc. tends to develop its own
'
We
may
576.
to
of
language.
keep up words,
we
10
be
get sacred
MISTQRY
IS?80
or
LANGUAGE.
OF
as
the
iOJ
language of
the
English
For in literature
and various Utersir strata.
Prayer-book,
itselfwc must distii^uish
the languageof poetrr
between
and of proee, and ^ain, between the higherand the lower
to the spoken language.
prose, the latter approachingmost
Hence
also
make
we
distinction between
the Uteraryand
colloquial
language. Although this distinction
is not dependent on writing bdng found in the languages
of illiteratesavages"yet the preservation
of an
archaic
literary
language is greatlyhelped b; its being at the same
the spoken
or
"
time
written
language.
S77. It is importantto observe that the literary
language
is always colloquial
in its origin: all literary
forms which
differ from the contemporary spoken language are
really
fossilized coUoquialismsof an
earlier period. Thus
such
used only in the
forms as tkoa hast,fie hath,which are now
in common
and poedcal strata,were
once
colloquial
liturgical
extent anachronisms,
use.
Literarylanguages are therefore to some
guage
being a mixture of the contemporary spoken lanwith the spoken languagesof earlierperiods. For this
the studyof a language should always be based
as
reason
far as possible on the spoken languageof the periodwhich
a
"
"
of
one
language
on
another.
speakersof
to
the
grammar
strong
the two
mixture
of
and
languagesin sounds, inflections,
well
as
generally,
influence of
limit
one
as
in
vocabulary. But
language on
veiy
another generally
ends
in the
T,Goo(^le
INTRODUCTION,
AND
DIVISIONS
We
B7e.
deBoriptdTs
have
or
OF
METHODS
seen
(3) that
GRAMMAR.
grammar
be
may
either
y with
Syntax.
and
business of grammar
those relations between forms and
581.
The
is to
and
state
meanings which
ezpl^n
can
be
"
"
distinctionsof form
itself
on
grammar
accidence
as
much
as
and
possible,
concentrates
Thus
an
English
in
would under
of nouns
dealingwith the plurals
tfae meaning of pluralstale briefly
inflectionsin
T,Goo(^le
SSa.l
DIVISIONS
as, for
so
GRAMMAR.
10$
but would
general,
them"
identify
OF
between
to distinguish
instance,
to
the
concern
meaning
ex-
the other
aa
those between
formal
distinctions
as
meaiiing and
various
ways
are
joinedtogetherin
sentences.
Trora the
syntax is regarded entirely
grammars
latter point of view, so that it is identified with the analysis
In
some
syntax
too
much,
it is
no
doubt
sometimes
convenient
most
to
of the
SSa.
can
of
meaning
Syntaxmay
be studiedfrom two
their uses,
as
when
we
the
pointsof
view. We
mood ; or we
the subjunctive
or
case
genitive
may
describe
and
the
differentforms
take a grammatical
category,
of the
as when
we
give an account
by which it is expressed,
is expressed by a single
different ways in which predication
or
noun-word, etc.
verb,by the verb lo be with an adjective
and Ic^oal syntax respecthese as tonaxX
We distinguish
tively.
of the
"
ao5
INTRODUCTIOy.
[| 583.
"
whidi
arc
"
more
than to the
generalgrammar
GkAIOUR
'
S88.
We
have
one
DiCTIOftAKT.
and
(18)that the
seen
of
special
grammar
grammar
is d
i of
be
can
and
of the fonns and functions of inflections,
description
But
form-words,many
form-word
in
Even
and
dealingwith Latin
should
prepositions
fluctuating.
whether
question
or
not
be included
in the grammar
; but as in
only a kind of auxiliaries to the
it is
and
is regardedrather as an
prepositions
than as an integral
appendixto the grammar
partof it In
English,on the other hand, the prepositions
playso important
of more
a grammatical
wei^t
part that theyare really
than
no
of
more
be excluded
verb-forms
with vldil ' he
But the number
that
of case-inflection,
so
from
as
English grammar
miriliu
esl
'
he
theycan
than such
periphrastic
wondered,'compared
are
SO
various,that in
grammar
587.]
DIVISIONS
of limited
and omit
GRAMMAR.
OF
lengthit i3 necessary
detailswhich
do
to
select a
bear
not
207
part of the facts,
on
directly
grammatical
questions.
Kor
is historical grammar
concerned with the e^*
mologiesof isolatedwords, for which it refers the student
686.
dictionary.
etymological
to an
DESCRIFTrVI
HISTORICAL
AKD
GsAUHAR.
it is
In studying grammar
and
to earUer periods,
stepping-stones
in order to reconstruct
studies a tiunily
of languagessolely
their parent language,ignoringas much
as
possiblethe
cbaracteristic independent developments in the separate
merely
687.
The
as
first thingin
learn
to
is to
a language
studying
the
'
"
relations are
while in Latin,agun,
relation,
distinguished
sharply
by the
accusa-
ao8
INTROBVCTIOtf.
live and
nominative
inflections. Hence
genius of Englishto
of Latin
traces of
[| sB8.
set
up
and
grammar;
it is
accusative
an
case
againstthe
in imitation
subjunctive
mood,
have
acknowledge that
the language has entirely
lost the feelingfor the original
function of the mood as an expressionof thought-statements,
stillkeep the old
so that the few constructions in which
we
inflectionare onlyfossilizedarchaisms. Distinctionsof verband of verbal-groups
tense, and the use of prepositions
instead of dependent sentences
the other hand,
are, on
highljr
developedin English,and are part of the geniusof
the language. The fiunilty
know
by which we instinctively
whether
the
to
or
sense.' This
some
form
certun
we
more
"cultyis naturally
highlydevelopedin
ened
always be strength-
possible.
descriptive
point of
cnltivateit as far as
S8B.
From
the
of
phenomenaare
grammar
view
two
linguistic
is to
grammatical
In English
as
the
are
"
"
that
even
such
noun
as
Norman
to
become
forms
its
Normans.
plural
/or- in forgiveare
fossilised in meaning
dead.
and
Dead
isolated
DIVISIONS
I 589.]
from
OF
GRAMMAR.
one
aog
forbidhave nothingin
common
Dead
forms
are
of amusement
sometimes
in
'
GxAmuTicAL
DnncuLTiES.
S89.
'
sense
linguistic
construction survives
only in
be
at
loss with
be based
can
which
occur
Hence
fre-
tf a form
or
our
sense
fossilized,
linguistic
regard to it,because
may
learnt it
have
we
without havinghad
ready-madeand therefore mechanically,
occasion
either to form
forms
conatroctions,
or
or
it afresh
on
form
to
rather,in such
is
sentences
example of
an
such
/ had
aa
isolated
an
grammaticalinstinct
leaves us at fault In this construction we
hardlyknow
ask
verb or an auxiliary
whether to regardhad as a fiill
: we
If itis a Ml verb,what is its direct object rather
ourselves,
"x noti; either supposition
our
sense ;
hnguistic
goes against
in r^ard
construction,
to
which
our
"
and, on
constructionas */ had do it
is grammatically
impossible.In the
would
rather
these difficulties
disappear. From
and descriptive
logical
pointof
take such
I.
are
purely
simplyinsmrnonntable ; and
constructions
grammatical analysis-^just
as we
VOL.
form
colloquial
more
as
take such
wholes, without
a
word
as
man
INTRODUCTION.
aio
as
LI Sjo-
such
as
and
Ihtmselvet,
its meaning
it is made
up. Blendings,
constructions also offer
elliptical
specialgrammatical difBculties.
680. All such difficulties
requirethe help of historical
Sometimes, indeed, the historical explanationis
grammar.
of the blending
these kind 0/ ihings
as in the case
self-evident,
and the ellipse
ht is al Mr. Smih's.
The difBculty
of
\a
such forms
on
can
be
historicalinvestigation.
Even
historicalinvestigation
is necessary as
self-evident,
Fd rather may be
corrective (7). Thus, as the colloquial
contraction
seems
either of / had
rather
or
/ wouid rather,
we
ezpandon of
I'd.
rather to be the
But historicalinvestigation
shows / had
form.
original
Grammatical
681.
Before
be
Analysis.
a sentence
analysing
it should
generallybe
complex as
we
should understand
(460).
682.
Analysis from a purelydescriptive
pointof view
should then follow.
The
most
elementarystep in this
analyasis to settlewhat parts of speechthe separatewords
known as pareittg. The
belong to, an operationgenerally
empty
relations between
sentence
the words
should then be
analj^ed,and
msrosr
S94-]
of
engush.
an
admit of
not
'
'istdated
ti(Ktdesignated
as
S9S.
Any bistorica} or
abnonnal.
or
comparativequestionsthat may
it
advis-
seems
languageswhether cognate or
Historical and
not.
should
general grammar
when
HISTORY
be admitted
only
learninga foreign
cautiously.
ENGUSH.
Periods.
604.
The
'Englishlanguage'in
name
its widest
sense
of convenience
of the
EngllBh
and
the
as
ME
sidnat),
son,
three main
distinguish
language,namely
(M"),
be defined
sunt,
we
MnE
stptus),
Old
tory
stagesin the his-
English (MnE).
Uodem
OE
the
as
present time.
divided into
as
these main
an
{moon,sun,
late
follows :-:"
English
sition
tran-
early and
periodsare, roughly,as
Late Modem
sunu,
We
further distinguish
periodsof
siones=:Si.Q'aai,).
between
may
700-900
900-1100
iioo-iaoo
1200-1300
1300-1400
1400-1500
IS00-16SO
i6jo-
412
to
INTRODVCTIOlf.
which
be added
may
understand
[| 595.
Sngliab, by which
Present
we
the
speaking,
itfth-centary
English.
Cognate
6B6,
Englishbelongsto
descended from
Languages.
of languages,
(orAryan)fomily
Parent Arian language,
hypothetical
the Arian
table,different
given in the following
are
their development
bemg
dashes
"
Asiatic :
(A) Bftst-Arian,or
the
(j)Sanskrit,
separated
by
sacred
languageof India
"
languagesof India.
Zend
Old
or
:
languages
Pali" Bengali
(f")Iranian
Bactrian.
Old
Modem
Persian.
(c)Armenian, which
is
Wesl-Arian.
(B) 'West-Arian
("/)Greek
Latin
If)
French
Romaic
"
"
European :
or
Modem
or
the Bomanoe
Greek.
languages; Italian,Proven9al,
Spanish,Portuguese,
French),
(Old French,Modem
Roumanian.
(/)
languages. Gaulish.
Celtio
Irish,Manx, Gaelic.
Breton
The
Cymric
The
group
Ooidelio
:
group
Welsh, Cornish,
from Britain).
{introduced
(g) Slavonio
"
Russian,
(1)Oermanio
696.
The
languages.
Germanic
consists of the
group, to which
Ei^lish belongs,
followinglanguages;
"
(A) East-Gemuuiia
(a) Gothic.
\b)
Soandlnavian
languages.WoBt-Scandinavian group
HISTORY
1 6ot.]
Norwegian, Icelandic.
OF
ENGLISH.
aij
East-Scandinavian group:
Danish,
Swedish.
(B)
if)tow
WeBt-Gtonuanio
languages.Old Saxon
At^o-Frisian
group : English,Frisian.
(rf)High Gennan, or Gennan.
0"nuan
Englishis then
S97.
of the Low
Gennan
of the
member
Anglo-Frisian
groop
languages.
Old
EngliBh.
conqueredby
partiallj
other side of the German
perhapsearlier Britainwas
or
"
(OE Seaxan),from
(a) Saxons
Dutch,Flemisfa.
"
were
"
the
The
SOB.
firstsettlement is said
who took
Jutes,
The
eoo.
Kent
to
Saxons
Wight
means
South-Saxons
the Thames
in
'
(OE Sup-staxan)
;
Middlesex, which
means
some
north
of
'Middle-Saxons'
'
'
The
rest
of
England was
Suffolk
Anglians occupiedwhat
are
now
WTRODUCTION.
314
the Thames
ticB,betw"n
called Ueroiana
from OE
'
the Humber.
and
(0" Mierci),which
'
taearc
These
'
means
were
borderers,'
was
so
called
becEuise it bordered
or
[* (kw.
on
'
the
of Northumbrituu
name
thus
the Lowlands
the
century we
tribes
spoke the
umbrian
and
Anglian
by degrees,so
the Firth
and
alreadyin
more
originally
but in course
Saxon dialects,
by West-Saxon.
dialects:
and
Smthem
the
8ch
ITorth-
the
Kentdsh, which
group.
akin
was
ences
differ-
together constitute
West-Baxon
togetherconstitute the
Anglo-Frisian
dialect. These
that
which
UotoImi,
group;
Kentish
same
four main
distinguish
can
to
languagewith slightdiiferencesof
increased
up
of Scotland.
All these
603.
included
extended
(OE Norp-
to
the
of time it was
their common
agreed in calling
that is,'Anglish,'
because
language English (OE ^nglisi),
for a long time the dominant
tribe. The
the Angleswere
608.
supremacy
afterwards
passed to
the
Winchester, became
capital,
West-Saxon
became
literary
language all
the
capitalof England;
the officialand, to
over
England. The
and
still
to
call their
"
"
in the dialect of
King Alfred.
HISTORY
|6o8.]
OF
Characteristics
606.
ENGLISH.
Old
of
of OE
The characteristics
are
315
English.
those of the other Low
German
Latin
Modem
and
Gennan.
German.
Modem
Gennan
in
In
its syntax it
It also
resembled
closely
resembled
Modem
words
'
and
sunJor-i^an).
Latin
Nevertheless it
606.
Intlusncz.
adopted many
Latin
'
'
the Romanized
from
leamt
'
ladtn language
city,'
'
'
emperor
as
from
while others
Britons,such
as
from caslra,(Jingva)
Laftna.
ceaster
These
There, is another
layerof learned
in after the introduction of Christianity
in
all popularwords.
words
which
59 J.
Such words
'
of
such words
"
'
'
are
the Continent
mil
mile,'catere
high road,' street,'
Caesar
{via)slrSia,milia {passuum),
'
j/riz/
were
came
'
'
mynsfer monastery,'
ieofol devil,'
_/Srf
are
from diaiolus,
verse,'
monaslerium,versus.
CsLTic
Very
607.
Celtic words
few
Britons themselves
the
were
inhabitants
example of
Towards
the
Romanized, especially
were
'
'
Celtic word
the end
because
mainly the
soldiers, dry sorcerer
legionary
SCAHDINAVIAN
608.
into OE,
came
great extent
of the cities,
who
to
Intluincx.
in OE.
InFLUXNCK.
'
'
"
aifi
INTRODUCTION.
[(609.
(in
centurythey had conqueredand settled"ast-Anglia
next
870),Mercia (in874),and
in the
next
century they
Northumbria
(in876); although
forced to acknowledgethe
were
line was
609.
of the West-Saxon
the Confessor.
navian
periodthat ScandiNorthumbrian (ofabout
Influknck.
Norman
influence
begins; and
the Norman
made
languagewas
The
612.
course
does
not
were
Hastings
king of England,although
completedtill1071.
Scandinavian
by
race, but
their
influence of Norman
French
on
OE
was
of
even
not
even
'
the battle of
in 1066
duke William
words
Conquest,such
OE
passed into literary
easUl 'castle,'
as
tapun
fowi'
Xiddle
618.
In itsMiddle
TingHgh.
periodEnglishwent
changed,most of the
old inflectionswere
lost,their placebeing suppliedby formwords
prepositions,
auxiliary
verbs, etc. and many words
"
became
"
obsolete.
Dialects
Norman
Midduc
Enolish.
The
of
to the
OF
HISTORY
617.]
developmentof
most
of them
317
continuations of the OE
are
ENGLISH.
dialects
it is convenient
ones,
by different names.
The
main
call
to
divisions are
to the
under
'
the
'North-Thames
tenn
South-Thames
Its
enabled
ezerdse
it to
predominating
the heart of England
direct influence
another.
one
English/the
the
was
positionin
commanding
include
English,'
616.
one.
under
We
Hence
on
were
the earliestSouthern
even
of
about
I20O
Old Mercian
to
changeswhich
one
or
dialect
"
It is
616.
"
of
England than
went
in the South.
guish
distinmuch
on
In "ict,
on
"
confusion in the
use
of inflections,
and
was
thus almost
on
Midland
dialectswere
For
we
betwkek
dialects.
French
and
as
Engush.
languages,French and
two
English,
keptabnost enturely
apart.
almost
dialects.
the periods
of English
distinguish
(604)
the South-Thames
Struggle
617.
conservative than
and lost
then,that the criteriaof full,
levelled,
endingsby which
applyonlyto
so
more
as
The
Englishof laoo is
the Englishof 1050;
ai8
INTRODUCTION.
[| 618.
hand.
In 1258
lion of
Henry
into disuse
English was
we
In the
III.
fell
centuiyFrench gradually
In 1361 Englishwas
the aristocracy.
among
even
introduced in the
next
courts
Englishtook
time
same
steadily
gaining the upper
find it officially
employed in the Proclama-
Meanwhile
618.
began to be
not
the
placeof French
as
About
the
the vehicle of
instruction in schools.
Rise
In the ME
619.
that
of
of
speakers
dialectswere
no
the need
of
periodthe
where
Such
Northern and
longerable
to
be formed
centre
pressing. Such
London, which
was
of intercourse
constantly.
only the
placeof great and growing
not
was
now
London
dialect,as
we
mixture
from
its
Midland
the
understand
than
Northerners
dialectwas
another.
Hence
the latter
might expect
these
between
two
the
only geographically
speakersof Midland
Southern
could
element
Hence
dialect became
of the ME
and
fitted to
peculiarly
generalcommunication.
in the London
intermediate
Southerners
the Midland
we
such
Southern, not
both Northern
and
as
border-line between
that
so
linguisticalty;
also
could
course
Southern forms
made
and
positionon
dialects. The
two
importance.
The
620.
another,and
one
centre
Southern
extreme
onlyin
much
so
diverged
understand
dialect became
common
speakersfrom
a
dialects had
the extreme
dialect can
common
Dialect.
Lokdon
thx
tn
much
understand
the London
serve
better
as
one
dialect
means
of
element
period,tillat
last
even
Northern forms
T,Goo(^le
OF
HISTORY
1 6ii.]
into it
passed
throughthe
while Southern
ENGUSH.
mediam
influence became
119
of the Midland
weaker
dialect,
and weaker.
SCAHDINAVIAN INFLUENCE.
Of
621.
settlersin
the Scandinavian
wegians
England the Nor-
Danes
Scandinavian dialect,
the difference between
Englishseem
to
be
East-
an
these dialects
Scandinavian
words
mostly Danish.
ported
im-
Although
to the Anglointelligible
not
so
were
hiii
"
'
Englishand
house,' land
Englishgot the
left its mark
so
that the
"
the
as
facility
same
upper
many
words
in
mon
com-
'
Scandinavian
with the
and had
structure
gether
languagesblended tothat spoke them.
races
nevertheless
Midland
on
half Scandinavian.
///,/ro
"ii
'
to
and fro,'
iipuitdin
'
bound
are
place,'
examplesof Scandinavian words in English
t7i-r bad,'/ra from,"iSimt ready').
(Icelandic
for
'
'
'
French
The
022.
not
or
the
Norman
French
but
uniform dialect,
iNnuBNCs.
which
sub-dialects,
wag
introduced into
England
itselfsplit
up into local varieties
in the Norman
spoken in England
'Anglo-French'language were
'
'
was
"
or
Ai^lo-Nonnan
mixed hither indiscriminately.
The accession of Henry of
Anjou in 1154 brought in the influence of another French
"
an
end
to
loss of
Normandy
in 1304
put
; and hence*
French
onlyby the literary
of Paris,this Parisian French havingthe same
predominance
the
among the French dialects as London Englishhad among
forthAnglo-Frenchwas
Englishdialects.
influenced
the influence of
Anglo-
INTRODUCTION.
230
[| 633.
on
"
"
in its pronunciation.
especially
Old
French
was
"
Arian
origin
"
but
also in much
was
the
stage of
same
in generalcharacter between
development.This similarity
increased their influence on one
the two languages greatly
another.
024.
French influence on
vocabulary.Soon
Englishis most
marked
in the
after the
severalcenturiesto be
and sank almost
life,
dialect. So when
peasant's
Englishcame again into generaluse, it had lost a great part
of its highervocabulary,
for which it had to use French
a
mere
sir,Juke ; captain,
army, ialtU
words, such
as
Even
when
the
often
expressedby
such
to
as
Englishword
French
word, whence
Old
was
French
preach.
\ sermon,
kept,the
idea
same
numerous
was
nonyms
sy-
sad/ieile.
Influenck.
itself we
between
distinguish
The popular words in Old
words.
popular and learned
from Latin senior older,'
French, such as sire lord,'
are
simply Ladn words which have undergone those changes
which take placein every language whose developmentis
natural and unimpeded. But as Latin was
kept up as an
might almost say a living language
independent we
throughout the Middle Ages, Latin words were
imported
into Old French as well as the other Romance
languages,
being used firstin books, then in ordinary speech. These
026.
In
'
"
must
'
"
T,Goo(^le
HISTORY
t 631.]
learned words
OF
kept as
were
ENGLISH.
much
Latin word
which
possibleunchanged,
as
written.
221
had
assumed
It oflen
happened
in
popular form
logical
re-importeddirect from Latin,so that chrono-
French, was
doublets
formed,suph
were
as
'
'
rat'A/*wretched
the
and
English cailiff
and captxvt.
These
626.
learned French
ME
in great numbers.
be importeddirectiy
into
words
Hence
when
introduced
were
Latin words
EngHsh, theywere
came
into
to
the
shapeon
-Ko, such
made
as
into -tion
older
and
(Mn"
French
had
French
many
the
nomination)on
such
importations,
627.
mminSlio, was
as
also
idioms
nation
and
analogy of the
(ME ndcioun).
influence
some
Latin, it was
on
phrases were
English syntax,
adopted into
628.
the
grammatical
structure
between
^reements
numerous
result of
In the Middle
an
became
Englishwas
the two
not
great,the
lai^piages
beingthe
independentdevelopment,
Hodem
628.
of
on
'Bng"**'-
periodliterary
Englishwas
stilldistinctly
periodit
of
The
Modern
periodis that of the completeascendencyof the London dialect,which henceforth is the only
used in writingthroughout
one
England, Henceforth the
other dialectsof England continued to exist only as illiterate
forms of speech confined within narrow
areas.
681. The Northern dialect of Scotland was
more
dent
indepenof the influence of the London dialect; but long before
680.
T,
introduction.
aaa
of the
ciowns
[j 63a.
countries in 1603
two
Htcrajy
Scotch
well
'
as
continued to
'
and country up
to
the
England,on
of
although,
it
always
liableto be influencedby the localdialectsin various'
degrees,
stances.
accordingto the education of the speakerand other circumwhose
course,
was
"
the sacred
or
liturgical
languageof the wliole English-speaking
race.
Influbncx
684. In the
op
Lasguagzs.
othsk
Early Modem
the
period,
Renascence
"
the
revival of the
Rome"
the
as
well
led
as
to
adoptionof
an
immense
Latinized,
just as the Latin words
Englishwere
Frenchified.
words
number
of Greek
being generally
HISTORY
S 639.]
As the firstprt^e
636.
Latin,or
from
Latin
OF
in
was
some
BNGUSH.
writingswere
respects a
more
2*3
moGtlyeither
lations
trans-
of scholars to whom
natural
means
of
pression
ex-
"
"
which were
learned and technical
at firstpurely
expressions
passed into the language of everyday life; while,on the
other hand, many
As
686.
became
others became
the relations of
obsolete.
England
with
other countries
687. Standard
influenced by the
revival of Broad
literary
the end of the lastcentury by Scott and Bums has
at
introduced many
6SB.
MnE
main
of
new
Late MnE
of selectionand
Present
680.
In
the second
English.
INTRODUCTION.
334
[S 640
way
to
Standard
English.
But
040.
on
themselves
new
by cleavageof the
in the Modem
local dialectsare
ing
developdialect
London
common
period
"
"
mainlythroughcolonization.
Englishcolonization of Ireland
The
64L
in the
Early
Modern
which
English,
is in many
cases
more
archaic than
speechof
Englishmixed
in various
Through
642.
degreeswith vulgarIrish-English.
the American
17th centuries,
States and
of Standard
Canada
is another
America
English of the
modification
independent
English,
thoughmuch
Educated American
almost
Irish-English.
English is now
and differsfrom it
of British influence,
independent
entirely
considerably,
though as yet not enough to make the two
dialects American
Englishand British English mutually
"
"
Zealand
during
speech differsbut
vulgarLondon
than
colonized
were
'
'
or
servable
mainly obin the spoken language. Literary
English still
maintains its unityeverywhere,a few 'Americanisms'
ex^
the differencesof the spoken dialectsbeing utilisedin
cepted,
Uteraluie only for comic piu-poses,or to givewhat is called
644.
new
dialectal differences
are
T,Goo(^le
fflSTORY
i 647.]
'
local
OF
ENGLISH.
425
and
generallyonlypartial
often inaccurate.
This grammar
deals mainly with educated British
English,the standard for which is the educated speechof
646.
London
England generally.
Stkata.
646.
or
must
'strata,'
distinguish
non-local dialects.
the
spoken or
and the vnitten or Uterary
language. The spoken
colloquial,
colloquial,
educated or polite
as
language is again distingmshed
047. The
main
"
"
archaisms.
FHOHOLOaT.
PHONETICS.
648.
649.
As
Uie
ordinary or
Bpeecb"50unds.
nomio
spelling does
is
( ). Thus (ssskl)
the
not
to use
enclose
phoneticspellingof Nomic
circle.
AnalysiB.
The
680.
foundation of
from the
Tkkoat-sounds
661.
throat
The
firstmodification
Breath
the breath
and
are
kept apart so
Voice.
undergoes is
stretched
across
can
in the
the
pass
have
breath, as in
through with but littlehindrance, we
and in the consonant
(h),as
ordinarybreathing or sighing,
in high. If the chords are broughttogether
so
as to vibrate,
we
have
Toico, as in murmuring
Nasal
662.
a
nasal
or
in the word
err.
Sounds.
T,Goo(^le
66".]
PHONETICS.
sounds that
(b) in atnier,the
the nvnla
non-nasal strands
nasal
not
are
MJ
"
such
"
nose-paBsage
is closed
the
as
by pressingback
soft palate.
or
CoHSONANn.
If the
"
"
send
form
breath,we
out
the
'
the
consonant
lip-teeth-breath,'
briefly,
lip-teeth
or, more
we
(f). If we form an (f) with throat-vibration,
get the
corresponding Up-teeth-voiceconsonant
(v). Breath or
voiceless consonants
sometimes expressedby adding(A)
are
'
'
'
'
to
the
{vA)as
voice
(w) as
consonant
in wt'tu,
'
Stopped'consonants
are
with
so
together
as
VowiLs.
651.
If the
is leftso
mouth-passage
open
audible friction,
and voiced breath is sent
a
TOWdl, such
as
as
not to cause
throughit,we have
Thus
vowel
the
a
(se)
man.
VowKL-UKE
668.
Some
voiced,and
are
consonants
are
Consonant.
have
hardlyany
called vowel-like
as
(I),
in Uttit(litl),
and
consonants.
friction when
Such
sonants
con-
(m).
SynthesiB.
666.
We
have
now
to
sounds,
aaS
PHONOLOGY.
[fSs;,
When
eoonda
in vhich
theyare jcnncdleather
have
we
joinedtogether
are
to consider
QUANTITT.
sounds
By quantity,
distin^shed as long, halflong or medium, and short, 'long' being often used to
In phonetic notation long and
include half-long
well
as
half-longvowels are doubted, short vowels being written
The lengthof consonants
is
as in (masma) murmur.
single,
marked by doubling.
only occasionally
658.
are
Stress.
659.
There
three main
are
BtroiLg,half-strong or
degreesof
stress
or
loudness
Thus
in
We
mark
strong stress by
con-
next
these
(*),
half-strong
by (:),
marks
such
as
Sounds
which
the short
(a)in
only in
(msams) murmur,
occur
unstressed
are
s^lables,
called weak.
Intonation.
661.
Intonation
or
tone
',').The
(",
respe"aively
speech. The risingcone is
marked
level tone
in
heard in
is not much
used
such
questions,
as
sarcasm.
667.]
662.
PHONETICS.
The
leVel tone
and
may
excited,
we
in
depressed,
663.
The
interr"Ui.
low
low
pitch,
in
tones
through different
more
emphaticthe
slightrise expresses
pass
the
greater the interval,
Thus
becomes.
tone
or
key.
non-level
The
be either high
may
pitch.When
339
what'
can
with
"
"
Glides.
664.
Glides
sound
one
from
to
sounds
are
another.
Consonants
686.
not only in
glide,
the
(d)is
formed
are
oRen
joinedtogetherwithout
such combinations
as
(nd)in
any
where
hand^
as
the
Syllables.
A
of the
the stress,
with
syllable
corresponding
Thus
attack
(a't^k)
has
two
the
beginning""
the first
syllables,
667.
to
as
to
If two
form
vowels
a
are
utteredwith
one
impulseof stress,
the comt"nation
singlesyllable,
is called
PHONOLOGY.
330
diphtluHiB, such
stress
this way,
have
we
long vowel,such
Most
"/.
triphthong,
la
(""),
as
the
combined
are
in
A simple
(fai3)/r".
in
as
called a mmopbttioiv.
now
diphthongshave
If three vowels
the firstelement.
on
We
(oi)in
as
[| 668.
in detail.
mote
Vcnrela.
As
668.
a
Hence
of
different
what
of vowels
duces
pro-
is infinite.
we
really
groups
of vowels difTeiing
from
very slightly
indefinitenumber
an
mouth
shape of the
another.
one
ROUHDIKO.
669.
The
shape of
the
mouth-passageby
which
vowels
fonned
is said
to be rounded.
correspondingto the
vowel
(y)in French
Thus
which
(ii),
havingthe same
unrounded
is
nearly
tongue-
podtion.
Tonoue-Rktractiok.
The
tongue-positions
depend partlyon the degree
of retraction of the tongue, partly
itsheight or distance
on
from the palate.
670.
vowel, such
the tongue is
ir the
between
the
(aa)va.father.
advanced, we
longue
have
firont
back and
have
we
front,
back, we
have
vowel, such
(ii).
as
intermediate
position,
mixed
vowel,such
as
(w).
Tohgue-Hkight,
672.
If the tongue
possiblewithout
is raised
making
the
as
close
vowel
to
into
the
a
palateas
is
consonant,
T,Goo(^lc
{ fi73']
PHONETICS.
is formed.
Thus
vowel, (u),
(i)is a high-front
in fvll,a. high-back-round
vowel. There are two other
high vowel
as
%y.
and
mid
degreesof height,
include mid
For
low.
the
them
high' vowels, distinguishing
accordingto
the
degreeof
common
we
may
'
name
olose
as
of the
openness
We
convenience
and
un-
open,
mouth-passage.
by italics. French
/ in iU\" the mid-front-closc vowel,or, more
the frontbriefly,
close vowel, for when a vowel is not expresslycalled high,
it to be un-high, English if)
in men
is the correwe
assume
sponding
mid -front-open
vowel.
The Scotch vowel in tntn is
more
open than the English,being a tow-front vowel ; but
English and
these
include them
open
vowels
vowel.
under
are
Scotch
the
necessary,
vowels
common
called broad,
are
so
'
name
in
(se)
similar that
we
front-open.'
Very
is a broad
man
front
The
If
678.
we
Acoustic
Qualities
compare
the acoustic
of
Vowels.
of
qualities
on
the
ear
"
the vowels
we
"
find tliat
close (i)
they differin pitchand clearness,
having the highest
pitch and clearest sound, while (u)has the deepestsound.
txithhave the same
effect
Tongue- re tractionand lip-rounding
of lowering the pitchand dullingthe sound of the vowels.
Thus
the back and mixed vowels (aa,
aa)are duller in sound
than the front vowels
and
(i,e, eg),
vowel
(y)
Hence
correspondingunrounded vowel (i).
vowels formed in quitedifferentways ofl^nhave the same
pitch,
Thus the English
which makes them very similar in sound.
is duller than the
mixed
vowel
peur. are
(m) and
the French
(oe)in
[| 674.
PHONOLOGY.
"3"
The
the most
are
following
The
VowiLS
(A) Unrounded
Dktail.
in
impntant vovels.
vowels.
674.
Short
in French
(a)occurs
'
'
'
'
(660).
677.
write
(1) as
"
beingalwaysopen.
we
short E.
"
In the South of
(1)followed by
sound of the
678.
is stillpreserved
In Scotland and the
very
England it is diphthongized
which is nearlythe
close (i),
(j)in^iw,so
consonant
(e) front'
French
'
we
/ is close front
etc.
(sij),
E. vowel
The
in mm,
there,their.
fare,fair,(tSea)
The
long close
680.
as
(se)broad front'
front
in (fes)
(ee)is
day,where
name,
The
round.'
Close in French
thresh.
vowels.
as
diphthong
(a).
'
(B)Round
short
write
as
moon,
move,you
England,but
sou, the E.
The
older close
(juu)is
stillkept in
in the South of
Eng-
T,Goo(^le
687.]
PHONETICS,
land it becomes
("w)with
"33
distinct(w). Weak
open
write
(fl) (vxija).
(o) back round.'
in
necefleaiy,
"
'
081.
as
(u),
(bo).Close
(00)in
open
(o),as
Weak
in
Weak
(o) broad
'
682.
"
back round.'
such words
The
For convenience
naughl,/alL
as
we
write the
short vowel
ess.
German
Uber.
(oe)front-round.'
'
684.
is a rounded
French
/.
Nasal
If
686.
Vowtls.
is said to
nasal
in French peur.
Open
open, it
(a,s) in
French sang,
sans
we
have
vin (vten).
(san),
Diphthongs.
We
686.
687-
oi)are
call (ei,
ou ;
very
ij,uw)
half
diphthongs, because
diphthongs,
on
the other
hand, such
as
(ai,
au,
made
another.
from one
up of vowels as distinct as possible
But in E.,as in many other languages,
the elements
of such
distinctas theymightbe.
not keptso
are
diphthongs
in Italian aura
is really
Thus, while the diphthong
a clear(a)
followed \ffa high close (u),
the corresponding
E. diphthong
in house
with
an
begins with
mixed
indistinct mixed
(S),the
E.
diphthong(ou)ending
[|688.
PHOlfOLOGY.
*34
(ei,
oi)end in the same way. So by
writing(bans,whai, taim)we merelyindicate a movement
from openness to closeness eitherof the mouth-passage
or the
(i)and (e).The
There
686.
E.
is another
as
endingin (a),
in
class of
iear,here
(hia),/are,/atr
(frt),
poor (pua),
689.
chief vowels
The
690.
table
following
relations of the
also
triphthongs,
murmur
will show
clearly.Those
more
diphUiongs
mnnnTir
the
relations of the
*
marked
Englishvowels
do not
may
occur
be shown
thus:
Short
:.
I-ong :
Half
"e
diphthongs:
Full diphthongs:
( Mturmor diphthongs:
(
6Q1.
aa
admit
e.seo
ij
Consonants
a
33
ei
uw
oi
ai,au
is
of
ou
e3
u3
two-fold division
as
(a) by
Form.
and
leavingit open
at
the
without
the passage
sides,as in (1).
{d) JXamal
606.
consonants
are
formed
with
closure
as
open,
in
(m).
is formed
When
(e)Trills
687.
unstopped (open
an
open
sonant
side)con-
open, it is said
Thus
to
bt
without any
consonant
(r)the pojiit
". (r)in red
being an
being left
are
or
complete
the
trilL
Placx.
888.
By place there
fl89.
(f")
Baok,
are
"
foimed
by
The
{k, r|)in h'ng (kiij).
sound
of cA
in the
such
as
reallya
{i) Front,
(() is
heard
and
German
ioci.
in German
in German
of
(j)in
consonant
The
(i) is
consonant
by the middle
voice
(i).
open
(s)is heard
formed
back
Scotch
voice consonant
700.
the root
The
sponding
corre-
the tongue,
jrou, which
Scotch
the
sage,
corresponding breath
icA and
as
is
sonant
con-
iue, Hugh
"36
PHONOLOGY.
[" 70a.
.
sonant
0") in Ihin,it is brought^^Instthe teeth. The voice conis (S)in then.
to ()")
coTTCBponding
703. id) Blade, fonned by the blade of the tongue that
part of it which is immediatelybehind the point (s,z)are
"
"blade
In
consonants.
the
fied
is modiblade-point
open (/)in ike,the blade position
the pointof the tongue. The corresponding
by raising
as
(5)is heard
voice consonant
The
708.
the
pointand blade
of forward
name
in
(megs),
measure
consonants
are
included under
consonants.
fonned
the
Compound
placesat
open
as
back-openconsonant
in
(xiv)
German
same
in
Other
which
we
consonants
express
with a
is red pronounced
(rzfed)
708.
When
back-modifyingthe lipthe
lip-modifyor round
(wA),we
(x),we
auch.
way,
consonants, formed in
If instead of
once.
consonant,
in the
RouNDtMO, Fronting.
oomponnd
(w^,w) are really
706.
two
consonant
may
consonant
be
rounded
thus
by adding(iv);
rounded
is modified
(r).
the front
by raising
consonant
is the sound
in French htii
(|3/lt)
; it is
Beddes
an
the main
Positions.
back, front,
of intermediate positions,
positionsknown
indefinite number
as
T,Goo(^lc
7".]
-which
and
PHONETICS,
roughlyas
disdngntsh
we
outer
or
as
".
key.
as
(r),
inner
lips. Thus
the
nearer
237
in cam,
outer
in rtd,is an
nearer
or
we
have inner
(k)before
inner
the throat,
(k)
front vowds,
pointconsonant
Aspirate,
The
an
aspirate
(h)is partly
open throat consonant,
Thus (h)in hook is mainly
partlya breath vowel-glide.
almost as if
formed by unvoicingthe beginningof the (u),
708.
were
"we
The
weakened
as
(j),
708.
Those
710.
sembles
(wAuk). So also the (h)in A* rebefore the consonant
(g). (h)also occurs
to
The
in liw
(hjuw).
followingis
marked
do
not
occur
for the
write (rh),
etc.,mstead of (rX)
generally
We
sake of convenience.
R
711.
any
(r)in E. occurs
pause,
as
in kere
IN
English.
it without
onlybefcx'ea vowel following
he it {hisr
ijiz); before a consonant or
ajS
PHOlfOLOGY.
[( 7i".
h is dropped,leavingonlythe preceding(a),
as in
pauu
hirt the ii,ht ii htri (hiafij
iz,bijz his). This (a) is aba
"orbed
iptrii,
merit,fourage (kBridj),
tony.
713.
Weak
otu
m^arii]),
followed
Ihre*
by
in
Or),as
(ar.
otier
or
a
vowel, as
not
two
afUrwardt (aaflawadx),
or
(tuwfi ]mj).
714.
of the dialects""
LAWS
716.
OF
"
SOUND-CHANGE.
fallunder
Sound-changes
two
main classes
internal
"
and external.
716. Internal
changes
due
to
acoustic.
of the
of
either organic or
are
speech,as
in the
on
the ear,
changed
These
718.
of
are
into back
imitative
Ertemal
organic and
when
one
sound
car
is substituted
:
thus
into (fruw),
and point (r)
Ihrough(jjtuw)
as
(;)in
French
and
other
languages.
changes.
changes
acoustic
are
those which
tendencies.
Thus
independent
the change of
are
T,Goo(^le
yai.]
OF
LAWS
SOUND-CHANGE.
239
sound
one
change
on
as
and
easy
as
of
possible.
due to
is called Bmoothuig.
(ou) in
MD
is made
oleaving, by which
is an
into full
(au)in Cockney
into
E.
But
diphthong,
isolativeorganicchange; itconsists generally
in forming
a
the
or
than the
lip-passage"
"
second.
either of
We
see
"
"
PHONOLOGY.
340
of
number
"
of very
[\713.
Organic
BOund-changes are mainly the result of carelessness,
by
which the speakerfailsto hitthe exact position
for forming
as in combinative changes.
a sound, or laziness,
738. The losa of sounds or sound-droppingis the result
of laziness,
aa in
partlyof the sound's indistinctness,
partly
gradual.
the
as
frequentdroppingof weak vowels,or evea syllables,
of economy, or the tenin the familiar i^a")=because;partly
dency
to get rid of superfluous
distinctions. Thus tmg was
in ME, but as (ij)
occure
pronounced (siijg)
only before (g)
and (k),the (g)could be dropped without confiiung (siij)
with (sii)k)
sink,and so the superfluous(g)has been dropped
inMnS.
OLD-ENGLISH
SOUNDS.
Ortht^fraphy.
924.
Anglo-Saxonsbrought
The
with them
England
to
founded on one of
which was
alphabet,
alphabetsor possiblythe Latin. On their
Christianity
they adopted the Latin alphabet
theirnational Runic
the Old
Greek
conversion
to
theyafterwards
the two
added
In the British-Latin
p=u'.
and consequently
in the OE
bet
alpha-
798.
die OE
Each
sound
"
of
pronunciation
to
was
alphabet
that which
British Latin,which
used
to denote
more
in the
archaic than
7M.
wrote
as
theyspoke,as far
was
to
In this book
purelyphonetic:
as
the OE
scribes
alphabet
do
so.
we
T,Goo(^le
Jig.i
OLD
ENGUSH.
141
of the OE
lengUi.
Froniinoiatioii
The
738.
vowels
had
the
notation,the unmodified
sounds
same
in
as
phonetic
our
'
'
'
'
e, which
an
open
as
in wtian
in God
write f, as
'know'; long in
'God';
long
in sytm
'
sin
preserved in OE
French
we
'
'wine.' i;=cIose
win
(o),as
'
Latin
original
its
(i),
also an
god 'good.' There was
write f as in Ipng 'long,'u=
; long in hits house.' j'=close
long
close
t=
'
son
'
and
letter_"-thus
Greek
sound
of
ported
'l^'mn' was Iminto Latin in the form of iymnus"ihe y beingsimply
tailed Greek "" which, again,was
importedinto OE In
u;
the form
of jimm,
in all three
in halan
'
in
Mfie food.'
in
we
(y)as
'
'
'
word
languages. a={x),
heal,'
ee
AHmnos
as
having the
in
/ixder father
as
(oe),
'
long
in blatstan
loi^ in /xi
sound
same
'
'
feet'
The
"
"
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
as
in dt'riie' church.'
These
two
sounds
are
sometimes
"
PHONQLOGV.
343
[| 730.
tion
'days,'
hnrg 'dtj,'hdlga 'sunt,* except in the combinain long
as
long,'
pronounced (i)g),
tig, which was
sing.'^ in the combination tg was a front stop,
UHgoH
this combination
in tfngoH
as
having the sound (liq),
'
'
'
nnge,'where the OE
die MnE
closelyresembles the
the r ID this digraph is intended to indiof hridgt',
cate
(djjj
the
Iront
sound, the less frequent (gg) being
generallywritten gg, as in /rogga frog.' Initial^ also
*
soimd
'
'
'
'
'
as
(zs),
ootmced
in
'grow.'
vxoxoh
'
'
freexe,'
eor^
'
earth.'
sound
in ".
iw, as in Mmt
white,'=(wA). So also il,hr, hi representedthe vcaceless
in h"d
sounds of (1,
as
tosd,'
Jiraig' ring,'
i, n) respectively,
789.
same
as
'
'
'nut'
Amu/u
In Aw
the A and
etc
the
were
originally
"
'
some
of
(()in German
iagrtiA^'sig^t.'
icA,especially
in Scotch,
as
always trilled,
e, g, te were
in such words
as
|"t"nouncedclearlybefore consonants
lolae 'tuke'know,'gnagan 'gnaw,'wrikm
write,'
cnaojati
7S8.
was
'
734.
long,as
DouUe
in
where the
maun
was
consonants
'
'
man
were
distinctfrom grman
"
quiteshort
distinctfrom
ifiift)
stum
pronounced double, or
'
"
tiiHne
'
sun
'
'
(themh
remember,'
as
in feit-
son.'
T,Goo(^le
ENGUSB.
OLD
740.]
243
Streaa.
In OE
786.
the strong
'
stress
-fiiiere
fisiies,'
"misdad
'
of word-stt^BSis to put
generalprinciple
of a word, as in -jisias
the firstsyllable
on
Gsher,'ryhhmi
rightlywise,' righteous,'
the
'
'
misdeed.'
and words
In sentences, form-words
786.
'
and
the
'
many
in
as
of subordinate
Mn"; conjunctloiis,
on
on,'
o/" of,' off,'
'
'
'
other
'
pronouns,
the.'
elements
subordinated in
were
stress
the
to
body of the
word.
The
787-
In OE
was
often subordinated
an
adjunct-word
it modifies,and takes a
generallyput before the noun
stroller stress than its head-word,as in the combination
'a good man,' -godt
: -god:mann
noun
or
-(adjective
genitive
is
:ddda
the king's
son.'
good deeds,'-J"as-cyninga:sunu
followed: the
788. In compounds the same
was
principle
and took the chief stress,as in
first,
modifyingword came
So also the compound ddmdag 'judgment-day'
had
ryhlivis.
stress as ddmes dag
the same
day of judgment,' doomsday.'
But there are some
exceptionsto this rule of puttingthe
stress on the firstelement of compounds :
789. Group-compounds of preposition
+ noun, such as the
adverbs ofdune
in hi iode
as
down," literally
off-the-hill,'
'
'
'
'
"
'
of"me
'
he
went
'
'
down,' on-hat
were
iO'dag today,'
of
course
'
back,'Uterallyon-the-back,'
'
originally
independentword-
the
740.
noun.
succeeding
Adverbs
of fulland
distinctmeaning
as
adjectives
regardsstress,
takingstrong stress
are
treated like
when
followed
PHONOLOGV.
244
[" 741.
it takes
precedes,
:ittn' he
went
'
'
the
'
stress
principal
helped him.'
he
ii 'iode
When
these
particles
precedetheir verbs,they are felt to form compoimda with them throughthe group havingthe same stress as
compounds in general,so that we may write these groups as
words
bislandan. But as these {articles
single
inngdti,
are, as
"
we
see, liableto
we
741.
be
call them
But if these
structions,
con-
MpBFftble particles.
or
compounded with nouns
instead of verbs, they cannot
be shifted,
in
as
adjectives
'parable,'
"trmgang 'going in,''entrance,'bUpell'by-tale,'
whose elements can
be separatedthan those of
no
more
are
particles
ryhtwis,etc
742.
such
In OE
there is also
class of inseparable
which
ax/cr-ia/orgie/anforgive,'
'
no
connection
pendent
occurringas an indeword.
These
ought strictly
inseparableparticles
speakingto be regardedas derivative elements,like the un- in
"urKu}"
'unknown,'but as many of them lost their independence
only at a comparativelyrecent period in OE, it is
separable
aUowable to Tt^nA for-gie/an,
eta, as compounds. The in^'f///a" beset is,indeed,the same
prefix^in
be by,'althou(^theyhave diverged
word as the preposition
with
the
has
particles,
preposition
/or
'
for,'never
'
'
'
in meaning.
748.
While
abstract
throw the
particles
as
nouns
on
to
the
'
of stress is
"weorpan 'perish,'
forgiefan. This shifting
often accompanied by phonetic weakening of the particle
;
thus
to
the
strong form
of the
prefixin "btgaag'going
T,Googlc
I "?.]
OLD
BNGUSH.
145
round,''cultivation,'
'worship'correspondsthe weak
be- in
Long vowels
744.
shortened in OE,
were
syllables
btgSn (748).
in
as
in weak
On
745.
as in
lengthened,
Hence
hud
mann
the
of
sense
746.
'
'
man
he,'as
In
is
of the unstressed
lengthenedwhen
article
the word
se
is used
in
-u
in the
'
in 'ti -Jie
he who.'
Anglian,short vowels
lengthenedbefore
were
by another consonant
in d/i 'old,'le"g 'long,'
hima
as
'group-lengthening'
'blind,'dumb 'dumb'="arly West-Saxon
eald,Igng,long
blind,dumb. These lengthenings
appear also in Late Westvowel-like
consonants
followed
"
"
Saxon.
Vowels.
747.
Germanic
(^,
"i
ea.
These
a, stillpreservedm
mann,/ader, heard=GeTiBxa
a
in the Oldest K
hand, long.
v)at
'
was,'acer
was
vowels
all
German; thus OE
Modem
mann,
correspondto
vaier,hart. Germanic
as
kept only before nasals,
in mann,
'
94^
PHONOLOGY.
(a),as
in
heard,earm
'
'
arm
[| 74S.
eald
fall,
'
'
old ;
ge-seah' saw,'
eakia
vxaxan
'eight,'
(7S0). Before a back vowel in the
next syllable
became the back vowel a, as in dagas days,'
a
dagum to days dat, compared with dag day,'gen. dagtt.
These arc the West-Saxon
forms.
In Anglian a before
nasals became ^~as
also often in Early West-Saxon
and a
'
'
'
'
"
before group
/ became
that the
a, so
Anglian fonns
are
v^itn,
0"
'
iindan
'
'
'
'
wilan
as
before group
became
'
know
eo
isGennanic
and Aiian
much
same
in the
way
star,'
(747),as in sUorra
eorpe. e, 1 became
vowel in the
round
a back
especially
eo, 10 before a back
the forais
in hetfon heaven,'cliopian
next
as
call,'
syllable,
also occurring.
clipian
ht/im,
as
became
'
ea
"
"
'
chai^ of weak
"1067.
For
sec
the
748.
and in OE
into m, 0,
eo
In Germanic,
o-
a,
'
itselfo became
became
aa
in
before group-nasals,
before
whence OE
singlenasals,
gebunden bound
compared with geholpen helped,'
genumm
taken compared with gesiolenstolen.' In such a word as
'
'
'
'
'
'
sutm
'
son,'the
The
760.
as
'
in /^
u s
are
Germanic
Germanic vowel
and Arian.
is
in West-Saxon,
preserved
danger,'q/im evening,'
being narrowed
'
to
"
in
Mutation.
781.
vowel
precedingsyllable,
by
which
gecoren chosen
'
'=
Old
High
German
by a vowel
on
the firstvowel
one.
Thus
the
is
in OE
gtkoran,
compared with
T,Goo^lc
OLD
S7S3.]
OE
later evrott
curtm
of
^47
\beychose,'u
'
by
ENGUSH.
has
been
This is therefore
a.
lowered
to
n-mutation
an
".
But
76S.
the most
mutations,caused by Germanic
trtrnt
in OE
importantmutations
mutation
i and
lost or
generally
were
direct; the
not
was
or
"
the
/, which after
vowel
arc
modified
otj on the
firstfront-modified the
precedii^consonant, which in its turn influenced the precedii^ vowel; thus OE fnJe 'end' from Germanic andio
passed through the followingstages: (an/'d/l,
m/'4n),
ptdi,
un"onted
fnde. In most cases these firontedconsonants
were
after they had modified the preceding
vowel,as we see in the
case
otfndt. But the fronted c and g which we write i,g
"
"
kept,as
were
word
'
'
drive,'
si^"m
758.
Sason
e
in
forms
'
'
:
"
'
ieran
cwefian say,'
nut A
'
'
man
mftm
fi.
"
lirej"(OldestE. birip)carries';
carry,'
E. cwidx) saying,'speech.'
(Oldest
'
'
'
b(b)...^
'
'
'
'
'
(Germanicmatmi)
isl
This
'
men.'
'whole,''sound,'iaiait 'heal';Jn
d
mamt
'one,'
'
mutation
remains in the non- Westany.'
which change Gennanic d into e.
Saxon dialects,
For convenience
will in future distinguish
the West-Saxon
we
d by writingit ", as in "/m contrasted with
Gennanic
an^
'
hdlam.
'
Mutated Germanic
Saxon,
in J^e
as
remains
unchangedin Westrfrfrf'deed'
'physician'
(OldestE. ifet),
(Germanicdddt),and
becomes
^ in the odier
dialects: liie,
did.
60,
tuMi)
SO
'
"
le.
'
night
eald
; ^tord
'
'
old,'ieldra
herd
'
'
iitrdt
nieii (Germanic
older,'
'
shepherd,'
In
Late
T,Goo(^lc
248
[( T54.
PHONOLOGY.
West-Saxon
this
becomes
"':yldra,mht,
_"" or
hyrdt. In
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
gelifan,iian,
":
gesiru.
Jul! full,'
gefyllaa to fill,'
eyning king.'_"-in
Late Kentish becomes e by loweringand imrounding,as in
gefillan.
u
mus
mouse,'
$. fw^ known,' epjian proclaim,'
u
'
y.
'
'
'
mjii mice.'
'
into
'
dohlor
same
in Late
Kentish,as in tnes.
'
ca.
in
becomes
West-Saxon
the
'
way
mutation of
dthler.
as
o, as
'
in
As
Germanic
became
before 1'in
1'(768),
" is the most
became
usual 0"
gold gold,'
gylden(older
golden,'
guldirC)
'
'
'
fox fox,'
j^xm vixen.'
a.
6
/oda iooA,'
/Sdan feed,'
/SI ioot,'
Ja/ 'feet*
S afterwards became
#, the changebeginningin EarlyWest'
"
'
...
Saxon
fedan,/it.
Consonant
764.
In West-Saxon
foUowingvowel
often
Influemck.
the front
glidebetween i, g and a
developedinto a fulle forminga diphthong
v.iththe vowel.
and
6bb-,gss- passed through(cjae,
ce'se, qjse,qe-se)
then by phoneticdivergenceand stress-shifting
(ce'a,
cea,
766,
into iea-,gea-, as
etc.)
in stetd
'
shall,'
geqf gave [compare
non-WestSaxon
(wcb/i'said']
stcei,
gaf. This ta was
'
'
'
chill
compared with
German
760.
calan
'
in such words
be
noun
HtU
cold,'
gies/ stranger,'
pare
[com-
West-Saxon
^iW/]=non-
the
as
as
iea-,gia-,
'
("//*,
gfst.
in
siiap stieep'
gi^on
'
T,Googlc
OLD
I 763.]
ENGLISH.
'
cwddm
theygave [compare
step,iifon.
'
'
349
theysaid ']
iit-,
git-,as in Hitld
767. 6e-itfi-became
West-Saxon
non-
shield,'
gitfan
'
siild,said,
'give' [compare oo^^] = non- West-Saxon
gefan.
7S8.
Through Bimilar chai^eag followed by a diphthong
in West-Saxon
OE
often
to Gennanic/
corresponds
been made
which
in
as
(q),
in gear yew
compared
Anglianger, geoe yoke,'
geotig young,'
with German yjAr {=GcnniDic Jar),
joci,Jatig,
to have
seems
'
'
consonant
'
'
768.
'
'
'
"
vowel-like consonant
intervening
throughan
passes
West
Saxon
'
MH
high,'
^^ eye,'
iac,eagi, hiak,fiesgan.
fiigan'to fly'=West-Saxon
ia,to became
wtorc.
feohlan,
760.
often
In Late OE,
rwurd
'
as
^,as in
"
'
nr,
to into 0
changes a following
in swtot/or
especially
laterswustor,itatord,
sister,'
tword,
'
or
",
sword.'
Ootuonuita.
761.
In OE
A between vowels
or
between
vowel-like consonants
'
"
'
^w^uA 'saw'].
'gtseohan[compare
76S.
Open g, g became h before
in byht bending [6ugan bend '].
'
'
768.
as
Final open
in IroA
burg.
'
'
breath consonant,
as
'
was
terA=earlier lrog,gtneg,
trough,'
gtndh enough,'
'
[1764.
PHONOLOGY.
a5o
704.
is often
as in
transposed,
'
form
"
iervan
but to
the
"
("iginal
'
'
coagulate
together,'
as
in
'
Jnrda
third '
'
is often
West-Sazon
766.
'
nin
pridia [compare
prio three '].
West-Sazon
766.
'
dxtoH
in
some
way, as in Late
ask,'eirft curly =:earlierStaan, eritp.
words does not correspond
to Gennaoic
r
in
transposed
'
'
tvat
same
'
modification of
Germanic
compared with
compared with
the
'
was,'gecoren
in wSron
s, as
'
chosen,'eyre
'
'
were
choice
'
'
^eotaii
'
choose.'
representGermanic
in cwddoH, cvBtds compared with ewefioM,sUtgen struck,'
shga slayer compared with tliaa [from"j/eaAnw]
strike,'
'
'
'
kill.'
'
These
manic r, and
so
767.
t,to which
words
were
'that'
assimilated, pmtk
is
(conjunction)
consonants
in 0"
singleconsonant
'
'
'
'
as
respectively
ti, ^ and M, as in wrgua
exiled,'
if66cm raise compared with wraeti
Ifegan ]a.y,'
appear
*
one
in 0"
'
'
'
exile,'
Aa/in raised' Germanic fy, on
/ag he lay,'
the other hand, appears as ri in OE, as in dorian injure
'
'
Etote of
'
'
[cp.daru
769.
'
'
injury
'].
In OE
itself
c,t,p
att
and /,
" 770.1
ENGLISH.
'
%^\
in
as
OLD
'
apulder
'
apple-tree
'],nAdrt,
'
n"ddre
food
'
'
[cp.
'
serpent,'
/od(d}or
plur.of mi^et great,"
'
GteadstUm.
understand
By gradationwe
770.
certdn traditionalconnections
'
the vowels
between
gation of
them
the
'
'
strong
most
"
verbs"
shown
clearly
which
enable
nnder the
in the conjuto
us
classify
following
gradatioiL-seriM :
a...O.
proceeded
'jySr'journey,'
.^off'proceed.'/^-'
ge/ara,^tfira companion.'
e (i,
a (te,
u
ea)
eo)
(o). windan ' wind,'wand
he wound,' wundott
turn.' iertm
they wound
; wptdan
"xr, term ; iyr-J"m burden.' btorgan prefect,'
carry,'
iearg,
iurgon, geiorgm; beorg mountain,' htrg fortress,'city,'
'security,'
dorg 'pledge,'
borgian 'borrow.'
d. 6ter he carried,'
bttron theycarried';
ft (", eft)
Air
bier.' tprac he spoke,'
spr"con ' theyspoke ; sprSi
"
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'speech.'
wiile'wrdi'ha
writon 'they
wrote,'
wrote
; gewrit writing (nonn). belifan remain ; laf
residue,'remains,'whence by mutation Id/an leave.'
So (A)
da
n
(o). iiosan choose,'ieas he chose,'
ewon
'theychose,'^fceren 'chosen'; eyre 'choice.' Jbri
ft
...
...
'
wri/ait'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
...
'
leesan
'
...
lose
'
'
; leas devoid
'
of,'S-lUsan
'
release ; iondn
'
be
These
'
of
shifting
were
in
by^
(noun),
vowel-relationsare
chaises in Germanic
Thus
'
stress
the
without
the
and
'
bending.'
result of
varietyof cated
complicause
being
Arian,their ultimate
the
past participles
in Arian ; hence
and
the
also in
Arian.
root-vowels
short vowels
ge%urit,
bega,etc.
in
"
PHONOLQCY.
15*
rt771.
in wriian,
are
Hence
r, g, d
weakened
also the
(760),
in
as
vowels
compared
cnron
MIDDLE
periodthe OE
orthograidiyNorman
French
weak
snpeneded by
was
orthographywas
founded
the
afterwards
but
firat,
at
"
Old
772.
with
ENGUSH.
771. In the HE
Old French
associated
are
with Uosoh.
the
on
ditional
tra-
778.
had
pronunciation
come
to
Latin
lost
partially
of Latin,
9th centurypronunciation
y had lost
be
variant
orthografJiic
mere
fronted to
was
Latin /wna,the
sound
been
and
value,havingbeen unrounded into (i),
its old
"om
"
(7). And
"
when
of
so
So
1.
had
when
was
orthography
duced
intro-
'
'
OE
'
diphwhich in Anglo-French
smoothed into (yy),
was
diongw'=(yi),
and so was used togetherwith simple u
to express (yy)
but also
not onlyin French words, such v" fruit,
frUi fruit,'
builden 'build'=OE
in E. words, such as /ia'r,
/Hr 'fire,'
synn
were
"
"
'
/yr, fyldan,dyidan,
almost
was
being dius superfluous,
a time in EarlyM", but in Late ME
774.
y,
disused for
Old French
"
itwas
written in many
cases
completely
"
as
in Late
instead of i;because
D,o,i,7."i.,Goo^le
"
119.]
was
MIDDLB
BNGUSH.
taken
liable to be misdot, and so was
Hence
especiallr
n, m, u.
part of another letter,
for
it became
nsual to
0"
453
UBoal
bytidm,wyuts^
as
to
ME
of words, as in matiy, "fiiy=Earty
numi',d^,
French o in many words
775. In Eaily Nonnan
sound
between
sound
(y)as
convenient
as
use
"
write it 9
m,
close
well
to
had
"
consonants
to
suggest
In
Late
vowel,
as
the earlier ME
'courage,'because
seemed
lu/ii;also before
ctiman,
in iS/e
single
'but,' cHrci^e
spellii^iuie, curage
(yy).
Parisian
the
older
'
fuHS
earlier bus
OE
maining
re-
unchanged.
777.
Late Latin
In
was
^d
'
dead
'
from did
BO
close
as
in Old
French
and
(e),
this usage
sound / to
long ME
'
open
used
was
passedinto
distinguish
'
express the long open o by ^, as- in st^
'
from mmie
moon,' the two sounds not
distinguished
So
also
we
distinguishedany
generally
"
orthography. The
to
Old
more
French
diphthong u
was
ee
"
stone
'
being
in ME
smoothed
and so came
to express the
(ee)in Anglo-French,
latter sound in such words as mesciie/'tnisch]ei,'Ue/''AeM.'
In Parisian French, Latin c
778.
(k) before front
into (s).In some
cases
vowels,as in eiei,
passedthrough(ts)
into close
it
which combination
developed into (tj),
was
expressedby
r^
CI 779-
PHONOLOGY.
"54
Latin "'=(g)became
in efaai.
as
'
soft
'
(^)
before front
'
(j)
Latin qv,gv
as
in/Ei=Latin^iiM.
developedinto ("^),
=(kw, gw) soon droppedtbdr (w)in Old French, so that gu,
to be regardedas symbols of hard
(k,g) respecgu came
before front vowels,as in quz, langut from
tivel)',
eq)eciaUy
Latin ftS, la^va, the former being also expressed b^
also
'
'
""h:
In ME
Hence
770.
vowels,as in img,
aa
the old
also when
was
douUed,
as
in ^'iie '
thick,'
'
'
'
chirclu =
such
OE
Hritt.
(s)was
used
onlyin
French words,
iafice.
In
780.
(734)and
ME
the French g
utilized
was
between
the OE
%.
phonetically.The
letterg was
assignedto (g),as in god ' good,'and the soft
French j',as in gaU ' exploit,'
and also to the ME
ment
developof OE stoppedg, which had nearlythe sound of (dg),
as
in
'
'
'.
tengen singe,'briggt bridge
=
Hard g
OE
tpigan, hrycg.
also
restricted to
doffs,^aig
expressedbyj", as
761.
as
in
Afler
in MnE
muciifluctuation OE
yJhig.young.
strong h
was
written
gh,
right,doghkr.
Latin
stillkeptits sound
'
"
"
T,Goo(^le
786.1
MIDDLE
instead of
ENOLISfT.
"55
in wikU
"
weazel,'generally
written weselt.
788.
Latin sound
The
bj the angularv
(w),wbich
the round
or
ently
expressedindiffer-
was
v, became
(w)was
sound
German
introduced
in such
(=
warda
ME,
OE
words
vxard
'
as
in luve
Old
the
became
u,
=
(v)in
OE
iu/it. The
as
Oid
Low
German
custody'),
developinginto (gw),later
ME
784.
M"
soon
The
other Runic
the voice
brtfhm
Old
well
as
soon
was
came
as
used
the
throughout
into
to express
use
of J",as
in hrjPen,
French
names,
fk
well; we
as
in ME.
In
'
was
written
only
in teamed
which
(t),
as
words, proper
it often
kept in
ME
still
pronounce such words as Thomas with a (t),
Old French ph={^ was
also used only in
learned words
was
letterp
and
used in ME
names,
in such
learned words
as
it
'
phisik physic,'
also written^Mi.
BtrOM.
785.
In ME
throw the
noun-
and
forward,as
al-,mit-,imadjective-prefixes
in
atmihli,mtfded, untup
'ahiikl^,"misd"d,-uncup.
stress
'=0E
786-
the
In Old French
as in Latin,as
syllable
the
stress
fell on
generally
in iuriure=
Latin nd-luram.
the
'
known
un-
same
Through
2^6
PHONOLOGY.
dropping of
the
thus
to
came
final L^n
[\ ;87.
French words
syllables
many
the last syllable,
in onour
on
as
=ko-norem,prle=pietaltm. When
French words
stress
kepttheir original
such words
but
firstintroduced into ME
afterwards
nd'/Sre,
irtiur,piti;
back
the
to
on
first syllable
by the
was
back from
in tSsereyneli,
con'dicioun
in -ioun
it
back to the firstsyllable,
stress
and the
(kon'disiuun)
word,
as
other words
Latin -ierum.
=:
Many
such
particles,
words
of French
origincompounded with
as a-vow
(a'vun),
(dis'fras),
de/mse,dis-fse
keep
stress by the analogy of native words such as
their original
788.
becumen.
a'fiseH,
Quantity.
78B.
the
was
The
firstquantity-change
that took
lengtheningof OE
strong vowel,so
that OE
short consonants
in
'
in
'
as
single,
well
al,"ja"=OE
before vowels
consonants
as
in
as
so
spelling,
were
and
itm
itwas
as
place in ME
after
short
a
'
'
dwelling were
no longernecessary
double consonants
But
tail,mann.
keptin
in
ME
""""
that,for instance,
were
double
pronunciation
'sun'=OE
'=0"
these two
son
simu,
kept distinctfrom time
words never rhyming on one another in vei^e.
The OE group-lengthenings
780.
were
keptup in ME, as
tumu
in
'
was
gld,Igrtg,
ilind,dumi, doumb^
dOmb.
Otherwise OE
before two
HW
But
consonants,
long vowels
as
in
generallyshortened
atkien,wisdom
ktpte'kept'pret.
'wise'],
[compareME
OE
ascian,wudom, cipte.
before tt,as in l^d least,'
often preserved
prist
=
was
length
were
'
'prieBt'=OE lasl,preotL
T,Goo^le
?94-l
MIDDLE
ENGLISH.
ME
Mn"
457
the
as
appears
-tmk
as
to
in
MnE,
'("^,35 in /nMJoOEA/anf
while OE
-ang, -gng
long.
In Late ME
791.
angleconsonant
in ndme,
as
lengthened,
mfte
name,mel",ihroken=0'E.
were
'
'
'
geiorilen,
^di,
Vowels
793.
as
sunu.
were
not
because
had
alreadybeen lengthened
(789).
Short vowels
798-
Early ME
before
are
often
in Late
preserved
as
well as
by the full
vowel-like
consonant
followed
singleconsonant
sometimes
But there
are
consonant,
into (p,UO
lidpor.
of
generalprinciple
aker,cradel,
slglm OE (Bcer,
=
of back- shorteningis
eicplanation
is shifted from
"
in laperfrom OE
in Late ME
as
back-shortening,
geslolen.
tradol,
The
as
are
justas
to
that the
the final i
or
lengthening
the vowel-like
lengthened
[M4].
Vowels.
794.
under e,
In ME
the OE
when
especially
weak
vowels
final: ME
are
name,
levelled
generally
beren,stinesiOE.
258
PHONOLOGY.
There
beran,sunu.
nama,
was
'
in OE
796-
W 705.
end in
theyget from
consonant, take
the OE
inflectedforms;
thus ME
OE
forms
'
'
dml, gebed,plurals
synna, dalu,gebedu. Such
synn,
as
'
'
narzw
narrow,'
j'^toe y^\]ow'
'
in the
plurals
nearwe, geolwe arose
0'Enearu,geolu,
same
way.
marked
the strong vowels the most
and
earliestchange is the smoothingof the OE diphthongs,
shown
796.
In
a.
in Late ME
hard,sltrrt sta^i,'
ir^d hrend,'
dip 'deep'=OE
'
'
heard,steorra,bread,deop.
IVt. In
written t,
was
Early ME
ea
in herd,wes=GY.
as
which
{ae),
became
to
generally
This broad
heard,was.
was
(a),
givingLate
M"
(k)
hard,
was.
O'E.y,but
Kentish
was
words
some
forms
smne,
kernel.' In
cyrtul,'
iemel=OE
biist,
some
words
(y)was
after lip-consonants,
in
as
especially
'
much' =iOE
788.
e.
that OE
we
write
amply
;
were
e
levelled under
in ME,
as
r$st,
mite. OE
in
to
bys^ 'occupied,'
broadened
ivSrien
ivyrgan, my iel,mieel.
OE close (e)became
open
and /
elan
helpan,
synn,
to
(u),
mSche
'worry,'
(")in EarlyME,
so
helpeit,
elm, rest,"wA=OE
also became
open
in Late
T,Goo(^le
804.}
ME,
as
MIDDLE
ENGLISH.
in trpe,
Aevene. All these
in Late ME
800.
a.
801.
o.
as
(791),
0"
OE
yoli,noie,
liable to
in
close
bodien
liableto be
are
lengthened
fien,mf/e.
keptunchanged in M",
was
'
*s
259
became
in
open
proclaim'^OE
^/c,
in Late ME,
lengthening
as
as
in
suiu.
Early ME,
in
iodian,being
nosu,
in ngse,
as
bgdim.
The OE
802.
of
'
hfvtd head,'hiis,
hous,god
'
good
'
OE
'
aw-rf'word'=Anglian/j""fo",_/?W,
iund, word {lAlB).
is sometimes
the resultof
'
'
'
r,
'= West-Saxon
were
803.
in
as
'
driden dread,'^p'
'
there,'iv(ren
07fdr"dan,p"r, w"r"m.
In South-Thames
E.
and H when
shortened pass
'
'
not
'
'
But Southern
ledde,neddre,drtddt.
has
in
some
words,
such
a"fiesh=0'Efiasi.
804. OE
remained unchangedin
a
as
in gd
and
to a
dialect,
".,
gSn, sidn. In South-Thames
rounded into broad
in Midland, itwas
'go,'iidn=OE
great extent
the Northern
zSo
pmmLOGY.
rt 805.
but
dialect,
'
'
make
known
'
OE
^r, tyl"an,
j'=older ", as in
=
"
'
Keran,
Kentish
E
into London
kept itse, as in
in French
eSre,/ruil,/riit
; when
is shown
of the
weakening of OE
becoming
open g
'mice.'
mis
words
containingu,
final or before
brought
ui,as in diu,
fi was
vowel it became
eu,
as vertew,crewel=veriu,cruel.
hy such spellings
MoU
806.
dragan,open^
ME
diphthongsare
as
becoming i',
glidebetween a back
diphthongic
w, which
as
'
preservedLate West-Saxon
bruise
hear,'br"im
Early West-Saxon
brusan.
as
also
Mrm
as
was
kSpen
/iir fire,'
which
North-Thames
i in
OEJ) became
I^ndon
in
E.
Northern.
as
SOS.
as
in South-Thames
in
vowel and
was
K;n'way'=OE
'
iroghte,
iroughic brought
are the ME
diphthongs:
The
h developedinto
following
sometimes
'
weg.
written,sometimes
OE
irvAte.
The
not,
ing
follow-
"
^=0"
ei=OE(g,eg,
S1=0E
sain wet,
in hit
eg, as
gr^, West-Saxon gr"g.
ME {803).
4i=0E
oi
ag,
as
in
onlyin
occurs
OE
d"fg,sagde.
!eide 'laid'=OEioeg, ligde.
'hay'=OE
heg. ^"=:Anglian
But OE
ig
becomes
generally
i in
kfie''key'=c^.
French
in drauen.
vois.
words, such as/tn'e,
In such words
laughlerfrom
Scandinavian hiahtr it is the resultof glide
-development. In
to Old
words of French originau correspondssometimes
an
French
ag,
au,
as
before
French
chamhre
as
in canst, sometimes
nasal consonant,
to
Old
as
French
nasal
chaumbre, servaunl=.0\i
chambre, etc
etc., the spellings
(tfaamnbra),
as
in
T,Goo(^le
f 808.]
MIDDLE
without
varied
occurringalso in ME,
between
afil
ENGLISH.
the
where
which
(aan)and (au),
pure
pronunciation
was
tion
", imita-
an
of the former.
fiii=^0" im,
West-Saxon
'new*=01d
in nime
as
taw,
Anglianntime,
inw*.
(80S}.
OE
$u=
aw,
ou=OE
as
taw,
ow,
og,
in
d{u.
in low, b"rwe=0'E
as
tow, i^a.
bloom '=0E
blawm
'place,'
slow, ilatvan. In EarlyME this diphthongalso resultsfrom
the developmentof a glidebefore A, as in induh
also
drt=OE
in
as
ow,
'
s/ou
"
written inch
'
"
this du becomes
9U=0E
'
'
own
uu
in late ME
did, ^,
OE
of
vowels
ynougk (tnuux).
'blow' (wind),potn
bl^n
:
MSwan, agen.
In the above
807.
in
as
of the ME
description
were
vowel-system,
of their
they offer peculiarities
which
introduced in
words
foreign
went
were
other vowels
identifiedwith
changesin the
(uu)in ME erunt
same
'
'
changesas
(ei)in
the
and
origin,
(uu)in /liis.So
only when
to
The
own.
through the
later periodsof the language. Thus
same
(768);
feathers,'
through the
in dun
also the ME
'
diphthong
i"6eien
'
on
apply also
to
the
in wa.
diphthong
These remarks
consonants.
CoDsonanta.
In Old French h
808.
was
silentin most
words
of T^tln
as well as
origin being oflen dropped in writing
ciation
pronunin
but was
certain words
always pronounced
"
"
"
a6"
phonolouy.
mostly of German
when
but
"
never
words
as
onur,
OE
809.
The
honour,hour, horrible.
of hr
process
voiced in ME,
was
change
was
hr-,hi-,hn- became
lud,vSte; hw-
but
importedinto
w 809,
to
r, etc.
not
was
of
aa
in
ring,
in what.
as
phoneticweakening,
beginningwith hr,
810. The
hisses were
voiced
'
dialectin
Southern
was
as
introduced
vixm=OE.
"
gg=(ccq, qqj),as
in
wriiia,
sicgan.
was
changed into
the
'
hollow '=0E
case
when
an
(7D6): thus
/urh, holh.
ME
When
was
added
furwi
final
'
"
as
was
quently
fre-
furrow,'hohtx
was
droppedat
T,Goo(^le
831.]
the
to
MIDDLE
end
of the ME
finalw
period,a resulting
folu,holu.
814.
Open g was
changed
was
u :
well
as
463
ENGLISH.
to 1'after consonants
heU 'belly'sOE
diphthongs:bUritn 'bury,'
in
as
weakened
generally
byrgan,h[l^.
Final OE
816.
front h
voiced in ME
was
when
vowel
was
which
uninHected fonn A)
new
In OE
816.
medial
I,g
before
to c,g
West-Saxon
Tliames
the
in ME
we
changed
have
Angliansecan=
k, as in sike,correspondingto South-Thames
having[he
Northern
galU, chalk
kelel '
to
back vowel,as in
Hence
seian.
MnE
in seche,
817.
formed.
was
form
in
eh, as
the Southern
seek,
Southern iealc.
to
Scandinavian
words
kelfle,'
ger/i girth.'The
Northern
'
'great,'
forms mtkel
give,etc.,=Somhern mUchel,yiven,
may also be due
dinavian
Scan-
to
influence.
818.
In
classes of
Thus
some
cases
the Standard
ME
gaU
'
'
gate
pointsto die OE
begmrun=OB.
two
is due to
consonants
the
ieginnanowes
its ^
to
pi.
So also
past
partic,
begann,begutmen,
818.
kept
ng
but
English,
in
was
'
its
such words
as
finger,
also in
etc.
sing,singer,
830. si passedthrough(sj)
into (J),
written sch,ssh,sh, as
short,skrud,fish=OK siorl,
siritd,
fist. Scandinavian sk
kept before
all vowels, as
in
cloud.'
621.
ME
The
combinations
Ir,nr
are
consonant,
alder
so
as
to
into Idr,ndr in
made
/ and
facilitatethe transition
J"underfrom
(thetree),
OE
aler
into
to
stopped
the r,
as
in
genitiveaire,fitmor
264
PHONOLOGY.
/unr^j'.
genitive
from OE
puma
'
822.
pym{f^
[fSii.
So also ml became
'
littlethumb,' from
thumbslall,'
literally
'
thumb.'
Several of the consonants
Thus
syllables.
in weak
were
liableto be
'
in Late ME
dropped
ii there
almost
supplanted
n was
frequently
dropped,as in
ilnindt past partic.=OE gamtn,
infin.,
Undan,
game, bmdt
gthunden. So also the dropping of / in mucht=0'E. miiel,
dU 'each,'of the w
and / in sucA=OE.
/cA=OE
suxli,
the strong ich.
seems
to
have
Weak
begim
final
in weak
forms
(unstressed)
of these
T,Goo(^le
MIDDIB
English
ENCUsa.
Voweu.
fHONOLOGY.
MODEKK
EnGUSH
VoWELS.
T,Googlc
MODERN
MODERN
The
628.
%6y
MNGUSH.
ENGLISH
SOUND-CHANGES.
in MnE
sound-changes
are
so
into
a threefold division of the period
historyrequires
First MnE
1500-1600
....
Second
MnE
Third MnE
"ITiese divisions
First
reality.
1600-1700
....
ijoo-
somewhat
necessarily
are
MnE
....
extended
some
arbitrary. In
way
century.
Orthograpliy.
In FirstMnE
824.
when
final
as
"
weak
generally
dropped always
in (naam, fal,sttwnz)=ME name, /alte{n),
e was
"
between
shilling,
fuller,
But
sillinge.
vowel
the
as
the
doubling served
short,the ME
was
doublingwas
extended
to
show
and
retained,
were
spellings
words
to
vowels
in ME
which
had
final double
consonant,
doubling of final ME
vowel, as
preceding
consonants
in
which
to
led
show
carried out
frequent
shortness
all,small,glass=ME
not
to
of the
al,smal, glas.
uniformly. So
as
the
as
hal,hop,finale
to be
regarded as
vowel ; and
had
no
fg.
was
ME,
as
in
to
was
the
last
preceding
words
wine, s/one,/be=MK
long or short,because
many
at
came
mark
accordinglywas
final e in
was
was
which
vim,
sl^n,
preceding vowel
written
generally
u, and
a68
such
word
low ifthe
82B.
"
had been
The
lout-^-ViY,ISve would
as
dropped.
for i'was
writingof ^
EarlyMnE.
in
[|8jj.
PHONOLOGY.
or
ie
lengdis
carried to ^at
as in
alwayswritten finally
was
marn'e,
ciHc,but otherwise the two letterswere
many,
written almost
at random.
This
tem
weakening of ME
such words as tfuUdCe
which
the
end
of
at
mtlody,'ckivalrle,
the ME
period drew back the stress from the ending (787),so
that the Snal " was
and the ending
dropped and the f shortened,
written indifferently
-it or -y.
was
use
'
'
8ae.
The
close and
were
used
to
express
Early MnE
but in
to
ME
open
The
sounds
latter sound
criminately,
indis-
sii^,
si, vwne, OE
as
in sea, boat
was,
however,
a,
sounds
restricted
gradually
theywere
open
ME
j/, bgl,OE
sS, 6dt.
frequently
expressed
more
with
as
eom-
plele,
extreme,ee beingrarelywritten in such words.
827.
almost
In
Early MnE
i and
both
indifferentiy
as
/, m and
vowels and
were
stillwritten
consonants,
so
that,
but
an
In
First MnE
ItalythroughFrance.
the orthographywas
stillquiteunsettled,
it was found more
convenient to keep
came
from
when
number
there
were
of books
differences
and readers
became
increased,the fixed oribography
adopted by printers
MODERN
831.]
and
more
settled down
words
such
with
made
were
into
clothes,
t^er.
as
went
on
language
changing
of master*
before,the difficulty
than
greaterrapidity
even
periodit
as
But
MnE
into its
present century
829.
the Third
general,tillin
more
469
ENGLISH.
test
of education and
of the
even
perfect
mastery of it.
We express this divergencebetween spellingand
880.
onby callingthe present English spelling
pronunciation
pfaonetio. The orthography of Old Englishwas, on the
upper
classes have
refinement,few
contrary, a phonetdo
as
one
"
in
alphabeton which
would
allow.
the vowel
in OK
Thus
(i)abort and
only,while
and
at least,
intention,
long,and
was
it was
used
the letter1'was
used
to
as
far
based
to
express
express that
unphonetic MnE
orthographyit
In bit,hilt,
as
expresses such distinct sounds as (i,ai,ij),
tnachint. But asJhe Latin alphabetdoes not provideenough
sound
lettersfor the OE
letterto express
express
a
(2)as
in the
sounds, it was
a
well
of distinct sounds
much
worse
even
sdll in intention
their
whereas
now
to express
(729).
Middle
on
in the
spondingly
corre-
Early MnE
period
mainly phonetic: people
spelling
represent their
we
same
used to
s was
defective. But
the spelling
was
tried to make
based
the
use
(s),
being used
g, especially,
as
Englishorttx^raphy,
being
was
to
considerable number
which
necessary
learn the
speUingof
actual pronunciation,
each word
mechanically,
by eye, without paying much
regard to its
pronunciation.
The
first beginnings of intentionally
881.
unphonetic
when
spellings
appear at the end of the Old French period,
"t;inologioal apellingB were
introduced,by which, for
[| 831.
PHONOLOGY.
270
made
into d^t
ence
by the influ-
This latinizing
oflen led to etyrooauclorem.
original
Ic^callyincorrect spellings.Thus the Latin rA"/rw- orator
'
'
(from Greek
written
was
rhtlor)
familiar combination
more
of rethor,
auiour
word
of lettersthan rh.
as
was
the influence
to
givethe
learned
more
made
their way
further developed.Thus
the
By
was
th
rethor,because
of
spellings
two
auiour
vere
ME
French
indeed,discarded these
words.
English. Modern
or
'
French
'
has,
of the above
This
in French was
writingof silentconsonants
probablyfirst suggestedby .r having been, dropped in nunciation
probefore another consonant
such words
uh
as
Old French
'
'
island from
in Old French
Latin insula,
which
itselfin
in late
inserted without
as
regardto etymologyas a sign of length,
mpasle 'pale'=earlier
palefrom "LAtin pallidum. When the
French isle was
introduced into English,the silent s was
introduced
in
the
island,
two
the
native
word
tland,which
was
written
cept
exnothing in common
having really
their meaning. Other native Englishwords were
misr
Thus anient from OE aniefn(from Greek
speltin this way.
words
aniiphdnathroughsome
to
give it a
832.
In
more
course
inQuence the
Low
Latin
form)was
written
anihem,
teamed appearance.
of time these false spellings
began
Thus
pronunciation.
to
T,Googlc
835-]
ENGUSH.
MODERN
371
many
In Latin Ih
888.
and
in the
popular language
OE
in
both
occurs
and
ME
it was
made
into
so
(t),
that
th in Latin, and
consequentlyin
pronounced (t),being often
foreign words
generallywas
written so.
Even in Early MnE
this pronunciationwas
still
not
frequent,
only in such words as author,but also
very
in proper names,
where
the th was
etymological,
especially
such
as
Thomas.
Even
in Second
MnE
we
stillfind such
Catherine (ksetam).
pronunciations as apothecary
(potikari),
We
in Thomas, and even write itin the shortened
stillkeep(t)
forms
author, anthem,etc,
in most
including
the influence of the spelling
has introduced
"
"
(jT)-sound.
the
834.
the
Ever
since the
of many
stronger,so that our pronunciation
of chance, and gives rise to forms
pure matter
stronger and
words
is
which
are,
a.
'
was
pronunciation(kiln)
afterwards introduced.
For
see
""
'spelling-pronunciations'
examples of artificial
In Present Englishwe learn so many new
856, 868, 873.
other
words"names
and
of
articlesof trade,new
newly-imported
scientificdiscoveries,
etc.
of
us
the
guesses
the word
we
ventions
in-
by readingthem in
"
ever
at the
hear them
nounced,
pro-
from
pronunciation
and when
into generaluse
comes
spelling,
the wrong pronunciation
often prevails,
836.
But
there is
now
so
much
intercourse with
foreign
PHONOLOGY.
27a
[|836.
and foreignlanguagesare
counlries,
much
so
studied,that
far as is
as
foreignwords often keep their pronunciation
consistent with English habits of speech. Thus a keeps its
instead of the English (ei)in such words as
(aa)-Bound
Jrama, vote, promtTUide,the older pronunciations
(dreiina)
ahnost extinct ; and 1 is pronounced (ij)
instead
etc. beingnow
in imitation of the French pronunciation
in snch
of (ai)
and many other words in
wwds as pique,faligut,
tnacAine,
"inf. Even the French nasal vowels
in such words
mniti
imitated
imperfectly
are
often
(-aanwij),
further
AngUdsed
into (oi]wij).
Among the consonants, eA, whose regular
is pronomiced (k) in Greek words, snch as
sound is (tj),
as
(f)in French
and
words
and
such
French
the
as
nunciation,
pro-
partJally
anglicized
chamfiagiu(Jxm'pein).
(ts)in the
Again,ez
in the Hebrew
etc.
ItalianmeeBotin/o,j=Q)
halltlujah,
We are now
able to answer
the question.
880.
Why is
is that it
Eng^h spellingunphonetic? The main reason
The present
has not followed the changes of pronunciation.
not the sounds of Present English,
Ei^lishspelling
represents
rather Late ME.
Such a
but those of Early MnE
or
the conas
on
trary,
knighlisnot in itselfunphonetic;
spelling
it is a phoneticrepresentation
though an imperfect
of the sound-group(kni^t),
which in ME
the prowas
one
nunciation
=
"
"
of
of the words
one
the other
(nait),
which
we
now
pronounce
in ME,
havingbeen pronounced(ni^t)
and written accordingly
on
as island is,
nighi.Such a spelling
the other hand, unphoneticfrom every pointof view,because
it inserts a letterwhich is not pronounced now, and never
also originas author was
was
ally
pronounced. Such a spelling
become
though it has now
phonetic but
unphonetic,
only by corruptingthe pronunciationand obscuring the
one
"
etymologyof
887.
the word.
Another
it is founded
on
reason
two
is that
is imperfect
why onr spelling
bases : (a)the traditional
orthographic
T,Goo(^le
841.]
MODERN
ENGUSH.
373
as
see, is
we
of ch.
A
838.
its bases
third
is imperfect,
is thai
speliing
all imperfect.Such defects as writingthe initial
are
consonants
in
defects
of MnE
basis of ME
not
our
(dsem)with
the
When
we
orthography"one in which
expressed
any
by the most
French
Englishspellingunphonetic,we
call
that it is whollyunphonetic. A
mean
letterare
same
the Old
but of
spellingitself,
spelling.
not
839.
why
reason
whollyunphonetic
of the
none
separate letters
whatever^-could
definitesound
retentive memory.
What
do
not be mastered
makes
it
possibleto
is
spelling
present
our
put
are
as
"
"
We
need
that
surprised
therefore be
not
to
reform
it,
many
of them
some
spelling-reformers,
century there were
many
scholars of high reputation;
but the systems they proposed
cumbrous
too
were
and
intricatefor
and
u,
tt
and
ea,
oo
reforms,such
and
oa
theless
Never-
use.
practical
as
the
(826),which
separation
were
purely
reforms.
phonetic
Most
of
proposed are
on
841.
the
reformed
the basts
most
of course, i for
in ste, but also in seal,seise,
pique,keeping,
short vowel in sil. But it is evidentiy
the corresponding
VOL.
I.
PHONQLOCy.
"74
tl 841.
unphoneticto make
but
(dionetic,
613.
the
tt
necesatates
sptem is
an
is said
itselfto
basis.
unphonetic
the attempt to get a phoneticbasis piactically
in most
return
to the original
Roman
a
cases
As
it is phonetic
on
be
to
the 'Romic'
on
is
basis.
The
example
an
system
Bioad
of such
Romic
system.
In an Romic
signsas
systems the long vowels have the same
the short ones, with such modifications as are requiredto
show
the
in
as
quantity,
and consonant-groupsare
being supplementedby
alphabet
as
'turned t'
the
of
use
new
letters such
t.
"
Vowels,
B4S.
The
vowels is to
convenient way of
take each Late ME vowel
most
itshistory
down
644.
was
was
(fi)-sound
and
separately,
trace
to
as
sat
man,
in Second
*
MnE.
still kept
had
the broad
(s),so
But
by many
to
the
in First MnE
speakers. Before
old
/ not
by
vowel
rounded
in Second
present(woz,whot),althoughthere was
back consonant
followed,as in wax,
a
MnE
(ae)was
MnE,
no
the
rounding when
In
wag.
before (a,Jj)and
lengthened
whence
in
some
Second
other
T,Goo(^le
MODERN
8so.]
ia
as
cases,
ENGLISH,
^75
Third MoE
which
periodthis (asx)was broadened into (aa),
is the presentsound
(glaas,
paa)").
remained
84".
unchanged. "ut in
i, e have generally
final or before a consonant
First Mn"
became (ar)as in
er
"
star,hart,heart=M"
846.
was
In Second
(a),which
afterwards lowered to its present sound (b) (fel,
was
k^m).
But before this loweringtook placethe (a) was
generally
rounded back again to (u) between a lip-consonant
and (1),
(kum).
Mn"
it
unrounded
was
to
"
in Jull,wool=ME
as
847.
in wood='ViE,
as
alreadybeen unrounded
in the London
MnEhas^//, stn=OE.
g0llan, synn.
in First MnE
words
in
some
busy,buty=OE
as
848.
ox,
lip-
wdde,put.
'".generally
appears as t in MnE, into which it had
consonants,
such
after
and
broadened
was
",
to
as
same
in top,
MnE,
which
lengthen
developed
glide-(u)
/ not followed
=;0E
bolla
where
where
it was
not
"
preserved
(o)and
(y)was
sound
beinglengthenedbefore the
between
But
Thus
bysig,
iyrgan.
kept its ME
dialect of ME,
it was
written any
than in the
more
parallel
fall
(8M).
849.
" underwent
narrowed
into close
the
changesas a, beinggradually
into (te),
in name, takt,
narrowed tillit passed from (sese)
as
this last change being completedbefore the Second MnE
of (")b path,etc. In Third MnE (")was fiirthei
lengthening
cleflinto
850.
which
(ee),
(ei,
ri).
I
was
in First MnE
diphthongized
the tongue
retracting
became
same
as
(si),
by loweringand
in wim, vice,
with
very
(721)tillit
which
high close (a),
2l6
PHONOLOGY.
broadened
was
became
851.
almost
in the
^i),as
next
at
d, 4- Late M"
[| Sji.
two
present.
/
probablyhad
and when
(ee)and (ii),
the old / developed
into full(ii),
become (si),
as in ue,field=
ME ti{"),
as in sea,
/eld,ME / keeping its open sound {ee),
this (") being narrowed to (ee)in Second MnE, which
there,
between
further narrowed
in (sii)=j"e,
as
sea.
being thus levelled,
arrested by a preceding r in
But the change into (ii)
was
which were, bowevei^ also probreak,great (breik,
greit),
nounced
\x"
ME
(ii),
periodwas
i and /
in
griit)
(briik,
often shortened
was
to
before stops, as
(e),especially
in
bread,heavy.
in the same
diphthongized
way as f,becoming
in h/mte,crown, the firstelement
as
(du)with very close (fi),
unrounded
and broadened into its present
being gradually
sound^between
(s)and (ae).
"
663.
was
In nwm=OE
mm,
the
into
from
change
sloop,droop ME
(au)by
"
has
been
influence of the
the
preserved
followinglip-
consonants.
868.
5, 9-
When
had become
ME
which
o
(6u),
between
(oo) and (uu)
"
was
^was
very close sound
moved
(tuu,
up into the place of the old u, as in loo,moon
in go, stone,and
as
muun). g keptitsopen sound {oo)at first,
probaUy
was
narrowed
"
to
present century
has been
close
was
(oo)in
Second
MnE, which
in
the
cleft into
in
preserved
broad
shortened
in some
in
words
d was
(r).
(uu)=M"
First MnE, as in flood(flud),
mother,gum=OE
ftod,moder^
the
There was
etc.
the present forms (flsd)
of (uu)in Second MnE
before
another shortening
especially
gdma, whence
did not
aheady
ccunpleted.
T,Goo(^le
MODERN
S857.]
the ME
ai,ei. In MnE
their first elements,and
854.
in
(^ei)
became
(ec)
"
of the
that there
so
First Mn"
in this
which
ENGUSir.
case
ai and
(i)
"
ei,// shortened
diphthongs
levelled under
were
by
was
2??
As
ei.
ai
regularchange of (a)into
hastened by the frontinginfluence
the
ei became
similar in sound, so
very
was
hay,r^=M"
before gh, as
kept ei,as also several olher words, especially
in
neighbour,eight. In Second
smoothed
into
sound, and
88B.
so
(""),
oi
through the
went
sometimes
was
MnE
tah
were
diphthongs
etc,
had
the
same
but in
some
changes.
same
First MnE,
kept m
the (i)raised
[Hronunciations
these
the
preceding(o)to (u),such
and (buil).
words as boil havingthe two pronunciations
(boil)
this (u)underwent its regularchange into
In Second MnE
(a,b);
the resulting(bI)
was
and
so
similar in sound
to
the
OE
bile =
868.
byle ulcer
au
'
was
kept in
was
mistakenlymade
First
MnE,
but
"
In
words
some
MnE
au
in
into Soil.
passed into
soon
in saw,
as
to
/all(844),
laugh,which in Second
whence
into (laeref),
passed through (lasf)
the present
a before
half" 3.\sowritten haul/^halve. au=French
(laaf))
nasals (806) generally
went
changes,as
through the same
in auni, commaiu)nd,
la\u)mp.
867.
ou,
fi; ^u.
At
the end
as
eu,
change of
trewe='ME
well,so
became
of the ME
been
trewe.
extended to
non-
levelled
completely
was
(iiu,
iu)by
as in duke,
(ii),
fruit,new,
periodthe
ME
true
"
the
regular
also written
/" remained
in
278
PHONOLOGY.
of the firstelement,
shortening
v^ftw (feu)=M"_^tw,and
as
(iu).In
sounds fl,m,
the Third
[1858.
(iu)in
became
MnE,
Second
stress
(j)was
to the
on
afterwards
in true,chtue
"
land
juice,htte. In Cockney and New-Engit is dropped afier all the other consonants
American
as
as in union.
well,as in mw, dufy,beingkeptonlyinitially,
in First MnE, as in
or (ou)
868.
du, "u both became (ofu)
written choose"
now
which in the
growen, kngwen, sgule,
grew, know, soul^ME
smoothed into (00)and then narrowed
Second periodwas
into
in go
as
(00),
so
(853),
that know
and
etc.
no
had
the
vowel.
same
Weak
In
869.
First MnE
Voweb.
long weak
vowels
generally
were
nation
image (imadg,
(onur),
iniEedg),
shortened,as in honour
Weak
nsesesjun)=ME
oniir,image, naa'un.
(naasjun,
thongs
diphwere
kept,as in nature (naatiur)=MEnature,certain.
Short vowels were generally
kept,as in moral,person, sorrow
but
(soru),
before
obscured
was
other vowels
occasionally
But there
honour,nature.
tried
which
in nation
OE
sunu.
(o)or
was
"
In
in
was
an
and
belter,
as
scholar,
artificial
pronunciation
spelling,
pronouncing not only
also (naasjon,
kondisjon)
etc.,althoughthe
(ou)in honour,emperour,sorrow,
even
860.
ou,
(a),as
follow the
to
etc. but
(skolar)
o
as
to
Second MnE
etc.
As
now
were
vulgarisms,
(e)was
tendencyto
are
to
in
general
(9),there
was
vowel,although the
T,Goo(^le
"
863.]
MODERN
vowels
ENGLISH.
179
stillkeptin many
were
cases,
as
in
national,now
(nEeJensel,
nse/onsel)
In
Second
MnE
pronounced (nsejsnsl).
initialvowels were
often dropped,
weak
Coneonanta.
861.
in the gen.
-es, as
MnE
and
sing,manms
the
(mfenz,stounz),
doublets
as
Thus
while
offpreservedits (f),
to
(ov). There
Initial p
voiced
whence
pltu-.
stones,
in
that
numerous
the
the
similar doublets
were
was
the
so
monosyllables,
in weak
formed.
were
the hisses/,
being preservedin
(gijs,
pens)
ges^ /"M=MnE
change
(peniz).The same
contrastingwith ^i'M=MnE
carried out
MnE
breath sounds
strong monosyllablessuch
was
to
in inflectional
especially
syllables,
voiced in weak
s,/,became
ME
the weak
of
wij",is,hit,etc
forms
of
some
very
These
"
the
sonant
alternation
was
of/ and
is of OE
origin.
The
of
pronunciation
ending -wich
863.
in
Towards
precededby
such
words
as
ostrich
and
(ostridg)
the
Greenwich,Norwich.
the
weak
end
vowel
of
and
period (s)
strong vowel
38o
the Present
whence
(z),
became
and
(ig'233t)
txtri
unchanged
by
[( 8S4.
PHONOLOGY.
weak
Englishdistinctionbetween
the (s)being pre(-eksasaiz),
served
exercise
vowel.
Other
because
it is followed
exhibit
examples are
compared
compared with
example,anxiety (aeg-zaiiti)
exhibition,
with
anxious
one
later
864.
preservedthroughFiret
was
to be
and
of the last
by the
combined influence of the speUing and of the speakersof
It
Scotch and Irish ".,where it has alwaysbeen preserved.
is also
now
in
preserved
been
American
ney
Cocklost in the dialectsof England including
completely
Australian.
E.
as also in vulgar
when
666. But (h)is always dropped in weak syllables
sed -ijwsz
not at the beginningof the sentence, as in (-hij
"
"
he
redi)
the
said he
was
ready,whence
the distinctionbetween
The
866.
form
As
weakened
we
to
mere
and
brealh-glide,
then
dropped, the
The
gh
in
to
have
been
not
uncommon
high, nigh,weigh,etc.=ME
in
speech.
high,hi
was
T,Goo(^le
48
ENGLISH.
MODERN
869.]
been
867.
kept unchanged in
was
the
end
of
wards
MnE, being after-
graduallyweakened
Towards
First
the
Third
period it began
dropped everywhere
except before
to
be
Standard ".
Alreadyin
First MnE
vowels
in the direction of
levelled under
so
(a),
asm
(ar)or (-er),
her
came
to
be
{hw)fir,bird,fur, turn.
preceding(ee)=a,ai,ei to ("),as
in care
with name
(neem),fail,
fair,their contrasting
(kf^r),
veil;and towards the end of this periodit broadened a preceding
In Third MnE
it modified
MnE
sometimes
in star,hard.
(iir,
uur),as
ME
/r, or appear in
in
fear,moor, being
sometimes
broadened into {eex,ar),
in there,bear,floor.
as
In the present century (r)has been dropped everywhere
being
except before a vowel, r final or before a consonant
in (fala)
=
as
only by a precedingglide-(a},
represented
(f3iar)ME fir. This (a)=r has broadened
Early MnE
preceding (ij,
uw) into (i,u), as in here (hia),
poor, cure
with he (hij),
(kjua)
contrasting
fiool(puwl). The glide-(a)
before (r)was
absorbed by a preceding mixed or
finally
broad vowel, (bt)
in her etc. passingthrough (sa)into (aa),
(aa,oa)into (aa,a),as in star,floor.
869. L
(1)hegaa to be dropped
Alreadyin First MnE
as
between
382
PHONOLOGY.
at
firstdropped
vben
otily
weak.
were
In Second
m,%.
[| 870.
the combinations
MnE
(J,3), as in nation {fuelvo)='"ii\j
nScioun (naasi-uun),
sure
sjuur,Juur),
(ii3e!esjun)=ME
(sivr,
such words
usual (iuzinel,
as
juuguEel),
nature, verdure
into the
n"ftj3r,
verdjur,
verdjar)
passingthrough (tixceljur,
vsadga).
present(neit/a,
(sj,zj)became
871.
rounded, and
the
First MnE
in
was
We
can
see
In Second
MnE
in Edward
10
spelling,
except
drops the
la
in
in the
vulgar
rounding effect on
dropped in
was
in "ward,-wards,as
especially
(bskardz).We stilldrop the
same
weak
the
syllables,
backwards
(edard),
in towards
but
(tadz),
it has
(grinids).
before (n)in First MnE, as in
kept initially
know [compare
the (n)beingunvoiced,and the
acknowledge^
(k)afterwards dropped,so that in Second MnE (knou,kn^cu)
this (nA)being afterwards levelledunder the
became (n^oo),
more
frequent(n)in no, etc.
in
874. g was
as
dropped before (n) in Second MnE
878.
was
shortened to (i))
in
was
(i}g)
such words as
etc,
singer(siqar),
singing^M^ (siijger),
in sing ; but (qg)was
kept in the
by the analogyof final (ij)
as in logger,
longest.
comparisonof adjectives,
In Second MnE
87d. t, d.
(t)preceded by the hisses
(I,n, m)
(s,f) and followed by the vowel-like consonants
876.
In First MnE
medial
T,Goo(^le
( 88i.]
ENGLISH:
PRESENT
in thiiSe
regularly
dropped,as
"was
283
STRESS.
(ImsI),
fasttn(fseECsn),
chestnut,
Christmas,often.
In First MnE
morfior,rdJ"or,fiPele.
murder, rudder,fiddle=0'E,
878.
in lamb.
ME
'
had
b. In First MnE
Hence
only m,
as
seized'=0E
added
was
in
final(b)was
in
limb,numb=ME,
Urn,inumen 'taken,'
genumen.
ENGLISH.
PRESENT
Word-Stress,
The
characteristicfeatures of Present
Englishstress
of them of OE origin,
whll^ others developedthemselves
some
arc
in ME
and in the different periodsof MnE, some
of very recent origin.
being apparently
678.
880.
In Present English, as
of stress
principle
words
"
have weak
the
stress.
weakened
distinctionbetween
The
OE, the
in
Thus
in ^
i" a
"
most
general
formespecially
man
of the world,
-sotn^
bread and
-some
(61.i).
-people
OE
is still
in native words, as
maintained in MnE
principle
in fearful,
fearfully,
fisher,fishery,
fearless,
fearlessness,
fisherman(fijaman).
This
284
\S S8a.
PHONOLOGY.
We
883.
of French
it back
stress
on
have
that
seen
alreadyin ME
many longwords
the last syllable
threw
(787).
this
tendencyhas
become
become
now
such
to the first syllable,
which
in
fixed.
only
Even
recondite,
balcony,
crystalline,
as
was
as
in the present
have thrown back their stress
of these words
centurymany
stronger
in such words
stress
first-syllable
which in Late ME
honour,piiy,emptror,justify,
occasional,has
native
stressed
were
their second
on
syllables.
883.
in OE
and
stillkeep this
which
such
ME,
stress
in
as
MnE,
native
stress
on
the firstsyllable
arite,become,
forgive,to-day,
also those French
as
ME
in
words, such
words
blance
throughtheir resemas
irv"m},defend.
"
Greek
chiefly
through French
"
-sion etc.,-TKlify,
as in
-grapfgi,
-tsgue, -tion,
picturesque,
esque,
grot-
in all of
imagination,
position,
possibility,
photography,
which
the
is taken
stress
away
from
the
root-
on
syllable,
imagine,possible,
graph
photoetc.
Many words which were
imported from French
and other foreign
languagesin the MnE periodkeep their
advanced stress even
when the analogyof other words points
the firstsyllable,
such as machine,
to throwingit back on
ffl/M"" which show
of ('as
their French
Words
(ij)champagne,canoe, gazelle.
from Latin generally
importedstraight
keep the
as
"
ia pa-pyrus,even
Words
create,se'vtre.
accentuation
Greek
original
when
as
well
stress
as
is
which
were
Latin stress,
the final
is dropped,as in
syllable
of Greek origin follow the Latin
the Latin spelling,
that the
so
preservedIn Englishonly when It
T,Goo(^le
PSESENT
887,]
Greek
88fi.
or,
syllable,
as
they become
as
soon
any rate,towards
at
in
of recent
even
to
%%^
STRESS.
Latin also,as
^/mm/j,mouseion.
But foreignwords
liabJe
always
in
preserved
to be
happens
ENGLISH:
the
museum
genesis,
introduction
back
to the
on
are
first
popular,which
in Latin words
is generally
or
droppingtheir endings,
by their shortening
in 'a"(A/0r= Latin au'dtlor,
as
'di'sciplitu^hMin
discrplina,
phi-losop^ ='Laim philoSophiafrom Gj^\ philosophiS.
shown
When
880.
is used
foreignword
in different*
senses, it
familiar meaning
it throws
the stress back, keepingthe original
stress in the less familiar
Thus
meaning.
keep
we
au'gusiand the
throw
it back
In many
887.
both
as
when
used
have
the
as
verb
where
is
is thrown
back in
word
foreign
same
is used
stress, while
same
distinction between
OE
the
verb in
takes the
adjective-form
verb
jective
in the ad-
-minute.
cases
and
noun
stress
name
familiar noun
more
Latin
original
but
Augusim=\a,\.\a au-gustus,
the month-name
jective
-August. So also the ad-
in
mrnuie
the
the
stress on
such words
or
correspondingnounthe firstsyllable,
so that the
as
the
due
reallyultimately
'accenl and
noun
the
to the
analogyof the
pairs -forwyrd,/orweorpan etc.,which analogy was
io accent
gready aided by
Latin
the
between
native
between
-income,-insightetc.
nouns
-the
msuttare.
in-vade
foreignverbs in-duce,
noun
The
-insult and
led
to
the
followingare
etc.
and
trast
con-
and
distinction
from
Latin
examples of such
pairs:
'absent
to ab'sent
'abstract
to abstract
'"iffix
to
a'ffix
compound
'compound
to
-extract
Io ex-tract
I -frequent
the
to frequent
l86
PHONOLOGY.
object
'present
In
some
to
to
ob-ject
The
888.
nonnai
stress
to
I 'rebel
preient
in advice
the verb-stress,
as
'product
however, the
cases,
[(888.
adjective-forms
keep
and
noun-
product
to rrbel
crment.
{toadvise),
of
word
is always liable to be
in thai is the
in
thing to do,especially
of contrast,as
cases
but "objective,
againstthe
"subjecUve
objective.
s^ss/orgive,sub-jeclive,
permanentlyaltered
the normal
stress.
Thus, while in most words the ending -or
in actor, author, it is regularly
is pronounced weak
as
(-sr),
trasted
pronounced with strong (or)in those words where it is conwith the correspondingpassiveending -", as in lessor
with lessee (le'sij)
'one who lets a house' contrasted
(le's^a)
is let,'as the nonnai
the house
'one to whom
pronunciation
lead
confusion
with
l
esser.
the adjective
would
to
(less)
In
some
this contrasting
stress has
cases
Stress
889.
The
most
Wobd-Gkoups
which
now
890.
noun,
"woman,
the OE
had
and
stress,
many
even
on
havingit equallydistributed
Thus
the
in
Compoukds.
characteristicfeature of Present
stress
OE
iw
the
stress
regular
one
English
tions
combina-
syllable
only in
syllables.
free groups, adjective
or
genitive+
is even, as in a 'good'man, a 'virtuous
over
two
So also to
'son.
-greatimprovement, the -Aing's
-wide xup correspondsthe Present English 'widely
a
"known,-widelydiffused.
891.
In OE
the combination
or
-f-noun
might be
adjective
distinguished
compound, which were
by the adjective
being declinable
indeclinable in
the
compound,
both
in the
combinations
'
'
T,Goo(^le
'
894-]
PRESENT
ENGLISH:
287
STRESS.
in the dative
'
'
remainingundeclined.
It
892.
In MdE,
would
ing
with
have
adjectives
from
adjectives
become
free groups,
stress
can
in
adjective
+ noun
with
group,
that the OE
so
compound
hand, many
OE
free combinations
example
for the
not
be
must
into
it
onlybe regardedas
godd"d
were
the firstelement
on
English,as
indeclinable,
so that
in
=
of
MnE,
OE
have
adjective
-f-noun
as
in blackberries
Prtglisi
mamt,
OE
in the latter
element,showingthe.
intimateness of the
893.
composition.
the tendency to give adjectives
full stress
But
stress
is found
stress,such
uneven
as"
in many
isolated as
is
so
combinations whose
star.
'high'road,
publichouse,easy chair,shooting
Prussie acid,Prussian
blue,Indian ink.
old age,
common
seme,
article.
Even
AS
adjectivefollowsthe
in Prince Consort,
Princess Royal,poet laureate,
894.
Gtiess
In the OE
nothingto
the
combination
tellus whether it is to
noun,
there
genitive-f-noun
be regardedas a group or
is
a
such
as
'king's
son, and
uneven-stress
genitive
288
PHONOLOGY.
[( 895.
whose
compounds such as the plant-nameermiii-foot,
to that of Other compound names
is perfectly
parallel
stress
of
natural objects
{8B6).
SdB.
compounds,where
the old
elements
of
of
the
the
its way
into
some
of
logicalrelation between
the
compound
the
elements
feltto
stress
free group,
'
OE
:hring,where gyldtn
'gyldeti
had
been
made
is
declinable
adjective,
-gdlden'ring,it was
natural to transferthis stress to the compound gold-ring.
But uneven
stress is also preserved
896.
first-syllable
in Present English compounds. In some
compounds the
"
stress
uneven
"
to be
seems
word
of
'
silkthread is a
thread made
compounds the
a
mere
second
as
matter
of
course.
the way
derivativeending,especially
when
want
In such
of
come
to be-
it undergoes
prominence,
in such compoimds
ending -man
as
shopman (Jopmsn),
clerg^an,Englishman, which are
level with such even-stress
on
a
logically
compounds as
as
is often the
case
with the
T,Goo(^le
8m.]
PRESEm'
EtigUthbey. The
289
STRESS^
ENGLISH;
is that many
of natural objects
and of classes of hutnan
compound names
beings,togetherwith some
ending in time-words of general
bhckhird ; bluebu/rooi;sandslow^greyhound,
Iree,rosebush,
bell,
cat's-mint;Mrdseye
blackbeny;quicksiher eroto'
s-fooi,
"
(a kind
of
tobacco).
Englishman, Englishwoman,Jreemason, blaeksmilh-~ladies'-man,
la^s-maid,bridesmaid.
summertime, dinnertime j
iir/hday,
dogdays
"
midnigki,
midsummer.
But in
887.
most
of the whole, as
wc
see
clearly
by comparingblackbird
very
808.
even
balances
as
may
and
uneven
it were
on
tween
Ic^al distinctionbe-
union, as in blackbird.
898.
One
stress is often
preserved
such
as
contrastedwith
VOL.I.
uneven
Zealand,He
stress
in older
u
such
as
New-
PHONOLOGY.
990
["90o-
cattlt,
Newport,Longwood,Redfynch where ^M='slope
"
of
hiU.'
Uneven
in
stress
place-names is often
in /Atf
element,which
is often
obscured,
Bradford [=iroad/ord}.
We
will
now
consider
detail,
accordingto
in
compounds more
the part of speech to which the compound
the stress of
belongs.
Compound Nouns.
900.
take
Compounds of noon
uneven
numerous
or
adjeotiTe+
when
watching. The
of these purpose-compounds:
a
dog
regularly
noun
for
objectof
the second ;
"
"greenhoust,
dtningroom, fire/dace,
fimxrpol,fiawerpots/and,pockelbook;schoolroom,guidebook,
footpath,dancing'
vxatiurciKk ; coal-mine,
master, stabU-bty,
post-office,
gravel-
pit; summer-house,
In other causal
presses
compounds the second element exthe result of the first,
or
dependence on it; thus coalis a machine
tar is tar obtained iiopicoal,a steam-engine
whose workingdepends on steam.
Other examples are
90L
"
water-colours i
"viind/aU,
rainbow,chiilblain; lampblack,
oil-lamp,sundial,- sunflower
thundercloud,thunderstorm,
;
foiacco-smoie,
rain-water.
902.
uneven-stress
noun-
"
slockbroker;
screwdriver,bookseller,
"painstaking,
man-
T,Goo(^le
f9oa.]
PRESENT
bloeisM
slavghier,
ENGUSH
STRESS.
Z^\
carlgoldsmith,shoeblack;fiawtr-shea),
load.
In the
following:
phenomenon-compounds the first,
of other relations;"
element stands to the second in a variety
905.
wali"earthquake,
shipwreck
; grasthopptr
; cricket-match,
ing-lotir,
dinner-par
moonlight; eyesigU;headache;
fy; sunrise,
garrison-life,
priestcra/t.
We
904.
have
now
In
consider the
to
use
of
in
Stress
even
alreadyremarked (89S),
feltto be equivalent
the firstelement is generally
to an
tive.
adjecThis is especially
dear in those even-stress
compounds
in vhich the firstelement {a)expresses somethingthat resembles
the second element, as in sponge-cake sponge-like
cake,' spongy cake,'
(i)defines the Bex or age of the second
noun-compounds.
even
stress,as
'
'
element,as in
cook
man
material of which
thread:
'
=
male cook,'and
the second
element
is
(f)denotes
made,
as
the
in silk
"
loafsugar; copperheeeh,moss
(a)"hawwindm), rocksalt,
rose, silver sand.
but
etc. (896);
againstthe analogyof goldfish
beech is evidently
in
too special
to be subordinated
a word
the
same
last three go
The
as
way
tree etc
(S)'MiMi
;
'
tomcat,buck rabbit,
pollparrot. So also in he-goat,
she-goal.
stone wall,gravelwalk, straw hat,silver
(f)-brick"house,
Even
when
generalplace-word,
proper
often a
road, square, is defined by another noun
or
name
adjectiveput before it,as in Oxford
Road.
So
noun
to
such
are
as
"
"
also when
show
where
the
name
of
place is prefixedto
from.
Examples
"
PHOffOLOGY.
agt
Bridge,Wimbledon
"James's
Cimmon
[| 906.
North
"
St.
"
Square.
Indiaruiber,Ceylon -tea.
'Turkey'carpel,
But when
the
takes the
street
noun
compounds, it is subordinated
frequeacy(898) :"
in stress
Strut, Ftnehureh
'O^erd
placeof
road
because
Street"
etc.
in such
of its greater
Higkstriet"Princes
Street.
of rerb
Compounds
g06.
and
(90s).
In them the
sometimes
in the
being doubUul in
notm
are
therefore
necessarily
nomenon-co
phe-
take
stands somelimes
noun
stress
uneven
in the
object-,
some
"
snake,
hreahvaier,
breakfast
(brekfsst)
scarecrow, telltale,
; rattlewashtub.
leapfrogs
drawbridge; whirlwind, leapyear,
Compound Adjectives.
of
Compound adjectives
consisting
907.
noun
-f-adjeo-
when
have uneven
the
stress,especially
generally
second element is a participle
:
"godlike,
jelly-like,
vuatkerwist,
foolhardy,colourblind,
bloodthirsty,
nmwaterproof;heartrending,
spirit-stirring;
tlTe-word
"
burnt,careworn,
bloodshot.
Combinations
908.
of them
stress; many
of
are
used also
as
nouns:
even
"
'deaf-'mute,
north-west,whitey-broam,greenishyellow;
hot.
half-mad,dead-rtpe,
redhot,broiling
The
SOS.
used
both
stress
as
and
have
adjectives,
the
same
are
even
"
T,Goo(^le
ENGLISH
PHESEJ'n-
9""-J
and
"hundrtd
a
"twenty-oiu,
STRESS.
493
hundrtd, Ihree
-ten, two
thousand.
Verbs.
Compound
910.
greatmajorityof compound
The
verbs
stress
made up
of verbs with
(913),compounds
are
other
origin. These
generallyhave
"
'to threaten
"irowieat,
originally
tion
by contracof the eyebrows,'
kiln-dry
; whitewash, blindfold.
Adverbs
and
Pronouns
in
censure
or
Composition.
911.
and
partioiple generallyhave
stress
uneven
ooon,
+ preterite
"
bystander,
"forefinger,
foreground,afterthought,
underlip,
outcry,throughjourn^.
up train,downfall,
inborn,downcast,thoroughbred.
912.
+ verb
The
compound
numerous
and of verb
have
+ adverb
formed of adverb
verbs
stress
even
"
fore'warn,overcome, undergo,outbid.
past -by,draw bach,break down, lake in,look out,run
918.
Nouns
derivation
or
and
formed
adjectives
inflection keep the same
from
these verbs
stress
even
by
"
fore-runntr,
forewarning; passer by,lookingon.
out
fore-warned;grown up, broken down, worn
So also if they are converted
914.
into nouns
without
a
down.
breaklook-out,
a
change of meaning, as in an -over'load,
816.
distinctchange of
a
916.
made
meaning,the
-drawback,a runaway,
There
and of prcmoun
are
nouns
stress
or
with
adjectives
becomes
uneven
tumSU-down
go-between,
"
(adj.)
compounds of pronotm+pronotm
in which the principle
adverb
of pulling
many
+
into
[( 917.
PHONOLOGY.
394
carried
modifyingelement is very clearly
the modifying
element comes
so
first,
out; in the following
that first-syllable
stress is the result:
the
stress
the
on
"
anyone
everyone
no
somehow
lOHUlhing somewhere
anything
anywhere
ai^hoto
everything everywhere
nowha-e
nothing
somebody
anybody
everybody
nobody
"someone
one
"
"
So also in -tlstwhere.
817.
so
In other
forwards
:"
somewhere else,
whatever else.
'else,
someone
who'ever,whosoever,whatever,whenever,wherever,how-
ExTENSiON
918.
In Present
OF
Compound-Stress.
words
Englishsome
elements take
even
as
if
have
stress
made
up of
they were
inseparable
compound
words.
819.
and
are
Some
prefixes which
to be feltas independent
word have in consequence come
words, the prefisand the body of the word being balanced
of
:
"
ductor,
noncon-mirconduct,
-unbe'lief,
misunderstanding,
arefAishop,
juxtaposition,
ex-manager, sub-committee,
Nouns
anHradical.
cross-examine ;
unbend,nacoiier, gainsay,
misjudge,
^'cover
mis-take
^^in,'re-examine.
keeps itstraditional ME
stress
because it is isolated
from take.
820.
Even
sometimes
simple
have their
words
of
more
detached
syllables
than
one
in this way.
syllable
This is
T,Goo(^le
PRESENT
I 9JS.]
ENGIJSM
STRESS.
495
tend to take
frequentwith exclamations, which naturally
each syllable
stress through the endeavour to make
as
even
loud
:
possible
as
"
'hii'bl,
bravo!,amen!, encore!
Exclamations
The
are
stress
(92B).
The /"m-numerals
922.
the
same
on
the
to even
:
"
analogyof
etc. :
group-numerals
twenty-one,
nineteen.
"thirteen,
fourteen,
seventeen,
"
"
Group-Compownds.
628.
nouns
"
throw the
stress
modifyingone.
the second
to
on
The following
:
are examples of uniZ-groups
"
fork,bread
and butter.
or
so,
The
624.
step or
two.
examples of group-compounds
followingare
with
formed
are
1
prepositions
of 'properly,
man-of-war,woman
"
of the world,people
matter offad, motherof rank, a cup of tea,a pair of gloves,
box on the ear, head over heels.
a
of-pearl;
commander-in-chief,
626. If an adjective
precedesthe second noun, the chief
man
fallson
stress
that
:
adjective
"
cat-o'
-all-trades.
-nine-tails,
fack-of
The
stress
is thrown
back
etc.
vafather-in-laai,
30
[{916.
phonology.
Advanced
Stkess
the
In maniind
926.
in proper
'pecially
:"
syllables
is thrown
of three
frequent in wordf
more
Cohpovnos.
in
stress
or
forward.
This
is
cssyllables,
more
lengthenedby derivative
and words
names
Southampim,Newfoundiand,archpochthandktrfhirf,
out-rageout
\^"mirage\.
"bishoprie
\^archbishop\,
which
Fiiigeraid,
portfolio,
portmattteau,
coiapounda,though obscured,
So also in
as
827.
a
name
proper
Prime
"
In exclamations the
compounds
even-stress
stress
is sometimes
such
AssuMPTivx
029.
When
used
exclamations,compounds
back, such
unchangedwhen
of the compound
"Btrlin -wool
Chinese mandarin
used
as
and
Groups.
compound or group,
compound is put before a noun
the
assumptively,
or
stress is thrown
group
-Oxford
as
even-stress
stressed like a
modifies
as
Compounds
(Attributivk)
an
Hence
-Blackhettth,
Oxford Road
as
Strut,keepingtheir stress
(B20),
even
in a-ha!,good -morningI
Blacfrheaih,etc. when
become
by
Arthur.
028.
word
titleis followed
-Smith,Miss
Mr.
felt
are
on
tions.
exclama-
simple
or
which it
the firstelement
"
Waterloo station,
[but-xeoolfrom 'Berlin],
; non-commissioned
officer
; underdone
meat.
slrongminded
woman,
hardboiled
eggs,
weli-inown
voice;
Compare
also
seven
o'eloek -dinner,
and
-goodfor
",Goo(^le
ENGUSH;
PRESENT
(935.]
dine at
"w
QUA
49?
NTITY.
o'-clociand V
'stvm
it
'good
Jbr 'nothing,
groap-compound in which the stress is
it k"eps its
alreadythrown forward is used assumptively,
ordinated
stress
unaltered,the stress of the bead-word being subWhen
080.
:-~-
cat
.merckan/ ; ianh
9S1.
This
"/ England
nok.
even-stress
some
-rat
groups in
is not close ;
"
So also in
good all
longergroups :
'round .-man, tie emjiloyer/
liadiUfy
for 'injury
the commons
:bill,
enclosureconsoU'dafion :act.
Qnantit;.
088.
In Mn"
As
vowels.
we
there is
have
seen
(blisd)OE
=
and ME
There is also
consonants
in native words, as
in
blbd.
"
"
followed by
astonish,
grateful;parish,method,benefit,
philosophy,
relative,
astronomy, pleasure (plegs)compared with please,courage
(k^rid^),
flourish.
685.
vowels ^
But when
the
consonant
is followed
by
two
weak
as in
precedingstrongvowel is often lengthened,
in the derivative
atheist,
radiant,patient,tedious,
especially
endings-tion,-sion,
etc, precededby a strong vowel, as in
nation,-admiration,
adhesion,notion,corrosion,
although" is
tgS
not
[|93"""
PHOftOLOGY.
lengthenedunder
in
these circumstances,"s
hideous,
as
vowels, as in fatal,dtcuive,navy
by weak
noD^aie,bacim,paper,labour,those in -n and
the resnltof the influence of native
087.
as
But
them when
-r
words,such
taken,shaken,etc.,and the
participles
-tr, sudi
preceded
compared with
beii^probably
ntunerous
-r
the preterite
as
derivativesin
maker.
some
of these words
with
another
is added,as
syllable
with nation,
tyrannouscmnpared with fyrant.
which
have been imported direct frc"n
B88. In words
Latin and Greek, the vowels are generally
long under the
circumstances described above,as in basis,
ether,
crisis,
regent,
such as simib
focus,sfr^ht. But there are several exceptions,
the quantity
chemist,
words, such as
varyingin some
(simili),
pathos (pei}x"s,
pi^ws).
esa.
In Present
940.
In all these
three degrees
Engli^ we can distinguish
of vowel quantity.Long vowels and difJithongs
preserve
their fullquantity
as in toy, tee,no, why, or
only when final,
when followed by a final voice consonant, as in home, raise,
wine. Before breath consonants
succeed,
they become halflong,as in race, seat,knife.
cases
the
consonant
is short
If
short
consonant
is
consonant
is voiced
"
"
T,Goo(^le
M30
PXESEATT
vowels
are
from the
these
299
short
naturatl;
(a)of
davi.
in
English,therefore,
the combination
The
QUANTITY.
sonant.
In
ENGUSH;
short
must
be
strong vowel
strong vowel4
long
the
or
final
consonant.
final consonant
-I-short
in the
English speakers,as
German
(man).
maun
The
941.
combination
occurs
filling(filii))
compared
vrith fill(fill),
lesser,
many,
a vowel-likeconsonant
(Itcbsd),
actinglike
in eatiU (keetl),
written,troiille. A weak
another word
has
the
same
if the
effect,
cupboard
weak vowel,as
vowel
beginning
words
two
are
run
and
under
diphthongs
these conditions
shortened,
partially
in Hdy compared with tide,
chosen (tjouzn)
as
compared with
in the latter example acting
chose,the vowel-like consonant
like a weak vowel.
Half-longvowels and diphthongsare
shortened in the same
partially
way, as in tightercompared
with t^hl,the diphthong
in tighter
beingtherefore stillshorter
are
than in tidy.
S4S.
In weak
943.
Final consonants
syllables
simplevowels become quiteshort,
and a followingconsonant
remains short abo, as in pity,
letter,
pitied,
remains short
setting,A vowellike consonant
under the same
bitten^itn).
circumstances,
as in settle(sell),
Strong short vowels.
consonants
are
long,as
seen,
after
separate
is voiceless,
in
as
before
consonant
when
lengthened,
especially
is followed
have
we
In finalconsonant-groups the
built,since,slapped.
is
are
vowel-like
by a voice-stopconsonant,
bend compared with built (biit),
bent.
as
sonant
voice-conconsonant
in build
(billd),
Two
044.
sounds
\\ 944.
PHONOLOGY.
300
in
consonimts
When
weak
long words
theymay contain
syllable
are, of
are
short,as
are, of course,
a
course,
lengthenedstillmore.
and a
singleconsonant
is not lengthened,
but the lengthis thrown
("i
to
the weak
and
lengthenedwithout change of quality,
without takingany additional stress,as in what
a
piiyf
vowel, which
is
("pjt/i"),
slt^htr
T,Gop(^le
ACCIBENOE.
Gendex.
There
945.
three genders of
are
lise,fsminme, and
clearlyshown
masculine
in OE
nouns
by natural gender
In
'
the
^1
same
tic, and
pal.
neuter
maiden/
often
of children
names
way
'
'
'
tt, feminine
nenter:
mason-
The
neuter.
partlynatural,partlygrammatical. It is
are
"
girl.'Names
neuter, but
as
of
often
are
genderis
be noted
to
and
young
that
animals
'child,'
^^/ ttalf'calf.'
neuter : pat magd-en
thingsand
masculine
house
The
abstractions
feminine
or
'
are
fiat
'
se
hgrt
finger finger,'
of living
hand,' sio wyitn joy,' Names
; iio Hand
army
dicts
beings sometimes have a grammaticalgender which contrathe natural geixler
woman,' ' wife is
; thus J"af vnf
'
'
'
'
te
'
'
'
neuter.
946.
word.
se
847.
Compound
element
te
moon,'
mdna
marni
Hence
'
bnmiui
sto
te
suntu
nouns
'
sun
'
being feminine.
follow the
na/matm
'
woman'
being'is mascoltne.
gender of
Is
the
last
masculise,because
ACCIDENCE.
303
All
046.
weak.
such
nouns
Wsak
as
sUorra
it
StKONO
AMD
WlAK.
belong to
one
of two
nouns
'
[f948.
classes
"
strong and
are
-n,
star,'
pluralnominative J"isteorran,twau,
Casks.
OE
948.
have
nouns
are
accusative is the
tinguished.
always clearlydis-
not
same
as
the nominative
in the singular
of all neuter nouns,
plurals,
of allmasculine strong nouns.
Masculine
singular
all
of weak
The
nouns
dative
OSa.
are
nearly the
same
in
Some
neuters
have
the
in
and
neuter
inflections
all three
is
in
and
nouns
atxnua-
genders.
-mm.
as
(ild,
Wbecever
the accmatiTe
ii not
it w
giraitepuateljr,
the
tune
T,Goo(^le
9SS-]
long vowel, as
more
than
8S4.
The
feminines
as
in
-"
of the
ENGLISH.
303
vowel
a
containing
his, or
consonant,
one
\afole nations.'
'
as
sing,is,like the
nom.
followed by
-"
of the
plur.nom.,
same
OLD
NOUNS;
ending
the
in Late 0"
in
such
nom.,
as
of these
most
have
consonant
d^d
'
deed/
the
ace.
ace.
neuter
strong
sing,the
sing,d^d; but
are
ace
sing,diide.
Nom.
fage'eye' lagan
tirice 'church'
HriCan
Aca
lagt
iagoH
lagan
tiriian
eirtian
tiriian
Hriium
iiriian
tiriiena
Dat.
Gen.
056.
nouns.
nonns,
lagan
lagum
lagtna
There
The
are
most
such
as
besides
of Irregular strong
importantof these are the mntaticnia
number
the masculine
mann
'man,'/et 'foot,'tS/i
'tooth,'plur. mpm,
'
book,' gos
'
mps, byrig.
ide
_/?/ {/a/),tip, the feminine
mOt
mouse,'burg city,'
plur.dec,gis,
goose,'
'
'
ACCIDENCE.
Masculine
Mutation-n
Sing.
B67" Nom.
Singpi
fit
files
moan
DaL
mpin
Gen.
mantut
PIuT.
fit
fitum
fita
Feminine Mutation-nouns.
966.
Sing.
burh
bttrg,
iyrig
burgt
Nom.
Dat.
Gen.
The
968.
masc.
Pliir. I
Sing.
byrig
mAt
Plur.
myi
burgum]mys
burga \ mUtt
mSium
mtisa
lutm
sing,and
gen.
'
Some
BOO.
masc.
'
dwu
door
of
names
nadons
only in the
dat. ^nEnglish,'
occur
plur.,
ending in -t, such as ^iigie'the
Some
of these have a weak gen. plur.,
glum, gen. fitigla.
such as Staxe
Saxons,'Mierie Mercians,'gen. Seaxna,
'
'
Mitrina.
961.
The
rcladon shipwords
"ther,'modor
in wr,
'
or,
such
as
fader
'
'
"
Plur.
Sing.
Nom.
Jader
fadtras
Dat. fader
figdemm
Gen. fader,faderes fadera
902.
fem.
The
the
Some
nouns
are
in -u, such
fem. m'M
nom.
nouns
'
nom.
'
Plur.
brBpor,brB^ru
brdj/rum
brd^ra
such
indeclinable,
ieldu
'
old
as
the abstract
age,'
str[rigustrength.'
'
sing,and in
clinable
masc.
being also indemonafi month
phir; we stillpreserve these unchanged
night
the
plur.,
in the
as
Sing.
brdpor
briper
brdpor
is indeclinable in die
'
'
niekl
pluralsin the compounds forlnighi^OS.Jiavoerliem
indefourteen nights and tuxlvemonth. Some
are
nouns
'
'
T,Goo(^le
ig6g.1
JVOl/MS:
BARLY
ENGLISH.
MIDDLE
such
sing.,
as
ham
'
305
home,' as
in cet hant
at home.'
The
inflectionof
which
fallunder
Nouns
968.
is attended
nouns
before
inflection
an
beginning with
"
{ti^eiangel,'
/ugol bird,'wo sawol soul,'
^ai vkipen 'weapon,'^s/ mundor 'wonder,' 'miracle,'have
This short:
pluralsenglas,
/uglai, sawla, vktpnu, wundru.
the
ening is most frequentafter a precedinglong syllable,
weak vowel being generally
as in
kept after a short syllable,
'
"
For the
D61.
'
change of
into
'
in such
a.
nouns
as
se
dc^
'
'
For
966.
'
"
'
dropping of
the
'
A in such
Welshman,' plur.WialOs, se
teolh
'
nouns
'
as
se
Wealh
seal,'plur.seolas,see
761.
In Late OE
866.
words
final h and
medial g
alternate in such
OE Irog),
plur,trogas,seo burk, gen.
(earUer
sing,burge,se heorh mountain,'plur.beorgas(768).
as
"
froh
'
967.
beam
'
Final
in the
-"
pal
gfove,'
'
meolu
nom.
'
sing,of
meal,'seo
nouns,
some
sieadu
'
such
as
se
shadow,' shade,'
'
weakening of original
w, which reappears
before an inflection beginningwith a vowel, as in the gen.
sing,bearwes,meohves,sieadwe,sinwe. This -u is dropped
after a long syllable,
meadow,' plur.m"dwa.
as in seo mdd
tlo
stnu
'
sinew
is a
'
968.
The
dropping of h before
contraction,
as
in
vowels
(761) leads to
Oldest
ang. feos.
"DgliBh_/%0A".
Earl7 Hiddle
869.
nouns
In
were
WngliBh.
in
Early Southern the dd gender-distinctions
still
kept up. By degrees,however, the
partially
3o6
ACCIDENCE.
inflections of the
dropped;
levelled
theysoon
f""0tilnMt=OE
and
adjectives
and when
as
"
[K970.
were
"
slo sytm
were
that
so
ilhttu,pehit,
graduallyforgotten,
simply because
there was
ning
nothingto mark them. From the very beginof tbe ME periodtbe natural feminine gender of such
words as milmmom, MfMfat=OE anfimmH, nuegdeit
began to
prevailover tbe gnunmaticalmasculine and neuter, these
tbe old
genders were
words
the
mdtta,twuu,
mme,
tutuu,
m;
as
distinctions of
change in
far as tbe
case
OE
as
caru, ace.,
forms
The
concerned.
entirelyeffaced by
sttnu,
dat and
gen.
this
and
sing,
eara.
EariySouthem
endinp were
almost
were
such words
plur.swu,
nom.
levelled in tbe
iagt were
slant
stina (gen.
(datsing.),
final-".
levelledimder the same
tHpu (com.plur.)
were
plur.),
ling
which could withstand this level971. The only endings
tbe gen. sing,ts, the iK"m.
were
plur.
-"u, which both
the weak
became -tt in ME, as in s^tut=0'S.sfdntt,
ttditas,
-an, which became
dat.
The
plur.-urn
endingin
case
frequent
n,
as
so
in iviren =
97a.
The
became
m, the consonant
that M"
-em
plur.-mh, which
; bat
was
as
this was
nouns
to
OE -urn as
represented
OE itfiron,
gt/rrvm.
generalresult(^ these changeswag
plural. The
nouns,
-m
confusion
was
most
marked
wdl
not
some
only
the
more
as
-om,
onlyto
classes
and
singular
in the feminine
where the
as
following
nouns
obscure
-Mt.
levelledunder tbe
became
earu, tynn,
mmu
:"
ret^pfttively
T,Goo(^le
ffOUm:
977.]
EARLY
Sing.Nom.
-"
ENGLISH.
-"
-*
-en'
-t
Dat.
-*
-t
-tt^
"*
-en*
-e
-*"-""
Plur. Nom.
-""
Dat.
'en
-ert
'tm
Gen.
-etie
-ent
978.
are
307
Ace
Gen.
table
MIDDLE
minority,while
in the
marked
at the same
in the ab"ove
of ihem
time most
and plural.
singular
They
were
extension of those
accordinglygot rid of by the analogical
in the majorityand more
distinctive. The
forms which were
-e
of
and
care
ME
became
sunne
extended
was
The
sUnne.
plural-en
was
eara,
As
syrma.
took the
same
nouna
in the
as
nom,
synn, which
of sunnen=OE.
ME
"
caren,
sunnan
silnrten=0'E
ihe distinctivemark
now
foim
classes. The
two
was
givenup
it was
plural,
cases
-en
the OE
to
singularof
sunne, whose
the nominative,as
final result
of the
oblique
in the other
was
nouns
unifonnlydeclined as follows:
were
"
Sing.
As
974.
Nom.
-*
-en
Ace
-4
-en
Dat.
-*
-en
Gen.
-f
-MM
might
be
the
expected,
975.
way
same
"
Plur.
distinction between
plur.-etu
was
often
pluralcases, becoming-en.
masculines and
sii^,name,
gen.
neuters
declined in the
were
tie,plur.namen.
masculine
and
Hen.
neuter
weak
The
nouns
only
"
ace.
mnen.
977,
'f=the
OE
neuter
plur.ending
-u
was
made
into
308
in the
"en
[| 978.
ACCIDENCE.
same
in
for the sake of distinctness,
as
way
diofieti,
of
child. In many
Hldru, "ng. diovel,
dioftu,
in
these words -"=0"
exten"itedto the singular,
as
-u
was
bede prayer,'=0" dal._geb"d,
daU
dahi,gebedit.
valley,'
plur.
ckildreK=0^
'
'
These
OE
became
[durals
The
978.
heden in ME.
daljtn,
remaining masculine
theiroriginal
strong forms.
wege, worde
in accordance
"
-m=0"
plur.
a
such
phrases,
the
nom.
OE
-a
'
weak
generalME
as
Mis, word
to
The
dat.
because
reason"
The
the
gen. plur.-"=
distinctweak ending
more
kingau,as
instead of
in aire
ktagau king
worde
kinge,
both of
"
but the
"
word
iwt',
tendency.
dative.
but
kept,
"
neuter
the dat.
so
'
as
wdrdene
king of all kings,'
In the
warden
loriV,
as
"
these forms
kept at
was
sometimes
was
-*
in such words"
nom.
kept
nouns
and
singular,
was
plur.being used
was
-ene
the
with the
-urn
it Bu^ested
such forms
suggesteda weak
levelled under
sing,vas
neuter
OE
and
the neuters, so
ending was
the two
distinguish
often extended
strong masc.
as
to
numbers
"
Ames,
wordes.
The
are
following
then the
those which
noun-inflections,
in(
regularEarly Southern
are
liable to be
ME
droppedbeing
):Strong Masculine
fi78.
Nom.
and Neuter.
Plur.
Sit%.
loSrd
w6rd, wSrdes
stQn{e)wdrd{e) slants,(sipen) wSrd, -wdrdes
Geo. stgnes viSrdes
stine{iU),slgnes
wSrde{He),iodrdes
stjH
stents
Dat.
080.
The
neuters
to 0"
firen,corresponding
plur.ehsidren,
iildru,Sgru,
v,Goo^le
984-]
EARLY
NOUNS:
MIDDLE
ENGLISH.
Feminme.
Plur.
Sing.
sunnen,
chirchen
Dat.
liinne,cMrche
sUnne, ehircke
limnm,
ckirchen
Gen.
sUnne, ehircke
tUrm!n(t),chirchen(e)
Nom.
Some
982.
the
and
nom.
'
cu
originally
strong f"inininesdo not take -e in
such aa kgnd hand,'miht might,'
ace
sing.,
'
'
cow.*
Weak
983.
Masculine
Sing.
and
Neater.
Plur.
Nom.
ivire
H*
iviren
Hen
DaL
ivire
lit
iviren
Htn
Gen.
ivire
iU
iveren(e)
iien(e)
Those
884.
plural;which
in Mn"
of course
were
preserved
kept in EarlyME as
man
(men),vot, tS^,gos, mus, plur.men, vH, tip,ges,
The
OE
ME
as
In the
datives
as
to
Most
mannen.
take
in the
"
nom.
burg appears
noun
Early Southern
buTwe
as
mpm
being
into
made
monnt
graduallyextended
not
mSs.
such 0"
plur.,
manne,
well :
wUmmon,
ttammen.
tnon.
in
wi/mann plur.wlfinptnappears
still
are
the dat
or
were
and
supplanting
gen., men
of the feminine irregular
do
nouns
and
in ME
ace.
sing. The
sometimes
as
OE
feminine
burh, sometimes
CanttrbUri
This
dadve
arose
in
OE
'Canterbury'=the
from
OE,
as
the
in
dat.
Cantwarabyri^.
at governing the
phrase at the city,'
^riiich became
at pSre byrig,
of ter bUri
'
(767),whence
as
the MnE
of
ACCIDENCE.
3IO
The
968.
[J 985.
My remained
lost the
brdPer of course
pluralsvaderet,modren, tSstrm.
which became
0"
matation in the dat. Bing.,
broper. But
ihiBmutation was transferred to the plur.on the analogyof
brcjru became brepre,and
fit,men, etc, so that bro/"rt=0'E.
then,by the usual changreof plural-t into
nifU,mSneftand
080.
-en,
hriPren.
others remained
some
uninflecledin
the plural.
The
Final
OE
was
'
vatimera
vestments,'where 2=(ts).
'
la Old French
Sing.Nom.
Ace
As
ME,
the
such
word
aa
vestimens
Plur. Norn.
vestimmi
Ace
distinction between
the French
-s
vtsHmeni
and
tUHn,
vtstimetu
bad
ace.
been
lost in
was
plur-mflection -es.
080.
of
In
Early Midland
grammaticalgender were
from
Northern
and
lostduringthe
entirely
strong and
natural consequence
extended to weak
plur. -n
nouns
to
in
that the
was
and
the distinctions
weak
transition
weak
forms
of the
genitive
in the
nouns
same
and
way,
feminine
the
first to
nouns
leftwere
gen.
T,Goo(^le
t99\-}
LATE
ffOUNS:
its
in
the
ME
Standard
-inflection3
noun
ENGLISH.
case, the
only one
originalnominative,accusative,and
in
merged
'
one
case'
common
Sing.Common
of
genitive;
being now
"
linne
wSrdes,
wdrdis,
Gen.
e
dative
dialect
wdrdes, sititus
Plur. Common
The
wSrd,
Gen.
BOl.
31
Hiddle-EngUab.
I"te
890.
MIDDLE
-es
"
the gen.
as
sinnes
sinnes
well
the
as
plur.ending-
is often
a
foes.' Also
hiatus,as in Jgs
in
avoid
to
(tcpsns)].
8B2.
The
and
words
whole
proper
cSs 'cases,'
plurals
(also
verses).
vers
the
word
as
vers, whose
indeclinable
necessarily
Sing-Nom.
is part of the
"
Plur. Nom,
vers
Ace.
Ace.
vers
vers
vers
sometimes
keep their
Originallyfeminine noune
earlier j-less gen. sing.,
as in pe chirche dgre,his ladygr"ce.
093.
We
stillpreserve
Lorfs
this form
in
4ay.
with imchanged
neuter
nouns
Manjr originally
stillkeep these,such ""/olk, der, hors,np 'cattle,'
plurals
984.
of these
'
kmd,' ping,yfr. It
plur^shave
must
be observed that
collectivemeaning;thus the
AcciDEffCE.
3:a
\\ 995.
frequendy
joinedto numerals,such
were
as
winter.
In its generalmeaning/A
085.
fit. So
also man,
keeps itsmutation-plural
t^, etc. have plurab mat,
a)dm{m)a"i,
etc.
wBm{m)m, lifi,
The
098.
weak
-tn
plural-ending
is preserved not
only
have now
plur.
oxen, but also in other words which
lost it in the spoken language,such as atche,tuchen,h"tt,
U
/gn, ig toe,'Ign, tcho shoe,'schon.
eye,'Un, /g foe,'
in
exe
'
'
In other words
'
'
this ending is a ME
ehiUren,dehtren,suslren.
eow
has
extension,as in bripren,
Modem
inflectional
MnE
EngUsh.
887.
only
H.
had
-m
been
in
voiced
period the j of
(861),(s) being kept
Early
getse, pence. In
monosyllablessuch as
the t wrs
kepi after a hiss-consonant
of
in horses (horsez),
and was
as
distinctness,
dropped everywhere
the
u
nvoiced
after
a
else,
(z) being necessarily
voicelessconsonant,
while it
was
of
consonants, as in
preservedafter
heads (hrnlz).
dig/s,
course
vowels
and
voiced
The
as
ME
T,Goo(^le
999.]
NOUNS:
in S/.
generallykept,as
ENGLISH.
3I3
James's Square,where
it is also
written.
only
MODERN
in
full -gs
used.
One
radical
of inflectional-m
in MnE
is that
for the
mistaken
pluralinflection,
in
so that an
as
original
singularhas been made into a plural,
the case
of alms, eaves, riches,summons:
these 'apparent
plurals correspondto the OE
singularsalmtsse,(fese(plur.
seinonse.
(fesan)and the Old French singular?rickesse,
Most of these apparent pluralsare not used in the singular
;
but summons
is used
in the sing,without
change" o
any
curtailed
gular
sinThere
w
hich
form
summons.
are
some
a
plurals
by throwing off the radical final s. Thus the collective
gular
pluralpease=ih.tOE weak pluralpiosan has developed a sinnew
a
orthographicpluralpeas has been
pea, whence
farmed.
quently
freIn vulgar English such curtailed singularsare
formed horn names
of nations in -est, such as Chinee,
Portugueefrom Chinese,Portuguese.
to be used as
Inflectional pluralsoften come
singularsby
change of meaning, such as tuws, sixpence. They may then
form new
such as sixpences.
plurals,
s
'
98d.
The
ME
(and0")
alternation of breath
consonants
and
native words
voice
as
wif,
gen.
in
which is
We
now
formed
afresh from
the
but such
paths (paatSz),
into
common
in such
pluralas
case
"
pluralsas
the earlierMnE
wifii.
umes,
turves
turfs.
followingare
Present Ei^Iisb:
"
the main
types of noun-inflection in
[| loott.
ACCIDENCE.
314
lOOO.
50ff.OfMMm
^ws
Ipsa
dogi lueti waifa ^wsii
hssix
dogi kxts waivi gtjs
waivi
fassii dogi kxla
gijsii
h39
Gtn.
P/"r. Common
Gen.
kxt
dag
like hone
/,5),mdi
Like doe
voiced
vooativ"
case
mzn
nueni
meD
menz
in
few
inflectedwords
are
as
waif
inflected
are
ending in
nouns
except (s,5),such
consonant
mile,dove,son,
(neibs),
as
vowel
or
any
day, lady,netghiour
lord.
Dice
inflected nouns
except (s,
W such
1001.
nouns'
ME,
"
as
=ME
AH
the
show
as
inflected Kke
nouns
sonant
con-
wife 'voice-breath
"
wuhts.
Hence
chief voice-breath
(baaSz}=Late ME
mouth,
noons
with
ballis
Q)) are baih (baa))),
baP, bapes (ba)",
baaVes),path, oaih,
nouns
in
clothes was
such
such
nouns
as
are
that with
have both pronunciations,
lath,truth,youth
in the
T,Goo(^le
MODERN
JfOCTNS:
looj.]
ENGUSH.
315
elfself,
shelfvto^. Nouns in
loaf; after/,as in ha^.calf,
-rf, Buch as dwarf scarf,turf wharf made this change
in Earl^ Mn"
dtoarvtt,etc. but they now
generaUykeep
Nouns
in
-o^also
keep the
theyin the plural Jwarfs,etc.
"
"
"
in
as
noun
lated
iso-
singular,
through the latter havinglost its
the [Juralof
originally
meaaing ox.' ttmit was
original
but havingdivergedfiom it in
ttSpa),
jiS^(LateM" ti"tf,
a
new
singular
meaning, it has now devel(q"ed
t/ave,while
itsdfbaa developed
a new
as in army
idiiral
xta^s,
staffs.
liaff'
from
its
'
Ikregulak
lOOa.
common
this
The
Plurals.
following mutatioQ-plurola
UK
woi^
mm
pluj.being Southern
in
still in
(wumso,wimin),
wenun
; woman,
are
spelling,
though
Midland
in
teeth;louse,
litt;
pronundation;_/^ei/,_/"/;
goose, geese; tooth,
mouse,
mice.
1008.
The
onlyn-plnnda
in
common
use
are
ex, oxen
Mothers,
regularplural
brethren being used only in a metaphorical
the old plural
also has a regularpluralcews, the older hint
sense,
cow
occurringonlyin the higherht"^uylanguage.
1004.
theep and deer keep theii nnolianged plnnUs.
Weak
as in tradesman,gentleman,Engiiskman b also
(-mdn),
child,childrm.
brother
aow
has the
invariable.
full sound
These
the
invariable words. In
onlyabsolutely
either
all other invariable words the unchangedplural
implies
1005.
measure
many
or
nouns
by
pneceded
doetnt
are
measure
have
numeral, as in
an
two
so
also in Mn"
ihem
cc"nparedwith
keep it onlyin groups or
3l6
ACCIDENCE.
compounds such
[( 1006.
poundt,
im pound being now
the earlierMnE
obsolete or vulgar. It
of measure
is only when a noun
is used also as an ordinary
that it occasionally
noun
descriptive
keeps its unchanged
under
plural
i"
oU drcumstances,as
in how
ten
stmt
many
does he
we^kf
While
has
plural
the
been
use
of the
extended,
swine
has
now
the
sing,and separative
plur.being expressedby pig,
pigs. But in most cases the collectiveand separative
plurals
used side by side,as in to catch fishcomparedwith the
are
slotyof the threefishes.
These
will be considered
to
Syntax than
to
Accidence,and
more
FoRKiGH
Plurals.
are
"
used
"
:"
minutife Is
onlyin
the
plural.
mcleus, radius,
ftmgt ; hippopolamus,
only
terminui,tumulus, anthropophagi.
Magi, literatioccur
in the plural. The regularplurals
funguses,hippopolamuses
in the spoken language, crocus
etc.,also occur, especially
always has pluralcrocuses,
geniusin its ordinarymeaning
has the regular
plural
geniuses; in that "rf spiritit keeps the
Latin pluralgenii. Latin nouns
in -us which form their
pluralsby other endings than -i',either keep them, as in
in census,
them regular,
as
genus, plur.
genera, or else make
plur.censuses (Latin
censSs),
census, plur.
-us
-i : fungus,
'
'
T,Goo(^lc
" loio.]
-am
MODERN
XOU/fS:
anj of these
used
are
arcana,
and
mimorandums.
have
onljj-plurals.
In
Others, such
the
is made
stratum, strata
into
has
as
plur.memoranda
encomium, millenium
317
desidtralum,deiiderala;erratum, effiuvium.
-a:
...
ENGLISH.
of
the
The
TMula.
difficulties in connection
avoided
best
by using
the
shonened
with the
fonn
last word
are
animalcule,plur.
OMimalcules.
-ia
analysis,
hypothesis,
analyses
; axis,basis,crisis,
metamorphosis,oasis,
parenthesis,antipodes,aborigines
used only in the plur. In these latter the ending is
are
So also in careful speaking
we
pronounceddistinctly
(-ij'z).
the plur.(psren^isijz)
from the sing.(p3Ten)"isis),
distinguish
.
-es
ordinary
speechthe
but in
no
distinctionis made
-es
is shortened
to
so
(-is)
between
that
more
familiar words.
-es
-es
and
spelling
in
unchanged both
are
plurals
pronunciation(sJaiz,
These
superjicies.
series,
species,
"
si"'iz).
-ix, -yx,
vortex.
-ex
These
-foes:
index, indicts;helix,cafyx,
plurals
hardlyoccur
in the
spoken language,
which substitutes
the
1010.
-on
...
-a
is
Greek
plur.: phenomenon,pheno-
JiS
ACCWBNCB.
[Jioii.
anacolutkon,
au/oma/oM, crikrion. The
mtna
have
u
regiilkT
[^unds,
also
phmMunom
in the groups
infant
phenomtnenetc.
We
1011.
have Italian
in bandit,handiHi [abo
plurals
Jileftanii^whtn
b(mdils\
; diUttante,
makes
tion (dili'tKnti)
"
the
English["YHiunciadistinctionbetween
sing,and plur.
no
virtuoti [also
virtuoto,
virtmsos\.
lOlX. The
Hebrew
tive,
ehtmbim, tert^himare collecplurals
and are occasioiutlly
used as singiilars
in Eariy MnE
cherub and seraph also have regularplurals,
a cherubim,
in their metaphorical
especiallj'
meanings.
1018. The French pluralending x in btaux (also
6eaus),
flambeaux is pronounced (z).
The plural
of Mr. (mistsr)
ferent
is expressed
1014.
by the dif"
word
Messrs.
form of ME
(mesM),in fullMessieurs.
Mr.
is
weak
the corresponding
mtistrt,
'mj Lady'
Dame
ma
which,however,
'aMts"i"net=V)nacbmetJ}awet'my LAdiee,'
is not much
used in
1010.' The
as
foreign
plurals
plur.marks
English,
much
as
is to
possible,
except where the foreign
differenceof meanii^.
iHFLHCnON
OF
WoRD-GrOUPS.
Qfnitive.
When
lOie.
form
novn
the genitive
inflection is added
word-group,
member
noun
adjunct-wordsare joinedto
not,
a"
vci
the old
so
to
as
to
the last
ia the head-
the
So also
ton.
kingt^ Englands ton, the man I sawyetierdcg/'t
in group-compounds: the knigkl-erranl's,
the son-in-iaui't.
T,Goo(^le
iiaao.J
WOUNS:
MODERN
ENGLISH.
319
"
"
Hence
we
ma)*
regard the
""
as
Plural
1016.
The
of group-inflection
is not carriedso
principle
is modified by a
pluralending. When a noun
the noun
itself is
followingadverb or preposition-group,
in hangert-on,
commandert~inas
inflected,
/alheri-in-law,
If the firstelement
cki^.
is not
/A"
noun,
the inflectionis
thrtt-ptr-tmttt
go-betwenu,
forgttmtnott.
lOlfi. In the
rare
combination
of
uoun
with
following
the same
rule was
formerly r"dlowed,as in eourU'
adjective
it is more
usual to put the
but now
martial,knighit-erroMi,
inflectionat the end,in accordance with the general
tendency
of the language tourl-marlialt,
kitighl-erranit
except in
"
"
such groups
become
consistingof
as
two
titlesboth
elements
are
inflected,
as
in
knighlt-tmplart.So also in
lordt-heuloMntt,
lordt-jusUcet,
vtomen-tirvatUt.
men-tervoHtt,
lOao.
noun,
When
noun
Smi/h
still
follow thisrule in the combination Afatrs.
as
",Goo(^le
ACCTDEyCB.
^ZO
Smith
sound
now
the
pedantic,
it is usual
v".y Uu Mm
Xa
Tormer
Smiths, tit
b; sayingthe Smith
evaded
loai.
cause
Doctor
two
Thomsons,
of brothers,
etc-,being often
case
brothers.
Sfxllinq.
The
of the
in which
ie
(82S),as
it stillis in
some
which
verbs
as
are
as
weU
written in the
was
words, such
the old
nonn""
as
singularas well
He, die
"
both
of
equivalent
ye being
still
written in lye,
dye for Uie sake of distinction, y preceded
boys. Weak
by another vowel is keptunchanged,aa in dt^s,
-ey
tilllately
changed into
was
filing is stillfrequentin
most
has
are
words
no
words, such
change
"
as
but in
ponies,
chimneys,valleys, aiiaii
of whidi
the few other words in """ none
pluralalkalies,
in frequentuse
generally
adding the -s mdiout ", as in
"
raUit.
the
there is
some
ends
singular
in
-oe
or
have
simple-o
negro, pfgroet.
potato,
potatoes;
in fi^os,raHot, as also most
Nouns
~oa
plural
whether
foe,foes\
woe,
in -io take
only -t, as
woes
dominos,grottos,virtuosos,
quartos. The endings -ies,~oes
were
keptto show that the s was voiced,=(i),simple-it,-os
chaos. The
in this,
the t"eath sound (s),
as
crisis,
suggesting
and "rf words belongingto other
of proper names
plurals
sometimes written in the
are
parts of speechused as nouns
ordinaryway, sometimes
80
as
to
by adding s precededby
the body of
distinguish
the word
an
apostrophe,
from the
T,Googlc
i io*i.]
NOUJVS:
MODERN
BNGUSH.
321
ending,the apostrophe
beingoften omitted when there is no
fear of confusion ; ayes and noes, aye's
and no's,
pro'sand eon's,
to
pros and cons, the two Mary's,the two Marys, the Perctes,
mmd
one's F's
and
Qs.
Proper names
ending in
hiss-
The regulargea
iadys,)iegrds.
in
is distinguished
plur.of nouns
sing,by the apostrophe
birds nest,the
pared
com-
viegroes'
quarter (gen.sing.
beaux' (gen.sing,deaiit).
The
tteSTo's),
gen.
plur.of sucli
I.
"
ACCIDENCE.
3M
(1021). Hence
[(
it was
write the
stillgenerally
We
plurabor genitives.
"whether
pluralinOection
in the
even
lojj.
without it,though we
genitiwsiti,iert,jroMrr
ymic
one's.
ADJECTIVES.
Ensusb.
Old
1038.
In OE
the
same
masc.
case, which
in
declension^as
by
and
In
"
represented
the dative.
number, and
gum
'
with
Adjectivesagree
1034.
case
with
theycame
The weak
1025.
He cdmon
their
mid
nouns
hmgum
in
sUpum,
gender,
na
mam-
not many.'
long ships,
other defining
words, as in
u
good king,'
whence the weak masc.
noun
Mlga 'the holy (man),'
hdiga
' saint,'
Jidshalgancyningas these holykings,'
compared with
'
ium
god eyning a certain good king,'
hS^e mimt
holymen.'
m
gdda cymng
'
the
'
'
The weak
as
The
are
following
Sing.Nom,
Ace
Dat.
Masc
Neut.
Fern.
gdd
gSdn^
gddvm*
gBd
gSd
gdd*
jft"f*
gdd
gSdunt*
T,Goo(^le
Instr-
^dde
Gen,
gddet
gdde*
rtur. Nom.
gSiire*
gsdt
gddet
gdd
gOdre"
gdde*
^"^_
g6dum
gddra*
Dat.
Gen,
The
1027.
'
_"
weak
fonns
are
nouns,
of
takingthe ending of
Ace,
Dat
gddan
Gen,
gdtlart
gddan
Plur, Nom.
gddvm
gBdra'
Dat
Gen.
1038.
neut.
The
nom.
""
thus
noun-indections;
opposed
as
etc,
'
to
drop the
"
'
sum
some' has
the
god.
long-sjllable
as
in noun-inflecdon
sumu
in -el,
Adjectives
-en,
; thus
Aa/ge,miiU, Sgne,
own,' have plurals
of -w, the
weakening
njng with
'
gdde
gSdan
gddan
gddan
gdde
gdde
gddan
gddan
gSda
gddan
Sing, Nom.
Fein.
Neut.
Masc
is restored before
vowel, as
in
pluralstuarux,
yellow,'
'
nearu
iol^, mtiel,Sgen
Where
an
-u
is a
inflection t"egin"
narrow,' salu
salwe,geobve.
final
In
'
sallow,'
geobt
final
late OE
'
'
-h alternates with medial g in such forms as gendh enough
The
droppingof weak h
plur.genoge.
^enog'],
[earlier
between
vowels
leads
to
contraction; thug
in
(fromhiahe)
heak
Mercian
'high,'
as
well
is made
Early West-Saxon, which in the later lang:uage
into heageon the analogy oigenoh,genoge.
83
1038.
*
raxay.'
Some
adjectivesare
indeclinable,such
as
/ela
ACCIDENCE.
Middle
Engush.
Tbe
of noun-inflectionsin ME
and the loss
levelling
of gender distinctionsnaturally
led to the disregard
of concord.
1080.
the
Hence
began
to
the strong
of tbe
and
plural
generallyfollowed by
was
adjective
to
superfluous
and
plural. The
weak
in the
singularending -e
result
it
noun,
mark
consequendy the
also in the
the weak
was
that in Late
was
ME
was
tive,
adjecused
the
in -", the
had only two
one
inflections,
adjective
positive,
other negative,
inflecconsistingin the absence of the tional
-e
"
The
1081.
sSnm
'
weak
the young
fonn
Plur.
is used
much
sun,'
^tt tike mSnk
ruigrm brdjier'my
Sing.gSde
Weak
Strong Sing,gdd
Plur. gdde
'
as
this
g6de
in 0"
same
)"eySngt
monk,' niy
brother,'live hrdPtrI
sworn
'dear
'
brother I
I0S3.
Adjecdvesin
invariable. Other
-t, such
loss.
weak
newt
become
adjectives
^li man,
as
'
new,'are, of course,
invariable
by dropping
especially
syllable,
-t, as in/"
as ppm, cursed,hotKst.
adjectives
dialect aU
became
declinable
inadjectives
alreadyin the Earlyperiodthrough loss of final
-e.
1034.
The old
cases
were
in the
partially
preserved
Earliest
plur.ending -"=0E
-ra, as in aire kingene
because
ifrtg=OE.eallra cyninga cyning,lingered
longest,
ME.
The
gen,
through aldre,became
sort of
in
as
prefixto superlatives,
T,Goo(^lc
aUtrhtit
'best of all'; in
Early MtiE
Sbake^"ere stillhas
MODSRH
In MnE
loss.
declinable
far
as
EhOLISH.
as
and number
case
are
inadjectives
tbe
concerned.
tives
Adjec-
from adverbS)
formallyindistinguishable
the only change of form
relations,
except by their syntactical
thus became
that
left to them"
was
adverbs.
"
Early MnE
But
stillpreserved
a trace
of the ME
plur.
eitmo
enough sing.,
inoh,mowt.
Oui-Enolish.
1089-
In OE
the
is declined like
weak
and
as in liof-ra dearer*masc^
adjective,
'
Tbe
uninSected
'
u leofosla
liofottdearest,'
mann,
is used also
form of the superlative
aa
an
verb
ad-
'
neah 'near,'superlative
nUhs/, ffif:)r/
Ipi^re,
(Anglian
Ifftgesi,
neh,nest, next). In
some
superlativeare formed
constitutes the
bgtst.The
from
word
distinct from
that which
; god [adverb
positive
wsl],iflera
[adverb
bji],
and superlatives
is
comparatives
representedonlyby an adverb; thus to Jrra 'former' (intime)
aresi 'first'coiresponds the adverb or
formerly.' Many
of
positive
some
'
of these form
than
the
with
superlative
-m, which
is an
older form
is seen
in
originalform of this superlative
of which is represented
/or-ma 'first,'
tbe positive
by the
-St.
The
3a6
ACCIDENCE.
[S
103;.
"
"
-tiuil.
"
Thus
/orma the
from
'
'
foremost,' first
most
Other
fonned.
was
superlative
fyrmesf
new
'
examples ore
inside,'
norfi north.'
'
Miodlk-Ekgush.
10S7.
In Earl; ME
the
endingsare
Uovett.
-est : Uo/, Uofre [ilaver],
-er],
in the
-ere
comparativeending
In Late
superlative.
dropped,because precededby a
1088.
"er, -est.
In MnE
We
the
the influence
ME
-erg
was
that the
so
syllable,
weak
and adverb
adjective
MoDKUt
insertion of
The
is probablydue to
of the
distinctionbetween
[advertnal
-ere
"",
levelled.
was
Engush.
the
endingsare
same
as
in Late ME
"
the adverbs
prefixing
most
beautiful
beautiful,
by
ton^sts in
mare,
in
most, as
beauH/ul,
hard, harder,
hardest.
PeTiphraslic
comparison appears alreadyin Eariy
ME.
At firstthe two methods of comparison were
used
indiscriminately
comparison
; but by degreesthe periphrastic
has come
in MnE
to be applied
to longerand more
chiefly
unfamiliar adjectives,
the inflectional comparison being
more
restrictedmore
and
more
to the
the side of
shorter adjecdves,
namely
"
such as big,high,
{a)monosyllables,
young,
with the stress
{S)dissyllabic
adjectives
tad,
on
the kst
But many of
these have the periphrastic
comparison,which is the more
such
syllable,
as
minute.
polite,
severe,complete,
(e)many
when
the
ends in
adjective
sonant-group,
heavy conin abrupt, correct, distinct,
ancient,
/re'
with
dissyllabic
adjectives
the stress
on
the
T,Goo(^le
n"4".]
ADySCTIVES.
such
firstsyllable,
aa
33?
/ender,
bitter,
narrow,
happy,easy, earfyi
-ive,such
because
active,
apparently
aa
ones
lend itselfto
not
most
of them
are
long
frequent
comparison.
1089. The periphrastic
comparisonis followed"
(d)by
alt adjectives
of
than
such as
syllables,
all of
^norant, important,comfortable,
difficult,
respectable
which have besides heavyendings" twni'KJ,
generous, necessary,
more
two
"
general,
satisfactory.
(3)by those in -ful,such
respecffW.
{c)by
as
awful, cheerful,
useful,
are
inflected because
althoughsome
of
different
they have
of them, such
wretched and
as
origin, wicked
the form
adjectives
of
verbals,
cunning,are
has superlative
sometimes
wickedest,
In
in
a
more
Doable
higherprose.
comparison
was
braver,most unUndest.
frequentin EariyMnE,
Ttus
now
survives
only
vulgarism.
Irregular
1042.
In ME
and
MnE
Comparison.
the old mutation
in such
com-
was
gradually
igr^),
lingre,
Igngest
parisonsas OE lang {Igng,
got rid of by the introduction of the vowel of the positive,
348
vbence
ft 1043.
ACCIDENCE.
the Md"
"
concisions and
mixtures
and
iorms"/ar,/urtker
"
of originally
distinct words
and
and superlatives
comparatives
good,heUer.
"
1018.
associatedwith tnast
'
in Late 0"
most,'and already
inMEwc
naturally
ute
we
find
'outside ';
endii^
-metl
degrees;alreadyin OE
instead of ytenutl. So
also 0"
we
fyrmtst
find utettutl
made
was
into
formtslin ME
'
most, from
which
again
was
formed
double
comparative
analogy of
this form
such as highmosiwere
superlatives
formed direct from adjectives,
highmost being perhaps
regardedas a transpoutionof most high. To the OE
the
norpmest,sUpmesl correspondas positives
superlatives
adverbs
norp,iup, which
were
also used
as
nouns.
Hence
T,Goo(^le
1047.]
ADJECTIVES.
in Mn"
we
noons,
such
The
have
in
Bupeiiatives
1044.
tali
the
I eltUr
tldest
\ older
oldest
:"
parisons
com-
compared with
"o".
lat 'slow*
latost.
later'],
to
'SL,\
jSf
A",
OE
from
directly
more
elder Mother
formed
irregukicomparisonsof Mn"
from
-most
enimast.
topmost,
as
are
following
OE
339
lafra [adv.
[adv.late 'slowly,'
'late'],
latter=ME
hUer
with
last
back-shortening,
by phoneticchange,but
of M"
not
latest,
shortening
latterand
etc. When
by the analogyof best,
least,
apparently
last developedspecial
meanings,the new comparisons later,
is
latestwere
foimed
in^fl
S ""'**
M,f
out
"w"D.
OE
Even
from late.
directly
ute adv.
in OE
'
\gutfr
utmost, uttermost
outmost,outermost
outside,'
pierra [adv."/or],
ylmest,yiemett.
the vowel
of the
positiveis extended
to
the
other
whence
degrees: uterra, utetneit,
by back-shortening
the MnE
etc.,outer,etc. beingnew-formations from out.
uiter,
1047
lUftT.
far
Jar
\f"^her
farthest\
\j"^if^^^furlhestS
comparalivey^r/r"i
\a.A\./urpor\
so:^x\.fy
fyrst,
forma,
rest,
firmest.
The
soon
confused
T,GoogIe
[f 1048.
ACCIDENCE.
330
'one'
"
"
regarded as
made
was
comparativeyb-f"r
new
in imitation of loiter.
^,,1
j~r^
"^*
io".
OE
whence
positive,
[adv.
niar\
adverb (rarely
niarra
adjective),
[niK)
niah
and adverb
positive
adjective
is the old
on
comparativeadverb,made into a positive
the analogy of here,there as well as far. It is compared
next
regularlynearer, ruarest,tbe old superlative
being
near
old
it. The
language.
best
btller
goedifoelti
1048.
OE god
^l''*'"
Sftst.The dropping
[adv.
[^dv.hfl'],
well,
but
phonetic,
lOBO.
OE
}^l,
into
came
[adv.wiers^,
superl.wierresl,wiersi,
wiersa
Anglian wyrsa,
etc.
same
In
ME
form.
"
person.' In MnE
and worsi
out
of fi=Late
of the
w.
In
Scandinavian Ulr
ME
new
present
with
adjective
developed by change of
tbe 0"
noun
baddel
'
effeminate
had has
are
In the Soudiern
of bad.
In
from
meaning and shortening
worst
ill from
with Svtl,tvel,
evel,our
concurrently
use
worst
worst
ME
West-Saxon
Early MnE
wurst, timrst,u
or
new
Anglian_^by
double
was
developed
the influence
comparativeworser
T,Goo(^le
10S3.]
PROIfOUNS.
Both
fonned.
was
worsat
in
occur
331
and
worstr
the
double
superlative
VulgarMnE.
iytd,lassa [adv.
1^],lasl. The new formation Ustet
is,of course, a double comparativelike worstr
(lOSO).
OE
Tttueh
1062.
OE
[adv.md],nuisf.
miiel,mora
miiii became
Southern
most.
more
In
Late West-SaxoD
ME
stillpreservedin the
name
the
of
'
in number,'
more
councillors.' In ME
in m^
as
m/=OE
^ara witena
mi
and in Early ME
moe
adjective,
of many=0%
parative
man^.
has
moe
mira
both
comparisons
in Late
OE
the S of mora,
"
ma
been
now
as
In ME
extended
was
and
"
to
an
com-
levelled
so
mare,
used
regardedas tbe
was
under more=0^
neut.
of the
more
be
to
came
'
are
the
akeady
the super-
motl.
PRONOUNS.
1058.
In OE
personalpronouns
of
'
"
"
have
ace.
inflectionssimilar
sing.
masc.
dat
iitte,
Aim with
'
'
of the pronoun
'
'
'
inflections as
that theyare
are (a)
adjectives
'
'
from
distinguished
sometimes made
(hose of the
up of different
T,GoogIe
ACCIDBNCB.
33"
words, thoB U
sometimes
mf,
"cc.
has
of the pronouns
The
have
in 0"
whidi
dual forms
were
inflections. But
""'/
we
in Mn"
in such fbnns
Thus the
'
certain man
said
(people)
some
pronoun
mm
adjective-pronoun
weD
hast,'
as
'
; and there
as
'
OE
in
as
was
rnatm
'
certain
one
ew"don
in ttdU ttntitdrodon'all
pluraledlU, as
none,'
anig' any,'nan
djiri,
^iii, none, which
nouns.
atm
cwAdon, sume
'
So also htvfli
which,'iwfU
'
sum
in
tives
adjec-
as
neuter noonsingular
in sfletalljiatpu hafti 'sell all that thou
as
tail,
wondered.'
used
'
stillpreserved
and toko,what.
I, me
as
or nouns.
prononn
characteristics
are
main
their two
the OE
'
sons
per-
'
1064.
Some
dual number
even
of ti.
instrumental
an
have, tike the adjectives,
personalpronouns
a
is the neuter
neuter
compiled
in hit'W
specialending -/,as
with Aj,huiat,^,
case.
ace.
[J IOS4-
'
'
no
had
the
used
were
'
such,'^"r
'
other,'
plurals
kwfUe, sw^lie,
both
as
and
adjectives
stlfm.
1065"
'
mat
"e
was
In ME
the old
all men,'alle^
dropped in
in
plurals
""
were
kept,as
in alh
accordance
the
that
The
inflected pronouns
regularly
and neut. in
-es
in OE
The
OE
had
sing.
dpres
noun-genitive
a
gen.
another's. So
other's,
TheMnE
also either's=0'E.dgprestiom^/^=^hwte/"er.
one's is a
genitive
new-formation.
T,Goo(^le
psojfovjvs.
) lofii.]
It is prabablj
the old
1087.
333
over's
genitive
to
"
togetherwith
"
the fonnadon
of
new
in when
olher
glad,then
are
prop-wordone,
as
The
is he tad.
in Iheyoung
ones,
is,of
pluralones
course,
of the
stilllater
formation,
VenotaH
The
1088.
are
following
personal
hwa
for convenience,the interrogative
^including,
later forms being in { ) :
pronouns
"
Fronooiu.
"
"
ki
hit
hit
him
klo
hie
Mrt
(hfi
he(hy,heo)
hU {hf,
heo)
him
(heom)
hira,heora
1060.
The
Dat.
h-!vSm
Gen.
huiees
Instr,
hwf
changeof
the
htm
plur.
(iivOm)
The
as
T,GoogIe
ACCIDENCE.
334
[( ie.6".
thee,'ii^tmundehis I remembered
\a iiiemundtpas
'
mounts
him
'
the man.'
I remembered
Middlx-Englisii.
In ME
of the personal
genitive
pronouns was
restrictedto the function of a possessive
gradually
pronoun,
of
its
still
r
etained
it
though
something
independencein snch
phrasesas ourt allir k^U the salvation of us all '=0E Ore
1062.
the
'
ealira hSlu.
The
1008.
done away
which
distincdon between
with,these
'
call the
we
the old
really
two
accusativeand dativewas
being levelled
cases
'
objective
case,
as
this
This
one
case
objective
being
accusative.
an
under
esten-
tow
being
The
planation
ex-
the
refer
personalpronouns generally
think of I,' you,'
to living
etc. not as
bongs, we naturally
mere
calling,
passiveobjectsof striking,
sending,etc.,but as
interested in these processes ;
extent actively
being to some
as
'
and hence
we
express the
Hence
verbs.
to
'
struck me
inclined to
are
use
personalcomplement
in OE
even
'
of
purelytransitive
he
say he slogmi
even
theybegan
'
to
instead of Ai
sense
as he sl^g
slogmei in the same
but from a differentpointof
Jime siSn he Struck the stone,'
the changewas carried out consistently.
view. In ME
Mm
Sut with the specifically
supplantinghine and so on.
reversed : H and what being
neuter pronouns the process was
mainly thought of as passivecomplements of verbs, not
'
accusatives
"
which
was
made
stillmore
form as the
easy by these accusatives having the same
Dominadves" but used them to express the much rarer tion
relaof
and
interest,
representthe dadve
the old dative him
1064.
In ME
"
so
well
as
serves
as
as
as
the accusative in
accusative
also in OE
"
as
come
to
MnE, while
well as dative.
hid
nouns
335
psomum.
" io"7.]
forms without h-
weal
But
was
in the earliestMidland
even
im
saw
weak
nnemphalicor
(im).
we
weak
by the side of he,etc.,showing that thisoriginally
foim
bad
in
ME
period.
OE
1068.
ii
(V)and
Thames
The
I.
the weak
icA
(North-
nally
origi-
"
foim-^gradually
supplantedthe
fuller form,
vives
althoughit sdll surthe dialectsof the West of England.
loed.
forms
two
toe
which became
in
splitUp into
In 0"
the
was
oflen weakened
were
diphthongs
heora
ous.
of "o, to
"
(withshort vowel)gradually
us
'
to
when
'
their
as
pronoun
the
shortened
was
The
stress.
and
firstelements
weakened
then liable to be
in Late Old-
cases
Northumbrian, while in
weak
droppedaltogether.Hence
some
them
'
get the
fullycarried
others theywere not
were
'Ma
ja
je
ra
rS
find weak
we
"
heom
which
(j),
period:
"io
OE
then
diphthongswere
tilltheybecame
followingchanges,which in
out
of the
became
ham.
The
weak
hmra
by the
heara
passed
Late
way
OE
heo
"
she,'
33fi
also
OE
in Late
which
the
[| 1068.
ACCIDBNCB.
expreSKd 'they,'
passed dirough
extended
the
to
This
ha.
change,becoming
same
weak
ha
masc
the following
strong and weak pairswith
then
was
find
we
in the latter: hi
{hare) their.'
'
liable to
was
drop
It must
tuedt.
representthe
a=Ae
be
of
extremes
two
by stillfurther
in guaiA'a,
quotha,
its A
on
heo and
as
on the
emphaticstrength
one
were
weak form
was
1068.
that
the weak
as
way
into (hjoo,jAoo),
to
EarlyMidland form, written gho parallel
But
'wbo'=(wifaui}.
wha
same
into hart.
further weakened
'
the feminine
demonstrative
tea
'
the Midland
dialect,and
ME.
aeo
which became
heo
was
soon
the
by
regularchangeof
lo into I.
Strong
tow
in its weak
written
(juuw),
^ew,
firstchangingthe
the
as
which then
passedthrough(joow)into
the (w)
becamej'0K'=(juu),
Eariy Southern
".
has
ok
with
being itselfabsorbed by
droppingof
the t, just
in hore=:heort.
1070.
'
form
'
common
form
led
to
more
'
and Me
extended
T,Goo(^lc
"
lo?!.]
FRONOdNS.
of the demonstrative
use
in^
'
the
M"
especially
developedin North-Thames
was
337
Scandinavian
as
influence was
'
where the -r
they,'
plur.,as in Danir
'
'
nom.
masc.
Danes '=0E
'
in
'
North-Thames
the Standard
".
In Late
ME
ka found
its vay
into
dialect,
which, however, stillgenerally
ke[d the
emphatichtom, heore.
The
being in ( ) :
"
wi
Obj. ftr,us
Sing. Nom. hi,ha
Obj. hint,him
whS{wha),wk{t('ttihai)
-wham
5/
du
(S"w, 7,a)
hit
(it)
hio,ha (ihS,shS)
kit
(ii)
Aire
35*
In Late ME
1078.
die
[( 1073.
ACCIDEffCS.
the
EarlyME
in which Eai)yME
icjIo,
nom.
1074.
ME
and ceremonious
tokam
was
made
into dose
by
v".
the
pluralye, yaw
respectful
P"m, pi by
singular
used in
was
1078.
in
'they say'=OE
sei/i
nu
confused
was
'
man
'
man
was
used
an
as
with
the
itii"
beingmade into mm
In
1076.
was
ye,ytm
Early MnE
so
much
it
s^e}". In Late ME
and gradually
disused,mt
man
plur.mm
teim.
Modern
Engusb.
the
of the ceremonious
use
extended
that it became
plural
form of address,
the migular Ihou being used mainly to
and contempt,which
familiarity
its complete disuse in the
latteruse
no
press
ex-
broughtabout
spoken languageof
definite
in-
sing.
as
weak maim,
the
present
distinctionof number
in
But we
still
person.
and liturgical
language.
preserve the old thou in the poetical
the objective
form you came
to be
1077. In EarlyMnE
used
personalpronoun
as
of the second
has
pletely
com-
supplanted
yt in the spoken language. The change
is partly
the result of a generalconfusion between nominative
and objective
of the influence of the
m
MnE, partly
the ME
//, yi
singularpronoun ihou. In Early MnE
became
which were
shortened into (Si,
(tSii,
ji)when
jii),
weak.
So also ME
became
/uw, yam
(tSSu,
Early MnE
the short
j6u)by the regularchange of (uu) into (6u),
(u) of
the ME
weak
forms
were
being necessarilypreserved
(tSu,
ju).
In
EarlyMnE
T,Goo(^le
io8o.l
word
with
beguiqing
are
ye
PJiONOUNS.
vowel
or
were
forms
339
pronoun
was
following
Earl; Mn"
"
(jii.jij)
(jeu.ju)
Nom.
1078.
two
but
ihou,
ending in the singular
nominative
the objective
ending in the plural
you, while
is the
(-ii)
foirn and
when
in which
it
to
came
be
to
ye, you
this was
you
be
in
used
frequently
(jSu)were
unsettled,
associated
regarded as
singular
together,
nominative.
This
impossibleto know
was
contraction of _y*
or
whether
yare, etc.,
they was a
of you,
The
which
(ji),
form
was
nsed
as
an
indifferently
or
a
objective
by dropping the
I tellye
(i)may
in
as
were
(ji)
stillbe
such forms
thanket.
harkee,harkee,iookee,
as
lOSO.-As
stillfrequent
a few
heard in how
and
course
of Uie
the strong
generations
ago, and
do 9
(hau d
i duw),but
of each
member
Early MnE
whose
(jOu),
place was
of weak (ju). As
lengthening
afterthe change of ME
was, of course,
forms
in soimd, one
ii"the
do you
Such
(uu)mto
taken by
this (uu)did
(8u)had
not
been
(juu), a
"
developtill
completed,it
'
[( 1081.
ACCIDENCE.
340
We
1081.
have
that the
seen
throughsome
The
1083.
in
"
'.he,ihe,V)e,yi
Obj.
: vw,
endingexplains\ioviyt
tkte
of six -m
out
cases
able
was
runs
Norn.
{ye)
is the
maintain itselfas
to
n""n.
nom.
1088.
between
in any language
matical categories.
Thus
occur
say that
men
objective
may
through misunderstandinggram-.
in
Bible
Ihe
find whom
we
do
where what
lamf,
and
nominative
is
"
m^nnPat
ly
mannes
the distinctions of
confined
to
nominative
led
which inevitably
ie, him
mi;
sense
there
no
ihe
has been
almost
between
In
1084.
it is now,
as
much
indicative and
EarlyMnE
the nominative
even
I.
you
and
were
no
the
pairs
formal
linguistic
and objective
subjunctive.
the usage
was
tinsetded than
more'
substitutedfor
beingas freely
in such constnictiona
as
as vice-versa,
objective
and
in the
have
nominative
as
in
way
from
this
apart
in MnE
weakened
marked
marked
cases
objective
so
are
however, the
imiformity:thus
|Hence
common.
confusions
MnE,
was
sfigaj".
language marks
objectivewas
and
even
was
; ice, us
characteristic in
In
confusion ; and
to
cross-association there
I,
long as
isolated constructions.
distinction between
only in
as
with clearness,
such
case
accusative,
attraction: hwane
same
But
sunu
and
nom.
as
the
'tweenyou
frequently
joinedtogetheras
"
T,Goo(^lc
t loSdJ
words
PRONOl/IfS.
formed
sort of
341
gronp-compouud,whose
lastelement
invariable.
became
1085.
that,as the
so
with
in immediate connection
verb
in the nominative
pronouns
felt almost
"
am
; taut he
are
as
fonning prefixes,
in / call,
compared with lo eaU.
be
"
generally
precede
verbinseparable
to
only
forms
When
relation ; hence, on
1/ it I
literary
the
BO
g:uage,
that
iB
it theref,
analogyof
made
he
into if it
is felt to
me
also used
conjoint7, being
who
the
me, tellme,
etc.,
in the spoken lan-
saw
me
the
as
to
answer
the
of the
question
that is
Er^lish the
marked
In the
etc.
here=:/hey that
absolute
use
of the
In
Standard
objectiveforms
spoken
is most
in the
and
varies,
('/is
Id
case
in
him, it is ut
more
xtt
frequent.
the written
The
tendencyto
use
the nominadve
the contraryeffect on
forms before
the pronoun
who.
T,Goo(^lc
34a
ACCIDENCE.
whdm
do you
who
said
the
in
meaH
in
iviom
into
be
with
are
you
tpeai-
you
are
you
may
wiom
purely colloquialwio
more
construction
rare
it, as
made
was
spoken English
extinct, except
speaimg i'=ithe
mean
analogy of
the
on
be
to
do you
Present
In
etc.
mean
mean
\_\1087.
^?
mg
1\m
of y"m
use
in
be
to
seems
the
before
whom.
prevail over
of the objective form you
wio
But,
is
as
have
we
reallya case
the nominative,
objective for
the phonetic similarityof the nominative
The
the
to
liturgicaland
the
the
in order
The
the
singular
known
of tkee
Quaker
use
prosaic_j'0" :
second
for the
English
in the
^.
is
In
of ME
form
has
which
from
the
peim
"
survived
them
as
(gm)
as
weak
form
and
nom.
is
you
as
the nom.,
Iseeye.
is still kept up by
Quakers, but in the
by the fact
in the
which
"
finallygot the
only
obj. Ihee is
third
the
that
in
sing.
person
person
hadst.
MnE
and
obj." evidently by
as
verb
weak
stilluse
but
Early
confined
now
language of poetry
confinned
1088.
tee,
ye
well
as
takes
is the- result of
obj. as well
pronoun
of Friends
or
nom.
thee
is the
person
Society
as
but
are
in the present
of
influence
the
avoid
to
old
sect
form
tendency to
stitution
sub-
of deliberate
tkou
nom.
In the Bible ye
corresponding obj.,but
there is
extension
the
made
thou.
pronouns
see, etc,
you
seen,
not
of the
1087.
mean,
the
opposition to
in you
verb
upper
hand
weak
of ME
hem,
shorteningof
)pemby
of
be
to
seems
them.
the side of
We
(Sam),
1080.
The
MnE
it,her
are
also
equivalent to MG
weak
I093-]
1080.
POSSESSIVE
The
ME
in the fonn
MnE
weak
of
'a,a,
PRONOUNS.
ha
but
1081.
pronouns
forms
The
in
occasion^y in Early
occurs
only in
343
cireless
familiar,
very
stillused in the
literal^
at.
beingin ( ) ;
lOea.
EarlyMnE
"
The
shortening
(-s)="foccurs
it was more
general.
FoetiesslTe
Old
1088.
The
OE
only in
!e/t. In
Frononns.
English.
possessivepronouns
the genitives
of
are
the
'
'
"
"
'
T,GoogIe
ACCIDENCE.
344
[1 1094.
"
m'd mnum/riimdum.
friends,'
MiDDLK
In ME
1094.
Kin,
hit
English.
hist mm
the
the
on
pluralending -t,
compared with OE
onlyinflectionof
declinable
made
was
This
in M",
possessives
analogsof
as
ia alle
being the
those
ending in -e
indeclinable. The Early
remained or became
necesaarilj
ME
took final-e in Late ME
tower
5wer, s"r=0"
by the
analogyof iire,becomingjww*.
and fiin dropped their final n before a con1006.
mm
sonant
in EarlyME
ml fader keeping it before a vowel
"
^+vowel
or
mn
"
arm,
as
well.
The
the
"
was
was, of course,
used absolutely,
were
or
alwayskept when the possessives
when theyfollowed their noun
; hit is mitt,
I
broj"er
mm
In Late ME
the possessives
1096.
endingin -e generally
or
oJ"petS
absolutely:/o
mm
',
1097.
shortened
In
"
-t
the weak
forms
long vowels
/"'r"= Icelandic
possessive
way
used
hOse
loyoures; al Pis gold is oures=0'E. 15 minum
tall pis gold is Sre.
iowrum
This -f is an extension
of the
1098.
when
-t
was
were
sometimes
dropped: hir,our,
etc.
broughtwith it the
which graduallymade its
)"eira,
EnglishJm
where
dialect,
it also appears
in the
to J"e^-=Peim.
weak (ana fieriparallel
The
"
{Ptre,Per).
T,Goo(^le
I-OSSESSIVE
II03.]
Absolute
min
'urs;youres, yours;
1100.
The
ME
Late
PRONOUNS.
Early ME
what
possessive
English.
of it as
EarlyMnE his was stillthe possessive
shall bruise thy head,and Ihm
he: it (theserpent)
as
bruise his heel (Bible).But alreadyin the Midland
1101.
shall
whos
Modern
well
became
In
dialect of ME
the want
of
specialpossessivefor it was
li^as
instead of
possessive
MnE
a
the
Towards
(Shakespere).
its came
periodthe presentgenitive
ityoung
by
form which
does
not
occur
at
of the
end
into
Early
generaluse
"
very
rarelyin Shakespere.
1102.
the
ME
The
distinctionbetween
Still
kept up in
used
frequently
mine,thineand
conjoint
EarlyMnE,
before vowels
mine eyes,my
eyes.
In
higherliterary
languagethe distinction is stillkept up
host.
as
(h),
But many
in my
modem
MnE
hearf='Eaxly
mine
heart,
in mine
honour.
1103.
The
pronouns in
Conjoint: my,jnine;
their;whose.
AbBOlnte:
theirs;whose.
34*5
ACCIDENCE.
104.
jsr);hiz{ii);
(mat,mi);yast, par (j6r,
(ar)
; Bear (tfsr)
; haws (uwz),
Oonjoint:
its; hsar
Absolute
"7m"'j in
mu
loset onis
ime
Hmt
may
be
regardedas
an
indefinite
possessive
pronoun.
Self.
Old-English.
In OE
West-Saxon
emphatic stl/-~'Lait
sylf"
and personal pronouns, being generally
is added to nouns
in agreement with its headinflectedlikea strongadjective
word:
God self
kit geworhu God himself made it,'
ntU-nui
)m cwAdon Mm ttlfum as theysaid to themselves,'
he /orgeat
his tel/es
he forgothimself.' In the nominative the weakU04.
the
'
'
'
is used in the
inflectedselfit
same
way
God
se^a,ii stlfa.
'
Weak
1105.
OE
In
personalpronouns
the
reflexive pronouns,
are
used also
as
'
such a phraseas
wished for themselves.' Hence
meamng
'
'
hi ofitieode
hme might mean
either he stabbed him
one
(some-
or
else),
hine
'
stabbed himself.'
he
which
sel/ne,
'
and
man
'
at
firstmeant
he stabbed
both
"qs
himself,'
By degreeshi ofstieode
'
he
ME
to
we
1106.
and
In OE
personalpronoun
added reflezively
to a pronoun
but without
in the nominative,
T,Goo(^le
PXONOVifS:
( iiw).]
SELF.
in ^
its meaning,as
tnatenallj
affecting
jnatm
'
be
347
ondrld kim
Jxme
was
dative is
ihe^ depaned' This pleonastic
gtwiton him
in thisway : ii hifi
him selfgikii"a)"tr,
often added to "^ sel/ii
'
Aw
'
fader
(pronoun),s""i
and
sunu
he
'
1107.
used
occasionally
was
head-word
accompanyii^;
any
'
M^in OE
Middle
1106.
In ME
the
ich
pu l"eselfetc.,were
self,
me
these constructions
to
change of
became
ing,
unmean-
tbe
'
meaning and
that
so
forgotten,
without
noun
English.
sHaJisynnigm ofertelfes
m"P I
his mouth 1
on
as
and
me
'
'
in
'
heiseW
a\so Jiemse^. hirestlf'
either as dative
occur
or
possessive.The
dat. sing,
or
Modern
more
as
EarlyMnE
noun,
which
regarded
forms -selve,
-selvenalso
selven is probably
In
be
course
miselven,himselve,himsehien,
miselve,
tbe OE
IIOS.
could of
OE
weak
selfa.
English.
be
selfcame
to
led
such
to
regardedmore
constructions
and
as
the
Targuin'sse^. A new
Shakespcriantfy fair self,
plural
formed on the analogyof shelf,
selves was
now
etc :
shelves,
to your
myself,ourselves,
gross selves(Shakespere).
T,Goo(^le
348
\S mo.
ACCIDENCE.
lUO.
themselves,
himself,
the
containii^
regarded as
also be
must
iisel/
stillpreservedin
forms
vulgarspeech; and
are
when
necessary
1111. Tlie
even
is added
own
the
followingare
tn
forms
his
se^.
guage:"
spoken lan-
aum
of the
himself,
Sing,myself;
yourself;
herself.
itself,
Plur. ourselves; yourselves
; //temselves.
To
these may
be added
tiieindefiniteoneself.
that yourself,
yourselvesmake
distinction
between sing,and
you, the
which
plur.
sing,thyself
being,of
course,
higher literarylanguage. So
in older writers in
occasionally
also
the
the presentliterary
languagean
ifhe
ourselves,
-
Ills. In
noun
sense
author
simple
preservedonly in the
form
ourselfoccurs
of 'm}'self';
but in
speaksof himself as
the
plural.
pendent
languageselfis used as an indeliterary
tillGlory's
selfis twilight
(Byron); then,all
uses
the
is lost in the
forge^ulof selfshe
wandered
into the
village.
1114. In the
OE
DemonBtrativv.
Old
The
1118.
and ^es
'
OE
Ehgush.
demonstrative
this one
this,
'
are
se
'
that,this,
the,he,'etc.,
inflectedas follows :
"
T,Goo(^le
(iiig.]
DEMONSTRATIVE
Masc.
Sing. Nom.
Dat.
Gen.
pSm,pam
pas
iDstr.
p^
Plur. Nom.
Gen.
forms si,pis
'
of
Fem.
by
ptssum
pissts
Pys
pire
psrt
Fern.
/"ias
pis
pisu[ft)
pisse{re)
pisse(re)
pas
pissum
pissa,pissera
used
in die
only as noim-pronouns
In ME
1116.
Neut
p"
pgtre
are
349
Masc.
sio
J"lt
psm, pam
para,petra
Dat.
scnae
Neut.
si{se) Jjat
Jjone
Pat
Ace
The
PRONOUNS.
the
English.
of the OE
more
si,se, sio
was
made
into p
fonus beginningwith
numerous
p, and (APts,Pu,pios.
The
1117.
both
as
demonstrative
degreesthe
and
as
at
firstused,as in
OE,
by
pa were restricted
sing,/a/ and the plur,
the demonstrative meaning. In EarlySouthern /"//hus
to
=
pe,pal,peo was
resulting
0"
of
as
more
neuter
that house
'
; but
of the house
'
sense
in Late ME
men,Ps
marked
^^
as
well
stillmore
'
in the
plur.
; alreadyin the Earliest M"^
used only in the demonstrative meanings
^CC
Ps
was
regarded as
now
the
of pal, and
plur.
was
firstto the
as
nom.
ace.
sio synrt
"
"
fem," peo
sing,
and
then
to
the
siitmt
nom.;
plur.
OE
pi synru as well
Jte siltmen=OE
Patyrma.
.
1119.
The
old ^j"
the
ace.
sing.fem. and
nom.
plur.of
T,Googlt
ACCtDBNCB.
350
}"a
VIS
"
[f iijo.
now
/d, tQI
at
lastME
pi
and
/jtrwere
complctd/cooAued, /^f being regardedas ^
with the pltual
Qiat t"S""""] /^ "t'" both came
-t added, so
'
to mean
those men.'
The
lUO,
t^Ptt in the
fbnn
same
was
fift
as
way
tioD fJipt,
the fem.
diminated
now
f^
sii^.nom.
was
The
IISL
are
fiillowing
1132.
to
Bnt
make
Southern
in Earljr
already
made
was
the
of this were
causes
and fiet:
there
(a)the
want
of
stress
of the
Earlj
tendency
The
main
which
article,
U28.
The
extended to the
cases
1124. The
so
pt
that
man,
OE
in allthree
were
the
oblique
tinguished
sharplydis-
extended in the
same
way
pit
meaning, but
genders. This
few combinations
man
to
manner
pe hiis.
At firstthe indeclinable"a/
to its demonstrative
in like
was
and then
sing,
k^l hut,pat
/fj was
neuter
pis his,pit cu
112B.
and fem.
masc.
of the "ng.,
from
man,
demonstrative )hU
new
usage
was
was
not
used
alwaysrestricted
also as
an
article
in
'
/u/
paipn 'ttie oat,'Pal oper the other,'
T,Goo(^le
1130.]
tike
'
the
/"ai was
and the
DEMONSTRATIVE
'= OE
same
PRONOUNS.
tka,Pat ikt,etc.
"
often
regardedas
weakened
was
the
to
written
The
fina!/ of the
beginningof tbe
so
as
to
being
351
make
word,
next
the curtailed"ri
of the above
tions
combina-
preservedto
MnE
stillused in the
was
That
meaning
tliat Mr.
the lastcentuiy.
literary
language of
A.'s
in the
is the
sumame
same
as
the titleof
his estate.
In newspaper
English the combination is ignorantiy
into the pleonastic
the same
ilk,as in consumption,and
made
U26.
the
ilk
same
plural,where
(PallMall Gazette).
there
and
The
was
no
distinction of
indeclinable
even
sooner
'
new
'
regularadjective
pluralending
appears in the weak
e,
givingpise, which
also
pese may,
1128.
Standard MnE
strativeforms
1139.
In
settleddown
finally
Sing.
thai
this
Plur.
those
these
EarlyMnE
vowels,as
even
to the dnnon-
"
was
English.
as
in tU enemy,
in
to
and
th'hill,
tNworld,where the
probablydropped.
as
in
(Samsn,
%"
has).
T,GoogIe
ACCIDENCE.
one,
1181. In 0"
Uke
occasionaUyused also
in
approached very
mann='a
an
'
the numeral
an
(butwith
strong adjective
no.
; none,
one,'which
ace.
inflected
was
sing.masc.
anm)^
an
the indefinitearticlewas
times
some-
near
certain
was
expressedat all:
not
most
dlire
on
cases
fyrig
Weak
is used in the
(bM
From
1132.
gthdl}"'he heals
nan
mann
adjective:
11S8.
When
In ME
the
one'
both
and,
"
dcfin^ harm
their n of
1185.
nan
it lost
As
an.
that in
ndnne
ne
this
and
shortened
its
shorteningtook placebefore
isolated from
was
the
A^
or
Id
n"
man,
man''
an
man,
when, used
course
In MnE
as
"
as
an
frequently,
'no'no thing,'
Jtitig
\1^stress
shortened form
well
noun
developedinto a regularindefinitearticle.
one
maai^
gld man.
absolutely.
was
given up,
consonants
EarlyMnE
ont
om
man,
she
kept
ll^lied
these
case
'of otu
the
sound
arm.
It is to be noted
(twn).But aheady in
the Western dialectsof ME
into
it had been diphthongized
whence
the present (wwi),the other pronunciation
(wun),
in alone,only.
being stillpreserved
the oppositeway, the fullerform being
use.
went
none
ont
keptthe
In the
arm,
n^
i^^Bd
^"
but in different
distinctions,
ways.
as
'none'=*m
more
stod
ii ana
alone.'
entirely
as
'
same
'
negativenan
man,'
'no
change of
the
used
was
no
an
vowel, becoming
"a// d"a
formed
was
of 'alone':
specialsense
a/one=OE
one,'which
'not
in
MnE
J1138.]
INTERR.
AND
REL.
PRONOUNS.
353
alike
no
man,
The
1137.
In
enemy.
house.
an
use
itselfis
We
in
now
So
one.
article an
kept the ME
the fullform
variation:
also
was
an
man,
kept before h
historical event.
As one
as in on
pronunciation,
pronounced (w"n),it takes a before it: eueh a
"=(juw, jus)now
youth. But
takes
unit,an
an
in
before it,as
useless waste
carried
always strictly
used
in the
aa
sense
both
the
was
an
an
of 'one.'
present day in
pn and
between
of life"x
literary
language,being traditions of
earlier pronunciation
of u as (-iu).
not
'
etc. But we
ally
genersay a house,a history,
before h in weak
where
it
then
is
syllables,
stillfound in the
In ME
now
also
unil,like
has
Early MnE
an
dropped
other.
no
out
at
latter usage
few phrases,such as a
This
survived
has
day
or
to
the
tivo,they are
of an age.
InterrogatiTe and
Kelative.
in 0"
are
hw3, hwcet,
interrogative
pronouns
whose inflectionshave been already
given(1068),
hw^li,hwili,
than one '),
I.ate West-Saxon
hwjfU which (implyingmore
1188.
The
'
'
'
is a shortening
of 'hwaUi,
htv^le
being
formed
'
who-like
from "hma
'
or
'
what-like.' frnxsper
was
with the
same
ally
origin-
comparativederivative
form
of hwa
an
adjective,
kiviU being
and hu^t,
reward have ye f
aa
in
the
onlyadjective
'
what
'
T,GoogIe
ACCIDENCE.
354
unstressed:
when
Early
hwyli.Late
Sason
In OE
1140.
in ME
what
ME
keod
of W'S^with
'
what
kind of
later use
Late
from
West-
an
men,' wbat
'
as
an
of allthree
adjective
earlyuse of iv/iu/as an
indeclinable
This
man.
its resemWance
nounJii
of the word
hmUch
which
used
was
Southern
genders:whal ping,what
was
helpedby
adjective
use
1139-
In ME
1180.
The
Jmt.
to
as in hwat
plur.,
.the_gen.
also paved the way
men
md
manna
'
adjective,
justas
OE
for the
plur.
languagewas
+ gen.
restricted to
gradually
was
its more
definite
meaning.
huKsper,Anglian hcfpir from "hwajnr,
Utt.
both
as
It now
conjunction=:'whether.'
which
an
The
pronoun.
stillsurvived in
in whether
and
adverb,
pronoun
of them
Early MnE^^as
of his fatherf correspondingto the OE
twain
adverb
an
survives only as
whether
as
used
was
114S.
were
no
In
OE,
l"e,which
being only an indeclinable relative particle
*/ : "
mann
pt
sejoined to the noun-pronoun
generally
'the man
who
'the men
! p"mptnP"m-Pe
to
there
was
whom
si
si
that
shown
was
to him.'
the beacon
an
Although the OE
used
relatively,
they were
which naturally
out
grew
hwtBiwiltpu?
-.
In ME
he that will
that became
.
not
interrogative
pronouns were
a
freelyused conjunctively,
usage
of their interrogativemeaning,
such constructions
as
iu ascode
pom
cyninghwaper
hi toolde
T,Goo(^le
zoigsooD
to. be used
the
.
of the
wfw
woman
he wished,'hi kordap
In ME
for whom.'
not
also in MnE
as
relative,
as
355
two
came
who
to the
'
Awam
and n^
king which
the
'he asked
man
PRONOUNS.
DEFINITE
146.]
beingstiU restricted
what
/"
use.
conjunctive
Definite.
1144.
in OE
was
third demonstrative
English,being stillin
oi yon.
and
in the north
use
common
of
has been
TAaS. jim
In
England
"
spoken language.
of qualitysivfU, iwiU,
demonstrative
*ava
svyli^'nualk, *swilic so -like,'
OE
The
1115.
'
Late West-Saxon
beingthe
same
way
in the
'
so,'dropped its / in ME
siatich
by the ti,
The
givingsuch.
becoming swueh by
absorbed
then
was
in the
and
nouns
them
'
The
an
'
adverbs
either of twa'
an
as
in dhwdr
'
indefinitesense
The
wile
'
without
if anyone
knew
questionas
who
'
pn"-
give
to
"
and adverbs
as
prefix,
any
wants
indefinite meaning
the interrogative,
such
for if we
indefinite,
to
prefixed
ahwaper
anywhere,'
Interrogativepronouns
in OE
was
ones
interrogative
especially
"
indefinite sense,
also used in
'
a
always
particle
to
make
were
in
g'^
copy
of
out
of
grows naturally
who ? ' being necessarily
we
should
not
3.5*
ACCIDENCE.
I 1147.
ask the
swS
'
as':
swi-kwa-swa
made
was
between
more
nua
'whoever,' swa-kwtit'Swa
whichever.'
whatever,'
said-kit^li-twa
In
'
ME
the first
tuid
was
OE
'
'
as in tail
loosely to express indefiniteness,
p"Bt "5fr*b{lsfwas
(Chronicle1048) 'whatever was best';
though more
"
and in ME
"
this usage
much
was
In OE
the
regardedalmost
wihi
noun
as
pronoun,
the Mn"
extended,whence
'
now
fluous
super-
came
creature,'
'thing,'
and when
to
the indefiniteS-
be
was
prefixedto
awihi
The
was
prefixo-
forms
parallel
ouki,oht.
n-
and
also appears
in the form of o-, whence
the
awiht,oht. Hence ME has both aukt,aht,and
In OE
negativeforms
ME
nawiht,nauht,naht,nrnviht,
noht,whence
nouhl,noht.
The
fluctuationbetween
words stillcontinued in
ha^
obtained by
were
to
come
MnE,
represent the
even
when
sound
same
au
nauht,naht,
and
the
prefixing
two
(a). We
in these
ou
spellings
now
write
in the
emphatic,especially
becoming nat, not,which
older
forms
ne
'
weak
at
last became
equivalentto the
spokenEnglishthe strong
aught and
'
'
"
T,Goo^le
1161.]
as
INDEFINITE
shonened
This
form of
PRONOUNS.
at wen)=01.
nought,as in (desimsl
from die
probablyarose
form
afler numbers
357
ending in
shortened
being naturally
of noi^hf
use
frequent
not)
ont, seven, nim, /en"{vftti
the shortened form
to (wen at),
"
1148.
stm
has
as
well.
two
(s9ro)
[61],It is stillused as a pluralnoun-pronoun,
the singular
being represented.
b)'the compounds someone,
the two
indefinite pronouns
somebody,something. In ME
weak
what
Bud
nun
meaning
same
combined
were
in sumw/tat
something
; somewhat
as
is
the
to express
used
now
only as
adverb.
an
from
0"
any=the
1149.
and
adjectiveanig, formed
dst
mutation
of the
back-shortened
by the
noun
(798)to
influence of
Mn"
In
precedingvowel.
ens, which
was
fni
was
often made
into
ant
an"';
In
keeps the
ME
has
Early MnE
an.
Late
causes
Early MnE
vile?
any
former in
stillused
was
as
noun
who
is here
so
ifany,sptak! (Shakespere).
other=the
1160.
/"tESSPres noma
other men.'
OE
strong
noun
and
adjecdvedfier:
"" 1066,
1067.
IIBI.
are
The
now
each other
-pronouns one another,
inseparablecompounds, but their elements were
noun
reciprocal
orifpnally
separatewords
lovt each other meant
with
independentinflections; th^
originally
'theylove,each-one
(nom.)
'
in
Early MnE
we
stillfind reminiscences
of the
original
T,GoogIe
358
ACCIDENCE,
constniclion
witk
l\ 1152.
doth
othtr
assail
(Spenser).
QaantitatiTe.
For
For
see
little,
least,
%i lO"l, lOBS,
less,
both=M"
'both
6"^ from OE *bs-pa'both those,'
the,'bd being the fem. and neut. fonn correspondingto the
masc.
respond
corie^en both,'justas the fem. and neut lujd ' two
USa.
'
'
to the
1153.
hvigm.
masc.
esoh=OE
dk
being ilk,which
was
is also
collectivemeaning
same
in ME
the /
droppingof
'ever each,'
titerally
*dffiltc,
from
as
in which
as
welt
compound noun-form
as
tach
in
gefira
with the
(kh, and
fch,the Northern form
became
"
"
thus confounded
noun
as
an
adjective,
thoughthere
one.
ereryis
ME
everything.
everyone, everybody,
1165.
OE
'
eitlier=OE
SgPer
has
the
^per, aghwaj^
meaning of
'
Ugihwafier.
ttterqtueach of two,'
of two,' Latin alieruter,
Latin
one
from
'
'
to express boih
to
'
meanings.
In MnE
eitlxr is
now
restricted
both
junctions,
i^er and fuper continued to be used as conweak ^^
being conimcted lo gPer,pr,or.S^r..or
T,Goo(^le
ii59-i
'either
it
there
preservedas
was
shortened
fiistmember
stress
in Late
was
"
made
into
into
the weak
conjunction,
correlative
form
new^fonnation
was
The
to nor.
made
hand,
of
359
to
negativeform corresponding
nShwafier,nauper,ndper,ndkoDaPer,noper. In ME
In OE
US6.
auper
the
or'" in which
CARDINAL.
because
^fer
NUMERALS:
and
pronoun
as
analogyof
"s
nfiper
conjunctiongroup
the other
on
the
nlipiron
being
nor,
as
in MnE.
In MnE
1167.
and
as
neit/ur
are
few
has the
seveTal
as
tives
adjec-
quantitative
pronouns remaining,
deserves
etymologyand history
whose
used both
are
nouns.
There
1168.
titfierand
fonn
same
notice :
"
and
in ME
old French; it
to Old
from the Late Lalin sipardlis,
corresponding
comes
separatile.'
teparSiilis
Latin
'
tev=OE./ia,/eawe plur.
manig. Late West-Saxon
inany=OE
of anig.
MnE
ME
mmi
mam,
widi
by the
mamg
logy
ana-
back-shortening.
Early
(mani,meni).
CardinaL
1159.
isolatedwords
following
one.
OE
two.
OE
are
expressed
by the
:
"
an,
and fern.Iv)d.
twigen,neut.
masc.
the EarliestME
OE
i-ia
hvd
was
extended
to
the
masc.
Alreadyin
hvd
mm=
in the form of
twain, but
was
used
in all
indiscriminately
3*50
three
the
ACCIDENCE.
Mn"
OE
three.
the
prU,
became
Aua
by
Early
two
(1078). In
absorbed,giving(tuu).
in who
fem. prio.
In ME
the latter
OE
to
being absorbed
as
soon
and
neut.
extended
was
ftmr.
u"
(w) of (twun)was
the
form
A(^=OE
influence of the
same
ij6o.
by
the
two
between
Up-consonants
it stood.
which
is generally
inflectedwhen
noun,
htora vktron
fift
'
there
used
: /if
absolutely
five of them.'
were
tHfnn,
In ME
both
the
kept,the conjoint
yi/ and the absolute ^/rct,
latterbeingby degreesextended to the conjoint
use, whence
fonna
the
were
MnETfoA
six. OE
siex,six,Anglian tex,
OE
seven.
seofim.
eight. 0"
nine.
0"
ten. OE
eleven.
foi/a,AnglianaA/a, whence
ME
eigAU,
m'gon.ME nigtn,
ran, absolute nine.
fftn,Angliantin. ME ten with shortening.
0"
enieven,eilesm,absolute
indkofan. ME
e-Uvew.
OE
twelve.
1160.
The
absolute iwil/e.ME
twelf,
teen-numerals
13-19
The
MnE
compounds
form shows
the
of the
"
pridene,PrilHene,preoHene, ME
OE
thirteen.
are
twelve.
fwelf,
same
priitene.
as
consonant-transposition
in/"V-rf{U70).
OE JeowerStne.
foorteen.
fifteen. OE
ftftUnt.In
ME
the t
fiftine
was
shortened
0"
eighteen. OE
contracted
seofoniiene.
takiafiene,
Anglianahtatim.
eighiim.
ME
e^hlefhu,
H65.]
numerals:
OE
nineteen.
The
uei.
ME
mg^iRate.
ty-numerals20-90
lot of
'
ten,' half
'
tens.'The
two
numerals
idgmtem,mnline.
fonned
are
in OE
by
bining
com-
" noun
originally
meaning
that twentyoriginally
meant
was
so
score,'
361
cardinal.
70-90
also prefixhund-
"
0"
twentigfrom *tw^en-tig,
twenlig.
ME. /n'/A,Late East-Midland,
thirty. 0'KPrtt{g,J"ritlig.
as in Ifurd.
^irti,with the same transposition
twenty.
forty. O'E./ecmertig.
fifty. OE/i^g.
sLrir. OE
lSS.fi/ti.
sixtig.
seventy. OE
ME seovmi^g,sevettii.
huttdstofonlig.
eighty. OE hundeahtat^,
Anglian hundahtat^.
ninety. OE hundnigonlig.
1162.' In OE
the ty-numeralsare
sometimes
in afterPritigra
as
adjectives,
dnga fxee
thirty
days.'When
function of
'
undeclined
they are
declined
: sixtigmila
governing the genitive
nouns
as
'
brSd
OE
The
neuter
high numerals
genitive: twd
pusend manna
1164.
hund
'
there
million, ME
is
pre^es
regardedas
a
Modern
was
millidntm
are
hi- and
substitutedfor the
was
'two
are
in
and J"iismd,
governingthe
hundred
no
numeral
winters
(years),'
higherthan thousand.
etc.
billion,
triUion,
Latin
winlra
thonsond
thousand men.'
In OE
millio,ace.
iund, hundred
nouns,
and
hundred
formed
from
much
later
form
of Late
Latin
were
(as in biennial,
irienniat)
of million,
that billion
initial syllable
so
iri-
sort of
French
formation
from
Latin mille,
or
rather
from million,
the
by substituting
ending -ard
augmentative
for -on,
million itself
'big million,'
so
means
originally
meaning ' group of thousands.'
1166. ITumerBl-groupB
are
either oumnlatiTe,
as
in
3"Sa
[J 1166.
ACCIDENCE.
^"fKfr'"tf=aX lOO.
OT multiple, as in Am
Afwi/y-^ivs30-|-g,
Jn such cumulative groups as twmiy-fiBtthe units always
fint iu
came
OEr"/^
and
manita
twettlig
and
"
stillsay
ve
In
1166.
1900,
in
especially
hundred
by hundreds
count
generally
dates.
Thus
1066, 1891
six/y-tix,eighken hundred
and
and
The
1167.
01
high numerals
before
one
hundred,not
are
not used
two
in
called ten
are
ninefy-otu,
or,
one,
in
as
1168.
c/oyor
In Mn"
two
alone,but require
in
as
emphatic,
probablythe weak
more
(1187.i).
treated
are
adjectives
being a kind
as
in the plural,
a-kundred,etc.
by nouns
of group-adjective:
ten men,
twenty men, a hundred
followed
thousand
1160.
men,
men.
in
plurals
one
hundred, a thoutand,etc.
be the indefinitearticle,
but ia
may
two
to
up
ten sixty-six,
briefly
ninety-one.
eighteen
more
speakingwe
also be used
can
become
They oecesGarily
-*.
as
nouns
noims
with
when
their
head-word is suppressed,
as in units,
lens,and hundreds,to go
all/ours,there were
on
is
ten
of us;
the numeral
expressed,
bat
may
when
even
be made
word
the head-
into
of meaning,as
independence
noon
in thousands
^people.
OrdinaL
1170.
Most
(1047); but
are
ordinals
derivatives of the
are
expressed by
"
which originally
meant
GS,fyrest,
this meaning
was
sometimes
so
much
'foremost'
weakened
that_;5''''''''
became
the
regular0"
Xo forma, which is
practically
equivalent
to an.
ordinal corresponding
T,Goo(^le
JII73-]
seoond
introduced in ME,
was
Latin unmdus.
because
The
of the
'
meaning
363
ORDINAL.
NUMERALS:
OE
word
was
other.'
other OE
ordJnds
below
20
/tiri/a,
ME/('r"i".
fcamed
are
cardinals
final M
discarded
Late Northumbrian
1ibird=OEJ"riticia,
The
was
from
the
/, and
01
"
t"mxQi=OE
/eorpa,ME./ourJ'e \fyp./ourlteH,
fiowerfia,
fariy.]
flfth=OE
MnE
/i//a,ME
the
lA
restored
was
other
six/.
is a Late ME
sto/bpa
the cardinal.
new-formation
direct
So also ninth,Imth,elmmth.
eighth=0"
ninths
later
sixta.
aeventh=0"
"om
In
^.
is the
nigopa.
tiopawith the unmutated
tentli=OE
lUn.
eleTenth=OE
twelfths
117L
OE
The
made
was
ptdUoJkt.
tmlfla.
OE
in
teen-ordinals end
in
which in ME
-tiopa^
new-formation
-iinpt,a
the cardinal
from
OE
The
became
end
ty-ordinals
twmtigoPa,Late
cardinals r
OE
MnE
introduced by the
was
were
ME
twentipe. In Early
analogyof
the verb-inflection
Stillpronounced (twenti)",
^irti))),
has
spelling
now
etc,
(twenti-ij"),
1173.
to
-tigopa,
-Hogopa,which
in
the
In
Early MnE
had
no
was
extended
ordinal forms
364
ACCIDENCE.
hunSredlh, which
1174. The
0"
[| 1174.
Ihousandlh,
proDounced (bundre))),
was
ordinals
inflectedas weak
were
adjectives.
This usage
1178.
combination
as
in fuK
ordinals
of
two
used
are
numerals
to
as
nouns
in MnE
in the
VERBS.
Intlictiohs.
1177.
There
Btrong and
are
and
their preterites
two
main
If we compare
preterite
participles.
these
"
add
-at
in the
preterite
partidple
vowel-change,
/"- being often pre"zed,in
weak as weU as strongverbs" -geiunden bound '; while weak
and preterite
verbs,such as fueran hear,'form theirpreterite
with the helpo( dor i: kierde,
participle
gehlired.
1178. The
followingare the chief verb endings of the
active voice, includingthe preterite
participlepassive.
with
or
without
'
'
Where
two
weak verbs.
endings are
same
person.
T,Goo(^le
yURBS:
OLD
365
MNGLISff.
"a)
Infinitive
-eat
Gerund
-enne
tttde
-en,-ed.
Verbs whose
1179.
thus
'
Hon
to
ends in a vowel
root
see,'gdn
'
contract
generalljr
go,'conjugateid sio, ii gS, we
to
1180.
is substituted when
-e
the verb
with
the pronoun
ge gdj". These
forms
were
comes
imper.,
immediatelyafter
originally
subjunctives,
binde ge
'
compared with
we
mdlon,gi lohlon.
The
chief auxiliary
verbs
habban
was
'
'
are
have,'as in A/
be,'weorjian become,'and
ge/unden,hi wearp ge/unden he
wesan
'
'
mat
found,'he is gecumen
'
he has found.'
1182.
old Germanic
trace
of the
'
'
'
366
ACCIDENCE.
formed
similarly
in the dative
noun
to, which
preposition
'he is
cumenru
takes the
governed by the
case
come
of the infin.
Latin
Id
"
The
1184.
to
[ii'84.
vmturus
in hi
is to
It often
at.
cumajuit.
takes
preL partic,as alreadystated,generally
not
if the verb
in
as
inseparable
prefix,
In West- Saxon
'
AwriM
gehuran,gehiered.
Both participles
1186.
are
'
sindou geevmene, hi
declined like
: we
adjectives
he possesses
literally
'
him found,'
But
in the ktei
language
In the older
1186.
in
-s:
languagethe
Pu lufas'thou
EarlyWest-Saxon
the
person
lovest,'
l"" lufadti.But
regularforms
In Late Northumbrian
1187.
second
are
ends
sing,
alreadyin
brfadest.
li^ast,
inflectional/ became
t:
ni
bindas.
bindis,
we
In Late OE
the
wdren.
In
1189.
Late OE
indie, of weak
verbs
the
-it
of the and
is extended
to
West-Saxon
btfodetfif yoM loved'=Early
'
Strong
1190.
often has
we
In
a
bundon.
The
different from
and
the
Vbrbs.
plur.of
the
pret.indie.
that of the sing.
: lifScaid,
sing.pret.indie,
and
the whole
pret.
EarlyWest
:
"
T,Goo(^le
VERBS:
OLD
Scnne strongverbs
367
ENGLISH.
llOL
are
tutor, is inflected
consonants, such
as
biddan
'
pray,'
'saijan; and
strong and
weak, had
/'before
(788) 'swatjan,*farjan,'bidjan,
a
"
mutate
their root-vowels.
The
shown
as
strong verb wipan 'weep' is also a 'j-verb/
by its
mutation, the Anglian form being wdftan,and is declined like
the
a
is
weak
verb
strong verb
nothingto
hferan,which
however
in the infinitiveand
has
the
endingsas
same
the inflections of
distinguish
"wipatifrom
so
there
those
of
the
The
-ip,which
Germanic
and then
griwP from
endings-st,-p were
are
hindip. In West-Saxon
vowel
forms of the
these
lucem
'
preceding
vowels,as in pi ^cst,hit
close,'lock,'grbwan
'
English: bindis,
endings mutated
-is,
'
grow.' The
re-
368
[fti93-
ACCIDENCE.
suitingconsonant-combinations
modified
were
in various
; and
sp became
tt,as in
'
from
Similar
'
iioMs.
biddes,
The
is a
(infin.
htaldaii)
of this
such
*!teha2d. Traces
'hekold,
preservedin a few OE preterites,
contraction of
are
reduplication
'call,' command
Mian
he-hl,later hit (infin.
as
Germanic
*hehaH
1194. The
'
*)=
(Gothichaihait).
followingare
which
the
each
accordingto their vowel-changes,
strong verbs ^
class being named after a characteristicverb. A few examples
are
I. Bedupliaati'Te
or
foil-class.
llSfi.
'fall'
feailan{/allatt)
Jioll
healdan {hatdan)'hold' /Hold
cndwan
'know'
to
/gallon
hioldon
or
i, the pret
paUen [failen)
htaldm {halden)
cniow
eniowon
cnSw^i
grlow
grfowon
grSti/en
blot
bioton
biateit
"idJ'"tM'command*
k^K)t
hl{k)lon
hSten
laim'ltA'
lit
llton
littn
grdwan
biaian
'
grow
'beat '
'
T,Goo(^le
(I199-]
OLD
VM^BS;
369
ENGLISH.
II. Shake-class.
These
1196.
verbs have
partic.
a,
sCacan
j-verbs
"
faran 'go'
'
shake
'
fdr
firon
side
iidcon
scacat
hOf
hsfon
hafm, haftn
Ttfbian(768)'raise*
faren
III. Bind-class.
In the infin.t, it,t, 10 followed
1197.
least of which
at
one
sooant
phir."
r,
"
bindan
is
in the
l,n,m;
; in the
by two consonants
nearlyalways a vowellike con-
",
pret parlic.
iieldatt{geldoH)
o.
bunden
bundon
iaiid,
bgnd
^eaid (gSld)guidon
kealji
(hOip) hvlpon
'bind*
'
in the pret.
pret sing.a,cE,ea;
'
pay
heipan 'help'
Aerj/a" (764)'burst'
barst
'become'
iveorpan
wearP
'
fcohiati{/ehlan)fight /eait(fai/)
golden
kolpm
burston
borstm
wurdon
wcrden
fohlen
Juhton
'
rV. Bear-class.
In the infin,e, ie,i followed
1198.
by
"
singleconsonant
which is
nant
conso-
^"n""' carry'
in the
"
breean 'brrak*
*
sHeran (ictrtm)
cut
niman
'
take
'
'
bar
b"ron
boren
brae
brAcon
brocen
(iciron) sioren
slear
(scar)
siiaron
nam,
npm
tinman, Hdmon
HumtH
V. GiTe-cIagg.
1199.
followed by
"',
j-verbs
from
non-vowellike consonant, this class differing
single,
th" lastonlyin the pret.partic,
which keeps the vowel of the
the muUted
infin.,
VOL.
I.
of the
to
j-verbsreturning
B
t:
"
ACCIDENCE.
[(
sprae
sprAeoH
tprteen
tiftan'^V
sat
sAton
setai
litgoH'ln'
lag
logon,lAgon
Ugen
370
'
sprtcan speak
'
isoo.
VI. Sblne-class.
In the infin.i;
1200.
partic.i:
pret.
"
drifan'drive'
shine
'
iHnan
'
wrftan
'
'
write
drOf
drifon
drifem
liS*
iHnan
slinen
wrat
toriton
viriien
VII. Ohoose-class.
1201.
pret.partico
ilosoK
"
choose
'
'
'
friosan freeze
bOgoM bend
'
bind
budcn
boden
Has
euron
coreit
frfas
hiag,biah
'
Weak
1202.
The
as
Hodatt'cotamaaA'
'
plur.u
weak
verbs
the vowel
fruron
hugo*
froren
bogen
Veres.
fall under
two
main
groups,
or
not
cording
ac-
The
and
the wean-class
the third or
1208.
The
Pres.
Pret
the uomutated
(w/ntiiff),
lore-class {lufiati).
are
following
the
verbs
EarlyWest-Sazon format-
Indie.
Subj.
Hert
hurt
hUrst
hlert
hlert
Plur.
hierP
hferap
Meren
Sing,i
Mferdi
hlerde
kierdfst
hterde
hUrde
hUrd*
hUrdon
hierden
Sing,i
Plur.
tuting
consti-
T,Goo(^le
VERBS;
i laofi.]
OLD
Imper.Sing.
Plur,
ter
Infin.
Alerati
hStrap
Gerund
to
hUrtnnt
kUrendt
Partic. Pres.
hiertd.
Fret
This
1204.
3?!
ENGUSH.
partic,where
plur.
gefuerde.
nom.
Verbs
'
dd.
After
the breath-consonants
unvoiced, and
the inflectionald is
/, c
'
find,'meet
gemelt,
taian
show
^eliM. But the full forms aspided,gemiled
also occur, especially
in Anghan.
Similar changes take
become
placein the pret ~tde,
-He,-pie,as in gemilte
-p{p)de
h
'
melon
'
'
'
'
becomes
found,'^p/e
'
'
dipped (infin.
dyppan).
is also unvoiced
in missan
'
after tt and
miss
'
inflectionald
The
bieath-consonants,
as
the other
'
rushed
'
from
I b. Seek-class.
1306.
same
in the pret.and
as
in the other
"
'
'
sgllan give
iiCan (sScan) seek
'
Those
lealde
'
wilh
(sHide)
geseald{gesoid)
iesSht,gesoht
sSAie,sohie
followed by
or
'
regularly
changed
became
d.
to
nasal S, which
Long vowels
that pdhie,etc
became
were
pohU.
sba
in OE
shortened in OE
Seek-verbs
in
as
regularly
before ht,so
-(ticarry the
[j no?.
ACCIDENCE.
372
in
longsyllables
the infin."either
I iawritten for U
long vowel, as in
hUran, or a vowel followed by two consonants, as in sptdan,
fyUan. In the latterverb the "!/is Germanic [cp.the adjective
/ull\and is therefore kept throughallthe inflectionsof
in contracted forms
before
consonant
fylUst{JyUi\fyiitp
pres. indie, fylle,
{/ylp\fyll^k; imper.sing,fyll,etc.
\-erbs of thisclass with double
as
But
of the
most
in the infin.,
such
consonants
as
biddan
tfllap
; pres. part,iitlmde;
; subj s{/Je{tt)
; bnper.s^U,tfiia/"
.
gesfitd,
pret.sfUt^ *siUde,
gtsilt. Some
pret partic
such as i^a"
verbs belong to the seek-division,
of these
'
'
say
siiiaj";
i[gP {sigep),
imper.
pres. mdic. t[ige,sigsl{sfges),
^l^'^P'iP^^B. panic,siigende;preL tc^"it,
pret.partic.
gesagd. So also i{llanhas pres. indie,t^, t{lp{silep^t
'fHap,
W"
etc.
imper.iiU,sillap,
II. Wean-class.
ia08.
with
syllable
mutated vowel.
They
fonn
in -ed,which is never
and their pret.partic.
and
short root-
their pret.in
-ede,
contracted. The
forms of wptian
are the EarlyWest-Sazon
following
'
accus-
T,Goo(^le
f i"io.]
VMSBS;
Fret.
OLD
Sing,i
373
Indie
Subj.
wpude
wgrude
Wfttedfsi
wgnede
w^nedon
Wfnede
wfttede
Plur.
Imper. Sing.
Plur.
Icfin.
lugman
wgniap
Gerund
Id
Pret.
'
ilaafp'iancarry
'
viftteden
vi(He
Partic. Pre3.
So
ENGUSH.
w^igenne
'wftiigende
gelv(ned.
\^/arango ']styrian
'
'
stir.'
IIL Iiore-class.
In Germanic
1209.
of which
cause
is
mutation
Germanic
forms
-tan
these verbs
later
had
infinitives-ati, -dn,
like the
-tan
of the wean-class,which
not
is of
the EarlyWest-Saxon
are
origin. The following
"
Pres.
Sing.I
Indie.
Subj.
lufip
lufi^e
Weak
Irregtdar
laiO.
mixture
Some
weak
verbs, such
Vtrbs.
as
lihhan
show
'live,'
the love-class:
ACCIDENCE.
374
[|
i"ii.
libbtndt;pret.lifdt,
Uofa,libbap; pres. partic.
pret partic.
i-Ufd.
FsKTKRmt-FKESXHT
1211.
These
verbs have
thus the
for their
of theseverbs differshowever
indie,which
sing,
/ also becomingf:
pu
cami
1212.
From
ends
aw/
'I know'
was
present
; it w"t
verb
preterite-prcBent
of
a strong preterite
orig^naltf
and
VerBS.
know,'}"i wast.
weak
formed
are
preterites
with various
witte.
irregular
changes: sieeUe,cufie,
the infin,,
1213. Many of these verbs are defective,
imper.,
and participles
being often wanting. The subj.is often
substituted for the
of wilan
'
tions
are the inflecimper.sing. The following
know
'
:"
HMdle-Engdlati.
Early
1314.
The
ME
Middle
Emolish.
of weak
levelling
effect on
slight
comparatively
vowels under
had
laio.]
EARLY
VERBS;
Early Southern,where
in
the OE
But
verj- faithfully.
-afi,-ode into
ENGLISH.
MIDDLE
375
verb-inflectionswere
served
pre-
as
-tp,-ede,
-e, -"tt,
Utot,luoest,
luvep,lucedt
=OE
led to a complete
btfaj",
It^a,hifail,
lufodt,
necessarily
of the old weanand love-clagsesof weak verbs,the
levelling
ME
love-classincluding
allthe OE ian-verbs whether accompaoied by mutation or not.
The
1216.
the
Southern
infin.and
tendencyto drop
: Early Southern
innden,hlnde;
pret.paitic.
ibunden,ib"nde.
1216.
The
made
syllables
the OE
gerund
imdentu
IS
in weak
consonants
into ME
/d
bmdent.
1217. The
weak
le
iinden,which made
So also Ani"=OE
lo the South-Thames
the
dialects this
specialmark
regarded
as
extended
to
strong verbs
1218.
In
Early Southern
as
oflen shortened
hifge,lufianwas
well
as
as
afterwards
-1
weak
the pres.
luvi.
to
came
being
infin.,
of the
to
be
sometimes
verbs with OE
infin.
partic.
endingis -mde,
which
in mndinde,hertnde,
of the verbal
in
nouns
ence
probablyowes its1 to the influ-tng=OE -ing,-utig, such
-itige,
lenniige=0'Eleornung.
1219. EarlySouthern keeps theprefixi-=OE^^:i"Sndert,
i/iered= OE gebuttdat,
gehired.
The roost importantchange in die strongverbs is
1320.
as
that many
as
il^KM
of them became
'
weak.
deep,'ondrddaa
'
Alreadyin OE
such verbs
preterites
much
OE
further. Thus
in the earliest ME
even
W
strong preterites
'
'
let,'
u"eop wept
'
we
find the
representednot
376
ACCW"NCB.
bat abo
onlf by /F/,v^,
sndi fonos
aa
and
other weak
[| iKi.
strof^ fonns
existed tide
Man;
bj tide for
weak
pret.as
hrfde raised
'
'
was
laSL
The
modified
were
o(
vowd
'
fret treads,'
sAmi
ier^ carries,'
West-Saxon
t^iideK='Eat[y
The
1232.
'
of rAssOE
1224.
But in
got rid
infin.,
etc.,as
in
Uerfi(iir^),
tritt,
s^.
gradationof
In thislast verb
tion
muta-
infin.itrett,
stands,'
tredtn,
in the OE
consonaiils
etc was
gecoren,
gcrtrid "tfby carryingthe
chistH,
c^, ichoteit.
1328.
The
presentswas
of the
strong
that remained
influences.
by various levelling
in the
we
can
ieotan,
through: chiasen,
were
to the
verbs
some
as mforUsm
preserved,
1226.
Some
creatingnew
of the ME
the old
conson
ant-gradations
'Vxe,'
forlfs./orioren.
changeshad
distinctions. Thus
OE
S, "" was
regularly
shortened before consonant-groups, and the resulting
a
was
afterwards broadened
'showed,' which
to
in ME
(797),as in the OE
passed through ttehk
pret.iShle
into tahu,
MnE
T,Goo(^le
i*J9]
1336.
EARLY
VERBS;
The
blttdm,and
are
followiag
of the weak
of the
representatives
Southern
1321.
MIDDLE
377
verbs
two
BNGUSH.
hertn
'
hear
'
classes of weak
strong verb
and luvien,as
verbs
in
Early
:"
In the forms
binde
-e
is substituted
the
"
sing.Aire
"
"
of iuvie,
luve.
The
In
had
generally
as
the hear-class
the fullAnglianendings-est,
-ep,there is only
T,GoogI
378
ACCIDENCE.
set
one
Southern
hirtH,luvien.
On
'
iirji befits,'becomes
'
classes:
two
1J30.
heren, h/en=
{|
extended
preL iirde
to
the love-class,
as in
0%
^efyrefi,
iebyrtde,
infin.gefyriiai
(wean-class).
1280.
extensioD of the
"
"
is keptin the
imper.plur.: cumepl.bipl
'be
ye'=Southem
cumep, beop.
In
138L
EarlyMidland
the
levelled
gerundwas completely
is
pret partic.
dropped
never
as
in Southern.
The
pret.
loses itsprefix
partic.
^t-.
The
nant
singleand double consoforms in the old j-verbs,
such as h{bban,hi/ep,
hSf,
which was
stillkept up in Early
ha/enand libban,
Uofap,lifde,
1288.
Southern
down
"
distinctioD between
"
Early Midland
to break
fonns ; thus in
Northern.
1284.
In the Northern
changed to
s, and
dialect inflectional
p
bindep,bindap, bindan.
final e
was
brian
binda became
dropped,so
to
had
been
in
drop off already
the
bt'nda,
bindas,^ini"t= Mercian
In the
Early Middle
period weak
Und,
monosyllabic
under
Nonhumwhich
the
T,Goo(^le
EARLY
VERBS;
i"38.]
MIDDLE
ENGLISH.
379
North,
gerund 15 hind-vss levelled. The subj,^de=0\A
sing,and plur.h'nde was reduced to the same
monosyllabte.
also the pret.plur. ktrden was
reduced to the same
the sing. herd. The effect of these changes on
Hence
form
as
"
strong pret.such
"band
sing,and
to leave
was
subj.generally and
plur,and
"
bund
and
the vowel
ist and
soon
In Late
1380.
Old
Northumbrian
Horthern
the old
pers.
change
forms
only two
and
ist
that of bind
as
endingof
the
in
Early
became the
common
we
to
1S36.
Northumbrian
by whose
influence the
form ; hence
as
was
alwayskeptin
it was
gehunient,
etc.,
the ME
Northern dialect
well.
The
Northern
fonn
bindand,An-iww/= Midland
hirinde. This
bindinde,
12S7.
Icel. bindandi,
heyrandi.
The
ias8.
inflections of
are
following
then
the
most
distinctiveverb-
their
Early Middle
periods:
"
Southern.
Indie. Pres.
Sing,i
Plur.
Midland.
Northern.
bfndt
Hnde
bind
Hndest, binist
bfndest
bindes
binde^,bint
kindep
HruieP
bindes
binden
bf^es)
T,GoogIe
Southern.
Midland.
Hnd
bUtd
Mmd
Hftdep
Hndtp
bf7id(es)
bttidenJe
bfndand
Impcr. Sing.
Plur.
Latr
The
1288.
in Late South-Thamea
of the
which
we
Miodlk-Engusb.
important change
most
the verbal
traces
tTigt 'theyrode
verbal
singing'=OEA"n""B
also
nouns
Early ME
in
to
in heo ridm
noun
not
was
to / in the
stngthe
as
losL
entirely
weak
pret and
infin. wmdtn
wmt
wmk,
Early
This
such fonns
distinguish
as
which in EarlyME
both
and he iente pret.,
were
But it is also carried out in some
the firstform.
bretmm
of which
gUrde, gUrd\
change served
-itigeby
singende. But
changed
was
of verbs
pret, partic.
Southern
and
occur
and krning
Urninge partic.
1340.
in
nouns
Bint^nge,^change
see
ME
in Standard
lation
Englishgenerallyis the further assimi-
partic,to
prea.
Nortbem.
these consonants:
after
words
; mfnen,
and
^=(2}
expressed by
v, where
with
mettie ;
it
voices
un-
iosiett-^OS. lostan,loste;IfDen^OE
la/an,UfU, Iqfk.
1241.
In
ME
Standard
simplifyingtendencies
The
Northern.
old
at
the
see
work
in
as
vowel-changein
is stillIceptup, but
throughoutthe pret
we
Jni bgnd, we
and
levelling
same
Early Midland
such
and
as
bgrid
preterites
bpnd
as
well
as
pu bounde,
boundAji).
we
1242.
the
In
some
verbs
pluralis sometimes
to
the
the
give-class
i of
in
by
sing,as
Hr,
set
bter,jiz/plur.
bdron, sdlon,Anglian
beron,seton.
T,Goo(^le
1148.]
LATE
VERBS;
MIDDLE
381
ENGLISH.
1243.
in such
also
seen
slSh
plur.slowen.Late OE
the
sii^.is
Southern
as slom,jaiff=Early
sing,
preterites
doh, ilogoa,OE
seah,sawon,
In Late ME
1244.
pret. plur. As
the pret.partic.
beginsto influence the
generalrule the old pret, pluralswere
preservedin Late ME
the pret partic,
as
as
vowel
same
(class
3),Ttdm, writen (class
6) ; otherwise
the
plur,pret,took
the vowel of the pret,partic,
: J"ei
chgsen.
holpen,/oghlm,
The sing,
of the imper.began to be extended to the
1245.
plur : hind bind ye by the side of bmdej".
'
'
1246.
verbs the
( was
dropped
binde.
The
1248.
are
following
the Sundard
Early ME
ME
inflectionsof
inflectionshave been
given
already:
"
T,GoogIe
groups,
one
with
o,
(uu)[SOS}-
MODERN
VERBS;
Tbe
1266.
was
main
pres. in"c.^he
which
calls
"
383
ENGLISH.
-j
verb-inflections
in the
introduced
was
The
1267.
MnE
"
is further characterized by
verb
the
When
the pres. partic.
ending
gemnd.
tion
"ingelost its finalvowel,the last vestigeof a fonnal distinc-
developmentof
between
such
in -ingiwas
and became
tinguishable
indisestablished,
fully
pres.partic.
in form from the ing-nouns,
these could be
formed
at
pleasurefrom any
could
partic.
EarlyMnE as well
pres,
as
be
as
used
ME
"
verb-noun.
these words
were
words, every
At
first in
"
used
entirely
nouns
"
"
them
sentence
as
was
followingnoun
joinedon
to (he
T,GoogIe
384
In such constnictions,vhich
true
are
[( 1158.
ACCIDENCE.
1258.
the ME
noun-verbals
In MnE
geninds.
or
the
tendencyto
completed
ME
in the MnE
forms ierd (ktard),
laved representing
herdt,
and (i)herd,
Such weak verbs as set and cast
Slt!ed{t)
(f)lSved.
became
invariable in the
"/=ME
sel,pret.partic.
: infin.sel,
pret.and pret partic.
pret
Moreover
selte,{i)sel.
seiie(n),
the
weak
sel
in
tion
conjuga-
vowel of the
endings-esl,-elh,-^s, -ed
in the spoken language,
cept
exdropped in Early MnE
that full -tsl,-et was
sonants
always kept after the hiss-conrules as
the same
(s,z ; J,3),being subjectto exactly
noun-inffectional -es (887),as in tnissesl,
misses,rtsist,
12BS.
was
The
was
rises,
wishes,singes. Full -ed
was
Otherwise
without regard to
the
Iffoelh(luvf),
as well
this way
verbs
was
ME
as
forms
shortened in
in loves
speech
tovest,
(luvz),
htarelh. In
heares,hears,heartsi,
"
hSiede,
away
with
the
as
two
far
as
classes of weak
the
endingswere
in
concerned,the distinction
being only partially
recognizable
the
in such
sound-changes
leach,
feeljeli;
taught.
1260.
-elh,-ed
But
were
verbs
as
hear,heard Qair,
bard);
in the
metre,
-ts
was
not
alwaysbe
T,Goo(^le
1163.]
MODERN
VERBS;
385
ENGLISH.
substituted
for it. Some
contracted
etc.
generallyshortened
-tsl
was
ME
hast,hoik, had=
in weak
havest,hast
in
as
preterites,
critdst.
-est and -e/hare obsolete in Present English
Imedst,
in which they naturally
keep
except in the higherlanguage,
their full forms,except in dosl,kath etc.
The
guage
higherlanalso keeps full-td in many forms where the spoken
languagecontracts,as
hved (Icvd),
biased are
1361. The
(bil^id)compared
in Moved
thepeacemakers.
weak
as
Late ME
it was
MnE
he dwelli/h,
putlyth,
passid,armyd.
spekyst,
thou
with
e, as
as
(i),
well
in
"i
03
Early
In
requiredto show
in shs'tus. The
written in full,
sometimes
was
often marked
The
"st
two
the
other
of a
pronunciation
endingswere
without the
e,
whose
times
some-
absence
by an apostrophe:seemed,seem'd,seemd.
continued in common
use
spellings
up to the
as
said,
paid
omission of the
to
monosyllables
also paitd,
payed,payd\. The
"
(EarlyMnE
in heard
now
in
The
consonant
way
as
(luvz).The
of shortened
to the
was
assimilatedas
precedingconsonant
in the noun-inflections :
same
-es
assimilations took
in the
leads (1"a1z),
loves
lets,
placewith shortened
blessed.
(brwBd),thanked ("ai)kt),
often
this spelling
was
express (t),
breathed
-ed: iffoed (luvd),
-ed
bdng
thus used
to
extended
to such
306
[( I"6^.
ACCIDENCE.
erost
aceunt
(erou'S),
of them
also
into
came
fixed,such
have become
partialuse, and
some
pail in halfpast
as
one
those of
are
character.
levelling
The
1364.
change of strong
observe in ME
and, in
went
verbs
itself. Thus
EarlyMnE
have
But
of the weak
some
forms
such
been discarded,
now
as
eomed, becomed
pret.participles
On the other hand, several weak
1366.
to
MnE,
become
now
that
the
we
Early MnE
the
climbed,milted.
which
in the transitionfrom ME
on
cases, in MnE
some
weak
to
in
arose
Shakesperian
verbs
have
been
made
{OE Wfrian,w^rede)
by
worn
wore,
So
sworn.
the
analogyoi swear,
verbs in
swore,
-ow
in -own
participles
by the anal"^yof knt/w,known, etc,
keepingthe originalweak pret : show, pret. showed, pret.
panic,shcfwn (OE tiiawian,sieawode).
of the vowels in
of the short quantity
1366. The levelling
ME
a
in Late ME
further in
MnE,
as
EarlyME b[r, \
brahe,
spakt= Late I
bar
in
brak,spak,pret.partic.
br^km,infin.brokenetc
certain number
others
were
When
of
as
came,
long vowel
in
the pret,partic.
bfden.
1267. There
the
MnE
is also
in
regularprocess of voice-levelling
becomes voiced
as
in the infin.and
aa in rest,
pret.partic,
T,Goo(^le
i i"7o.]
MODERN
VERBS;
chose,
g/we, drove=ME
rgt,
387
ENGLISH.
dp, gaf,drgf,infin,rlsm,driven
drivtn etc.
etc.,pret.parlic.
The
1368.
as
levelled,
we
changes.
In the
strong verbs it
analogicalchanges. Already in
a
weak
by phonetic
levelled b; external,
was
ME
verbs
of the sing,was
the plur.had
dJstinclion between
Hence
(pret.
sigleii).
partic.
such EarlyMnE preterites
as hare,brake,
gave, sal correspond
to ME
singulars.
as
ME
there was
an
have
strong preterites
have seen that in Lale
particwas
This
was
often able to
carried out
the original
supplant
singular-vowel.
The same
hounden etc.
bpnd,/^nd,
plur.
and in
placein other verbs of the bind-class,
bound,fotmd=y^
change look
some
havingtwo
the ME
representing
pret.sing.,
vowel of the plur.:began,begun; tang,
in EarlyMnE,
preterites
verbs
one
bigan,sgng, si^ng,
stang,slung; /aughl,/oughi=MK
hgl,rpd, ivrpl.
faught bit; rode, rid; wrote, wri/=ME
tung;
"
The
are
present forms of these preterites
began,sa?ig,stung,
being to favour
rode,wrote,the tendencyevidently
fought,bit,
the original
sing,forms.
1270.
further assimilation of
388
[J 1271.
ACCIDEf/CB.
of bart,brakfjspake
ME
=
In Present
represented
by stoleon\y in EarlyMnE.
tare
between
verb
began
be confused
to
the pret /
as
when
jAinm
etc.
etc.
saw
so
"
from shmen
"
or
was
helped
same
that the
pret.began
verbs,especially
some
of the pret.partic.
was
very
established
havingnearlythe
in
pret.partic.
throughnot being in
of ME
English
parts of the
two
confusion which
"
in I ktrseseen
by the pret.partic.
meaning
being
etc. survive
1S71. When
slal
liable to be forgotten
use
frequent
ambiguous
as
"
in the
as
"
in the
case
case
of
ME
shone,stood,sat
In
EarlyMnE
Present
Hence
in MnE
the
original
preterites
have supplantedthe older pret.participles.
this was
English,as
in Standard
taken, shaken,
arisen.
1273.
etc.
a
In the above
differentvowel.
ME
shone
examples the pret participles
form with
bound,b^vn=:
as
pret.participles
of extension
droppingthe
of the MnE
e
pret.forms
of the curtailedME
forms
bound
etc., or
of
etc.
{i)bounde,
1378.
In
Early MnE
the
extended
to the
thou spakest=ME
pret.indie, of strong verbs : thou boundest,
bounde,b^nd,spak. The rare Early MnE droppingof -st in
weak
as
well
thou had is
as
ihe
probably
T,Goo(^le
I375-]
modern
verbs;
389
ENGUSH.
English,
drop this harsh
poets often instinctively
Present
and
Verbs
in 'St
"
pret.is the
as
the pres.
those
especially
"
frequently
drop the inflectional
si,or else add it with
-ed
intervening
an
same
thou cast.
or
strong verb
Besides
only
as
is the EarlyMnE
following
The
1S74.
set
the above
of
conjugaUon
the
verb call:
"
inflections there
isolated archaisms.
The
'
others
are
which
occur
left
trace
ME
indie, plurals
are
the
'
most
in the
found
frequentof which
"
Shakesperianthey -waxen
in
and
much
the Northern
gerund in
1876.
-en
-es
survives in
The
are
the
less
the
-en
"
survives in the
The
frequent.
Shakespere:
Southern
The
-elk
infin.or
to killtn.
will show
the
regular
differentclasses of strongverbs in
It will be observed
3rd and
their mirth.
followingexamples
of the
development
MnE.
are
literary
language,
Early MnE
the Midland
thai the
literary
best-preservedclasses
in the
T,GoogIe
AcciDENCEi
39"
number
of
retsun
Uijye.
being
hardly a
so
much
trace
dive^uce
of their 0"
characteristics
:
"
The Late ME
slow,were
in
in (-uu)=:0"
preterites
-oh,such
EarlyMnE
levelledunder the
more
as
drow,
numerous
slew.
slay,
T,Goo(^le
liSfi.]
present
verbs;
39
vtrile
wrote
written
bitt
bit
bitten
shine
shone
shone
Early Mn"
The occasional
probablyNorthern
are
ENGLISH.
drove,strove,etc^
preterites
forms.
VII. Oboose-class.
1283.
Jreete
froze
froten
eheese
chose
chcien
Present
English.
Ihe
-Ih
language,where
higherliterary
older forms
still
eurvive.
fonn, itwill
be
now
to
its most
instructiveto
more
reduced
regard it from
unhistoricalpointof view.
purelydescriptive,
If we examine the Present English verb from this
1284,
ditional
pointof view,the firstthing that strikes us is that the traa
distinctionbetween
longerbe
maintained
tellwhether such
strong and
without
verbs
weak
going back
to
ME
we
cat)
no
cannot
as
led,held,infinitives
sal,lit,
preterites
tit,
are
therefore compelled
to make
new
Tooalio.
those which
and pret.participles
preterites
by
form
their
Consonantal
division
verbs
are
looted,
heard,burnt,infinitives
/,such as called,
call,look,hear,hurn. Vocalic verbs are those which form
addingd
or
theirpreterites
or
by vowel-change without
pret, participles
the addition of any consonant, except that the pret.partic.
of
some
Sound;
run,
spoken;
ran,
run
"
-en
sing,sang,
sung
bind,bound,
drive,drove,driven; speak,spoke,
Under
we
must
also
[J
ACCIDENCE.
393
include the inTariabto
verbs show
Mixed
inflection: crow,
verbs:
miztUTe cX consonantal
crew, crmmd
i"86.
vocalic
and
shmv, showed,shown.
1286.
"
after (t)
and (d): dcUghled,
nodded.
(-id)
raised,
saved,
(-d)afterthe other voice sounds : played,
"
a.
b.
turned,dragged.
afterthe
(-t)
c.
other breath
consonants
hissed,
pushed,
looked.
or anomalous
irregular
verbs,such
which^mostly comprisingthe
are
such
defective,
old
verbs
preterite-present
as
of
be,was, been,some
as
has
"
infin.
no
or
The
participles.
formed verbs
are
the consonantal
conjugated
consonantally,
inflectionsbeing the
to
or productive
ones.
only living
As regardsthe relation of consonantal and vocalic
1288.
weak and strong,the following
generalrules may be laid
down:
"
in
Vocalic verbs with pret.partic.
a.
or
-en
are
Strong.
cf in the
pret
are
stroi^.
c.
Vocalic verbs
eitherstrong
or
ending in
or
rf in the
pret.may
be
weak.
d. Invariable verbs
"
alwaysweak.
128B. The following
are
which
always end in
or
"
are
almost
of the consonantal
the inflections
see
in
;
Spoken English
"
T,Goo^lc
IRREGULAR.
VERBS;
Pres. ItuHc.
k3l
Sing. I
SIJIIJ
1S90.
regularconjugationthe only
'
distinctivepositiveinflectionsare
'
form
call
being only
-j,
-d,-ing,the
common
common
-ing has
even
the
two distinctfunctions,
onlyunambiguous inflectiontieing
the s, which has,however, the same
form as the two nounthe gen. and the plur.
inflections,
In
to
all the
other persons of the pres. indie: I says, ycu says, vie says, they
This cannot
be the result of Northern
for in
says.
influence,
Northern
the
was
not
added
when
the Northern
The
subj.is very
little
used
the pronoun
It is more
estended
prefixed,
probablethat
was
for distinctness.
even
of SpokenEnglish,
and in vulgarspeech it disappears
entirely.
Irregular Verba
1292.
In the
in
Modem
EngUah.
are
followingsections the vowel-changes
(ei
.
e)as
of the infinitive is
in say, said,and
then
(ij
.
subordinated,thus
e),as
in
fiee,
fled.
(his is followed
and
Fonns
that
only
marked
*.
occur
Obsolete
the
in
forms
are
o), etc.
marked
t.
Verbs.
Vowel-ohMige.
Wltb
but with
higher literary
language are
Consonantal
Verbs
by (uw
inflection(d,t),
regulaiconsonantal
vowel-change:
"
Vmoel-ekange(ei
"
"
129S.
said,
Bay,
sed).
(sei,
e),
In this verb
the
vowel-change
in the pret.is
indic-as
ME
In
English; but
Thames
forms J^w/,
(^-forms;i
Late
"
was
ME
also made
(sed)
which
"
was
ME
(ai) a shorteningwhich
"
the other OE
ME,
in
Early MnE
probablyan
in MnE
ly-verbsshow
that the OE
so
as
lie (ME
These
pret.K^de
saidt in
we
Early MnE
as
"
well
as
of (")
shortening
also
the
All
^-forms
infinitivesItigan,
Iiigatt,
byiganappear
to
correspondphonetically
the OE
imperatives
lige,
l^e,byge.
Vowtl-change(ij
.
1294.
original
full (said)
is
; (sed)
OE
The
developed regularlyinto
into seidi
In
the
to
the^-
seimde.
partic.
forais also.
i"A"
dialects
extended
West-Saxon
which
ME,
the North-Thames
the Standard
became
in
floe,fled (flij,
fled).OE
e).
strong VII
(ffldest
pm
There
'Eng"shJIio^n),paA, piur.^ugon,
pret partic._^(^CTi.
was
were
another OE
verb of the
same
class,some
of whose
forms
fllogan fly,'
p"^
'
{Jlea/i),
flogen.
pret. plur.Jlugon,pret. partic,
As
the
two
T,Goo(^le
1300.]
IRREGULAR.
VERBS;
395
founded
confrequenlly
in Late West-Sason, the distinctive forms o^Jteogan
being used in the sense of flee as well as in that of fly,'
of 'fly.'This confusion
aoAfleim being used in the sense
verbs
were
similar in
meaning also,theywere
'
'
'
day, in as
in the sense
writers vsefiyconsistently
has
far
of
as
'
between
the
two
verbs
was
modem
many
ran
away.' FUt
is now
"on
the present
lasted to
often avoided by
weak
the confii-
usingthe
lughtide'
creap, croptn. In ME
hle(^m.
1297.
strongcrcp.
leap, lept (lijp,
lept).0"
ME
hliop,
strong I hleapan,
Bweep,
swept
pret. sldpte. ME
weak
by regularchange
became
was
pret.sTvip.
1299.
weep,
wept
wepan {uiSpan),
weop,tvopm.
ME
(is
Vowel-change
.
ee).
(hiar,haad).
strong I j-veib
(wijp,wept). OE
OE
ME
the
weak
hiiran,
hiren,herde with
T,Goo(^lc
396
broadened
regalarly
The
ME
[| ijoi.
ACCIDENCE.
(a)befwe
to
from
unfrequentlengtheningof
the not
heard shows
spellii^
hud).
giving(hiisr,
(r),
the
which, of
(r)-combinations,
was
change into (a); (h""rd)
course,
the
then shortened
whence
(herd),
the Present
1801.
(Juw,|od). OE
shoe, shod
to
English(h3"(l).
Vowel-ehange(uw
o).
stdian,tiode,gtsiod.
ME
it
preserved
berore
MnE
shortening is
rod,
to that in rod compared with rood^botb=OE
parallel
used chiefly
shod is now
shoe beingconjugated
as an adjective,
ihoed.
regulatiy
Vowel-ehange
(e
1802.
on).
weak
Ib
sealde,
sitlan,
'
(price)'='sell.'
1308.
teU, told (tet,
tould).OE
value
Anglian /aide. ME
/pide.
Mm,
With
1804.
bum,
by
expressed
/ealde
weak I b ////an,
t inetaad
In OE
burnt.
of d.
was
Late West-Sason
the strong verb III ii'erttan.
brpma, brpidt.
transitiveand intransitiveforms
in both senses,
the weak
In Standard
ME
came
forms
In
the
ME
to
be used
ally
origincriminately
indis-
graduallygetting
the Northern
"
originally
T,Googlc
Scandinavian
and
IRREGULAR.
VERBS;
J3II.]
"
397
fonn brinntn,brenlt
was
Scandinavian
"
brinnen
form
also
originally
in
occurringless frequently,
generally
"
intransitive sense.
The other dialects show a
original
great varietyof forms : EarlySouthern heomm, ifrntn,herb^rnm, iernen,hrtnnen.Early Northern
nen. Early Midland
The infin.bumen
vrell as intrans.),
bren.
brin (transitive
as
its
to occur
seems
firstin Late
Midland
Anglian beornan.
is
more
; the
b on
lip-cansonant
The
is either taken
it
the
ee
following
of
time in
EarlyMnE.
1806.
M"
dwell, dwelt.
vian
dwellm,dwelie from Scandina-
'
'
1306.
learn,learnt.
OEleomian,leom("ie;MElem{t)m,
pennen, ptnde,fmle.
1808.
smell, amelt.
fiftman,pfnde
'
impound
'
ME
'
OE
smilUm strike.'
1809.
'relate'\spen
Hpell, wpelt OE
speHian,ipeltode
neut.
tidings
']. ME ^Uien spell.'
ISIO.
spildan,sjiillan,
Bpill, Bpilt OE
pret. tpilde
'destroy.'
1811. spoil, spoilt. ME
spoilm, detpoilm from Old
French spolier,
dtspoilkr
[fromLatin spoUare'strip,'
'plunder']
from OE
associated with spilltn
that when
was
so
spilian,
took, the specialsense
'waste liquids,'
spillen
'spill,'
spoiTm
took the old meaning of spillen,
and formed
namely destroy,'
the analogyof spillt.spoilin the sense
of
on
a pret.spoilie
'
'
'
'
^underia regular.
'
T,GoogIe
398
\S
ACCIDENCE.
WlUi
t Inataad
of d and
'3"-
Yoval-oluuics.
Vmvei-changt(ij
,
e).
0"
*bereft, bereaTed.
(be)reftve,
{pi"^eafian,
the last being
riafode.ME birfvm,hirpide,
bireftt,
hirafU,
1812.
the Standard ME
fonn.
'adhere.' 0"
oleaTB, oleft 'divide,'
131S.
strong VII
'
eleven,dgf, e^vm. OE
deaf,elofendivide ; ME
cliofan,
weak III cUofioH,elifianadhere ; ME
dfvien,c^vtdt.
There was also a strongverb VI in OE ehfan adhere,'ME
cUvm
pret.pariic.eliven adhere,' climb.' In ME
c^/l
of
Northern daf, originally
used
also
was
as pret.
pret. diven,
'
'
'
'
'
'
whose pret.partic.
oi eleven,
clgvenhad in Laie ME
vowel
cl^.
as
weak
new
close i,but
Early ME
was
The
c^f (from OE
The
other MnE
OE
d3f.
'
ME
of the
OE
pret. daf
levelled under
deaf)
The
kept (ii)=ME
(kl/n) adhere '^
that it was
written
so
ctp)ien,
pret.dove may be regardedeither as
MnE
the descendant
'divide'
soon
elevien.Late
ea.
deeve
same
pret.cU/lewas
diven.
with
the
pret.dave isof
course
or
as
the ME
the pret.partic.
eleven.
the Northern form of
are
following
pret.
verbs in
MnE:"
deceoe ' divide ' ;
'
'
eleave adhere
The
latter is
icleaved.
dove,felave,
deft; doven, deft,
fdape,cleaved ; cleaved.
now
obsolete in the
much
used except in
OE
'
only as
some
special
an
adjective,
in clovenfoot.
as
'
spoken language;
1814.
1816-
dream,
dreamt,
dream
'
dremt, drijmd).
(drijm,
modulate
[dream melody,'
dreamed
drieman,Anglian driman
ddkm, dalde.
'
'
'
drfinen,
dremde,drem{p)lt
got the meaning
drSyma dream
'
'
[Scandina-
T,Googlc
13JJ.]
vian
'
drgumr
noun
drtam, the ME
keptin spelling"rfrwn/
as
"
pret.dreatntd.
new
blendingoidrtmisnA
was
as
dreamed.
OY./elan{falari)/eldt.
ftel,
1317.
lean, leant,leaned
felt.
OE hUonicm
lent,lijnd).
(lijn,
Iftude. The pret
^I'm {h'men),
OE verb meaning to lean,'
namely
Aleonode; ME
{hlinian),
from another
comes
the verb
by the side
pronunciation
The spelling
drtami is,
of course,
well
1816.
kanl
399
dream
the noun
levelledunder
of the
IRREGULAR.
VERBS;
'
knde. Unit.
Ifnen^
ME
navian
knelu of Scandi1318. kneel, knelt.
knelen,
kiulde,
hlanan,Mande;
ME
origin,
la/an,la/de. ME
OE
leave, left.
1819.
^m,
k/k,
lafte.
1320.
'
mean,'
moon,
(mijn,mcnt).
meant
mdnan, jndnde
mpten,vunde,mente.
complain,' ME
'
OE
Vowel-change(ai
o).
(uw
Vowel-change
forhrtn
'
weak
lose,'
destroy,'
lost.' ME
The
o).
strong VII
OE
lose, lost.
1923,
'
/orleas,
forliosan,
III losi'an' go
to
waste,' get
'
/brl^s,loren,ferloren.
Usen,forleten lose,'Ifi,
'
droppingof
for- is due
'Cat
to
0"
'
Hence
later los/,
to be used as
came
I'losed,
pret.partic.
the pret.partic.
loren,
of Usen, when the old pret,participles
the
forlorenhad
"
MnE
come
to
which
"lorn in love-lorn,
tlc.,/orlorn,
are
meaning
now
used
T,GoogIe
ACCIDENCE.
40O
E|
1313.
"
'
t Instead
of -dad.
0'S.gyrdaH,gyrde.
1823.
1831.
build, buUt,
1820.
ISae.
0"
tbuilded.
OZ
gytdm, gylde.
OH
[hindan,
preL band 'bind 'J. The
only as an adjectivein bended knee.
blend,
1327.
*
Weak
mix.'
is
with
new-fonnation
influence
Uttde,lenie was
pret. bendtd
OE
is
OE
from
the
OE
of senden
'send';
fonned
the
on
ME
lanan, lande.
I
'
Iptdm,
from
analt^
lenden
2.
of sinden, sente,etc.
OE
r{ndan {hrpidan),
rpide.
1830.
Mud,
sent
OE
sptdan, sgnde.
shame
'
1832.
OE
pret
new
rent.
tsbent.
Unden
-fonns, posfflUy
preterite
rend,
tshend,
blandan
blind.'
1329.
133L
used
now
strong
lend, lent.
1826.
hptdan 'bind,''bend'
tblent, blended.
OE
byldm, byUe.
to
[tianddisgrace].
spend,
OE
^ent.
Latin
txptndere.
1S3S.
*wend,
the pret. of ^
OE
vent.
inirans.]The
(1468).
make,
0"
made.
mdh'en, contracted
Conionant-loM
and
'cloth'].Scandinavian
cUdde,
only
ME
mSde, {i)niSd.
SB).
eldj"im,tla^odt \c^
well
as
maii'en,
Towel-ohange.
OE
tlttideNorthern
used
now
maeede.
manan,
Vowel-change (ou
1836.
is
pret. went
{windan
tmns.
Oonoonant-lou.
With
1884.
wgndan 'turn'
c^Mi^,
ME
ci"ptdi;
t^Sm,
"
1339-1
IRREGULAR,
VERBS;
401
(se o),
Vffuxl-change
,
French (aehur
[Low
"
ecKchm, caughltfrom
Ladn
capliare= Latia
Old
caplare,a
cacchm
as
having the
same
[compareMnE
same
termination
Idiian,geldktt seize,'catch
'
formed
naturally
lakh],
'
'
in tbe
preterite
its
same
way.
1387. diatraot
-tdistraught,diBtraoted.
0"
striitan
in the form of
'stretch,'
ilrfhte,
prct sireahle,
appears in ME
the pret. partic.
streccken,
siraughte,
itreighie,
ilre^kt being
still
keptin Mn"
stretched
adjectivestraightliterally
the Latin distractus was imported as an adj.
as
out' In Late ME
'
an
"
distract
which
(Frenchdistrait),
made
was
into
distraught
by
the influence of
Through
participle.
used in the
was
formed
of distracted,'
and
sense
on
further confusion
'
Vowel-change
(93
wotlt;
0).
1938.
new
itraughtitselfwas
-^bestraught
partic.
'wrought, worked
rat). 0"
{v/^ak,
The
Northern wirk.
The
wore,
ME
change of
0"
wU-
are
Southern aiUrehm,
to wu~,
Midland
werken.
in ME,
r-transposition
which in ordinaryspeechsurvives only as
wrought iron.
Vowel-change
(i
.
being
"
an
as in
adjective,
o).
brat).OE
(briij,
briugan,brohie.
ACCIDENCE.
403
1340.
think
In 0"
thought.
[f 1340.
there
weak
two
were
la
'
^ohte think ;
meaning : J"piian,
fytUan,ptihte seem,' which was impersonal,me Pytiip it
to me
seems
having much the same
meaning as li?fyttie.
In ME
regularly
fiptianbecame
penchtn in South-Thames
verbs
'
'
'
'
^ni^M
English,
in North- Thames
became
English; andy^ni'iin
^nchm, pinchen in South-Thames
pinken in NorthEnglish,
Thames English.The pret,Puhlewas soon disused,
pfAj*)hU
Mm l"ohteit seemed
its place
: he pohte he thought,'
tidting
'
'
to him.'
In Standard
ME
the
verbs
two
stillkept
were
ia4L
leek; sought;
ME
sohfe.
{s^ian),
Thames
1342.
ME
South- Thames
MnE
seken,bisiken. The
form
not
reach;
are
fore
there-
rdian, rdhte.
reghie.
OE
teach; tai^t.
OE
reaohed.
ra{u)ghU,Northern
rfchen,
1843.
from
Midland
beseeoh;
ME
which gradually
l^ren teach
^hen, /a(u)gh/e,
supplanted
'
OE
'=
Idran.
Invariable Verbs.
("")"
1844.
oast.
ME
cai/en
kastapi.In EarlyMnE
from
Scandinavian weak
there is also
kas/a,
regulaipret.casUd.
T,Goo(^lc
'3SJ.]
VERBS;
IRREGULAR.
403
(ai).
1340.
*dight adorn
'
(Milton).0"
dihlan
'
as
in sloried window
dight
richly
the Latin
'arrange,'
'appoint' from
dicldrt.
1846.
out.
1347.
Blint.
ME
kullm.
OE
siylian 'lock,''bolt'
{gaeol'shot,'
schtdtm.
'dart';tiiolan strongVII 'shoot'].ME sehUilen,
1348. thruBt
ME
prOsIm, prusUn from Scandinavian
prysfa,
let
1S40.
OE
Idten.
strong I Idtan,lit,
ME
leUn,pret.
of this weak
The
etc.
extended to the infin.,
pret was
obsolete verb kl hinder,'stillpreservedin the phrase kt or
'
is the OE
hindrance,
'
weak
with lat
connected
////on,
Ittte,
Blow,'laltadv. late.'
'
I860,
verb V
set.
OE
connected
sittan,sitli,
with
the strong
sitlan,
pret.sat.
I8S1.
shed.
OE
strong I siadan,stiadan,slid
'
separate,'
ME
watershed.
meaning still preserved in the noun
schfdenfonned a weak pret.schadde,schedde,and developed
the new
meaning 'separate into drops,''shed.' In MnE
a
of the pret.was
extended
to
the pres.,etc.,
in kl.
1888.
OE
Bbred.
siriadian,striadode.
ME-
schr^ert,
to the
pres., etc.
1863.
spread.
the
spradde,spredde,
extended
to the
sprddan, spradde. ME
spridtn,
short vowel of the pret.being afterwards
OE
tS"a54.
ACCIDENCE.
404
(W).
1864.
0"
borat
"eiorttm. In
is
forms
its
having
transposed,
Scandinavian verb
brtsia,brasi,
influenced the
heorsim,bursim, breslen,brusten
pret. barsl,
bras/; pret.parlic.
borsten,bursien,brotten,bruslen. The
:
Standard ME
forms
the earlierm,
on
afterwards extended
burslm
paitic.
1366.
ME
as
in bum
(1304),the
to
survived in
hurt.
The
brulm, brast,broskn.
are
of
tt
Upbeing
Strong pret
Early MnE.
AOr/en,hurUn.
(i)ME
1356.
hit.
1887.
knit.
OE
invariablepret-formis
etc.
in well-knil,
now
[ciw/ia
'knot'].The
'tie'
cnyHan
preservedonly as
Otherwise
find'
an
adjective
is regular
pret.-form
the
"
knilled.
ME
quit.
[he pret.was
extended
to the rest
of the verb.
The
tive
deriva-
requite
keeps its originallength,having a pret. panic
in Early MnE.
acguU is invariable in Early MuE
reqttil
All these verbs
1869.
rid.
are
ME
now
regular.
is apparently
a
blendingof
fighters'
Slit.
OE
'
redden,rUddtn, ridden
Strong VI
'
'
rescue,'
separate
hrjddan 'rescue'
OE
clear
away,'
sliiatt,
slat,sliten. ME
and
both strong sliten,
pret particsliten,
which may have existed in OE.
weak
has
verb ititten,
is
of which Early MnE
splette
splatlen,
made
to have been
probablya Northern form, spletseems
into
split
by the influenceof slit.
1861. eplit
ME
T,Googlc
(VOCALlC)
IRREGULAR
VERBS;
ii3fi8.]
405
(O).
oort.
1862.
ME
from Old
tKlm
French
coiUr
(Modem
French
1863.
put.
WE. pulltn.
Vxrbs.
Vocalic
(ai an),
Vowtl-ckange
.
1864.
bind; bound.
OE
1865.
find; found.
OE
strongIII bindan,hand,bundm.
in boundm duly.
The older pret.partic.
ia stillpreserved
strong III findan,/and
"
vtakfunde^^unden.
generally
grind; groond.
1866.
more
ME
OE
pret_/(6ii/,_/i"""aS?.
grand,
strong 111 grtndan,
OE
grunden.
1867.
The
wundm.
wound.
wind;
verb
wind
directfrom
the
winded
Early MnE.
sound
vhen
in
"
as
the
noun
wind, and
came
in to wind
to
The
in
be
horn
conjugatedweak
was
wind
noun
Early MnE
had
isolated from
he wound
the
pret.
same
(wsind);so that
it is in
as
pronounced (wind),
the
noun
kept the
wind
"
"
formed
was
and
older
ciated
asso-
strong preterite-form
lie horn.
Vowel-change
(ai
.
b),
OE strongVI s/rffan,
1868. strike ; Btruok.
time,sirtcen
'
ME
about,'' touch lightly.'
move
striken,
sirgk(Northern
striken. EarlyMnE
itrSk),
strike,
stroke,
struck,
pret.stroke,
struck.
stricken,
sirttcken,
pret partic.
T,GoogIe
40fi
[(1369.
ACCIDENCE.
Vmml-changt("
IS60.
hang;
").
OE
hung, hanged.
weakening of
eariier 'Asian),
hing, hangtn, the g
the k of the infin.,
where o=Gennanic
being
kon=Gtira"xac
also a weak
*hanhan.
There
was
that
(1206),so
an
intransitive
In Early
kangian,hangode,hon itselfbeing,used transitively.
the consonantal variation in the strong verb was
levelled: sometimes the infinitiveform was extended
ME
which
pret.partic.
made
was
kangm.
pret,ieng,pret.partic,
shortened
hing,which
into
an
the
In
the weak
formed,
some
which being an
fiengwith short close (e),
to
Unfamiliar sound
to
into {a)hdn
; but afterwards the
soon
in ME
was
made
into i.
T\As
pret.
new
Midland
made
was
dialects,
infin. in Northern by the analogyof the bind-class,
is frequentin some
afterwards made
its way
to
hpng parallel
into the
sgng
'
sang.'
A pret.partic.
hung was further developedon the analogyof
then extended to the pret.
sing,sang, sung, and hung was
Vowel-change
(i 9).
.
1970.
dig
to OE
dog, tdigged.
dician
modification by
ME
diggen,diggtdt,
lent
equiva-
of which
\dtc'ditch'],
it
seems
analogicalinfluence. The
some
to
be
vocalic
period
;
1871.
oling; olnng,
clungen 'wither,'
'
adhere,' hang,*
'
ME
OE
Si38a.]
{VOCALIC).
IRREGULAR
VERBS;
407
fling; flung. ME
vpigr\. fiirtgmwas,
of course,
made
strong
the
on
analogy
sh'ngtnfrom
Scandinavian
which passed through siengm into
sloitgva,
dingen, and then became strong in the same
way as fiing.
in the Bible,
The pret.slangoccurs
1S74.
slink; slunk.
1876.
spin
span is now
1376.
OE
'adhere.' OE
'pierce,'
'adhere.'
sticode 'pierce,'
{^Kocian),
s/oien
imprison,'which
pierce,'
'
verb,
pret.
obsolete.
siician
'
OE
; spun.
t/uei may
[likespoken
=
0'E
represent
an
OE
may
owe
strong V
ME
OE
sting ; stung.
1878.
keep the
MnE
noun
strong
s/ung.
1877.
formation from
spectfi]
-pig into
stringed
instruments.
1S78.
swing
1380.
win
OE
; won.
OE
; swung.
Strong HI
winnan
'
make
war,'
geminnan conquer,'gain.'
'
1381.
'
wring
OE
; wrung.
Vowel-change
(3
1382.
run
ran
Late
{eornan),
We
same
OE
run.
t).
gerann,
together,'
by the
two
gerunnen.
Scandinavian
The
ME
verb
was
influenced
r^nna,
the Standard ME
r/ndi,
forms
T,GoogIe
4o8
[% 1383.
ACCIDENCE.
Scandinavian :
being indeed entirely
Early Southern
The
forms
ininnen.
rtntitn, ran,
of the inGn.
t'rtun,
eomett,
are
rvK
itseems
a
most
of hum.
ence
Vowel-change
{i SB).
.
1383.
strong V
OE
sit; sat.
silien,
sat, selen and
ME
the ME
infin. From
j-verbsiilan,tat, teten.
silen
partic.
of the
MnE
came,
by
the verb
able.
invari-
obsolete MnE
1384.
spit; spat.
There
in OE
were
weak verbs of
two
both of
spilleand spdlan,spdlte,
meaning spiltan,
which were
kept in ME, where the pret.sp"tlebecame regu*
a mixture of
spH,spat is,therefore,
larlyspatle. The MnE
the
same
two
verbs.
distinct
Vmxl-change ^
1886.
begin; began;
begrm.
SB
OE
v).
strong YWheginnan,
shortened 'ginappears
onginnan,later aginnan. The MnE
earlyin ME ; the coexistence of risen and arisen no doubt
led to the shortening
ofaginneninto ginnen.
OE strong III ^rinc-off.
drank; dnmk.
ME
jective
drSnken survives in the adrfr""(l"i,
The OE pret.
partic.
drunken,the shortened form drunk being also used as
1386.
an
of
drink;
In
adjective.
began,etc.
"
was
MnE
the
use
of drank
more
formerly
as
frequent;
partic.as
"
but
also
the panic.
T,Goo(^le
1394.]
{VOCALIC).
IRREGULAR
VERBS!
409
Ting; rang;
OE
rung.
is apparently
{fi)ringan
weak.
1388.
shrinlc; shnmk;
1389.
sing;
1890.
sink
sang;
OE
song.
; sank
OE
shronk.
OE
; Bonk.
fullpret.partic.
is still
as
preserved
as in tunien
adjective,
an
rock.
1891.
1S83.
'rise'(said
of dust,vapour,
as
in wel'Slincmie
1398.
swim;
'
have
etc.),
'
swam;
Men
Men
good
or
bad odour,'
'
strongill swimmaa.
OE
swum.
(for)bld;-bad;
iiddan,had.
fragrant.'
Vowtl-change
^
1894.
OE strongIII f/ri"^itff.
OE
strong III slincan
is
strong V j-verb
strong VII biodan,Had,
OE
-bidden.
pray,' ask
'
'
i-n).
The corresponding
ME
forms
offer,'command.'
are
itdden,had, hfdenand" by the analogy of the infin.
hidden; hiden,b"d,h^en. But aheady in EarlyME the two
hidden in the specialsense
verbs began to be confused,
of
'
"
"
'
soon
'
announce
EarlyME
stillmore
'
"
we
itself connected
with heodan.
natural
to soften down
sense
Hence
even
in
of 'invited,' It was
the command
expressedby
hidden.
had
itself the
The
pret.
supplantedhjd by taking to
meaning
'commanded,' except in the emphaticforheden,which in
Standard ME
only rarelyhas the pret.forbad instead of
forma"
are the Standard ME
forh"d.The following
Boon
T,GoO(^lc
\S 1395.
ACCIDENCE.
4IO
; /orbfd(forbad)
; ferh"dm.
/orbiJen
the tian"don to Mn" the Jii/-fonnswere gradually
extended
tilltheyeotirely
supplantedthe others. The
forms had and badt is the
the two
that between
as
sat
(1266).In EarlyMnE
and saU
shortened
to
hid,which
the pret.partic.
oflen
was
that the
used also as a pret.,
so
was
verb became
the
same
relationbetween
invariable. The
In
Vawtl-changt
fij e).
.
bleed; bled.
1890.
OE
weak
0"
weak
hUdan
bUdie.
{b!adan),
hridan
bridde.
(brSdan),
[i/"/'
blood'].
1896.
; bred.
breed
[bradbrood '].
'
feed; fed. OE
1897.
vieak/idan
(/adan),yedde.
Ifoda
'food'].
1899.
OE
met.
meet;
OE
lead; led.
1898.
weak
mnbn
{m"lan) mllte.
\gemdt meeting'].
'
1400.
read
1401.
Bpeed
(rijd
; red). OE weak rddan,rdddt.
sped. OE weak ^idan {spadan),
spidde.
; read
;
Vowtl-ehange
^j
ij-n).
OE
dUm, pret.particekn.
being of
course
the
class.
same
due
to
ME
Vowtl-change
(ou
1408.
hold ; held,
at
OE
e).
kdldan ; klold;
strong1 healdatt,
T,Goo(^le
1408.]
(VOCAUC).
[flRECULAR
VERBS;
4II
We
hgldm; held,held,Mid; ihplden.
ME
gthealdm,gehSlden
Vowil-ehangi
{0
D-n).
/allan;
strong \ fiallart,
0"
1404.
failen.
fallen. lAE/alUn; /el,/el,jil;
/tallm,
fioll;
Vmoel-change(ai di
.
lie ;
1406.
; lain.
U7
The
the infin.liggm
forms
the
MnE
M"
j-verbHigan,lag,
developmentof
by
preserved
was
ihis
cg-verbs(1393).In
the side of
dialects it
in the North-Thames
but
ME
ei-n).
analogousto
Early Southern
(he imper. Ue;
strong V
OE
etc.
geUgen,imper.sing,ligt,
verb is
The
was
Standard
lein. In vulgar
Um, lai,pret.partic.
leien,
are
have
preterite-forms
led to the
completelevelling
this
change is
come;
weak
extension
in the
vowel
formation
new
nimen
take,'
nam,
'
infin. and
alous
anom-
exceptional
cam
on
nSmen.
the
supplanted
partially
by
was
the strongverb IV
underwent the usual lengthening
analogyof
cam
in MnE.
into came
Vowel-change
(i
.
1407.
pres. and
b),
of the vowel
ewom,c5m;
cuman;
0"
come.
came;
ei
give ;
gave
given.
ei
i-n).
gie/an,gyfan,gefan,
OE
gtofan; geaf,
gaf; gic/en,
gy/en,
gcfm.
Vmuel-change
(ai
.
1408.
and
'
make
OE
i).
weak lihlan,lihk
'
'
minate
illu-
'
colour' and
verb
must
had
from
weak
'
lighlin l^ht
course,
appear
period,when
The
imitation of 6i",bil,etc.
t| 1409.
ACCIDENCE.
412
verb
which
infiexion,
verb
antal
conson-
tillligJii
it
arose
alighistilt keeps
is also used
in the
other verbs.
Vowel-ehangt
(fu
1409.
Wte;
bit; bitten.
OE
ME
"
oliide; ohid;
i-n),
strong VI
shortened pret.partic.
is stillkeptm
1410.
the
The
OE
obidden.
SUan.
weak
iidan,HJde.
The
the
was
pret.partic.
The
pret
verb is
to
English.
bide, bid, bidden is a strongverb of^milar recent
to have developed
formation,except that it does not seem
1411.
any pret.analt^us
ME hiden,hidde.
to
EarlyMnE
chode : 0"
(j
i
Vowel-change
1413.
ij
OE
ipdan,hydde,
ij-n).
ilaien.
Vowel-change
(tu o).
.
1413.
sbine ; shone.
OE
(e
Vowel-change
o-n).
In OE the
(for)get; fin-got; forgotten, got
gy/an,getan; geat,gal; gietm, gyien,
strong V verb gitlan,
only in the compounds begittan'get,'ongielan
geten occurs
and a few others. In ME
'andeiht"ad,'
/orgie/an'forget'
1414.
T,GoogIe
t I4JO.]
shortened
was
b^iUn,begtten
of the Scandinavian
the Scandinavian
{VOCALIC.)
IRREGULAR
VERBS;
word
to
fluence
in-
or rather
geta,gat,gtiinn get,'
'
substitutedfor it.
was
OE
trod; trodden.
strong V. Iredan,
ME
trad,trfdenand
trfden,
by the analogy
tread;
141S.
trad, trtdm,
"
treden.
Irgden,
of broken,etc.
"
Vmml-change(ij
.
lUfl.
o-n).
OE
413
which
adjective,
into
verb with
used
a
as
an
pret.paitic.
Vowel-change
(uw
Bhoot; shot.
1417'
Standard ME
schuten in
o).
schoten. There
schelen,
schjl,
ME, whose
which
(1487),
OE
is also
(uu)and
afterwards became
an
in choost
written
was
infin.
00
in
Early MnK
Vowel-change
(ai
.
olimb; tolomb,
1418.
man,
clamm, clummen
and
ou).
OE
climbed.
(ai
Vowel-change
.
oa
i-n).
1410.
OE
bided.
strong VI
bidan
dbidan 'endure.' ME
'wait,'
weak
pret.abtdde,
strong VI
drtfan. Like the other verbs of this series drive had in MnE
which was extended to the pret.
a curtailedpret.
(driv),
partic.
1420.
It was
not
much
used in
driven.
OE
T,GoogIe
ACCIDENCE,
414
(i
USL
OE
tiid.
14)1.
strong VI
ridait.
(s)riae;nwe;
1432.
MnE
The
OE
ziMO.
pretcrite-Ibnn
(ris)was
beoune
there
no
was
Etrong VI
mnch
not
convenient
used
trf
wa;
{al^nsoM.
in
writiiig
ezpFCSsiDg its
sonad.
USS.
VI
tMfan
'
0"
strong
decree.'
cmite; amote;
1434.
; ahriTen.
0"
""'*ti"
strong VI
tmiian
'smear.'
1436.
1426.
attire
; atzors
ttriven,which
ilr^f,
Low-Gennan
of
analog}'
1437.
ME
; atriTsn.
is the Old
'
into
ttridan.
strong VI
atriver
French
stri^ strife']made
OE
sirivat,
[from Old
on
the
driven from
the
strong verb
driveM.
thriTB
; fhrore
ME
; thriven.
VI
written, fwrit. OE
strcm^
uir"an.
Voaxl-change(ei
.
1430.
wake
0"
woke, waked.
on).
awacan.
compounded with on- "onwaean,
generally
keep awake
{on)wacanand the weak a{wacnian),wacian
waem,
'
'
are
intransitive.
The
corresponding transitive
verb
is
(uw)in
numerous
1480.
in MnE
the MnE
vnke is
probablydue
to
of the shine-class
preterites
rose, etc.
"
atave
from
the
This
Btore, staved.
slave
noun
'
verb
pieceof
was
first formed
cask,'itselfa late
course
the result of
analogy.
Vowel-change (ei
.
1481.
break;
broke,
OU
ou-n).
tbrate; Invken,
tbrtdce.
OE
n,r,i,7P"iT,Got)'^
1439.]
(VOCALIC).
IRREGULAR
VEUSS;
Virwel-change
(ij
.
freese; frose;
1432.
oa
415
ou-n).
strong VII
OE
fi-onn, tfrore
/rlosan,/rias,/rorm.
148S.
hove, heaved;
heave;
OE
of the infin.,
while
ME
kehbin,hpm
due
being
due
fiaf,
hgvenare
to
to
the influence
the influence
of vfvm,
1484.
OK
spoken, tapoke.
OE
1436.
on
the
sUlan,}tal,
s,\ion%lM
stolen.
1436.
weave;
strong V
wove,
weaved;
we/an,wctf,wtfm.
ME
Vowel-change
(uw
weaved.
woven,
OE
nifven,waf, tt^en,wgven.
on
ou-n).
Midland
of OE
which
In
became
Early MnE
(t/iuz)
(ifuuz),
written phonetically
choose,althoughthe older
ehuse survived
spelling
also
occurs
regularWest-Midland change
in
EarlyMnE.
Vowel-change
(ai o).
.
1488.
flght; fought.
feaht{faht); fohlen.
pret.Early MnE
ME
OE
figUen,faugh/,foughitn.In the
fluctuatesbetween
Vowel-change
(e9
1189^
and
au
ou.
3-n).
born(e). OE
stiong IV
T,GoogIe
4l6
btran,bar, boren, Mn"
the
ACCIDENCE.
of French
sense
existin OE
1440.
makes
distinctionbetween
1440.
bom
which
in
did not
M";
or
swear;
i-swsre;
swore,
strong j-
OE
sworn.
sivSr ;
; swor,
su^reiu
is,of
swar
course,
dne
to
the
1442.
wesr;
tware;
wore,
alrong IV
0"
EarlyMn"
Late
ME
from Dutch?]was
/raughten[imported
made
into
new
wrought, etc.
MnE
o).
The
the
firstdeveloped
were
weak verb
wpian,
Vowel-change
(ei
1449.
weak
OE
worn.
fernn.
be
to
freighiby
the pret of
association with vwk,
regardedas
vague
But fraughtwas
stillused
good ship
and
pres. in Early
the fraughUng touts within her
as
(Shakespere).
Vowel-chat^t
(i"
.
1444.
shear;
OE
i-sheared.
tshore,
strong IV
tshare,
0-n).
sheared;
slunn,
siear
{siar);
(tieran);
seieran
siertn.
Vowel-charge
(i
j
1446.
sawon
see;
saw;
sewen
(slgoti);
ij-n).
seen.
adjective
^m/ot= West-Saxon
pret, partic. Early ME
^"jw" 'visible'was
seon,
sen;
seih
used
as
the
sah,
(Southern),
sein. In Late
sauh pret.plur.s^wen,uien ; pret.partic.
seien,
ME
die pret.sing,forms droppedthe k by the influence of
the pret.plur.and
last bemg
the
T,Goo(^le
I45I.]
[VOCALIC).
IHKECULAR
VERBS;
417
of sin.
The
Standard
J"(")
; seigh,
sat; (i)mn. In
are
and
saw
pret particseen
MnE
inflections
the Northern
inUoduced
were
ME
preL
preL
dialect.
Vowel-change
(ae
,
0"
Btand; stood.
1446.
u).
strong II with
sfandan,stdd,standen.
Vowel-ciatige
(ei
.
ei-n),
'
OE
shaken.
strong II
1448.
shake; shook;
1440.
strong II
OE
1447.
this verb
inserted in
s^aran.
strong lliiien,
laka,tok,ifkinn. In Northern
Vowel-change
(ai
.
1460-
pgan)
uw
ou-n).
OE
filag,
fieah{Jleh)
; Jlugon
; fiogen. ME
the same
fieigh,fiey"yit\i
droppingof final^
as
flen,
pen
in j"'=OE
of pret.partic);
gesah"fiy;pret.^j.fiowen,fl^wm(influence
(fliu)
probably
pret.partic/[^rti. The EarlyMnE pret._/frtf
arose
in the
same
way
as
Vowel-change
(ei
.
uw
ei-n).
OE
slay; slew; slain.
strong II sUan (from
Southern
slog,sloh; slagen,slagen, slggen. ME
sUahafi);
1461-
slfn.Midland
sl"n.Northern
sloh.Late ME slough,slow
slain. In MnE, the ai of
; pret.particslawen,sleita,
=(sluu)
and the ow of the
the pret.particwas extended to the infin.,
pret. underwent
the usual
sld ;
analogical
change into
ew.
The
T,GoogIe
4l8
ACCIDENCE.
sUe
archaic fomiB
[( 1451.
MnE.
Vowelnhange(ou
UBS.
nw
ou-n).
OE
blown, blowed.
strong I
blSwtn and iidwan
bloom,'
(ofwind),ileoio,
blow
blew
'
'
M"
MeBto,bldwtn.
blowen, blew,
blowtn,
1463.
orow;
strong I
crowed;
orew,
crawan,
criow,
grow;
grew;
1454.
grdwm.
14BS.
know;
-j-orown,
crowed.
OE
crSwtn.
OE
grown.
strong I grdwan,
greoK,
cniow,
knew;
cndwm.
Vowel-changt
{a
1466.
draw;
drog,drbh
There
panic, in
-fit
old
are
with
o-n).
strong II dragon;
Verbs.
which
have
regularconsonantal
strong pret.
pret.
Some
of
ihey happen to
nw
OE
several verbs
consonantal ;
the panic,ending -en
which
dragen.
1467.
are
drawn.
drew;
Mixed
these
strong I enSwan,
OE
known.
go;
went;
resemble.
In the
listthe
following
X.
gone.
OE
dialect. The
tailed
cur-
^o=OE
1469.
agon
grave,
'
'
passed (oftime).
graved;
graven,
graved.
OE
strong II
gra/an,grbf,gra/en.
1460.
hew;
hewed;
hewn,
hewed.
heow, heawin.
T,Goo(^le
i47".]
1461.
tladd, load;
Mn"
laden
OE
well
as
Ji//yAi(/('n^
loadstar
'
leading,'way
(fern.)
ISd
'
'
connected
"
"
"
l-laded,
laden,
change of
slilipreserved
in
419
tladed, loaded;
0"
tlooden, loaded.
The
MIXED.
VEKBS;
with
"
in the pret.panic-
as
load,ME
noun
lSdt=
meaning stillpreservedin
which
'lead,'
ladan
being
had
also the
was
melt ; melted
1462.
molten is
melton,
1468.
mSwan,
meow,
Mn"
II
In
adjective.
an
strong I
OE
mowed.
; mown,
ME
the Scandinavian
ri/a.
; Bswed
Bawed.
; Bswn,
by the analogyof
sawn
1466.
only as
strong III
laavjen,
riven from
1466.
used
now
OE
molten, melted.
; mowed
mow
1464.
r^,
shape
shaped
strong VI riven,
ME
weak
taui{i)en.
drawn.
shapen, shaped.
OE
strong
j-verbsiicppan,siyppan [sifppan)
; stop; siapen,siapen.
ME
this verb was
rather supplanted by
influenced
or
"
"
shave
skapa,sk^.
; shaved
strong II
OE
shaven, shaved.
siof,
siafen.
siafan,
Jahow;
1468.
showed;
steawian, siiawode
sc^wien. Northern
'
shown,
survey,'look
'
shown
1469.
sow;
sowed;
at.'
Early MnE
schaw.
sown,
OE
showed.
weak
sc^ii(i)eH,
ME
shew
and
shim.
etc.
sowed.
OE
strong1 jowon,
'
stow,
sawen.
1470.
{strew
; strewed
slrgwian,stremotan,
ME
OE
strewn, strewed.
strewen,sirgwen, strawen.
weak
strewn
oiAeivn.
by tbe,anatogy
1471.
III
swell; swelled;
swollen,
swelled.
0"
strong
T,GoogIe
ACCTDES'CE.
Isolated Forms.
1472. Some
obsolete verbs
ariym
occur
isolatedfonns,
wont.
namelyquolh,
highl,
iclepi,
1475.
qooth.
OE
strong V
gfcwedm aay.'In ME
nutpan,cwap, cwiidon,
'
of the infin.
;
ewipen,caiap,icwepm; so also
keptthroughout
which in Mn"
is consonantal bihicwepm 'bequeath,'
In Late ME the simple
used
discwtpenwas gradually
quealhed.
exceptin the pret.sing.As cwaP nas often unstressed
in such combinations as cwaP -he,
it developed
form
a weak
the regular
of unstressed a into
cwod,quodthrough
rounding
6s7i)old=ext\\^i
Oswald.
0 afler a lip-consonant,
as in OE
The explanation
of the rfis that cwap hi etc. were made into
was
"
"
'
'
of the same
the active pret.
verb kalan.
iolept" ME
'
'
correct
(went).
Akomalous
1477.
are
old
Verbs.
verbs that we
preteritepresent verbs.
Two
classas anomalous
of these
preterite-
T,Goo(^le
present verbs
made
dare
"
and
owe
OE
431
dtarr,Sg
have been
"
of
inflections
regularin certain meanings. The original
havingonly the
The
ANOMALOUS.
VEKBS;
'479-]
only
of them
most
which
one
curtailed in MnE,
much
has
infin. is dare,which
an
preterite.
the old
to
seems
Two
of
verbs
muil and ought occur
now
preterite-present
forma, which have taken the place
onlyin the OE preterite
"
of the OE
of
presentmol and
ag,
"
so
1478.
pres. and
pret.
Englishthe preterite-present
have,do, are
the
able
incap-
are
verbs 6e,
only ones
joined
instead of with the helpof an auxiliary
them directly
verb,
in /(ra""o/(kaant)
compared wilh / da nai see, the nc/ being
to
as
shortened
oflen
(nt),
to
forms,which
147S.
weak
OE
confounded
the MnE
( ).
0"
can,
plur.cunnm
verbs
will put in
we
with
cunnan
'
know
'
know.'
which
'try,'
'
from this
canst,
cann,
There
must
is
be
not
cunm'an
comes
now
is
peruse,'study,'which, being unfamiliar,
pronouncedartificially
(kon)instead of the correct (ken).
ME
eoude is
'
'
con
coude
couj"e,
; infin.cSniun.
participle-adjective
cinninge seems
to
have
into
The
been
is
no
kunnandi '
pres. partic.
liann ' knows,' infin.kuana.
The
and
from ibis
adj.
"
kuntiandi
the Scandinavian
adjective
from
knowing,' sagacious,'
doubt
'
Scandinavian
(fem.)knowledge
'
noun
'
"
was
formed
also in-
ACCIDENCE.
433
troduced into MnE,
dialect.
beingmade
In the transition
[( 1480.
into cSnmnge in the Standard
to Mn"
into could
wolde.
the
on
analogy of
the weak
in
entirely
it was
Early MnE
made
and Tt"DuId=OE
should
The
eoude
shortened
siolde,
when
stressed,
un-
like the
which preventedit from being diphthongized
(uu)in houtt ; and the (1)of all three verbs was dropped in
their weak forms, so
(kud).At
the weak
and
(kold)
two
the
the
time
same
meaning
SpokenEnglishforms
negativeforms, are
kaen
The
"
kudnt
(ksd),
suppliedby
are
be able
dtarr,dearst,durron; dorste;ME
probable0"
from
'
dar.
'
ihe
challengehas
The
MnE
In
become
intransitivepres.
in the
dare
quiteregular:
panic,daring is
pret.durst is littleused
The
/ durst
where the literary
not
infin.-
rfor,tiSr (as
; can
dare, darest,
OE
dare.
; kud
of this verb
defective forms
1480.
and
kaant
(ksn),
do it t; I shall
you
of OE
represents
tion
new-forma-
transitive sense
he dared him
only as
used
in the
to do
an
of
it.
tive.
adjec-
spoken language,
him is represented
interrupt
by
him.
/ did not dare to interrupt
quent
frepres. dare ia most
'
in the phrase/ dare sqy=' I think,' it is probable.'
1481.
meahl
'
mar,
might, might"t.
OE
inc^, }m
mihl,plur.magon;
{nuehi),
be able.'
The
mayst;
The
ME
\Qx"jd^^k
magen,
forms
mihle
pret.meahte {m"Ehte]
meaht, miht 'power,''force.']
to have been
seem
influenced by another OE
'
"
T,Goo(^le
1484.]
443
mawen,
as a
ANOMALOUS.
VERBS;
moun
meaningof the
verb
in MnE
developed
The SpokenEnglish
forms
permission.'
mei,meint
I46S. -tmote
"
mait,maitnt.
0"
(muut);must.
"
'
'
'
'
'
"
'
'
'
at,3tnt.
[( 1485.
ACCIDENCE.
4*4
In Northern, weak
sh became t, as
schitkri).
in Itiglis=
English [compareScotch Scots from ScoiiisX},
whence the Northern (originally
only weak) forms sal,said.
Of the
weak
Early MnE
two
fonns
are;"
Jaant; Jud(Jwl),
Judnt.
Jsel
(Jl),
will,wilt
1486.
verb
in OE
was
which
would, woilldtot;imper,will.
This
with
a strong subjunctive
originally
preterite,
pres. indie,forms
afterwards mixed
were
wilt,willap; wolde,walde
weak ?);
(originally
wile,wille,
infin. wiUan.
In OE
precedingw
One
nolde,etc.
the
'
not
of these
'
ii
hi nyk, "minyllap
pu nylt,
nyle,
;
negativeforms
phrasewillyniUy,Early MnE
he,nylehe.
The
ME
forms
are
is stillpreservedin
mile
wile,wHle,will,
wSlt,willefi,
at
vowel
MnE
forms
and
the
the weak
form
of
rounded
graduallyassimilated
(wud) was
are
forms, in which
it to
the following
itself. In
(wuEd). The
Early
spoken
"
wil
1486.
twot
wiknde.
The
of this verb.
(1),
wount;
; twist.
wud
OE
(wad,ad),wudnt.
wSt,wast, wiion
'
adjective
gewiss certain
'
ME
is an
'
; wiste ; witan ;
old pret.partic.
wittingly,
un-
phraseto wif=vii.
T,Goo(^le
VBJ/JiS; ANOMALOUS.
i I*"".]
The ME
nt"t*"OE
adjective
4"5
"ewisshas
in MdE
been often
wronglydivided
wit,as if itwere
to
wissen.
aiwot,namelyweiss,
plur.
equivalent
which
"
to have
"
seems
is apparently
that of the
s
verbs;but the absence of the inflectional
preterite-present
due to the verb need requirebeingformed directly
is partly
the ambiguity
need through
of such sentences
from the noun
as
EarlyMnE uj?iaineed all this waste? There were two
'
'
noun
in OE
medan, nydan
"
'
'
do.
1488.
roots ;
The
verb be in OE
that seen
is made
up of three distinct
in (a)
be :
was, and (c)
ij, are, (S)
"
4"6
1480.
The
ta
weakening of
ta
to
in tart
in
preserved
(lOeS),
the West-Saxon
The
ME
Standard
is
earon
forms
are:
am,
a :
am,
art, is,
torn
In I,ateNoithumbrian
and
[( 1489.
ACCtDBNCB.
this
arp,
Si(n);
subj.pret.wtre, wirt,wire;
bttn. The
partic.
being,
kept up in Early MnE
form
use
:
is,however, very
he bts
infin.ie;
There
rare.
is in
MnE
inflections
tendencyto get rid of the distinctively
subjunctive
of this verb not only by using thou bttst as if it were
a
tuting
subjunctiveif thou bttst if thou he but also by substi=
"
if I
was
for if I were,
"
etc,
was
were
was
frequent
pres. is,on
except in
only as
few
phrases. The
spokenlanguage,
the inflections
are
following
of be in spoken English
:
T,Goo(^le
M93.]
ANOMALOUS.
VERBS;
Imper.and
Infin.
427
bij
bijiij
Fret. Paitic.
bijn,bin
The
The
have.
OE
inflections resemble
those
of
hahbap ;
(1210): hahbe,hafqsl,
ha/sl,
hafap,ha/p,plur.
subj. hmbbe, hahbtn; pret fusfde;imper. hafa, hahbap;
libban
infin. habban;
hehaven.
MnE
The
are:
inhn.
In
(Shakespere).
only in vulgaror
ha, a=M"
Present
han:
she
mtgkl
been
very
distinctive
"
The
distinction between
1468.
gedon. The
(sd,d),
lost.
subj.and indie,is entirely
0"
do.
pret. weak
heed
mutation
in
dialects. In Standard ME
dest,dip is
the
common
to
all the
verb
428
[(1494.
ACCIDENCE.
the EarlyMoE
etc.
supplanted
strongforms fduust),
are t
spokenforms in Present English
duw
d),dount ;
{d",
dcz
deznt ; did,didnt ;
(dsz),
The
den.
PARTICLES.
All the 0"
1404.
ei^er prunary
are
or
particles
formed
are
(387).The seconduy particles
"econdar;
from other
iode Mm
h3m
*
partsof speech;thus
(declinable)
ham
masc.
'he went
such
'home,''homestead.' Primary
particles,
raid
hy,'
There
'
is
so
'
not
are
strictdivisionbetween
no
in he
noon
as
6e
speech.
'
floodcame.'
1406.
such
such
as
as
oomponnd
derivativa,
{group-compounds),
'
'
AdTerb-endingB.
1486. In
a
beinggenerally
changedto a :
by adding-e, a preceding
hearde 'strongly,'
neanoe
'severely,'
'deeply,'
'narrowly,'
diope
'wilh
late'slowly,'
from diop,
heard 'hard,'
delay'
'strong,'
'
'
'
obsolete
such
T,Goo^le
as
141)8.]
PARTICLES
; ADVERB-ENDIh'CS.
449
with
Swipfmn Swithin,'
literally
SIrong cub,' Adjectives
'
'
an
as in sdfu gently,'
suiS/e sweetly'
responding
coradvei'b,
luxuriously,'
to the adjectives
swete
se/ie(scefie),
(suxiie).
'
The
'
'
ME
it was
'
'
where it
dialect,
in diply,
hardfy,
[( 1499.
ACCIDENCE.
430
adverbs in
"
"
were
[Modem
vend
French
such
Mn"
clot from
verrai
adverbs
Latin
as
in
clausum\,
Old
'true,''tnily,'
vr"a\ from
Latin
virax,
veracem.
In Present
in
manner,
formed
Some
friendlyway.
direct from
nouns,
such
daify,
yearly,quarterlyin
as
used
adjectives
A
which
less
as
MnE
is
were
-lyare
paid quarterlyare
old
adverbs.
frequentadverb-endingId
adverbs
in
as
he
adverbs
formed
from
OE
-inga,by
adjectives:eailunga'ca^MtA'j'
was
-unga,
from eail,ierre.
also in OE
There was
ierringa 'angrily,'
formed from nouns-^mostly names
of parts
a class of adverbs
of the body
the prepositicm
by adding -Hng and prefixing
as
on
bacling 'backwards.'
OH, such
By blending these two
endings a new ending -lunga,-Unga was formed, as in grundthe foundations,''completely.'
In
ME
the
lunga 'from
ending -lings is frequent,the adverbial -es (1601) being often
'
'on the nosCt'
added, as in hfdlinge(s)
headlong,'nffselinge(i)
this ending
'at full length,'sidelinge(s)
'sideways.' In MnE
in Early
has been confused with the adjective
long. Hence
find sideling,
MnE
we
sidelong^s\Avfra.y%,'
falling axiAflatlong;,
in
the
blow
that
as
is, was
fellflatlong,
given with the flat of
"
'
PARTICLES;
I5"3-]
ADVERBS.
431
In Present Englishheadiong
the sword iostead of the point.'
is still
an
an adjective
a sidelimg.
adverb,j'j(/"/i"t^
being
glance.
The older sidelinge
and
was
regardedas a pres. partic, from
it was foimed a verb to sidle {upto). So also the ME adverb
made into the verb ^ot/*/.
was
'grovellingly'
grdvelinge
"
In ME
ISOL
out of
OE
and MnE
some
arose
adverb-endings
new
adverbialphrases.
Thus the OE
'in another
oprewlsan
on
fem. 'manner,'
'way']was
oPreTtase,
dPtrunse;
such as
adverbs,
and -it/qyswere
often
-wise,
in Iengtkwise=
coastwise.
as
confused,
endwise,
lengthways,
The
-s.
nouns
have alsocome
fem.Aim/ time,'
'
to be used
and strong
Uma
masc.
adverb-endings
as meantime,
someh'me(s),
ofttimes,
Centimes,
the lasttwo beingnow
meamehiU,somewhile,
otherwfiile{s),
as
in such words
obsolete.
Adverbs
formed
direct ftom
Nouns
and
AdJeotlTeB.
'
'
1603.
'
kwilum
-nm:
stundum
'sometimes,'
-md!um
strongfem. period'].
\slund
'
(HtW
'at intervals'
from the
neut. noun
adverb-ending,
as
'mark,'pointof time' is a frequent
'
From
styiiemdlum
piecemeal,'
fioccmMum in troops.'
and lyllum by
are formed milium
greatly,'
lyilum
adjectives
in
'
'
'
'
and
little
little,'
by degrees.'
'
in the
still
preserved
The
isolatedME
-mAlum
higher
language.
wKlSm
in M"
is
passed
D,g,i,7?"iT,
[( 1J04.
ACCIDBKCE.
432
in OE
-68
extended
was
ending: dtegesand
nihiei
'
fem.
to
nouns
as
an
adverb-
sumeres
by day and by night,'
medes
\winiramasc
gen. like simd\,
{lUs 'otherwise'
\med fem.];talks 'entirely,'
winira
of
'
and
'
necessity
from
lost
nninflected -weard,as
hamweard(es)homewards.'
this endingwas
words, as
dropped in some
and Mn"
M"
Late ME
which
to adverbs
especially
order to make
them
in OE
ended
-*,
OE
fiviwa,priwa.
Late ME
Panon
'
vowel
or
n, in
the mutated
isw,
heonont 'hence'
thence,'hwanon
(1608)
by the addition of
'
'
whence
becoming
Jxnnes,whmnts
twice,'
^rits
'
twits
an,
and
henaes,OE
in
as in ii^oq"'^=
distinct,
EarlyMn"
more
in
oflen extended,
more
ahoai, OE
'thrice'=OE
In
'
So also
sin into
iippan (IKU) 'since' passed through sipfitn,
OE
of
-s
went
in MnE
on
somttimt,which
also,as
is stillpreserved
higherlanguage.
adverbs in
Some
-es
took final t in
Early MnE
or
Late
ME,
a blending
amidst,betwixt,whilst,
amongst'^ME. amiddes
and
tdmiddes
of OE onmiddan
bttwix{t),
ivhilts,
amgng.
as
in
"
"
1605-
The
are
following
examplesof OE group-adverba
on
gtorsfandag 'yesterday,'
ealneweg,ealrug 'always,'
weg
away,'on hac backwards,' back,'ofdine down,' literally
where to governs an exceptional
'off the hill,'
toda^ 'today,'
'
'
or
'
'
show
isolation either of
on
collocations,
as
ii/e'alive'
on
'in life,'
on
on
slApe 'in sleep,asleep,'
literally
earnest'show
In ME
there
no
was
isolationeither of meaiung
to shorten weak
a tendency
or
tornost
But
form.
0/ and
'in
on
to
1508.]
whenever
word.
ADVERBS.
PARTICLES;
associatedwith
closely
theywere
Hence
433
the ME
fomis
adutu,adun
the
following
'down' adv.,
the a having
in the
been dropped
awai,ahak,atwi,aslipe,
MnE adverbs doitm,
back. The same
took place
weakening
in ME
and
in aclock,
as
now
EarlyMnE combinations,
written o'el"Kk=of(lhe)
and also in freercombinations,
clock,
in go a fishing
OE gStton fisinoji,
twice a day= OE
a"
=
/wiwa
d^t.
on
In MnE
this a
was
MnE
a^arl,apos^
apace.
In ME
1606.
the OE
he became bi (1686),
but
prepodlion
keptin compoundssuch as be/orenOE be=
'
'
because.
1607. In ME
and MnE
the
was
preposition
as in n/
clear,
Among
I.
when
the
ending
Adverbs.
the OE
group of
VOL.
even
unawares,
Fronomjnal
1608.
added
"
tiijog.
ACCIDENCE,
434
respectively
hival,their endingsexpressing
pronouns he,J"at,
rest,motion to,and motion from :
"
Motion
Rest
A/r'here'
AiiaSw'hither
'
The
ME
'
kadder
'
where
'
pantm
'
whither
from
A^immmi 'hence'
'thither'
^(rfrfr
pAr^thtn'
kwAr
Motion
to
'
to
'thence'
AwaMcn
'
'
whence
(877).
The
1609.
ending
has
adverbs
no
'
uf-an
above
the other
primaiy
'
pressing
exmeaning : of-er lyiiKil
and rest,und-er,afl-er
; inn-an
with o/ir],
hindan
[connected
in front.' The
'
of
-on
-an,
definite
very
both motion
'
-tr,
ending -an
'
'
within,'
beliind,'
/bran
however, extended
was,
to
the
noun-derived adverbs
meaning ;
"on,
'
-an
'outside.' The
fuonone,ulan{e)
'when'
Many OE
1610.
The
in MnE:
'
he
adverbs
neuter
as
nouns.
pro-
conjunctionexactlyas
sagdeJ"at; he scegde
Jialhi wdre gearu, literally
he said that :
(namely)he
same
ready.' So
was
as
way
whether.
The
able
indeclin-
pe is used
combination
is used
pal
from
directly
formed
are
also pronominal.
are
as
'
'
of meanings
It is also
etc.
when,' because
variety
them
into conjunctions,
to make
mark
added to particles
or
them more
as such,as \a}"cah-Pe although'
distinctly
conjunca
'
"
'
'
'
'that conj.=/"//"
t]on,/ieahthough'beingan adverb,/"'//e
(767). Inflected
also used
are
pronouns
and
because,'
ma
more
'
the
to
stress
The
and
measure
more,'correlativepy
ihe merrier.
loss of
express
Py=
as
sense
particles,
ly,
of therefore,'
'
as
proportion,
MnE
change of py into
Ihe
...
in
/y
the ia the
T,Goo(^le
jijij.]
PARTICLES
ADVERBS.
455
of its Mn"
sense
dant
descen-
why.
There
1611a
are
governinga
preposition
pronoun
The
prepoHtionalone generallyforms an
sponding
adverb"^/^wP"m, for Jim, for Jy therefore '"the correcombination
with
of
consisting
in OE
group-particles
many
the
'
conjunctionsbeing formed
/or ^am
'
pat
'
after
'
pai
or
"
18X2.
such
adjectives,
when'
similar
are
because,'ar
:
to
Pom
pe
as
\pd kimit
shorteningof the
and
nouns
pa kwtk
I.
combi-
adverbs formed
from
'the time
Pe 'while,'literally
'nevertheless,'
by-thatless,'
py las pe lest,'
nS py
sing,],
fem.
ace.
preposition
-^p'
obsolete
an
formed by
group-particles
with
of pronouns
nUions
'
pe
'
"
in order that.'
sippan,leoppan
'
'
before,'
a/lerpSm
'
by the addition of A
not
literally
notwithstanding,'
'
las
'
'
literally
by-thatless that.'
continued
1618. The group-adverbs
_/%r-^i,_/V-/fl",_/"r-^iM
in
use
throughoutthe ME
MnE.
The
groups
in
period,but became
modified
-pe were
obsolete in
in various ways.
the new-formations
But
before-pat.
til-pat,
ME
were
the pronouns
dropped, so
in the Earliest
even
tions
preposi-
used as
as
_/tr,gr, beforeetc. were
conjunctions,
MnE, this shorteningbeing helped by the fact that even
OE
the
""r
prepositions
'
before
'
and
butan
'
without
in
in
'
were
'
hivSe, whence
higherlanguage.
Ffs
OE
py las Pe
43*5
dropped the Py
in
OE
correlative
stvd,as in twd
pa,Pomu
ii ' when
Aunt
potmt
he came,
'
Fartioles.
swa
'
sww
(1146) with
form of the OE
Pa, ponnt
was
^" A"
"
pa eodt
cam,
ase,
OE
formed
are
as
swa
"
preservedin
were
as,
...
the
alswp being a
so.'
group eall-swd 'entirely
of the members
was
one
snow' ; pS.
correlative swa
groups
.
of the OE pd.
as
Indefinite adverbs
the firsttwo
aweak
strong,as(e)
in
as
'
form of /"
white
as
when
Ifilfi. In ME
into ii
made
was
are :"/...
particles
^ (1610)
; swA
then
s^
kite,lest.
Oorrelatire
1514.
and
Early Mn",
givingUkiU, shortened
(767}"
rt1514.
ACCIDENCE.
and MnE
equivalents
being omitted.
So also
iaiiir
swa
swa
Pronominal
In OE
1S16.
the neuter
wifr sS in ME.
as
appears
Oonjnnotlons.
Super, nSuper, agPer
pronouns
in connection with
(1140,IISS) are often used adverbially
the correlative conjunction-pairs
and,'
ge
gi both
'neither
nor,'
or,' m
ne
eppe
oppe 'either
'
standingin
kind of
oppositionto
them
Ate
cupon agper,
'be who
Ak
'
ne
is afflictedeither-way,
either in mind
ciiponnan-pingyfeles,
ndPer ne
theyknew
on
or
sprAleru
in
on
body';
weorct
in
action.'
1817.
In
dropped in
Early ME
such
T,Goo(^le
1518.]
NEGATION.
437
was
OE
tion,
.
PARTICLES
being made
ne
etc, : wgiw
(1166)
.ru
rt"Pernt
pronoun
the second
into
n^per
conjuncne,
ndPtr
tie on
werke. The original
spee/te
supplantedthe second conjunctionas
afterwards
on
liable
shortening,
to
whence
"
in the
be used without any correlative,
as
mihle ridm "Jierggn.
The correlativebolk
.
same
an
OE
him
eac
in such
seen
and
gtnirtde,
either
as
way
etc.,the
or
construction
and
arose
beginningof
^
as
EarlyMn"
he
in
It being
he hie
geseoJ",J"al
both
He lif,
theysee
forgtaf
'
(neutsing.)
to
the
eternal
life.'
Aifiimatioii.
ITegation and
1518.
vowel in
by
made
The
in OE
negativeparticle
some
combinations before
vowel, these
consonants
eom
'
noMe.
Some
forms, such
'
am
pronouns
as
'
nan
nahi,nawihi,noht
a
(owiht),
'
neom
ever.'
'
vowel,or A
'
ne
dorste nan
sentence
not,'na/p, nis/de,
not, nyste,nyh,
and
adverbs
addition to the
similar negative
have
'
none,'ndAwtsper,nauper neither,'
nawihl,
nd
nothing,'
In
'
sentences
ping dscian
not
followed
'
not
the
'
ne
does
and
being contracted with it if possible,
in the sentence
or
dropsits
negativeforms
is ne, which
'no-one
forms:
negative
durst ask
n"n
If the
anything.'
verb,the stronger nd
negatived
or
negativesin
nah/ is added
438
ACCIDENCE.
In
M"
hi t^ver widdt
the usage
pmt kus
is often the
hoping. But
n"
same
the we^
ftM
'
the
ia'OE
as
of
fcmn
IS19.
nSxoiht,
of
strengthening
namely ttcU,not (1147)from being;a mere
the nt, began to supplantit,as in to me schi wifi not do Pat
grSce,althoughne is often kept,as in 2^ ne wSl not ban mi
""
In MnE
1520.
At
disappeared
entirely.
ne
tbe
same
time
adoptionof the
each other and
an
don't know
is
now
not know
aity-
AlthoughOE
nakt
to "a
the auxiliary
as
preferred
negativein ME, the latter held its ground in certain
before comparative adjectives
and
collocations,
especially
adverbs,and is stilt
kept in such phrases9S he is no belter; no
Ifi21.
of this!
more
is always used
no
as
questionsetc. togetherwith
is the Scandinavian net
not-ever.'
no,'literally
obsolete in speech.
"
in
And
was
to
answer
"
'
16SS.
The
0"
'
of affirmation
particles
are
nay, which
nay is now
^la, Anglian
which
(j")Second MnE (jii,
jee),
ga, gi, ME_"/,EarlyMnE
and
is now
obsolete;and^n^OE
^j", Anglian ^ese,ME
'
emphaticaffirmative.
Compuison
of Adverbs.
The
T,Goo(^le
PARTICLES;
iijae.]
"
COMPARISON.
439
Late OE dioppor
-Uocost:deopt,
"licoit,
deoplUe
(788),
; diopor.
There
smallerclass
also
was
a
deoplicor
deoplicotl.
; diopost,
wW^utation in
the
the endings
higher
degrees,
being-t, -,
aj in langi for a longtime,'
Most of the
-est,
ip^,Ipigesl.
formed from adjecadverbs which admit of comparison
are
tives
adverbs alsoadmit of directcomparison,
; but primary
with and without mutation : o/l often,'
of/or,
oftost
; Sr
before,'
aror, "rest.
the comparison
isa4. In MnE
-tr, -est is,as a general
rule,applied
onlyto those adverbs which have no spedal
adverbialendingin the positive,
those which have
especially
'
'
'
the aame
form
as
the corresponding
such as hard
adjectives,
in pullharder,
pullhardest
loud,
long.The
qtdek,fast,
of primary
as in oflen=.OE
adverbs,
comparison
oft,
oftmer,
has in some
been carriedfurtherthan in OE, as
cases
9ftmesf,
the OE sotta, seldon not
in lO"n, saoner, soonest,
seldomer,
of comparison.Adverbs in -lyare compared
periadmitting
as
"
"
"
as
in where it can
162fi. The
be done
"
cheapest.
adverbs
following
are
in
comparedirregulariy
MnE:"
best. OEwel; bft;
which droppedits
well;better;
i//f/,
/ in ME
beston
the analogy
of m^st, etc.
badly {evilly,
worse,
ill);
worst.
OEyfii;wiers {wyrs)
;
wierst {wyrresl,
wierrest,
wyrsf).
mast.
much,more, most. OEmiW?; ttta{re);
HUk, kss,least. OE ^tle,
^t\ ISs ; last.
further
furIhst. OEfeorr; ^err;
;farthest,
far ;farther,
ficrrest.
1526.
There
are
of
been treatedof under the comparison
adverb rather=OEhrq^r
the comparative
From
adjectives.
'sooner'
'quicker,'
[( 1517.
ACCtDBffCB.
440
formed in MnE
ratht was
po^tiveadjective
(Milton) which is now
obsolete.
"
From
1B27.
some
whose
"
has been
and
forgotten
adverbs have
to be regarded
as positives,
come
laiterly,
laslly.
l^ adding-ly: formerly,
meaning
latives,
super-
which
have
formed
been
PREPOSITIONS.
Old-Engush.
Of
1528.
the OE
Most
oompound.
be
especiaUy
b- before
simple,
are
up of
place-adverbs
endingin -an,
and
"
some
prepositions
vowel,such
contracted
forms
as
some
prepositions
"
ing
-on, he- becom-
bu/an'above'
"
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
under
'
:
'
wij)
undenuq^an
towards
'
'
beneath.'
'
wtj"mrum
:
'
within,'
toijiu/anwithout.'
'
ymbutan around.'
1629. Other compound prepositions
are formed of prepoin the four cases
siiions-fnouns
or adjectives
governed by
OE
prepositionsthe ace., dat., inslr.,gen. : ongemang
'into the crowd'; ongean, Anglianongfgn,
'among,'literally
and
against,'
treaties,Anglian tbgignes,logerus
ongett,
ymb
around
'
'
'
"
'
'
'
meaning;
'
tomiddes
an
ot"solete noun
'amidst' is formed
from
of uncertain
the
adj.midd
"534J
PREPOSITIONS.
1580.
formed
are
'
with twiwa
441
from
twice.'
which govern
prepositions
0"
to
ace.
obsolete
an
express
both
ace.
and
'
express rest : he iodt on J"alAus he went into the
house'; hi wunodt on J"am h"se ' he remained in the house.'
to
instr.)
As
1531.
does
we
dutyfor in,
which became
0"
The
1S82.
adverbs.
Most
change
of fonn.
on
examples the preposition
in the last
see
closelyallied
prepositionsare
of them
can
Thus
ow
be used
is
as
hyrnan he put on
the Mn"
his corslet,'
contractions of OE
iid{n)
on,
'
'
he said
Others
dyde on
and
of. So also in he
kit
1/0^being
him
iocw"Bp
to
him'
do
in hi
don
the
without any
adverbs
adverb
an
to
compared
undergochange of
to
in
be and
with
form.
Thus
the adverbs
it and inn
(on)are
he slod
ponding
corres-
bi,hi slod
him
stroi^ form.
1S88.
In such combinations
used
regularly
are
must, of course,
indeed, often
to
express
on
be
2iS
p^on, fidrlo,which in OE
and to
m
it,to it,etc. (878),
adverbs, therein,
herein are,
regardedas
expressed by Pdrinne, kirinm
adverb inne=innan.
1634.
It is to
be
observed
that the
prepoutionswere
could modify either verbs {he
came
home
'
etc.
prepositions
on, in,through,
of motion
to
define it more
were
esactiy.So
home itself,
and
or
ace.
Ji"m hute
[j 1535-
ACCIDENCE.
442
the idea of
'
rest in
'
place was
expressedb^
primarily
the
Middle
In M"
1586.
of
and
Modkkk
English,
extended
to
the function
"
"
'
'
In
1630.
ME
innan
'inside'
into
came
use
general
as
ofOEoM='
so as to avoid the ambiguity
on,' 'in.'
preposition
it wag
shortened
first to ine and
unstressed,
Being generally
then
to
1687.
In
tS^/r?
both
and_/"-i""i=OE
Scandinavian_/ra
We now
adverbs and prepositions.
from
as
an
in the
'
'
'
'
"
'
'
'
'
extinct.
For
the difTerentialionof OE
see
S
wi|.)
861.
of,wi}"into MnE
of,off,(wi^
1S4J.]
In ME
the
was
genitive
soon
163B,
the
INTERJECTIONS.
Tare
443
constructionof
givenup
with
prepositions
except of
"
course
in isolated
nouns, and
1640.
In 0"
the adverbial
as
w^
Un
ending-toeard is sometimes
with the preposition
/o in such
weard
(dat.)
'
towards her.' In
ME
pe wSde,tSwardes Troie,
/rp Bordtux ward
where framward is a
comparedwith framward TeuktsbUri,
wardes =" toward
formation
new
BiUe stillhas
on
to
1641. In ME
on,
for which
of toward.
analogy
EarlyMnE
was
the
God ward.
the a of amiddts
trt
In
was
restoredto itsfullform
was
then
as an independent
regarded
noun,
into in the midst ("^\
lastinmidsi developed
the word
at
the
bodyof
so
that
INTERJECTIONS.
mary
are
-pximaxyand seoondsir. PriInterjections
are
company
mostlyimitations of soiuidsthat acinterjections
emoUons : ah,o, ok,pah,pooh,kuik. From them
1642.
speech
may be formed ; thus hush is used as a
verb
io hush. Such interjections
as what I dear me!
are
made up
secondary.There are also mixed inteijections,
combined with other partsof speech,
of primary
interjections
alas [Modem French
such as alas from Old French halas,
made up of the interjection
a and /aj= Latin lassum
h/las],
weary.'
to be primary.
1648. The OE la ! eala I oh I seem
other partsof
"
'
'
'
ACCIDEKCB.
444
'.
wa
'
t'
woe
is the
word
same
as
the
'alas I'
wHlSwSI
'misfortune.' wOis!
[| 1544.
noun
wawa,
um
therefore mixed
are
interjections.
Interjections
ata.j stand
1S44.
relations
governs
other words.
to
daL,
loSJS governs
in
as
in
Hence
/"am mpm
u"a
in such
gen.
in various
OE,
'
grammatical
sometimes
wd
the
to
woe
I'
man
!
phrasesas toild Jiareiermfie
MnE.
COMPOSITION.
Old-SngliBh.
The
is
way of forming compounds in OE
which
joiningtogethertwo words
may be themselves
1B4S.
by
compound
normal
"
or
being unin-
the latter,
if declinable,
flected,
keeping its power
and, if
Thus
compound.
smij-can
noim
the gender of
determining
noun,
the neuter
be combined
to form
the whole
the masculine
the
line
compound mascugoldsmip'goldsmith,' So also t^s-Zii/'
evening
noun
compounds of
These
goid and
noun
of inflection,
nonn+nonn
are
the most
noun.
frequent.
compounds of EidjeotiTfl
-|-notin, such as
haUg-dag 'church festival'literally
'holy-day,'
ewustolfor
of nonu
'mercury,'
'living
silver';
+ ad'quick-silver,'
literally
There
are
also
jective, such
as
wm-sad
whole
In the above
'
as
wine,' and
of
wid-cup 'widelyknown.'
is determined
compound
satiated with
adjective
compounds havingthe
+ noun
such as glad-mod having a glad
function of adjectives,
formed from tbc
mood,' btip-heortblitheof heart,'cheerful,"
'
'
'
T,Goo(^le
1549.]
bRpt
adjectives
^i^f^,
and
the
compounds.
such
445
coMPOSiTioif.
is sometimes
noim
As
mod, htortt.
nouns
call these
shortened in
compounds
oonTWBion*
adjective.They
an
as
very old
are
the Greek
of
noun
formations,such
version-compounds
con-
evil
'havingan
dus-menes
been formed
mind,'havingapparently
see
we
in Parent
Arian.
oonvoraioii-oomponnda,
sisting
con-
two
An
nouns.
OE
1547.
form-isolation of
second element of
in 0"
compounds
consists in
the
'
'
when
'
detached.
gum-cynn
'
from
mankind,' from
tumu
'
guma
are
'
often
dropped,as
'
man,' sunn-Seam
in
beam,'
sun-
victory.'
1S4:9.
Normal
0"
compounds take
the stress
on
the first
of a
word^roups beginningwith the genitive
inflected adjective
do the same, stress is in OE
ndun
or
an
criterion of compositionas opposed to mere
no
grouping.
element ; but
Hence
as
there is in OE
no
tunu
word-groupas -cyninges
of the whole
most
Mn"
son,'in
king's
follows from
that of its
there is isolation of
which the
ing
mean-
elements,and
one
in which
name
'
such
'
'
446
[| 1550.
ACCIDENCE,
in OE
as
regardthem as 'genitive-compounds'
well. The
are
genitive
examples of such OE
following
compounds, many of which, it will be observed,have been
venient
to
obscured in MnE
"
the
'
name
(French
'
'
combinations
are
'
'
'
'home
of oxen,' Buccinga-hdm, 'Buckingham,'
literally
(thetribe
of
shire,'
family of) the Buccings,'
Dtftne^dr Devonliterally
provinceof Devonia (OE De/t^.
'
or
'
'
Verbs
1660.
arc
with
rarelycompounded directly
very
or
'aureole'
'glory-crown,'
'to
crown,'there being
is formed
the verb
separate verb
no
wuldorbeagim
*biagian.But
the
mis-don
certain
'
'
'
'
'
in
idea of conmiunity or association,
as
'suffer
literally
stress
in
mere
In MnE
of these
with,'
The
of
want
compounds shows
that
prefixes.
Modem
1661.
common
'
efenprmvian sympathize,'
some
English.
compounds
are
formed
by adding
T,Goo(^le
Ijsvl
COMPOSITtOff.
447
to
bat
onlywhen
form,
as
in
the firstelement
is in
connecting-vowelo,
a
Latin
or
Latinized
Angktaxon, Anglo-Indian,Franco-German,
lens.
concavo-conoex
The
The
ng
in the Mn"
'
mghiingaU
handiwork
evening. In MnE
in enough'^O'E.
gendg, the OE form of the compound
being hand-geweorc. The i- was
preserved in MnE
probably
with
the
association
through
adjectivehandy, handicraft"G^
handcraft probablyowes its i to the influence of handiwork and
of
as
compositionin MnE
well as in OE is the inseparability
and indeclinability
of the
But owing to the scantiness of the inflections
firstelement.
1663.
in MnE
decisive in it as
firstelement.
The
the other
on
in
tests of
rigidword-order,these
when
OE, especially
an
great estenaion of
hand, makes
stress
tests
not
so
is the
adjective
stress
even
the
are
main
in
MnE,
criterion for
between
distinguishing
16SS.
One
distinctions in MnZ
class
special
of MnE
is that
able
recognizea
from
genitive
-compounds, distinguished
we
are
to
in the same
genittve-groups
way as compotmds beginning
from the corresponding
are
with an adjective
distinguished
instead of even
word-groups,namely by having uneven
mere
stress
(6B4).
LS84.
Hence
also the OE
compounds gold/al,gddddd
448
[| 15^5.
ACCTDEffCE.
have in MnE
been
deed,such OE
1B56.
Some
of MnE
compK"unds
formation have
a noun
onlywhen thisnoun
plural
in the plundhas developed
different
a meaningof itsown
from that of the singular,
that it is isolatedfrom its
so
the connection between them beii^Eometimes
singular,
Such compoundsare chlhesbrush,
cloHas-batket,
forgotten.
where
the
etc.,
compoundis
newspaper(njuwspeips),
newsixy,
of the (z)
of naos (njuwz)
obscured by the change
into (s).
in the
as
theirfirstelement,
but
1556.
in
As
and MnE
enter into
with
composition
and
nouns
sometimes
of the combinationbeing
sometimes
clasp-knife,
verb,
as
are
compounds
in
verbs
the result
adjectives,
noun,
as
in ireahoaUr,
browbeat,
whitewash,
of verbs beingwith
Meaning
noun
or a
as in OE.
particles,
of
Compounds,
1657. The
rule of English"
also of Parent
as
general
is
the
to
before the
A rian" composition
adjunct-word
put
the same
of
the
on
head-word,
principleputting modifier
beforethe modifiedword as we followin the group adjective
-{-noun. Hence the order in the compoundblackbirdis the
same
as
the
on
In such groups as man-of-war,
bread-and-butter,
e
lement
of
the
instead
follows,
modifying
preceding,
contrary,
the stress isthrown an to the second element.
and accordingly
The
end-strcBsin man-kind
seems
to show
that
even
in a
isSo.]
normal
COMPOSITION.
1668. In many
elements of
compound may
element may
the
cases
449
sametiinesbe
garded
re-
relationbetween the
logical
be defined with
and
certaint}'
one
elements of
see
he
saw
stands to
churchgoer
the
one
mightmean
water-plant
same
less
plant
growing
and perhaps
a great deal of moisture,
containing
growing
in a comparatively
The
relations
between
dryplace.
logical
the elements of causal and phenomenon-compounds
are
to define accurately,
often difficult
when the meaning
of
even
the compounditself
is definite,
which mightbe
as in sundial,
either as a dial/"orshowingthe position
of the
explained
dialworked
or aa a
as it were
sun,'
dy the sun instead
etc.'
of by clockwork,
'
'
"
"
relationsbetween
onlyby leaving
open the logical
the elements of compoundsthatwe are able to form them
them without stopping
want
to analyze
the
we
as
exactly
relations between the words we join
or grammatical
logical
as we
mighthave fo do if we connected them
together,
or
by more definite means, such as prepositions
tc^ether
to :
itis
inflections.
T,Goo(^le
[| 1561.
ACCIDENCE.
45"
distinctionbetween compounds
general
impc"-tant
as
regardstheir meaning is the olOBeneas of the h^cal
We may from this pointof view
connection between them.
An
U61.
between
distinguish
in the
same
way
as
between
distinguish
we
sub-complexes(466). Thus
and
relation between
and 8n1"-oom.poimd8
oo-oomponndB
in
co-complexes
causa) compound the
elements is
the two
the clauses of
an
causal
comfdex sentence.
such
There arc hardlyany pure co-compounds in English,
is deaf and
combination as deqf-mute='a, person who
a
dumb' beingan even-stress group-compound and not a pure
that between
meaning
compounds such as god-angel-man'serpenl-demotu
umply gods, angels,men, serpents,and demons,' that is,
have seen, the less close the
all livingcreatures.' As we
relation between the elements of a compound, that is,
logical
co-ordinative the compound is,the greater the
the more
'
'
even-stress
word-group.
DERIVATION.
ITatiTe
Elements.
Prefisbs.
X86a.
Some
weak
some
of the OE
that is,prefixes
added
.
to nouns
generallystrong, as
arc
'unknown';
in
and
adjectives
respectively
"mU-ddd
while
are
verb-prefixes
the same
'forgive.'When
for'gicfan
with
a
nouns
and
(andadjectives)
shortened and
weakened
with
form
in
examples of such
"
'misdeed,' "un-cup
weak,
generally
in
as
The
following
identicalprefixes
:
pairsof originally
"
T,Googlc
is66.]
IfATlVE
PREFIXES.
451
'
'
intelligence
"attd-giet
*
understand
on-gittan
"ee/-Jiutica'gT\iA%K' ofpytUan'Xa
grudge'
device
"or-panc
UppUan devise
iirgdn
"H-gaag circuit
practise
'
'
'
'
'
'
When
1568.
'
the strongform of
adjective,
as
'
in 'andswarum
the
'to
noun
or
is preserved
changed,
unprefix
noun
"and-swaru answer/
'
there
Originally
in the
andswaru
and the
was
same
0"
frequent
verb and
tniginal
verb
as
way
to
*on-swgrian
corresponding
to andgief
on^elancoiresponds
;
of
andswfricmis a blending
form
andswarian
or
the
andswaru.
in a noun
foiiried
from a verb (he verbConversely,
is preserved
as in ^liesednes'redemption,'
prefix
unchanged,
from d-Itesan release,'
redeem.'
loosenedness,'
literally
1S04.
'
'
'
had a
happens that a noun which originally
the
weak
the
takes
influence
one
corresponding
by
strong prefix
It sometimes
verb of similarmeaning.Thus
the influenceof faydw.
be-gaughy
of
blgangis oftenmade
into
Insomecasesolderdistinctionsbetweenthestrongan
weak forms of prefixes
have been levelled. Thus the weak
/brweorpati
/or- in Jbr-dondestroy,'
'perish'
appears in the
1606.
'
as
from which
destruction,'
it was
extended
gradually
to
to verb-
pieces*
Its strong
represented
by te- in earlier OE {irbrecan):
Airform was originally
to the strong
"/itr-,
_/St-;
parallel
made into to- by contraction,
and then extended to the
was
is
weak forms.
180fl. In the case
of thesetwo
ACCIDENCE.
45"
(|1567.
well as in misdAd.
as
1667- The
preGs
^e-,on the other hand,alwayshas weak
but also
not onlybefore verbs,
as in gesiim 'to see,'
stress,
in nouns, such as gesihp sight,'
where it originally
had a
form *g(e-,
with strongstress.
*geastrong
1506. Frefizes to pronouns and particles
are sometimes
weak,sometimes strong.
'
of
are the most important
following
The
the strongbeingmarked
ft-. This
1609.
in
as
is
the
'urlaub,
prefixes,
(').
the OE
er-,as
in erlaubm
'
or-
(1603),
allow,'
strong
to trlauben.
corresponding
noun
Its
original
meaningwas
be traced in such
'
'
'
"
'
'
'
'
'
where ?
'
'
then
i^-. The
dropped,
giving
and generalize
served merely
"I in this prefix
to emphasize
the collective
is equivalent
meaningof the ge-,so that ligall or every,'
each of two,'dgkusdr
to
as in -(rgkwcEjier
'everywhere.'
'
'
1672.
'
be-
was
'
word
It 'by,'
whose strongform isthe adverb hi
the preposition
words,began,
by.'As ^and 61 are thereforestill
independent
as
'
T,Goo(^le
1576.]
PREFIXES.
NATIVE
453
bl-have diverged
so much in
It-,
prefixes
words be,in,that from an
meaningfrom the independent
of view the two pairs
have no connection
unhistorical
point
with one another. Thus as prefixes
he- and hi- preserve the
keptalso in Greek amphi-,which represents
meaning around,'
This
the fuUer Arian form of which bi is a shortening.
which going
iegdn,-.in
meaningis seen in bigatig,
primitive
'cultivate.'
into the meanings'worship,'
round' developed
of be- is to 8pecia.lize
the meanit^
The most gen"alfiinction
of transitive
as in ieAm
beset,'
verbs,
hang with,'
bee^t/an
verb transitive,
and to make an intransitive
as in beaipait
bewail,'be^ftUan consider from w^n
weep,'
p^nian
think.' In some cases it isprivative,
as in beniman 'deprive'
behead.'
behia/dian
\mman take '],
is quite
distinct
1678. for,earlierySr-,
strongfor-(l66fi)
from the preposition
loss,
y%r; itexpresses destruction,
etc.,
\r fordon AesXioy!
from dm 'do,'
as
'perish'
/orweorpan
Latin veriere\
turn
VKorPan become,'
originally
[compare
'bum up.'
as in /brbarmin
beingsometimes onlyintcnsitive,
to verbs,nouns,
1674. ge-, which is prefixed
equally
has primarily
a collective
adjectives,
pronouns, and particles,
fellow traveller,'
as in ge/iracompanion,'
meaning,
originally
fiomyor'journey'
'go,''travel''],
[/aran,
gebro/iru
brothers [brSjior,
brother'],
from hwS
gehjvi each one
who?',beingcognatewith the Latin cum 'with.'It isoften
and often practically
in
as
only intensitive,
unmeaning,
'mind.' As a prememory,'
^im"'"(/'
gemunan remember,'
fix
of
in
to the preterite
as
verbs,
participle
gebundenbound,'
it is really
inflection
a grammatical
(74).
both to verbs and nouns, as in
1575. -mia- is a prefix
misSeiati displease,'
misdtid misdeed.'
1676. of- is cognate with the preposition
and adverb of
of.' The strongform ce/isof rare occurrence
off,
(1663)
;
in such words as -ofspring
it
has
been
progeny,'
supplanted
weak
form. In thisword the original
by the
meaningof the
vatives. But the
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
[( 1577.
ACCIDENCE.
454
'
'
'
tmp-fangm receive'=0E
on/on,'onl-worl answer,'with which compare OE and-wyrde
where it stillpreserves
answer,'hterallyagainstwording,'
its original
meaning of 'against,'
being cognate with the
words it expresses ' separaIn some
Greek anJf against.'
tion,'
in onbindan
as
'unbind,'onlucan 'unlock,'
'change,'
'
open,'onwindan overturn,'change to the worse.' In
dread,'on^nmany words it is unmeaning,as in ondriidan
bytH/-,ein{p)-,
strong ani-,aa
in
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
nan
begin,'
on-derivatives such
the above
be
carefully
from compounds with the preposition
or adverb
distinguished
on
on,'such as "on-wititian make war on,' a^ail,'
ongiart
against [Modem German "i^"^"i=olderGerman engtgen,
ingtginowes its ml- to confusion with the prefix
"i/-].
is representedin
1679. to-, earlierft-,strong to- (ISOS),
167S.
'
as
must
'
'
'
'
German
by
str-,
as
lobrtcan 'break
in zerirechen=-OY,
to
seriieilm=OE
Iddalan 'distribute' [ddl'portion,'
pieces,'
share ']. Tins prefix
alwayskeepsits original
meaning of
and is thus easily
separation,'
destruction,'
distinguished
from compounds with the preposition
lo
to,'such as -Idcyme
'arrival'[cyme
'coming'],
to-gadre'together.'
'un-' is a prefixto nouns,
1680.
'unand
adjectives,
secondaryadverbs,and is generally
purelynegative,
though
'
'
'
'
sometimes
intensitivein the
of
sense
'
bad
'
unddd
'
wicked
'
deed,' crime,'
urKuJi'unknown,'
unsaf/e
'ungently,'
'severely.'
'
'un-'
voatiiai*
[ivanaadjective'wanting,'
in wanhal
to adjectives,
as
wane
curtail,'
healthy
un']is prefixed
\halwhole,' sound '],
1681.
-wan'
'
'
'
'
In ME
1682.
It
soon
as
in fff like
ge- was
began to be
'
'
weakened
to
as in were,
('-,
South-Thames
i6Snde[n),
dialects,
OE gelic. In Standard
i/tci,
IS84.I
ME
PREFIXES.
NATIVE
the
455
grammaticiO1- is sometimes
kept,sotnedmes
not
beinggenerally
dro[^d, as in firt, km^=OE
ge/h-a
natnraL'
companion,'
gecynd fern. kind,' nature,'
gecynde
The prefixseems
been preservedin poetry for
to have
"
'
'
in
after it had
metre
spoken language.
But
in the obGoletejwiir=0"
verb
day
(1861.a),and
gtnog, Handiwork
'certain'
^nc/i,r,r
(1466.i),and
sometimes made
"
in the
preterite
participles
yclept
gecUopod caHAoA,'
yclad. Also throughconfusion with
from OE *t^regekwAr.
in everywhere
every
aiiie must
meaning
be referred to the OE
In ME
weakened
prepositions
^and on were liable to be
(1506). The same change took placewith
into a
on-, and
were
prefixes
leveUingwas
as
helpedby
d-
these
was
shortened
to
form.
one
alreadyin OE
a-,
This
there
was
prefixes
throughthe vagueness
words.
Thus
we
find in OE
and awacan
await,'
awake,'ondrtiomvacan
the difference of
fear,'
ofdrddi pret. parllc. afraid,'
SMdan, onbidan
'
OE
dan
same
the
and
prefixes
g/"-
all three
gellc.
as
1588.
the present
keptto
'
=:OE
the
extinct in the
become
it has been
inoh, OE
enougk='iA'S.
into
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
of-was
stress.
end
So also and-
of the ME
'
in andsware,
Towards
answare.
periodthe prefixa-
droppedin
was
the
many
of
only in
few
drisan, awacan,
words, such
as
arise,awake, awaken=0'E.
=yiE.
Swacnian, acknowledge
io
akniuljchen,
ashamed=OS.
ofsieamod,
correspondsOE oncnawan,
onbidan 'wait,'and the obsolete a/iirsl=OE.
abide^dY.
which
o/^ri"d.
1684.
on-
which
expresseda definite
456
i\ ifSs.
ACCIDENCE,
"
"
unchain.
1585.
id- was
in ME, as in lobreien,
lorendm,
preserved
obsolete in MnE, though the Bible etillhas
but many
of the ME
derivatives have
and
obsolete,
become
forgSn go
for-is no longera livingprefix.\nforego=0'".
without,'forego the prefixhas been confused with (he
or adverb/oM=OE_/b" 'before.'
separable
prefix
and adjective
mis- and
1687. The mainlynounprefixes
used to form
stillliving
ttn- are
new
being freely
prefixes,
'
'
'
such
derivatives,
misadventure,misrepresent,
limited,
unrest, un-
as
uwhain.
1688.
The
stillliving
is
verbs have
that
onlyold verb-prefix
be-,with which
been
formed
an
be
can
immense
in MnE
as
regardedas
number
well
as
ME.
of
new
Many
of
from nouns
French as well
directly
The noun
as
English such as befriend,
benighted,
besiege.
byvjordstillkeeps the strong form, being formed on the
analogyof ME iM^/;=OEi?j;^//
'parable';but such nouns
as bystreet,
bystander,
may be regardedrather as compounds
"
"
bt.
Some
have
nouns
taken
=OE
the corverbs,such as belief
responding
corresponding
gtleafa,
Late OE beliefan.
verb being
belieiie=0^gene/'an,
Suffixes,
1689.
in
Of the OE
Germanic,
cause
endingssome,
mutation
gylden'golden.'When
the
of the
same
which
contained
or
precedingvowel,as in
endingsometimes mutates,
SUFFIXES.
NATIVE
I59I.]
457
the original
sometimes not,the mutated forms are geoeralty
ones, the unmutated forms beingthe resultof laterinfluence
formed.
of the unmulated word from which the derivative
was
Thus beren
'
bear
to a
belonging
'
earlieriirm
its" to
owes
Noun-forming,
(a)Concre/t.
1690-
-ieJi is a diminutive
neuter
which,
ending,
although
preserved
onlyin a very few words,such as lynienfrom
in the
futitu 'tun,'
doubt in common
was
no
use
'cask,'
nutive
dimiIt is an extension of the originally
spokenlanguage.
ending-m in mcFgden.In ME and MnE it appears
in the form of -kin,
whose fullvowel and k instead
-ikin,
of ch is probably
the resultof the influence of the French
itselfof Low German origin.
Thus manikin 'dwarf'
-quin,
is the French
diminutive of
which
mannequin,
Other
man.
is itselfa
examplesare
Low-German
lambkin,napkin
kilderkin.In bumpkin
canakin,
nappe 'tablecloth'],
[French
the
In
surnames:
Wilkinson,
shortenedfrom
againshortened to Wiltins,
Perkin,
Halkin,whence by phonetic
Peterkin,
Havikin{s),
spelling
al Harry Henry.
from Hat,a child'smispronunciation
was
1681. -end
and
ending-enie,
forms
denoting
agentsfrom
siiotend shooter,'
verbs,such as halend healer,'
Saviour,'
'warrior.'It became extinctin ME, itsplace
beingsupplied
But
it
still
survivesdisguised
-tre.
by the ending
'm/riend=
and fiend=OE /eon4 enemy,'
OE freondliterally
lover,'
'hater.'
literacy
'
nouns
'
'
'
'
'
forms agent-denoting
-er
nouns
-ere, -Are,masc.
'
'
'
from verbs : hindere binder,'
leornere learner,'
fisher,'
Jisiere
lB9a.
'
458
ACCIDENCE.
'
'
from the
godspelUre
evangelist
[|IS93.
verbs
bindan,fisiian,
Itomian,
two
are
formed
'
"
the model
form -dre
into a,
so
"
shortened,and underwent
was
that in
the side oi
Id ME
EarlyME
we
these
the
regularchange
find such forms asfischart
hy
fischere.In Late ME
confusion between
there
endingsand
was
good
the French
deal of
and Laiin
endings -er, -ier,-eer, "our, -or, which often had the same
meanings as the native ending (1985). This confusion was
increased in EarlyMnE
of -er, -ar, -or, etc.
by the levelling
under (ar)
liogire,
[869]. Hence such forms as l:ar=OE
tailorcompared with a faitsailtr [OE stglan sail'].
'
1508.
fern.'
-estre
'
-ess
bactstrt
'
female
baker
'
[baeere
'female tapster,'
'baker'],
vAtegestrt'prophetess*
tceppesire
\vniega
'prophet'].In ME this ending,being unstrest,
soon
emphaticform
an
appliedto
the
men
as
well
as
-Uer
resulting
of -er, and
women,
so
to
came
be
consequendy
that the
garded
re-
was
Early ME
feminines bahsiere,iappUkri
does
In MnE
a
to
with
generally
thing habitually,'
an
express
'
one
implication
in -ster
of contempt, as in punster,trickster. The only noun
which is stilldistincfly
which has,however,
feminine is spinster,
lost its meaning of
only in
that of
1S94.
-ing
'
'
female
being now
spinner,'
used
unmarried woman.'
masc.
'
\earm
'
poor
'],
The
late OE
nijiittg
'little'].
lylling'little one' [lytel
'coward,*'objectof contempt,'is probablyof Scandinavian
used to
origin(Icelandic
nlpungr). This ending is specially
T,Goo(^le
i 169^]
form
NATIVE
such
patronymics,
from a^le
'
'
apeling
son
'
noble,' aristocratic,'
cynmg
king,'the
compounds such
of
as
of
'
'
'
noble,' prince
son
king,'
literally
'
underived
as
459
SUFFIXES.
cytie
:
patronymicsare formed freelyfrom personalnames
Scielding,
^pelwulfing,Elising son of Elisha.' Many of
such as Maiming,
them
are
preservedas proper names,
These
'
Biilingigaie,
as
BUlingas
of Bill'etc.
'sons
of animals,as in haring
ending is also found in names
in names
and
of things,especially
coins,such as
heiring,'
scilling,pfning,Jiorping{/iorpung,/iorpling)
farthing,'
hterally
'fourth part (ofa. pfning)'hmafiorpa 'fourth.'
This
'
'
-ling
1696.
in 0"
masc.
generallyexpresses affection,
from deore
or
familiarity,
diorling'favourite,'
contempt:
ME
dear,' precious,'
darling,
fisterling
derling,MnE
foster-child,'
underling. There are many
hyrling hireling,'
such as
of which may be of OE origin,
others in MnE, some
'
'
'
'
starveling,
suffix is frequentin
worldling,
nurseling,
changeling.This
of animals,generallyexpressingyouth
names
m
of these may
Some
168a.
'
smallness,
or
of
youngling 'young animal,'also used in the sense
human
being,'
gosling.
yearling,nestling,duckling,
young
as
'
as
vixen
'
-en
from
be of OE
origin,
fyxrn
gyden goddess,'
'
god,/ox.
tive
of meanings. It is diminua variety
endinghas,besides,
in magden, and in the compound ending -ien (1690) ; and
with -on, -n, in a number of words without
occurs, interchanging
showing any definite meaning, as in Aeo/en 'heaven,*ma^m
'nobleman.'
Pegen,pegn 'retainer,'
poviei,'
This
'
{i)Abstract.
1607.
fem.
-Des(s)
-niB(s),
abstract
nouns
from
is the
ing
regular
endingfor form-
:
godnis
adjectives
'
goodness,'
46o
lliSiJ*'
ACCIDENCE.
ending is
This
geBcnit likeness,'ieorhlnis brightness.'
'
stillin
'
in
to charitalle,
possible
charity,to nudicorresponds
possibility,
mediocrify,
althoughsuch derivativesas ituviiailenestare
ocrt,
it is found
formed whenever
freely
1598.
-u
convenient.
nouns
bradu
: Ifngu length,'
adjectives
slrpigu strength,'
'
hSlu
'
haiu
salvation,'
'
'
from
breadth,'
eld,wrap(P)u anger,'ME
'
ivrappt,MnE
adjectives
lang,Strang,brad,hSl sound,'hSl,eald,wrap.
'
with and
-u]},
-]jfem.
ISBB.
without mutation:
Iriowp
ME
from Irimjoe faithful,"
fideUty,'
Plifp theft,'
pi/pe,
Pefte,
which in ME
became sl^pe by the
l)i^'thief,'
sl"wp sloth,'
influence of the adjective
from which it was formed, namely
ME sl^
OE sldzD,
indolent' Togeogup youth corresponds
the adjective
In ME
the ending -pe=OE
^"0H^ 'young.'
-p was substituted for ihe equivalent-if=OE -", as being
"
"
'
'
more
=ME
'
'
'
health
breadth,
length,
strength,
OE
lengPe,
OE
Ipigu,etc. Similarly
diepefrom det^
deep has become depth. So also ME welt,MnE weal=
OE
wela
wealth,'has developeda secondary
prosperity,'
'
'
'
'
form wealth
some
on
the
analogyof
new
In ME
health.
and
MnE
from verbs,
as in warmth, dearth,but also directly
adjectives,
the latter on the analogyof MEPi^e
as ingrowth,stealth,
'theft.'
IQOO.
-ung,
nouns
from
verbs:
bleisungblessing,'
^e^ndung ending,'end,'leomung,Uomfrom the verbs bUlsian,
ing learning,'
rdding reading,'
'
'
'
'
'
T,Goo(^le
ii603.]
NATIVE
461
SUFFIXES.
rddan (weak
In OE
leomian,
gepidiaHy
verb).
thisending
is
restricted
in itsuse, and is very rarely
tives
used to form derivafrom strongverlw
because these are generally
provided
with other derivatives,
such
cyme comiDg,'
gang 'going'
In ME
to the strong verbs cuman, gUn.
corresponding
the use of -inge,
-ingwas so much extended that at last
'
as
abstractnouns
veib,tillit
intoa purely
form the gerund
finally
developed
grammatical
have assumed concrete
(1367). In MnE many words in -ittg
"
'
firom the
arose
in OE
such words
referredeitherto the
mightbe
lofioor.
which
The
of
ambiguity
'
as
or
floor
aoMn
flooring,
the verb
words
were
independent
following
endings
originally
itself:"
the
'judgment,'
especially
conditiongenerally
; cynedom
in combinationwith adjectives
been substitutedfor
kingdom,'
kinghaving
authority,'
royal
in ME, bisiopdom
the less familiarcyne (1684)
'bishopric'
crit'kingdom'],
mariyrdom,
[-nf=OETtie 'government,'
In MnE
wisdom.
there are a
tindom,
Jreodom'freedom,'
leOl. -dom
'
is from
masc.
ddm
noun
and then
and expressesfirst rank,'
authority,'
'
"
"
'
'
few
such
new-formations,
heathendom have
'
medicine
'
now
from
dukedom.
as
become concrete.
/i"e
'
Christendom and
In OEiOeK
'
leech,'phyacian had
'
Idiedom
concrete
meaning.
1603. -hfid
masc.
from the
noun
hsd
'
rank,'condition,'
'
463
ACCIDENCE.
nature
character,'
'
[f 1603,
bisiophadrank ofbishop,'
episcopacy,'
the more
iildhad,m^ph"d
virginity,'
preoslhadpriesthood,'
femiliar magdm beingsubstituted for ma^p virgin,'
maid in
the ME
widwtm-hid
'widowhood'
maidenhod.
is reallya
of the weak
noun
group-compoundof hSd and the genitive
'
'
'
'
'
'
widwe.
^,whence
and
In ME
-hood;this changecannot
the MnE
due
maybe
to the
combined
'
'
instead of
well be
organic,
noun
Add'bood.'
The
"
"
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
wedlock,whose
UOl.
is the ME
p shortened.
fern.,
gen. -radenne,from the
-T"den
raden
noun
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
NATIVE
li6o7.]
forms the
new
463
SUFFIXES.
'hatred'[ME hale
derivative
halrgde
haUrfde,
'
and
of the OE noun hfle violence,'
hostility
blending
of siirfde,
the corresponding
verb Aatian].
The analogy
etc.
of OE cynrm Hne of descendants,'
alsoled to the ME change
kin-course
of *cynn-tyne
'"which is a shortening
family
connected with ieman 'run*]
'course,'
'nmning,'
\ryne,
the
into Mnrfde,
whence,by the usual insertionof d (831),
'
19 a
'
'
'
'
'
"
Mn"
kittdrei.
'
-adipemasc.
1605.
the verb
from
-ship,'
lostnoun
connected vitb
'create': hiafordstipe
'lordship'
'shape,'
scitppan
'honour' [w^w^noun
and
weorpsiipe
anihority,'
/reondseipe,
Concrete in gtheorsHpe
vivial
'con'worth,'
adjective
'worthy'].
meeting,'
banquetfrom geleora boon-companion,'
fellow-beerdrinker[^^-collective
+ blor beer ']and
literally
others. This endingis frequendy
used in MnE
to
some
form new derivatives,
from personal
words,as in
especially
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
In 0"
ownership,
consulship,
relationship.
it is used to form
"
"
'
'
'
AdJeotlTe-formlng.
forms
from names
of
compoundadjectives
word ; sureagede
by a modifying
partsof the bodypreceded
blear-eyed,'
big-headed,'
literally
sour-eyed,'
mtielhiafdede
'three-headed.'
In
MnE
this
prihiqfdede
endinghas been
shortened to -ed,
and so has become indistinguishnecessarily
able
from the preterite
inflection.
participle
ISOe.
-ede
'
'
1607.
-en
'
464
ACCIDENCE.
generalsense
more
[( i6o3.
of
'
belongingto
'
aien
'
of oak
'
'
'
'
'
earlierh'rat,
the
'
been
has
brought in from
the
noun
so
tives
[lead lead ']. In MnE these adjecvowel everywhere,
in golden,
restore the unmutated
as
derivatives had been
woollen,on the analogyof which new
formed,such as vmodm, hempen. In MnE the simplenouns
in -m, as
used instead of the material adjectives
are
generally
in goid wakh, stone wail, the full forms being nsed onlyin
specialmeanings,as in goldenhair,althoughwe sdll use
The similarity
of
wooden,woollen etc. as material adjectives.
and adjectives
(156) has
meaning between roateriEU nouns
ted to the conversion of adjectives
in -en into
in some
cases
linen 'flaxen' from ^'
and the
flax,'
nouns, as in A'n""=OE
tree namts
atpen=0^ ceipe,linden=OE. lind ttm. [lindeln)/re
passed throughRndelri into linlriin ME, whence the Early
MnE
now
linetret,
Umt-tree\.
also in liadtK
Some
'
leaden
adjectivestn
'
-en
'
with
mutation
were
originally
terite
pre-
'
'
'
'
sometimes
-ifty- corresponds
'
1609.
sometimes
to
Germanic
to Germanic
-ig,
-ig,
in the
in the latter1
'
'
'
=.
'
-igis also
li6io.]
NATIVE
DERIVATION;
or
465
SUFFIXES.
tives
made into diminu-
are
nouns
of contempt in MnE
this ending:
to be
seems
rid of
by the influenceof
used
from
'
-isd
1609.
form
to
common
is most
"
'
'
^nglisi,
FrpUisl French
got
quently
fre-
names
nouns
'land of the
"
\Francland
Franks,''France'],
StyUisi Scotch' [Siollland,
'
'Ireland,'afterwards 'Scotland'],
WfUsi 'Welsh'; Herlisii
serfs'[^eorl
'serf'],
'popular,'
mpmisi human, 'yoivji'
mpm
'
'
of nations were
of the names
In ME
some
tracted
con'vulgfar.*
by omission of the vowel of the ending,whence the
in both
MnE
French, Scotch by the side of the fullerScottish,
vowel of ME
'
Wealas
Walsch
due
"
'
Welshmen
to
"
Walsh.
name
ence
restored by the influ-
generally
expresses contempt, as
compared with manfy,womanly,
formed from
in
-ish
nouns
mannish, vxmanisk
compared with
brutish,swinish, uppish. Such
childlike,
adjectivesas
in which there is no
bookish,roguish,
depredationimplied,
tend
become
to
obsolete,
childish
-ish added
to
an
presses
exadjective
youngish,twutish,
simple diminution,as in oldish,
with names
of colours,such as reddish,
longith,especially
yellowish.
1010.
'-some' forms
-nun
and
verbs:
sibbsum
joy']; langsum
[wytitt
hear,' obey 'J. There
'
'
'
'
from
adjectives
'peaceful,'
wynsum
'
tedious ; hiersum
are
many
ME
and
burdensome,handsome, troublesome
buxom, ME
'
noims,
jectives,
ad-
'pleasant'
obedient [hieran
'
MnE
tions
new-forma-
some
wholesome,weari-
verb
bugatt
466
[i1611.
ACCWMATCE.
words
independent
following
endingswere
'
in Gei-
/ealdatifold']
numerals;
forms adjectives
from adjective-words,
especially
hundftald,
manigfeald manifold,' various,'seo/on/eaid,
1811. -fbald
'
^old
[Comparethe
'
'
verb
'
'
hundredfold.'
-fall
leia.
'
sometimes
Jill,'
weakened
-fol,from the
to
fonns adjectives
from abstract nouns:
'full,'
adjective.^'//
sorrowfiil/
iarfiiUcareful/
synnfullsinful.'There
sorgfull
'
'
new-formations
numu'ous
are
'
in ME
and MnE
"
from
some
artful,
powerful,fruitful,masterful.In
Present Englishthis ending is shortened to (-fl),
by which
it is distinguished
from the compounds handfull(hsndfiil),
concrete
nouns
etc.
spoonftdl
-leas '-less'from
lias 'deprivedof,'
adjective
from
without [Compareferliosanlose ']forms adjectives
and verbs : drlias without honour/ wicked,'
nouns
gtleafiias
careless,'
sldpleas sleepless
; ^emelias
unbelieving,'
take care
from gUman
of/ rfiian reck'
careless,'
rfiieleas
1618.
the
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
From
-lias abstract
(787),such
1=^
this
'
in -least are
nouns
formed, where
sldpUasl sleeplessness.'In
'
as
both
ending appears
as
be due
shortened,which may
It is
'
used
frequently
-l^sand
as
the
ME
in new-formations,such
03
'
less.'
fearless,
useless.
1814.
-lid
'
'
-ly
eorplii earthly,'
anjia
'
'
feminine,'
freondlU friendly/
cynelU royal/
giarlH annual.' These
derivatives were
originally
conversion-compoundswith He
body/ the weak vowel being afterwards shortened,so that
for instance,meant
originallyhaving the body or
wifiti,
'
'
'
'
'
form of
and
'
a woman
adverbs
are
deadlii
'pleasant,'
frequent:gSdli'i
T,Goo(^le
5i6i8.]
NATIVE
DERIVATION;
467
SUFFIXES.
exceptional
6pliii
upplii'sublime/
mutation],
in ME
used in new-fonnations
ending is freely
va. primely,quarterly,
sickly.
leiB, -weard,
from
-waid,'
'
an
obsolete
This
MnE,
and
as
connected
adjective
from
weor/"an=lAtm ver/ere,forms adjectives
and adverbs; Mmweard, mtddeweard,intienouns, adjectives,
itme " within.'
weard from idm
home,'midde middle adj.,
with
'
'
'
Vflrb-formlncleifl.
-na
intrand-
tive
as
'
'break'
briotan (pret.
(pret.partic.6rt"iinn)=OE.
partic.
white,'
harpna become hard.' Many
of these verbs were
which
importedin M", such as Harjina,
became
hardntn by the influence of the ME
hard.
adjective
and MnE,
There have been many new-formations in ME
from adjectives,
such as gladden,redden,some
from
some
such a" frighlett\0Y _fyrhlu'fear'],
lengthen.In
nouns,
^olm), hvitna
'
Englishthese verbs
The
waie
native verbs
are
from
the
-sian
hUtsian
as well
transitively
awaken, faslm
weak
nouns
which are, of
'fort,'
feesl'UzKi'firm.'
1617.
used
fast,but the OE
and
formed
'
become
are
not
verbs
'
wacen
aviacnian,fastnianare
watching,'
fasten fastness,'
'
derivatives of
course,
with mutation
tively.
intransi-
as
clSnsian
'wacan
'
'wake'
and
cleanse,'
bladsian,
'
'
'
'
ending appears
as
-sa, as
in
whence om
rirue.
purify[hreitm
pure '],
-UB6aD
from lot:(1608): genialaian 'approach'
'
frotnneak 'near,'gtryhtl"lan'correct.' In ME
Hha
new
468
[i 1619.
ACCIDENCE.
himiiafg*F"nreign ElemenUi.
The
English are
mainly of French, Latin,and Greek origin. Many which
in their popularFrench
at firstintroduced into English
were
1619.
forms
foreignderivative
in
elements
in spelling
at first
Latinized,
onl^ but
in many
also. In some
afterwards,
cases, in pronunciation
Latinized in French itself,
cases
theywere whollyor partially
in spelling
though sometimes" in Late Old French
only.
In some
false
derivative
of
ments
elecases
etymological
spellings
of Latin originwere
introduced either in French or
of which have corruptedthe pronunciation.
English,some
derivativesare often so disguised
1830. Althoughforeign
afterwards
were
"
as
longerto
no
be
recognizableas
derivatives,
yet many
Some
words, such
as
are
of native
even
as
well
foreignorigin.
as
independent
as
extra.
Prefixes.
In Latin many of the prefixes
liable to various
are
of
changes accordingto the nature of the initio consonants
1621.
the word
consonants
before
theymodify,the
prefixending in
before
preserved
being generally
consonants
liable to
full form of
the final
assimilationand
when
been preserved
generally
vowel, while
of the
consonants
loss; and
prefixare
these variadons
the words
have
containingthem
and
English.
will now
be treated of in theii
1633. The foreign
prefixes
order. Specially
French prefixes
are marked
*,
alphabetical
were
importedinto French
T,Goo(^le
(I624-] DERIVATION;
Greek
are
prefixes
FOREIGN
marked
469
PREFIXES.
fi Latin prefixes
beingleft
unmarked.
',
the
on
of an
example
of
analogy
the Latin
from
^-derivative
En^hshwaa
a noun
taken
were
made into
is an
adj.ndrmSlts,
"
Latin norma
from
directly
'
tern.'
pat-
Latin or
MnE
1624,
to the consonant
according
shortened
this prefix
was
as
in mieniure
'
to a-, not
onlybefore consonants,
'
as
The
vowels,as
double
in
'
thing
aoumer
consonants
in
ad'
aggravdre,assenldre=adgravSre,
and writing
in
pronunciation
Old French agrner, asenier double * being,
however,
often kept(asten/er)
to show that the * was pronounced
(s)
and not (z).But in Late Old French the rfwas often introduced
againby the influenceof the Latin orthography,
adorner etc.,
the latterword
whence the spellings
adventure,
seniSre
shortened both in
were
"
"
or
in
Hence many
of forms,
variety
one, of
French,the other or others
lessLatinized,
whilein
some
cases
the Latinized
form
Latinizedinto adventure;
while the Latinized adomett appears
in
already
ME
by
French
ACCIDENCE.
470
[j ifiaj.
in
ME
but
ME,
the
Old French
preSs a-
have
we
made
was
mistaken
advance,advan/age'=:MS.
avancen, ODonU^e,
in
etymology,as
times
some-
aggrieve,asieni.
(alsoatsen/en)='MnE
agriven,asen/m
Sometimes
generallynot
The
avaticer
from
the
particle
Latin *ab-anfe.
aiM"/=
around
'
amh-ilion ; am-putate,
'
'
doubtful.'
two-headed,'
per-am-bulate
; an-ci'pi/al
'
16S6.
unb-, am-,
1626.
funphi-
1627.
'
on-,
around
'
amphi-bious,
amphi-thealre.
before Other
consonants, 'un-':
'
'
hydrous
anan-archy [compare mon-arc/g/\,
a-tom
without water
tmcut,'
literally
; a-iheisl,
'
'
indivisible.'
162S.
'
versal
tana- 'up,''again,'
'apart,'
'accordingto,''recated,'
etc. : atia-lhema,
originally
thingput up or dedi'
'
'
up,'
ana-bapiisi,re-baptist,'
ana-tomyliterally
cutting
accordingto proportion,'
iWM-/(ig"'
a"(i-^a"i
'
of
"
transposition
ana-chronism.
letters,'
ante-, anti-
1629.
'
before
'
anU-ceden/,anU-diluvian ;
such
mti-cipale.Freelyused in new-formations,
as
anle-
ehamier,anteroom,antedate.
1830.
anti-thesis. Freely
anii-pathy,
anti-podes,
'given against,'
used
in new-fonnaiions,such
as
tutional,
anti-constianti-radical,
anti-Gladstom,
anti-spasmodic,
tapo-, before vowels op-,before h aph-, the h itself
1881.
'
1832.
bl-
'
'half,''twice':
hi-valve. M-cycleis
bi-sect,
Greek
'
bi-enm'al
a
[compareannual~\,
newly formed
hybridfrom
kitdos 'circle.'
1688.
etc.:
toftta-,
oat-, oath-, 'down,''through'
fo/a-
T,Goo(^le
1637.] DERIVATION;
FOREIGN
PREFIXES.
471
cathract, calaslri^he,
ealalt^ue
; cat-echite
; calh-edral,
1634.
'
scribe,
circumcironm-,oirea- ' round : eircum-navigatt,
circumslance,
circumlocuHm,circumsptct,
circumvent;
circu-ilous.
1085. oiB- 'on thisaideof' :
1636. com-,
con-,
00-
'
Cisalpine.
with,'together,'
beinganother
'
'
'
with ; often merely
fonn of the preposition
cttm
intenmtive,
likethe cognateOE ^e-. In Old French the vowel of this
was
prefix
to
the
into d
made
In Old
spelling.
French
"
in
also occasionall}'
of this prefix
often
was
as
in CoventGarden
are
covenant.
cdnventto],
[Latin
covent^convent
The
following
furtherexamples
of thisprefix
: combine,
commit,
comprehend,
vince,
con; confess,
comfort
[OldFrench comforter,
cSn/orter']
contain ; co-agulate,
coincide,
conclude,
concern, conduct,
isused in oewcohere; col-ieague,
connect,
corrupt.This prefix
such as com-mingle,
in the
formations,
compatriot,
especially
co-tenant.
form of CO- : co-exist,
The predomico-operation,
nance
of the tatterending
has led to the change
of contemporary
the
former is now preferred,
into cotemporary
as
; but
beingnearer the Latin form.
made intoS
on
the analogy
of Old French
the
was
way as in counseletc. But in Old French cSntreoften made into contre- by the influenceof the Latin
same
The
spelling.
Latin forms
arc
lessfrequent
than the French
contrast [French
contraster from *concontradict,
contravene,
contraband [bterally
to
trd-stdre'],
'contrary
the
proclama-
[S 1638.
ACCIDENCE.
471
conirtmerl.
tion ']
; conlroversy,
onlyin
not
The
words,such
French
form
is used
counter-
countermand,
counterfeit,
as
such as
but also in new-fonnations,
counterpoise,
counterpart,
counlercounterbalance,
eounter-revoluiion,
counter-attraction,
is also UB"d
vieigh. counter
to
to,being
counter
run
as
independentadverb,as in
an
the
partly
Old
French
adverb and
preposition
partlythe detached prefix.
cUntrt,
1638.
de- is partlythe Latin (and French)de
from,'
negation,'
completion,'
away,'also expressing difference,'
which is both a preposition
and
being often only intensitive,
'
'
French
prefix; partly
a
'
'
'
which
apart,'
A-
often
'
developsthe
negativemeaning
same
as
of the
(alsodi-,and
assimilated di/^: defeat
defy
[Latin'dis/acere,
disfactum\,
'renounce
faith,'
literally
delay[Latin dilituni\,
depart,
path,'dethrone,devote,deny. Ai=Latin
dis-
detach,
1688.
'demi-
semihrete, demy
1640.
'
half from
is used
(dimai)
fdi- 'twice':
The double
Latin dtmidium
demigod,demi-
word.
independent
dilemma,diploma.
digraph,di-phthong,
as
an
in
diorama.
diocese,
1648.
French
Old
'
asunder,'apart,' privation,'
French
'
form
des-
is stillpreservedin descant
d^s-,rf/-]
modulations.'
In
the
other
derivatives taken
French
French
desarmer,disappoint
[compareModem
restored,
as
'
'
[Modem
tune
with
from
Old
in disarm=Old
French
d/sap-
disdain [compareModem
French d/daigner\
honest,
dispointer'],
distress[Latin
The following
are
disease,
*dislrictidre'\.
of direct Latin
dissolve,
distant;different,
origin: discreet,
dispute,
The form dt- is rare in words of French
difficult.
introduction,such
as
diminish,and
not
very
frequentin
1649.]
DERIVATIOlf
i FOREIGN
PREFIXES.
473
divert,
divide,
dilate,
dirtcl,
digrtss,
dis-is freely
used in new-formations,
dissuch as disconnect,
added to English
inherit,
disingemtous,
beingfrequenti}'
disown. In ditiiie^i
words,as in disburden,
disheartened,
ME
similar-sounding
nativeprefix
in disbelieBt,
distrust.
; so alsoperhaps
"en-,*ein- 'in': see in-,im-.
1043. ton-, em-, assimilated el-,'in': en^dopedia,
emphasis,
emporium
;
energy, enthusiasm ; emblem,embryo,
ellipse.
'
'
within
'
within
endogamousmarrying
the tribe,'
endogenous
growingfrom within.'
1644. tdndo-
'
'enter1646.
'
'
between ;
inter-.
see
tepi-,ep-, eph-
'
'
upon
epigram,
epitaph,
demic;
epi-
^hemeral.
ef- ' out of.' The
1646. ex-, e-, assimilated
form is "-, Modem
French /-. es- has been
Old French
in
preserved
English
onlyin a few obscured words,such as essay,escape.
has been keptclearit
Wherever the meaningof the prefix
has been restored to its Latin form in English:
txchange
The other
from Old French eschangier,
ex/end,
extinguish.
Latin forms are seen in elegant,
As
evade;efface,
erect,
effect.
aflerex-, as in ix-pect
initial
an
s is oflen dropped
:c=(ks),
exude,extirpate
[compare
re-speci\,
[fromLatin suddre
is frequently
used in newex'sweat,'
stirps
'stem'},
formationsto express one out of office etc.,
as in ex-king,
also in the adjective
so
exex-secretary;
ex-president,
offcial.
1647. +ex-,eo- 'out of : exodus;
ecstasy.
1648. fezo- outside : exogamous
outsidethe
marryii^
exoteric'suitable for outer world,for peoplein
tribe,'
general.'
is used in Latin chiefly
wilh ad1649. extra- 'beyond'
jectives
: exframundane,
so also
extraordinary,
extravagant;
ID the new'formations extra-official,
extra
extra-parochial,
'
'
'
'
'
'
[(1650.
ACCIDENCE.
474
is used in Englishas
by itself
and advert),
^being
adjective
either the Latin adveib and preposition
{xtr" 'beyond,'
or
else the detached prefix. Hence such combinations as ixira
vatives,
not deriare
work,txtra pay, extra careful,
exira-tuperfine
but word-groupsor compounds.
1660.
over,' beyond : hyperbole,
hyperborean,
tliypw'
an
'
'
hypercrilical.
to
'
tmder
'
'
longing
hypodermic bethe parts under the skin,'}^ocrile,hypothesis;
1661.
hyphen.
in-, im-, in-, i-, assimilated
1662.
examples of
as
well
with Greek
as
to
occasionally
is joinedto
an
The
nouns.
with
followingare
which
had
this
less,
foimer.
in
The
French
form
of this
embellish,
employ. But in many
the
Latin form
has been
em-,
served
pre-
endure,engage, erw^;
words
of French
restored,as
in
tion
introduc-
ME
indite,
makes
ence
differno
spelling
present pronunciationen-, em-^{-\a,-im)
enditen,
inquire,imprint. As
in the
as
prefixis en-,
it fluctuates in
the
"
"
some
words
between
French
T,Goo(^le
(1659.]
The
DERIVATION:
FOREIGN
PREFIXES.
475
are
folloving
examplesof purelyLatin words with this
:
inaugm-att,induce, invadt
prefix
immerse,
impel; illuminate,
tions
irrupHoK breakingin.' There are man}' new-formawith the French form of the prefix
: enlarge
; embody,
and tmpreve the Ladn
form
enkindU,enliven. In impoverish
of the prefix
has taken the placeof the less distincta- from
Latin ad-,the fonner word beii^ the Old French apovrir
'
white
[Ladn*appaupenre\
z=aprove. In
is of
Englishorigin.
1684.
The
French fonn is
the Latin
entertain,
preservedonly in enterprise,
substituted in all other words
been
of French
form
introduction:
interval.
intercede,
interpose,
interpret,
interfere,
having
In
inlelleei,
assimilation before I
is
such
as
international,
intertwist.
interchange,
'
within,'into
'
166B.
intro-
1068.
touta-, met-,
'
'with,''after,'
'change':
meth-
introduce,
introspection.
afi"r
comes
phosis;
metamorphysics,'
method.
16B7.
1068.
a
nenon-
'not':
'
nefarious,
ne-uler,neutral.
not.'
The
adverb
non
derivative in Latin,occurringonly as
'
as
the firstelement of
few
'
such
used in new-formations,
non'
as
non-conductor,
non-a^arance,
intervention.
Ob-, o(b}a-,
etc., 'towards,
0-, assimilated ocoobviate;os-tensible
'against':obedient,oblong,oh-slacle,
;
1069.
opposite.In
omit; occasion,occur, offend,
some
cases
the
( i673.]
tuivant
'
FOREIGN
DERIVATION;
state messenger
PREFIXES.
attendant.' The
or
477
are
following
'
'
tproB-
1667.
towards
'
pros-elyleHterallj'
coming
'
towards,'
prosody.
*pur-,see pro-.
in repeat, sition,'
as
red-, back,' repetition,'
oppoin resist,
intensitive
often
force,as
having
only an
1666.
as
in
'
re-,
In French
rejoice.
was
French
The
rentrer.
'
'
often became
re-
restored in
fullerform
r-
before
vowel,
in reenter from
as
English,
red- is preserved
in redeem,
redound
in
(-ri)
used
as
veal;
receive,
repeat,re-
which is freely
meaning 'repetition,'
strong (-rij)
in new-formations, such as reenter,reconsider,
reintroduce,
recover
an
distinctfrom
umbrella
the traditional
recover,
1669.
retro- 'backwards':
1670.
86-, fled-
retrospection.
retrograde,
seduce,
seclusion,
'apart,'
'away':secede,
select,
separate; sedition.
1671.
eemi-
'half': semicircle,
semivowel
semiireve.
semicolon,
"vocSlis],
as
[Latinsimi-
Also in new-formations,such
semi-detached.
1672.
sine-
1678.
'without'
sinecure,
etc.
'
whence
under,'
great
of secondarymeanings 'near,'
'behind,''following,'
variety
diminution,'approaching,'
'help,'
'completion,'
inferiority,'
the primarymeaning also developinginto that of stealth,'
"
'
'
'
'
'
'
nate,
subordisubscribe,
suburb,subsequent,
subterranean,
suborn ; succumb, suggest,
subdivide,
subvention,
support,
secrecy
suffix,
suffice,
supply,succour, surreptitious,sub- is freely
subway,
subsoil,
used in new-fonnations,
such as subcutaneous,
to express
especially
subordination etc.,as
in sub-corn-
1 i68i.]
FOREIGN
DERIVATIOW:
see
*treB',
SUFFIXES.
479
trans-.
1680. ultra-
'
both
beyond,'
of place
and of quantity
and
that is,
uUramonlatu 'beyond the mountains,'
superiority:
to the Italian partyin the Chnrch of Rome,'
'belonging
from beyondthe sea,'
tdtramarim
uliraa colour brought
used in new-formations to express excess :
mundane.
Freely
'
of
used
to be
as
an
in the sense
independent
adjective
the derivatives
Suffixes.
1681. The
suffixes
will now be treatedof under
foreign
the general
heads of 'noun-forming'
divisions
etc.,and the subthe suffixes under each
abstract,'
personal,'
section beingarranged
so that those which consistentirely
'
of vowels
'
come
and
first,
in the
consonants
are
Noun-fbrming.
Personal.
1683.
by -or, -er.
Thus
bouse is let on
lease,as
legatee,
grantee,
mortgagee. Some of these derivativeshave
'
takes out
'
'
patent; and in
some
cases
-w
is a
active
purely
suffixas in absentee,
devotee,
refugee.
The weak
French ""/"*""/
(1886).
'^G\A
attorney
and
-or
havingthe
'tr
(869).In
as
place,
481
Mn"
in Esrty
even
(ar)
opposite
changehas taken
sound
same
words the
some
SVFFIXES.
FOREIGN
t 1687.] DERIVATION;
in
miner,robber = ME minour,robbour.
words such as
1086. -or is generally
weak, but in legal
where it is contrastedwidi the pas^ve-"
lessor,
granlor,
it takes strong stress for the sake of emphasis
and
(lesa),
distinctness (le'sor).
-ary, sec under Adjective-forming.'
introduced into English
1087. *-Brd,-art. Although
from French,this suffix is of Germanic origin.In the
Germanic languages
-hard hard in the sense of strong,'
termination of proper names
of
was
a
'brave,'
frequent
"
'
'
'
men,
of which
many
whence
'
were
such
English,
as
"
of
'
French,
Renard the
which
fox,'
was
Richard.
Old
High
in the story
'fox'
The name-suffix
proper name.
used in Old French and the other
onlyas
survivbg
-ard,-art
was
Romance
to
languages
soon
firstnicknames,
and had
the Romance
form
a
'
'
tail
was
fonned Italian
withhistail
Old French cSarl 'coward,'
cedardo.
'(dog)
literally
between his legs.'
Other examples
are baslard,
wiiard,which
such as
from French,
and English
formations,
imported
drunkard,dullard,
niggard,
sluggard.This suffix
braggart,
is used to expressnationality
in Spaniard,
Savoyard,
probably
were
with
at first
an
namesof animals,
mallard'vUddnike' [fonned
as in buizard,
of
to form names
in French firomthe adjective
; rarely
maie]
as in petard,
things,
poniard[OidFrench/^ny 'fist'.]
VOL.
I.
48a
-eae, see
1688.
'
under
Adjecdve-forming.'
*-"H, French
persons and
from
-tsst
more
"
[S "688.
ACCIDENCE.
"
goddtst,
pro-
"
prioress,
baroness,
koskst,
p/uUss,prmlett,
coimteu,shepherdess,
tions
Hgreis. Exceptionalformapatroness,manageress; lioness,
in pointof meaning are : Jewess,
aegress ; mayaress=
'wife of mayor.' Final weak and silentvowels are omitted
before this suffis,
as
princess,
negress,
votary. Nouns
is added, as
-eff
negro,
when
Nouns
m.
-er,-or
in
of these two
weak
often throw
in
some
before
syllables
in
Similarly
further
out
actress from
tigress,
queror, treasurer.
Some
words show
(jom prince,
vo/aress
t^er, actor.-
-urer
-ess, as
in
murderess,
murderer, sorcerer,
con'
from
governor.
abbess,anchoress from
gmierness
changes:
the vowel
{duke),marchioness
{marquis),
the last being a weak form corresponding
mistress {master),
Mr. (mistar).
to the masc.
1889.
expresses
t-ist,Latin -ista from Greek -istes,
generally
a^otl, anchorite;duchess
adherence
or
'trade,'
'pursuit,'
etc.:
party, dogma
which is a convenient
pugiUst,chemist,scientist,
artist,
florist,
of science ; communist, nihiiist,
neologismfor man
to
'
'
deist. It is used
royalist,
in
more
generalsense
in such
In tobacconist
bigamist,co^ist,pravincialist.
from tobacco an n is inserted on the analogy of botanist,
derivatives as
egotist
by the side of egoista / on that of
dramatist,both insertions being prompted by the desire to
mechanist etc.,in
avoid hiatus.
The
in phantast,enthusiast.
-t-'Ost
parallel
1690.
names
'
he who
+-ite,Latin
-ita from
of nations,sects
was
bom
at
etc:
Greek
is used
-ties,
to
form
the Stagirite
Canaanite,Israelite,
Carmelite; Jacobite.
1691.
executrix,testatrix
from executor,
teslcstor.
T,Goo(^le
"i69S.]
FOREIGN
DERIVATION;
483
SUFFIXES.
DiminuHvt.
tapsult,
globule,
pastuU',animalcule^
-bIo, -oole:
1693.
the diminutive
where
the
corpuscule.The
"
-cle in French
to
meaning
prominent, whence
not
was
retain
eulicU
precedes:
1698.
the
'
diminutive
several
But
where
meaning, especially
thin skin,'
vtrsielt.
particle,
outer
-fit,-let.
words
in most
etc.
EnglisharUcU, oracle,
miracle,spectacle
of them
i
shortened
animaleulum
forms
-tt
diminutive
and
nouns
jectives:
ad-
cabinet,
islet,
coronet, circlet,
cygnel,leveret;dulcet,
On the analogyof Hrclet from circle etc.,where the
russet.
diminutive
a*new
regardedas partof the suffix,
"Ut has developeditself,
which is freelyused in tions,
new-formatroutUt,
such aa leaflet,
In many
streamlet,
ringlet,
to be
came
words
meaning.
Abstract.
*-y,-ey.
1694.
French
-te
nouns,
as
French
Some
such
"y
and is chiefly
from Latin -ia,
used
in
fury, modesfy,perfidy,and
words, such
and
special
more
as
comedy,tragedy,
family,navy.
Latin -ia is
frequentin
-y also
Latin
augury,
ending -ium, as in
stttdy,
formingconcrete as well as
neuter
but
-/=
most
Latin
generallyconcrete
corresponds to the
monastety,remedy,
abstract words.
of weak
representative
-u
in MnE
-afus
in
(I8S3).
ME
collective
sense
-e,
^=ME
(1716),is sometimes
"
"
the
cases
stract,
ab-
or
of districts
: treafy the learned doublet of which
names
tractate
strong becomes
French
in
of countries,
as
names
Asia, India,Austria.
poetry),
from
meanings,
-/
popular
more
concrete
Normandy, althoughin
Italy,
Germany, Sicily,
which when
Old
form abstract
to
in
and
barotty,company, courtesy,
fancy.
as
1696.
ME
in
is
[Latin
trac/dius]
; county,duc^.
; clergy
T,Goo(^le
484
I( 1696.
ACCIDENCE.
It often
1S96.
Old French
to
answers
-/e from
Latin
Late Latin)
-ata with the same
as -ahu :
meanijag
(generally
destiny,
tntry;army, jury;country.
of ^Vt ^ in Turkey
1887. The spelling
-ey is a mere variety
attorn^(French
{ME 7\trkie\
-i),
journey
(French
-/(f).
-y and -ey representa
1688.
vowels in isolated
which
"icia,
from
nouns
of other Fench
variety
in Latin
to form
abstract
chiefly
notice. The
: avarice,
malice,
justice,
adjectives
were
used
Englishnew-formations
in
-ise: practice,
-ice,
practise,
treatise.
1688.
-oy,-8y.
from
These sufSxeswere firstdeveloped
as
constancy,
constancia\/allacia,
themselves formed from the derivative adjectives
cbnsians
In MnE
ciated
{constantetn),faUax
theyarc stillasso[Jallacem).
with derivative/ and c, often taking
the placeof other
of Ladn origin,
as in conspiracy
-tion,
endings
especially
pare
[comoijftHo^=Latin
degeneracy
conspirator],
[degenerate],
etc.
cbnspirdtid
They have the same abstract meaning in
other
such as intricacy,
new-formations,
lunaey
intimacy,
from intricate,
where the second suffix-ic is
intimate,
lunatic,
many
In
disregarded.
is stillfeltto be
recent
cation
modifitions
forma-
suffix. A
office:
T,Goo(^lc
(I70".} DERlVATIOJf;
FOREIGN
1700.
also a collective
sense.
of
to form titles
Aeneid
Troy,'
or
485
SUFFIXES.
'
epicpoems,
as
the adventures
of
'
dunces.'
1701. The Greek -ad
occurs
from numbers,
to form abstractnouns
as in
especially
and decade with the French form of the
monad,triad,
myriad,
used
suffix.
1702.
*-ade is
French
of Italian-ada
adaptation
from
collective
nouns
from other
sometimes from
balustrade,
barricade,
colonnade;
cavalcare' ride'].Italsoforms
as in cavalcade[Italian
verbs,
abstract
nouns
from
noims
and
verbs:
blockade,
parade,
serenade.
promenade,
170S.
*-agefrom Latin
with
partsof speech
marked of which
-aiicum forms
from various
nouns
of meanings,
the
great variety
ness, as
{a)collective
most
in
gage,
lugbaggage,
or
cordage,
plumage,cellarage
; (b)profit
bandage,
as in mileage
chargein relationto the root-word,
payment
also collectively
or allowance for travelling
per mile,'
gate
aggreof miles,'
leakage
poundage,
; (f
postage,
) action or state
language,
tillage,
quality):
(rank,
carnage, coinage,
voyage;
bondage,
courage, peert^e.
are
'
'
-rnent,Latin -mentum,forms
forms abstractnouns
nouns
from verbs.
It
or result,
as
action,
state,
expressing
viiichin Latin
in argument,
emolument,
means
both 'labour'
'
T,Goo(^le
48"S
[J"70S.
ACCIDENCE.
and endearmeni,
formed from French verbs,
btreavemenl,
formed
from
verbs. Id concrete
which are
English
fulfilment,
of an action,
as
words -mttU expressessometimes the means
in instrument,
ornament,sometimes its
Ugamettt,
pavement,
are
as in apartment,
result,
fragment,
segment.
-mental
adjective-suffix
as in experimental,
whence
instrumenial,
(1780),
fundamental,
-mentality
againisfonned theabstractnoun-suflix
(1718),
in instrummtalify.
as
-Ine,see
-in,
1706. -ion
'
Adjective-foiming.
Latin -10 {-ionenC),
which
from
(-siOD,
-tion)
forms abstractnouns
session
action,
eompultion,
passion,
; education,
fiction,
tion.
descripSome have developed
concrete meanings,
such as
Old French form of this
nation,
ligion,
r^ion.The popular
suffix
the t being
absorbedintothe preceding
sound
was -fy,
in various ways, whence MnE
reason
the
[compare
more
learnedration,
arson, treason. In less familiar
rational^
whence theME forms opiniun,
words theLatint was restored,
MnE (-iuun)
etc. In Early
shortened to
was
condieioun,
-ana
is used in new-formationsfrom
names
of persons
'
'
'
"
"
'
'
the plur.
celebrities
coUecdon of anecdotesof
ana
etc.,
now
being
(i7i".3 DERIVATION;
1708.
*lliiOe,-enoe
487
SUFFIXES.
FOREIGN
-mlia
(-arinit),
as in arrogana,
-dns,-ins,ace. anitm,-eniem (1742),
endings
which isalso
licence,
innocence,
; experimct,
pemlmce,
ignorance
distinction
with an arbitrary
writtenmore phonetically
license,
of meaning.The above' words preserve theirLatin roots,
in -once
but most of the derivatives
are
of French formation:
entrance,
repentance.
grievance,
forms abstract
1710. -or, *-our from Latin -or, -orem
from verbs. In MnE the French spelling
-our
nouns, chiefly
in more
is preferred
to the Latin -or, especially
words,the usage beingthe contraryof that which
popular
prevails
with die
are
some
new-formations
behaviour.
: demeanour,
1711. The
lengthened
ending-OT7=Latin-oriiu,
-oria,
and abstract
in
which
forms adjectives
nonns
precede
/,-(;)
the ending such as obliga/oty,
compulsory,
cursory; history,
oratory,
victory.
Old French -ri",
from the additionof
1712. *-ry,
arose
the abstract suffix -ie (1604)
to the French ending
-(t^er
in
chsvakru bodyof knights,'
as
chevalerie,
(1688),
chivalry'
(tornchevalier'rider,'
Latin caballarius].
In
'knight'
(Late
also it was associatedwith the pergonal
suffix-er
English
such derivatives
In MnK thissuffixis
as fishtr-y.
through
used in derivatives
from nouns, and occasionally
from
mainly
"
"
'
'
wneie
vesunenis
in
as
ete,,
Kept ; (e)toe
resuii or
proauci oi
acuon
in infantry
poetry,
(/)collectivity,
Uipestry;
as
band
literally
'
1718-
are
of youths,'
peasantry,
yeomanry.
from Latin -ura, which is generally
preceded
-ure
Old
/,{s).In popular
by derivative
thus Latin
(1683);
way
armdtura
becomes in Old French armeurt, which in MnE
has become armour
by the influence of the suffix-our. The
in the
/ is of course
same
as
in
preserved
in -"
learned words,such
as
nature.
picture.In
in
some
nouns, such
as
furniture,
trtsor.
ireasure=0\i French leisir,
leisure,
pieisir,
pleasure,
'
Adjective-forming.'
"
habits of
or pronunciation"
or attachment to
language
some
creed,
archaism,
provincialism
;
partyetc, : Anglicism,
mannerism,pugilism
despotism,
patriotism,
tivism,
posi; Calvinism,
conservatism,
/ to
egotism
by the side of egoismowes
its
egotist
{1680).
in -tkis
adjeciives
there beingno
derivative,
simple
be
as
regarded
corresponding
adjective
in -If.
1716. -ate from Latin -atus,
gen. -dtus expresses office,
and the new-formaliona
as in consulate,
function,
episcopate
489
SUFFIXES.
FOREIGN
DERIVATION;
(I7I90
express the
bolder of the office,
and also in a collective
as in magistrate,
used
cardinalate,
being sometimes
pro/essorak,
'
elector
ait 'body of electors' (also
syndicate,
in
as
sense,
to
dignityof Elector').
'itnde
1717.
from
nouns
tude
soUieitude. In multilassitude,
: healitude,fortiittde,
adjectives
it has developeda concrete meaning.
ME
~U forms
'-ty Latin -tds,
-totem.Old French -fe,
from adjectives:
abstract nouns
Itderty;
variety;antiquity,
dig1718.
often added
-iiyis
mfy,intipidity,vam'^.
so
to
tive-suffixes,
adjec-
that,for instance,
-city correspondsto -cious,
/erocify,
capacity
-idity to -id,as
{capacious),
in
as
in this way
in
dity,
insipi-
timidity,
-alityto -al,as in reality,
vitality,
-ilityto -il
and -ile,
as in civilify,fertilify,
-Uity
the
vulgarity,
most
regular and
-ble
in
to -ar, as
frequent correspondence
(1719)and -bility,as
The
toluiilily.
durability,
above
certainly,
plenty,
pity,property,the
poverty,
learned doublets piety,proprieQi. In
the
suffix has
meaning,
concrete
as
in
nobilify,
are
regularify,
in
changes,such
two
some
last
having
words
this
cify,deity,
gratuity,
university.
AdjeotlTQ-fbrmiiig,
'-ble from Latin -iilis,
as in ^bilis
ttoUe,'
/eiilis
to be wept over," lamentable,'
whence
weeping,'doleful,'
Old French Jleble,
febU, whence, again,our fuhk, of which
1710.
'
foibleis
bilis
or
'
'
"
'
later French
'
'
terridoublet,toleraUlis tolerable,'
'
frequently
precedeit in
Latin"only esceptionally
by other vowels,as
Latin it has
no
in soluble. In
is used both in
an
but in Englishthe
(asin flihilis');
-bk being associated with the adjecpassivemeaning prevails,
tive
able from Latin habilis,
for instance,being
navigable,
active and
passivesense
[J1710.
ACCIDENCE.
49"
So aJsoin
to able to be navigated'
as equivalent
regarded
nluile. In
legible,
admirable,
malUable,
tolerable,
flexible,
in
however the suffishas an active meaning,
as
some
Ktu^U.
There are
durable,
; forcible,
favorabU,
peaceable
'
such as wibearaile,
-aile,
eatable;
formed from refyon, dependon. In the
reliable,
dependable,
many
formations io
new
is keptfor
the preposition
colloquial
gelatable
1720.
Latin
the sake of
from
origin,
'
and
quadruple,
1781.
multiple.
"-bond:
-bunct,
which is also a
1722.
in
moribund, rubicund;oagaiond,
nouD.
forms adjectives,
from
-ikds,
generally
nouns, many
derivationsbeingalso used
some
of these
so.
exclusively
Thus we have the Latin domestic,
puilie,
gemric,
rustic^^
Greek catholic,
lonie. This suffixalso forms
mythic,
cynic,
in aquatic,
as
part of the Latin compound suffix -aiic,
lunatic. There is alsoa Greek ending
-ticpreceded
fanatic,
by difTerentvowels,in which the / is partof the body of
the word: emphat-u,
systematic
[compare^stemai-iiu\;
athletic,
phonetic;
despotic.
as
nouns,
names
of
races
and languages,
and
in Celtie{Keltic),
Germanic,Italic,
as
formations such
formed from
as
new-
Fimtie,Indie,Tiufgutie,
Hanseatic,
Hansa,Sanse-lowm
on
the
d Asiatic
analogy
from Asia.
1724. Of the words in -ic
some
and lunatic,
which is now
also adjectives,
noun;
such
language,
as
such
things,
used
as
which however
Celtic,
Gaelic,
as
chiefly
tank,others
is
generally
T,Goo(^lc
Si7j6.]
FOREIGN
DERIVATION;
and
sciences,such
SUFFIXES,
also many
are
491
which denote
arithmttic,
music,especially
logic,
as
in the plur.
: phonttics.physics
[thesvag.physichas
malhtmalics,
meaning],
optia.
Ukhni
hilogike
IB
In Greek
now
was
logic
crete
con-
called
was
as
reason
feni.noun,
unchanged
'the
adoptedinto Latin,either
was
logice or
"
which
"
and from
logica;
"
passedthroughFrench
of the
same
kind
'
of the
use
plur.mathema/ics
by the Englishhabit
by adding the plur.s, as
aided
rheumalics
is
of
an
into
making adjectives
in grtem,
and
news
the
nouns
vulgar
rheumatism.
1726.
'
'
from
another
one
through
the
'
former
having
become
noun.
1726.
wi/, the
almost
new
-icol and
as
m
indifferently,
while in other
a
marked
When
the
cases
shorter -ic
suffix
adjective
geruric{al),
mylhicifiPi,
pot/ic(aI),
of
divergence
meaning,
as
in
accompanied by
politic{at),
comic{at}.
the
as
a
ic{s)is used exclusively
noun,
tinction,
corresponding adjective
always take -al for the sale of disstillsay cynicpkilosophtT
as in cjmic(al)though we
who
in the sense
of 'philosopher
is a cynic' musicifil),
a-
word
the
on
in
"
"
mathimatical.
ACCTDBNCE.
493
1737. t-iao forms
[}1727.
used
"
"
hypochondriacial),
Syriac.
from adjectives,
1728. -id fonoB adjectives
verbs,and
nouns
: acid,
vivid.
morbid,languid,
splendid,
fiuid,
intrepid,
Some of these,
such as acid and fiuid,
also used as
are
nouns.
as
nouns
anihropoeidh
havingthe form of
'
the
ending
generally
preceded
by o, -oidhas come to be regarded
suffixin such words as anlhr"^oid
as an independent
bling
resemthe
o
f
which
on
there
man,'cycloid,
rhomboid;
analogy
such
as
are
numerous
new-formations,
alkaloid,
aneroid,
most of which are nouns,
tabloid,
1780. -al. Latin -dlisisa very frequent
adjective-ending
in
is the French
which
as
eternal,
naiural,
real,
equal,
royal,
form corresponding
the learned regal,
both from Latin regalis.
So also-ial : esseniial,
martial,
pestilential.
added
-ic(1722),
to the adjective-Buffix
178L -alis often
the resulting
-iosl beingoiXisnregarded
as an
independent
whence such new-formations
whimas lackadaisical,
suffix,
a
as
was
'
1732.
such
meanings,
as
with
nouns
of
great variety
individual,
general;animal;mineral,
allof which
capital,
journal,
were
originally
adjectives,
many
used as such.
beingstill
used in MnE to form abstractnouns,
1733. -al isespecially
from verbs,
such as arrival,
denial,
mostly
fitneral,
proposal,
Some
these
such
had the
trial.
of
as
funeral
refusal,
in ME, while othershad the ending
which
same
-aiUe,
ending
Latin
French
form
of
the
-alia
neut. plur.
is the old
adjective
of ihem
"
from
-dlis. Thus
victuals appears in ME
"
in the form of
(1738.] DER!VAT!ON;
FOREIGN
SUFFIXES.
493
of the
which afterwards influenced the spelling
mctuSlia,
word.
the Tormer beingmainly
Latin -His,-His,
17S4. -U, -lie,
from verb-roots,
the latterfrom nouns.
From -iiis: ductile,
missile. From -Uis: civil,
hostile,
feriiU,
fragile^
juoenik,
servile. In genlle
have an English
of French
we
shortening
which was re-introducedinto Mn"
in the form of
gentil,
genteel,
gentile
beinga third doublet which representsthe
to a ginsor family.'
Latin form genSlisbelonging
original
The shortening
alsowritten
is French in Aumile,
stable,
subtle,
'
in the
more
EarlyMnE
-ile
-il,
bat now
pronoimced
(-il),
many words written
with (-ail)
'He are pronounced
throu^the influenceof the
spelling.
from Latin -3nus forms adjectives
noting
de1785. -an, -aaa
were
both
persons, such
many
of which
and
publican
are
as
also used
as
nouns.
such
Others,
as
used
onlyas nouns.
and nouns
This suffixis used especially
to forms adjectives
sects etc.,such as Anglican,
Puritan,
denoting
religious
and
in
as
Mahometan,
nations,
Roman, German,American;
ithas
similarfunctionin Elizahtthan.
1786. The
popularFrench
in a few
which is preserved
-ain,
captain,
was
words,such as
English
villain.
EarlyMnE a
variant of -an, human and humane being
mere
orthographic
writtenat random without any distinction
of meaning.We
in imitationof the
now
apparently
pronounce -ane ('ein)
of Latin -anus.
English
pronunciation
VIZI, -ane,
1738.
-Ban,
as
in
humane,mundane
French
-een,
was
in
same
meaning
is a lengthened
form of Latin -aeus, -eus, the
-an{e),
in Latin itself
in some words.
-aednus occurring
lengthening
of Latin the
By the influence of the English
pronunciation
but the older
endingis in most words pronounced
('ian),
as
ACCIDENCE.
494
in which
pronunciation,
kept up in
Strong-tan
1789.
such words
in
1739.
weak, is still
herculean.
MediUrratuan, eerulean,
as
-ian"
the
meaning as
same
and nouns
pressing
exbeing especially
frequentin adjectives
rank etc. : htslorian,
librarian,
musician,
occupation,
pfysician,
tragedian
plebeian
presfy; patrician,
; Christian,
-an,
Iranian.
terian;barbarian,AraUan, Italian,
1740.
Latin
of which
some
adjectives,
-imu,
-inus forms
also used
are
as
numerous
nouns
Alpine,
saline ; elephantine,
crystalline,
vulpine
feminine;
; divine,
Palatine,Philistine; clandestine
"
when
(in),
short,
was
Zatin.
EarlyMnE
In
and
weak-stressed,
-ine
this is stillthe
French.
1741.
such
is
as
There
are
many
in Latin
nouns
original
resin.
li^tme, medicine,discipline
; dolphin,
large number
of chemical
words
in
iodine.
protein,
caseinie),
fibrin{e),
When
familiar
-ine and
they are
the J'rench
written
generally
as
(-ijn),
in
newly formed
numerous
"in{e),
There
-ine,-in,such
as
pronounced with
gelatine,
glycerine. So
trade-words,such
as
also in
brillantine,
butterine,
1742.
endings-dns
-ant, -ent from the Latin pres. partic.
form adjectives
and
-ins [^-entem'),
(-on/rm),
nouns
from verbs.
:
Adjectives
arrt^ant,rehutant,ignortmt; eminent,innocent,
penileni. Nouns : dependant[adjective
inhabitant,
dependent],
accident. Many words in -ant
torrent;instant,
agent,student',
French formations 1 brilliant.
are
Early MnE, Old French
brillani;
pleasant;merchant,servant.
1748. -lent,from Latin -lenlus and -lens i^-leniem)
; "^enl;
lurbulenJ.
pestilent,
violenl,
T,Goo(^le
(1749-1
From
FOREIGN
DERIVATION;
these must
SUFFIXES.
495
be
fonned
distinguished
adjectives
insol-ttit.
(1741),such as henevol-ent,
pieseut participles
from
-pie,see -ble.
1744.
from Latin
-er
similar,singular. The
-tr, and
suffixwas
in ME
famliar, popular,regular,
-*"":
some
Englishwith it,such
form
were
of this
inuoduced
as
Latinized in MnE.
-apy from Latin -irius forms
1746.
nouns:
and personal
adjectives
extraordinary,
tary,
primofy, nteessaiy,tew^orary; digniincmdiaty,
tecrttary.
In
-ior.
1746.
Latin
-ior
which
endingof adjeclivea,
is
(-iorem)
also used
are
the comparative
nouns
as
in/erior,
superior,
junior,senior.
-ior is the
and
fem.
"
747-
from
nouns
-ese
Porlugusse.It
Maltese,
Chinese,
Japanese,
of countries :
names
is also used
of authors
and
adj*ectives
in derivatives from
fiuuiliarly
such as
express their languageor style,
and long'a pompous
Johtuomse'languageof Dr. Johnson,'
names
to
winded styleresemblinghis,'
Macaulayae.
1745.
from Latin
*'Oiu
-06e,
-onsus,
-mts,
which
was
from nouns:
bellicose,
verbose;
adjectives
jocose,
So also in
luminous,monstrous.
fcJ/uhus,
furious,glorious,
used
form
to
the new-formations
In MnE
1749.
written
that
the
grammars,
Ssus
many
language in the
was
in Latin
murderous.
mischievous,
"
-us
one
"
that
nom.
thus in MnE
we
harbara
masc.
-ous
came
which is the
being written
(fem.sing.nom.
Latin words
most
on
frequentform of
this
case
barbar
T,Goo(^le
49*
tS"75o.
ACCIDENCE.
form;
oMiious,spurious.
The
ending
-it is made
also in credulous,erroneous,
so
less
frequentnOm.
and nouns:
adjectives
like,''belonging to
1761.
Latin
-esco,
-iscus,forms
arabesque,grotesque,literally
'grottoa
grotto,'
picturesque,
statuesque.The
noun
in illustrious [Latin
in-
into -ious,as
scurrilous.
l"siris,
iims/ris],
Italian
1750.
*-eaqne from
sing.masc.
as
verb.
-/
into
lute,
absoexquisite,
infinite;
private,temperate; complete;definite,
Others
minute.
destitute,
with the Ladn
come
change of / into
dense,diverse,
sparse. Some
in certain combinations
of these
"
such
as content
existed
"
"
"
In
in -atus
Latin,adjective-participles
from
directly
caudate
'
nouns,
as
formed
sometimes
were
"
correqiondingto
in gcienti"c
especially
such
formations
like
in Latin itself
; thus we
littie moon,'
'
'crescent-shaped'
[Latinlunula
'with
moon'],angvsti/oliale
of these
narrow
leaves.'
-ate
shaped
'litde
also
was
affectionate.
1752. Many
have lunulate
adjectives
naturallydevelopedinto
such
nouns
personal(masc.)
and in Late Latin cHrdtus,
as
legdlus one deputed,'legate,'
which in ClassicalLatin is used onlyas an adjectivecareful,'
nouns.
have
In Latin itselfwe
'
'
'
'
T,Goo(^le
FOREIGN
I'7S4-1 DERIVATION;
has
the meaning'curate.' In
developed
neater
nouns
in
-mn
Latin we
497
have also
t^tum
commanded,''mandMe,'
written,'
handand Late Latin maituscripium
tribiilum tribute,'
edict,'
such
'
WFFIXES.
as
fflOMd^ium'what is
'
'
fonned in
'
arose
(La.^n
plamdum)
which
or simply
lead,'
acetatum,
piumbumacetaium vinegared
Was regarded
now
as a noun, whence we
say acetate of lead,
shortened into nitrate. T9
nitrateofsoda,
carbonateofpotoih,
of chemical action the ending
-ito has
expressa less degree
formed from -ate nitrite,
been arbitrarily
sulphite
ofsoda.
tendenciesof English
1754. In accordancewith the general
made intoverbs ; thus,
were
as the
many of these adjectives
had
dry and clear (OE dryge.Old French cltr)
adjectives
from the verbs to dry,
become indistinguishable
lo clear (OE
so that the verbs seemed to be
Old French clairier)
Sdrygan,
from the adjectives,
formed directly
so also such adjective'
"
as
content,corrupt,direct,
aggravate,
participles
debate,
At firstthe
did dutyfor the passive
panic,of these new
ending-/(")
moderate,
s^aratecame
verbs,as in ^
to be used as
to
contract
was
verbs.
but theysoon
began to
th^ have degenerate,
Englishinflection-ed,so that a distinctionwas
the land
was
desolate(adj.)
and the land
take the
made between
was
dtsO'
of the new
some
By degrees
to be used as adjectives,
such
came
.themselves
participles
lated(earlier
by war.
desolate)
as
VOL.
I.
The
498
[|I76S.
ACCIDBlfCB.
such verbs
as
venerate
oiseveraie./ascinatt,
itis
not
such
an
etc.
were
without the
in -ale,
of course,
although,
adjective-partic.
alwayscertain in individualcases whether there was
an
-ale was
form or not. This verb-forming
intervening
from French,as in /w/aile[French
extended to verbs imported
verb jn -are,
vAtinalt.
incapax,subsiantiate,
form
such as assassinate.
origin,
forms adjectives
and nouns
:
furtive,
primitive;
active,
passive,extensive,
captive,
native,
representative
motive,
prerogative.The popular
; aUernative,
Old French form of this sufGs was -if,
preservedin MnE
of which captive
is the learneddoublet" /iMwAy. In
caitiff
of these the ending was
afterwards Latinized as in
some
from plaintif,
which was
restive from older restiff
plaintive
originally
appliedto a horse which 'remained' (French
176S.
"
in one place.
rester')
Verb-forming.
from Latin -ficare,
of
*-fy,French -jier
a weakening
forms
causative
from
verbs
and
nouns
facere'do,''make,'
1756.
(pronouns):
adjectives
deify,
edify,
modify;
fortify,
pur0,
such *].
qualify
[qvalis
1757. ^-iab. Many French verbs in -ir conjugate
partly
'
ending -sco
Old French
itwas
of inchoativeverbs (290.
-isco etc.)
i). In
{-esco,
and in ME
this jj=Latin sc had the sound (J),
extended
to the
D,g,i,7?"iT,Goo(^l
1788.] DERIVATION
; FOREIGN
SUFFIXES.
499
verbsthathad \\,9"'\a
'flourish's
finushm hnK\\'fibrisi/ien
Old French fiitir
ist pcrs.
[Modem French finir],
fiHrir,
'
from Latinymire,"fimt^
phir,
flSrissons
pres.iaAic.fmissoru,
So also in abolish,
rtovrish,
cherish,
cere,fiorire,
florisctre.
perish,
punish.From such as these it was extended in ME
as in
iss-fbrms,
astonish from Old French es/oner,
diminish,
dtsfingvish,
publish,
Enghshverbvanquish.It was also used in purely
such as famishfrom famine.
formations,
Latin inchoative -see
The original
to many
taken
from
directly
Latin
or
never
which
had any
effloresceifti).
acquiesee,
effervesce,
-ate,see under Adjective-forming.'
'
French -istr,
Latin 'isare,
-itsSrefrom
t-iae,-iao,
Greek -Uein,
is used to form verbs ftom nouns
and adjectives.
1768.
It
occurs
in Greek
such
formations,
as
agonize,
crystallixe,
as
civilOse,
now
END
OF
PAKT
t.