Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 2013

Vol. 21, No. 1, 117133, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2012.681787

Effective environmental interpretation at Chinese natural attractions:

the need for an aesthetic approach
Honggang Xua, Qingming Cuia, Roy Ballantyneb and Jan Packerb
a

School of Tourism Management, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China; bSchool of Tourism,
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
(Received 19 December 2010; final version received 27 March 2012)
In western society since the 1970s, interpretation has played an important role in improving tourists appreciation of the natural environment, developing their environmental
attitudes and facilitating the adoption of environmentally sensitive behaviour. In China,
interpretation of natural attractions is a more recent phenomenon and a largely cognitive
approach has been taken, focusing on the presentation of scientific information. This
paper questions whether the scientific approach used in the development of environmental interpretation in Chinese natural areas meets the needs of Chinese tourists. It
explores this theoretically through an examination of the relationship between Chinese
tourists and the natural landscape, noting that landscape memories and intangible cultural heritage are important mediators of Chinese landscape appreciation. Practically,
research in the Danxia Shan National Natural Reserve and Geo-Park demonstrates that
self-guided interpretation using the western scientific approach with signage, an information centre and a geological museum, is ineffective, and ignored by the majority
of visitors. Guided tours, employing an aesthetic approach to interpretation, using
stories, art and poetry to emotionally engage visitors with the landscape, appear more
appropriate, culturally relevant and effective in China. Key techniques used by guides
include numerous adjectival words, figurative or metaphorical landscape descriptions
and exaggeration of the landscapes beauty.
Keywords: environmental interpretation; Chinese visitors; aesthetic interpretation; natural attraction; sustainable tourism; cultural differences

The introduction of a protected area system has contributed greatly to the conservation
of natural reserves in China. The enthusiasm for conservation and the establishment of
protected areas has been rising since the 1980s in tandem with economic and tourism
development. Domestic tourism in China started to boom in the mid-1980s. About 300
million tourist trips occurred in 1991; by 2008 that had grown to 1.7 billion (China Travel
and Tourism Press, 1992, 2009).
Protected areas are important locations for nature-based tourism in China. Chinese
people naturally desire and enjoy being surrounded by natural landscapes (Lin, 1939). With
increasing income and the pressure of urbanisation, more and more people are seeking
to visit protected areas for leisure purposes. With the upsurge in visits to protected areas,
the key issue for management authorities is to ensure a balance between the needs of
conservation and the needs of recreationists to manage the area sustainably.
In western society, environmental interpretation is considered to be a major tool for
improving the tourist experience in protected environmental areas as well as in helping
to manage negative impacts of tourism development by increasing visitors awareness of

Corresponding author. Email: xuhongg@mail.sysu.edu.cn

C 2013 Taylor & Francis

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inappropriate activities they should try to avoid (Kuo, 2002; Orams, 1996). Interpretation
plays an important communication role between park administrators, visitors and local citizens (Machlis, 1986). Interpretation can be used by park administrators to inform visitors
about park regulations, policies, plans and other management information. Good interpretation can foster positive attitudes towards conservation (Van Dijk & Weiler, 2009). In
addition, interpretation plays a key role in developing tourists appreciation of the natural
environment, and facilitating their adoption of pro-environmental attitudes and environmentally responsible actions in protected areas (Ballantyne & Packer, 2011; Ballantyne,
Packer, & Falk, 2011; Ballantyne, Packer, & Sutherland, 2011; Chen, Hwang, & Lee, 2006;
Hwang, Lee, & Chen, 2005).
Western approaches to interpretation have typically combined elements of information,
understanding, appreciation and persuasion. Tilden (1977, p. 8) first defined interpretation
as an educational activity which aims to reveal meanings and relationships through the use
of original objects, by firsthand experience, and by illustrative media, rather than simply to
communicate factual information. He argued that although interpretation includes information, information, as such, is not interpretation. Interpretation is revelation based upon
information (p. 9). Its chief aim is not instruction but provocation. Similarly, Markwell
and Weiler (1998) suggested that interpretive experience should be both intellectually
challenging and emotionally stimulating. According to Lee and Balchin (1995), the aim
of interpretation is to communicate a message in order to achieve knowledge gain and/or
attitude change. By increasing visitors knowledge or understanding, interpretation can
potentially prompt more environmentally responsible behaviour, which is a major aim of
environmental education and interpretation. Thus Moscardo (1996) argued that interpretation should educate tourists about the site, inform them of the consequences of their actions
and encourage them to engage in sustainable behaviours.
Generally, the principles of good interpretation (see Table 1) always refer to the importance of gaining a deep understanding of the audience. Information about the target
audience (their prior learning, past experiences, culture and ways of perceiving the environment) is essential to inform the design of effective interpretation that connects the visitor
with a landscape or experience. Good interpretation should relate what is being displayed
or described to something within the personality or experience of the visitor (Tilden,
1977, p. 9). Different psychological and physical characteristics and cultural contexts lead
to different ways of appreciating landscapes. Thus, knowledge of culture and cultural differences should inform the development of interpretive materials for use in landscape
appreciation.
Yuhikaku (2001) proposed a model of the cognitive processes associated with understanding a landscape. According to this model, landscape cognition relies on past memories
as well as current perceptions of the landscape. Visitor cognition of a landscape is viewed
as a combination of sensing, feeling, imagining and understanding. During the cognitive
process, sensation is taken as the starting point and precondition for the other actions. Cognitive processing of sensations is necessary in order to make meaning and thus aesthetically
appreciate the landscape.
Rockmore (2004) drew attention to an important difference between eastern and
western aesthetics. Western aesthetics are concerned with beauty as well as truth and
knowledge. Chinese aesthetics follow rules and methods in attaining enlightenment (Wu)
and emphasise naturalness and regularity. Searching for knowledge does not play a very
important role in the aesthetic experience for Chinese tourists. Rather, landscape memories
and intangible cultural heritage are important mediators of Chinese landscape appreciation.

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Table 1. A summary of major principles of effective interpretation.

Tilden (1977)
Any interpretation that does not somehow relate what is being displayed or described to
something within the personality or experience of the visitor will be sterile.
Information, as such, is not interpretation. Interpretation is revelation based upon information.
Interpretation is an art, which combines many arts, whether the materials presented are
scientific, historical or architectural.
The chief aim of interpretation is not instruction, but provocation.
Interpretation should aim to present a whole rather than a part and must address itself to the
whole man [sic] rather than any phase.
Interpretation addressed to children should not be a dilution of the presentation to adults, but
should follow a fundamentally different approach.
Ham (1992)
Interpretation is entertaining.
Interpretation is relevant.
Interpretation is organised.
Interpretation is thematic.
Moscardo, Ballantyne and Hughes (2007)
Interpretation must make a personal connection with, or be relevant to, the intended audience.
Interpretation should provide or encourage novel and varied experiences.
Interpretation should be organised with clear, easy to follow structures.
Interpretation should be based on a theme.
Interpretation should engage visitors in the learning experience and encourage them to take
control of their own learning.
Interpretation should demonstrate understanding of, and respect for, the audience.

The poems, philosophies, teachings and stories embedded in landscapes and taught during
schooling influence Chinese perception and cognition of natural landscapes (Xu, Ding, &
Packer, 2008). These preferences thus need to be reflected in environmental interpretation
in national parks and protected areas. To be successful and effective in engaging Chinese
visitors and increasing their appreciation of the natural environment, interpretation in China
needs to be informed by a Chinese view of the world the natural environment should be
viewed through Chinese spectacles. Similarly, measurement of the effectiveness of Chinese interpretive experiences needs to focus on the emotional elements of the experience,
rather than purely cognitive effects, as suggested by Poria, Biran and Reichel (2009).

Understanding the Chinese way of approaching the natural landscape

Ways of thinking
The Chinese language uses distinct characters that are connected with imagery and lead to
concreteness in Chinese cognition. In the mid-1930s, Yutang Lin in the book My Country
and My People (1939) raised the issue of the Chinese way of thinking. He pointed out
that Chinese tend to think in a systematic, relational and concrete, rather than abstract,
way. They prefer figurative or metaphorical thinking, which involves associating specific
images with what they see (Li, 1959). For example, when Chinese see a mountain, they
always associate the mountain with the image of an animal that its shape resembles. Not
surprisingly then, there are a lot of mountains named after animals in China (Chiu, 1972;
Northrop, 1946; Yang, 1986). Since the Chinese way of thinking is a relational thinking,
they often tend to think about and learn things in the way that things can be associated
with them. There is no pure object world that needs to be cared about. Therefore, Needham

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(1956) and Ronan (1978) summarised that the Chinese view of the natural world tends to
find reality in relationship to the human being and explanation in structure between human
and nature, whereas the western view tends to find reality in substance and explanation in
mechanics.

Religious teachings
Although there are various reasons for Chinese tourists to visit natural sites, the most
important appears to be the search for aesthetic experience and moral enlightenment.
Chinese traditional philosophies have influenced Chinese motivations and attitudes towards
travelling and landscape appreciation (Xu et al., 2008). Confucius teaches that human beings
should learn from nature. Kind (ren) man enjoys mountain; Wise (zhi) man enjoys water.
Ren (kindness), which calls for love for all living creatures, is a core concept in Confucian
philosophy. This concept promotes the idea that humans should first love their closest ones
and then expand that love into nature. The ultimate moral achievement is =R;rn
meaning kindness to people and then loving nature. Zhuangzi argues that :-.t
,
,
,
,
(People with high morals
live in harmony with nature and would not hurt it; Lu, 2004). According to Zhuangzi, nature
should not be hurt only when it is not hurt can humans and the environment be in harmony.
Confucius teaches that travelling should not be undertaken unless there is a strong purpose
and the purpose can be moral improvement and self-enlightenment. Taoism suggests that
man should follow nature, search for aesthetic values and joy from experiencing nature,
and become fully integrated with nature. The Taoist theme of Wu Wei or effortless action is
something human beings can do to create organic harmonies that are not in pristine nature
to begin with. From above, it is argued that for Chinese tourists, seeking enlightenment or
enjoyment from being in nature is the most common motivation for travel to natural areas
and parks, rather than seeking scientific knowledge and understanding about environmental
processes and landscape evolution.

Heritage of cultural landscape

Due to the importance of Chinese philosophy within the society, throughout the centuries
scholars have frequently visited natural areas for self-enlightenment and to escape from
everyday distractions. Their reflections and experiences relating to visits to mountains and
areas of natural scenic beauty are contained in many poems and essays. It is difficult to
find a well-known natural site without any poems or stories attached to it. UNESCO has
recognised that in the Chinese experience, nature and cultural heritage are often inseparable,
therefore a few Chinese mountains, such as Taishan, Huangshan, Wuyishan and Emeishan,
are inscribed as mixed cultural and natural properties in the world heritage list for their
universal value in the combination of natural and cultural heritage (Fowler, 2003).
Chinese tourists demonstrate a strong preference for landscapes that have become
familiar through various images created by poets and artists. When Chinese tourists visit
natural areas, they are attracted by the stories they have heard about these sites. These
stories may be related to famous people who have visited the sites, or well-known poems
or stories about the sites. These poems, essays and stories are learned by the Chinese when
they are children. As a result, people have already developed a strong attachment to places
even before they visit they have prior cultural knowledge of many areas of natural scenic
beauty (Li, 2005; Xu et al., 2008). For instance, the Monkey King, a popular character in the

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Chinese novel Journey to the West, is one of the most frequently used. Accordingly, the most
popular site at Huangshan, the monkey looking over the cloud sea, is often interpreted
as the Monkey King Sun Wukong. The climbing on the Mountain Tai is to experience
seeing the smallness of surrounding mountains on the top of mountain Tai (-%fAL1\)
described by Du Fu, the most famous poet in the Tang Dynasty (AD 618907). For Chinese
people, natural landscapes are thus more likely to be understood and appreciated through
cultural rather than scientific knowledge. Indeed, it is very difficult to distinguish whether
it is the natural landscape or prior cultural knowledge that motivates Chinese tourists to
travel to areas of natural beauty.
The attractions of mountains and scenic places are not evaluated according to natural
beauty per se but according to the tangible and intangible cultural heritage embodied
in the landscape, especially its connections with famous people and famous poets. Reexperiencing what has been written in the poems is almost like undertaking a pilgrimage.
For instance, in Huangshan, people tend to search for places that Li Bai and other famous
poets have described in their poems. The average Chinese could spend several hours
expounding on what they see in famous Chinese landscapes whereas westerners often
have difficulty moving beyond the visible. When Western tourists look at the Yangtze,
they see a river; the Chinese see a poem replete with philosophical ideals (Sofield & Li,
1998, p. 367). Accordingly, standardised interpretation provided at many western sites will
reveal only a fraction of what the Chinese see at sites that are important from a cultural
heritage perspective (Li, 2008).
The quality of these cultural connections plays an extremely important role in the
ranking of the value of natural sites. For example, Tianlao Mountain became well known
due to Li Bais poem. In new places where there is a lack of accumulated poems, there
is a concern that tourists will not accept and connect emotionally with the sites. For
instance, Zhangjiajie is often considered to be a successful protected natural area that
attracts more than one million visitors every year. However, the Management Committee
has been concerned that visitors do not consider the area important as it lacks the richness
of cultural meaning compared with other historical mountains. In response, the Committee
invited poets, writers and artists to visit the site and produce poems, stories and art to
support the development of cultural heritage in the region.

Issues in interpreting natural areas in China: a case study of Danxia Shan

When China began to introduce interpretation into their national parks and protected areas,
they typically adopted a scientific approach that focused on the provision of scientific
information relating to the physical processes that underpin landscape development. Though
large resources (both human and financial) have been allocated to the construction of
interpretive materials for Chinese national parks and protected areas, yet there have been
few evaluations of the effectiveness of these materials in engaging Chinese visitors and
increasing their appreciation of the natural environment.
In the remainder of this paper,1 interpretation at the Danxia Shan National Natural
Reserve and Geo-Park in China will be used as a case study to illustrate some of the issues
associated with the development of interpretation strategies for Chinese tourists in the Park.
The case study aims to explore the extent to which existing interpretation strategies are
consistent with an understanding of the Chinese way of approaching the natural landscape,
and to investigate Chinese visitors engagement with, and responses to, the interpretation
provided.

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Figure 1. The location of Danxia Shan in China. Source: the author.

Method
Description of the site
The Danxia Shan National Natural Reserve and Geo-Park is located in Guangdong Province
(see Figure 1). Danxia Shan is considered a relative newcomer in relation to the recognition
of its scenic beauty and value compared with other famous scenic mountain areas in China
such as Huangshan. It was listed as a National Scenic Park in 1988 and later named a
National Natural Reserve and World Geo-Park in 2004. In August 2010, it was included
on the World Heritage list. The China Danxia World Heritage Site comprises six areas in
south-west China, of which Danxia Shan is one. They are characterized by spectacular
red cliffs and a range of erosional landforms, including dramatic natural pillars, towers,
ravines, valleys and waterfalls. These rugged landscapes have helped to conserve subtropical broad-leaved evergreen forests, and host many species of flora and fauna, about
400 of which are considered rare or threatened (http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1335).
A popular tourist guidebook describes the site as follows:
The mountain and water in Guilin may be the best in the world but Guangdong still has
Danxia (iif\L1j(Ef7(T,ra:ffr*-ft11). Danxia mountain combines the characteristics
of greatness (:i&), danger (it), greenness () and wilderness (). Danxia is famous for its red
cliffs which define the landscape and give their name to the region Chinese Red Stone Park.
Danshan Shan has been a tourist attraction since the Tang and Song Dynasties (around 700
AC). Danxia Shan is best known for its red sandstone cliffs and is a major geomorphological
visitor attraction not surprisingly, Danxia has thus become the name used in China to describe
red stone landscapes. Danxia is not a high mountain (c. 408 meters), however, the soaring
red cliffs rise straight up into the sky and from a distance appear to be red clouds. Although the
cliffs seem to be predominantly red, in close-up it can be seen that the rock is multi-coloured.

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The cliffs appear to have been shaped by sharp knives as they rise into the sky and, no matter
how tall the peaks are, they all look impressive and majestic. At the base of the mountain runs
the beautiful Jinjiang River which flows from North to South. The river is lined with bamboo
trees which waive elegantly and form an emotional backdrop to the water and attractive scenery.
(Jin, Yin, & Ma, 2003, p. 69, translated by the authors)

Tourism development of the Danxia Shan region has occurred in two stages. The first
stage was rapid and took place in the 1990s when two new scenic sites, Yangyuan and
Xianglong Lake, were opened to the public. The second stage began around 2004 when the
Park was named a World Geo-Park. There are now three areas open for public visitation: the
traditional Zhanglao Peak scenic sites, and the newly developed Yangyuan and Xionglong
Lake scenic sites. The Chinese preference for figurative thinking noted above is evident in
the naming of the geological features in Danxia Shan Park. Of the 70 mountain peaks in the
Park, 60 have been given names in the figurative tradition, such as Golden Ox, Phoenix
Head, Green Dragon and Golden Tortoise.
Zhanglao Peak is the tourist area in Danxia Shan with the longest history. There are
many interesting scenic spots along the tourist routes, such as stone carvings and old
temples. Although there is a cable car to the peak, most tourists walk to the top. There
are two popular peaks in the Yangyuan scenic area and the Xianglong Lake scenic area,
which resemble a female and a male sex organ (Yin Yuan Stone and Yang Yuan Stone:
Yin Yuan Stone should be named as Yinyuan Hole to convey the nature of the feature,
but the actual name in Chinese is Yin Yuan Stone to be compared with Yang Yuan Stone).
Tourists mainly visit the two stones in these tourist areas and seldom visit other sites.
According to a survey undertaken in 2007, the most frequently visited tourist areas in the
Danxia Shan are the Zhanglao Peak and Yang Yuan Stone sites (Guangdong Urban and Rural
Planning and Design Institute & Institute of Planning and Design of Sun Yat-sen University,
2009).
Visitation to the site has expanded rapidly from c.400,000 tourists in 1988 to 1,200,000
in 2006 (see Figure 2). According to the Danxia Shan Scenic Area Master Plan of 2007,
80% of the tourists to the area are from Guangdong Province (Guangdong Urban and Rural
Planning and Design Institute & Institute of Planning and Design of Sun Yat-sen University,
2009).

Figure 2. Tourist visitation to Danxia Shan during 19802006. Source: Administration Office of
Danxia Shan.

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Participants and procedures

Fieldwork was undertaken in the Danxia Shan Geo-Park in June 2010. A number of methods
were used to collect information:
Documents were collected regarding the development of tourism at Danxia Shan and
the nature and aims of existing interpretation programmes.
Formal interviews were conducted with the regional manager of visitor interpretation,
two park managers and three visitor guides to explore their perceptions of the nature
and effectiveness of the existing interpretation programmes. Each interview lasted
4060 minutes.
Three tour groups, each consisting of a guide and up to 30 visitors, and 16 independent
visitors were observed during their visit to the site in order to investigate their use of
different interpretive media such as interpretive and directional signage, the visitor
information centre, guidebooks and maps, and their interactions with tour guides.
Informal interviews were conducted with 11 visitors to the park (four males and
seven females; five members of tour groups and six independent visitors) regarding
the effectiveness of different interpretive media. Each lasted around 30 minutes.
Observations and interviews were conducted by Chinese-speaking research assistants
who had experience in tourism planning and interpretation in protected areas in China.
Interviews were recorded and later transcribed. The interview data were coded using the
techniques suggested by Huberman and Miles (2002) and Strauss and Corbin (1998), while
they were analysed using explanation-building techniques. Information from documents, together with field notes from the observations and transcripts of the interviews were analysed
and collated to provide a descriptive account of (1) the nature of the existing interpretation
strategies at Danxia Shan, and (2) the effectiveness of different interpretation media. These
are discussed in the light of an understanding of the Chinese way of approaching the natural
landscape.

Results
The nature of the existing interpretation strategies at Danxia Shan
The interpretation system at Danxia Shan was initially planned to meet the requirements
for designation, first as a national scenic park, second as a World Geo-Park and finally
in preparation for submission as a World Heritage Site. One criterion of a World GeoPark is that it must provide and organize support, tools and activities to communicate
geo-scientific knowledge and environmental concepts to the public through media such
as museums, discovery centres, interpretive centres, guided tours and other such tools
(UNESCO, 2008). Interpretation is also required to raise the awareness of decision-makers,
property owners and the general public about the importance of protecting and conserving
cultural and natural heritage (World Heritage Committee, 2008).
The interpretation programme in Danxia Shan was designed by the Planning Section of
the Park Administration. Although the Park Administration clearly perceives interpretation
as an important element of the visitor experience in natural areas, and interpretation planning
and infrastructure are among the requirements to be accredited as a National Protected Area,
a World Geo-Park or a World Heritage Site, no guidelines are available on how to develop a
best practice visitor interpretation programme for Chinese visitors. There is no designated

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staff in the Park who can formally evaluate the effectiveness of the visitor interpretation
programme, although some feedback has been obtained from tourist complaints.
Two types of interpretation are offered in Danxia Shan Park: self-guided and guided.
Self-guided interpretation is provided through signage, an information centre and a geological museum. Self-guided interpretation focuses mainly on scientific information, such
as the formation of the Danxia landscape. The self-guided interpretation system is generalised, static and passive unlike that provided through guided interpretation where tour
guides are able to actively interact with visitors and adapt the interpretation in response to
visitors needs and interests. In contrast with the scientific approach used in self-guided
interpretation, the interpretation delivered by guides is based upon a traditional Chinese
aesthetic approach in which landscape scenes and features (such as stones or peaks)
are interpreted using stories or poems. The traditional Chinese aesthetic approach has the
following features:
it contains a lot of adjectival words;
a substantial part of the interpretation uses various figurative or metaphorical methods
to describe the landscape;
the stories and poems contain artistic words to describe and exaggerate the beauty
of the landscape; and
only a small portion of the presentation contains information that could be described
as scientific in nature.
For instance, at the site of the Seal Stone, a guide was observed to introduce the site as
follows: Everybody! What does this mountain look like? Can you guess? Is it like a seal?
Head, mouth and eyes are all vivid. It raises up its head and seems to wait for a ball which
will fall from the sky. The guides interpretation was different from the text contained on
the interpretive board the guide used a figurative method to describe the mountain as a seal
and did not mention geological or geomorphological information. Similarly, Danxia is the
name of the special red sand stone landscape in China, which was later used as the name of
the Park. However, when guides talk about Danxia, they do not explain that Danxia means
the red stone, rather they relate Danxia to a poem colourful as strong cinnabar, sparkling
as bright sunshine (pft,LlJ;firlj11) Dan means red and xia sunshine.

Observations regarding the effectiveness of different interpretive media in Danxia

Shan
Interpretive signage
Danxia Shan has a total of 62 interpretation boards that are scientific 42 refer to the
regions geology and 17 to the vegetation. The other three boards present scientific knowledge together with figurative images. For instance, one of them interprets two geological
faults in Yangyuan scenic site scientifically, as well as interpreting them using the figurative image of elephants shuffling from mountains. The 62 boards were designed when
Danxia Shan was applying for the World Geo-Park title. They were designed by Chinese
scholars and managers of protected areas and generally consisted of scientific facts using
terminology that was mostly incomprehensible to non-specialists. The wording on many
of the boards was copied directly from an academic book on Danxia Shan morphology
written by a geographer from Sun Yat-sen University. Accordingly, it is not surprising that

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Figure 3. An interpretation board at the peak of Zhanglao Peak. Source: the author.

the information is not understood or appreciated by the general public the words do not
engage the visitor or connect with anything in their understanding.
Observation indicated that the signage did not represent best practice interpretation
in fact, it would be most correct to call it labelling of a kind often found in some out of
date western botanical gardens, viz., the provision of a Latin name and basic description of
a specific plant or geological feature. For example, this is the same root fratricidal was
used to describe the phenomenon of strangling Ficus macrocarpa, the Chinese banyan, on
one of the boards.
Visitor observations were conducted to explore their use of interpretation boards. During
a one-hour observation period, over 100 visitors arrived at Zhanglao Peak. Although an
interpretation board is located immediately in front of visitors when they arrive (see Figure
3), only two adults were observed to have stopped in front of it. These two only attempted
to identify the sites from the photographs on the interpretation board and did not read the
interpretive material written about them.
Exacerbating the lack of visitor interest in signs is the fact that many of them are located
in areas of low visitor traffic. For instance, in the Zhanglao Tourist Area, although most of
the interpretation boards are concentrated along the intended route to Jinyan Temple and
Conch Cave, almost all tourists who wish to climb to the top take a short-cut to the peak,
thus bypassing the signs. As a result, only two or three interpretation boards are glimpsed
by the majority of tourists who leave the main path and take the short-cut. Similarly, in
the Yangyuan tourist area, most of the interpretive boards are located in areas where few
tourists visit. There is only one interpretive board in front of the must-see sight, the Yang

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Yuan Stone. Even fewer interpretive boards are provided in the tourist zone of Xianglong
Lake, and only one is provided at the Yin Yuan Stone.
The management staff and tourist guides all confirmed the limited use by visitors of
the interpretation boards provided in the park. Most visitors are really only interested in
viewing the Yin Yuan and Yang Yuan stones because of their strange shapes they appear
not to want geological or geomorphological information about these objects.
The tourists we serviced liked to see these two strange stones in general . . .. Someone may ask
what kind of stone this is, and someone may recognise glutenite, but not many. Most people
did not want to know details. In fact, we guides cannot tell too much detail . . .. We cannot
understand many professional words on the interpretation board actually. Even some guides
cannot find out the actual landform on the interpretation board. I think tourists will not be
interested in the professional knowledge. (Visitor Guide)

The Manager of the Parks Planning Department agreed with the views of the guide
above:
I think our interpretation is too professional. Tourists do not pay attention to those . . .. We
should interpret Danxia landforms in an understandable and acceptable way. Our interpretation
is too boring and it is hard to make tourists understand what is going on with the landforms by
themselves. (Manager)

Interviews with Park Managers revealed a perception that the self-guided interpretation
provided in Danxia Shan was not designed to meet the needs of Chinese visitors but rather
to meet government regulations:
We have made a lot of scientific interpretation in order to apply for World Geo-Park [status].
Actually, this part needs some more improvement. I feel that tourists are not interested in that
kind of interpretation. We need some time to transfer scientific knowledge to folk knowledge.
(Manager)

Interviews with tourists confirmed that the scientific interpretation was of little interest
to them. Most had not even noticed the interpretation boards and could recall nothing of
their content.
I didnt see [the interpretation board]; I only saw some stone carving . . .. If you want to make
people accept the scientific knowledge, the interpretation must be easy. The more vivid the
interpretation words, the better. In my opinion, visitors do not read these things in general.
(Tourist)
We do not do research so only read a little. These things do not interest us; we dont remember
what have been written on the boards. (Tourist)

According to these tourists, the knowledge contained on park interpretive boards was
not easy to read, so they didnt read them.

Directional signage
Although they do not often read interpretive signage, visitors to the park rely on directional
signs to make their way to and from areas in the park. As one tourist remarked:
We saw some maps, which could direct us to the places we wanted to go.

Among the directional signs, the most frequently referred to was the map of the Park.
All the tourists interviewed reported that they had referred to directional signs as the road
system in Danxia Shan is complicated and there are a number of side roads. Tourists

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often get lost and complain to staff from the Danxia Shan Planning Department about the
inaccuracy of directional or warning signs.
Geological museum
The geological museum was also built for the Geo-Park title. It is located on the first floor
of the office building and upstairs are the park managers offices. There is substantial geological information in the museum. There is a large sand model of the Danxia landscape
in the centre of the museum, and a lot of pictures interpreting Danxia landforms hang on
the surrounding walls. Some scientific books about Danxia landforms can be found on a
counter in a corner of the museum. Interpretation in the museum also adopts a scientific
approach. Objects are placed outside of their environmental context and not linked to other
landscape elements rocks, for example, are displayed alongside each other with incomprehensible scientific name labels attached to them that convey nothing to the visitor about
the landscape processes that have created them. It was observed that very few visitors paid
attention to the museum displays and therefore their effectiveness in providing interpretation of the area was limited. As a consequence of the lack of visitors, museum interpreters
are rarely on duty, and thus visitor interest is even further diminished.
Visitor information centre
The information centre (contained in a separate building from the museum) was constructed
according to the national 4A programme and is seldom used by tourists. After its completion,
it was contracted to a private tour company who now use it to house the offices for their
paid tour guides. In this centre, there are only two old interpretive brochures available for
tourists to read they are not allowed to be taken away.
Guidebooks and maps
Chinese use of written guide materials is limited in Danxia Shan. Guidebooks are kept in a
locked glass counter at the store and few tourists ask for them only a couple are sold each
month. The interviewees reported that the only visitors who bought the guidebooks were
the parents whose children were required to write essays on their return from their fieldtrip
to Danxia Shan. Not surprisingly, observations in the field confirmed that few tourists
read guidebooks while touring the park. There were guide maps that were originally freely
available to tourists, but these were often discarded by tourists, causing a litter problem.
A charge was thus introduced and the guide map is now sold for 5 Yuan (approximately
US$0.75) charging for the map and guide materials appears to have stopped the littering
problem although it has hampered the provision of interpretive material for visitors.
Tour guides
At Danxia Shan two types of guides are available for tourist interpretation, one from the
Park and the other from commercial tour operators. All guides in China have to pass an
examination before practising (see Huang & Weiler, 2010). Guides operating at Danxia
Shan have thus received substantial training in communication skills as well as site-specific
information pertaining to the geomorphological and landscape processes operating on-site.
Geological knowledge of Danxia is a major part of the training. Many of the tourist guides
at Danxia Shan are graduates from Shaoguan College, which uses Danxia Shan for field

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training for their guide education program. Both Park and commercial tour operator guides
have been trained to mix scientific interpretation with an aesthetic approach through the
use of poems and stories. At four sites in the Park, guides are required to use a scientific
approach stories and legends are able to be told at other sites and when walking between
sites. For instance, stories of Monk Zhanhe are told at Biechuan Temple and stories about
important officials visiting other scenic sites are often described during a guided tour.
Although Danxia Shan has few famous poems dedicated to it and is sometimes considered to lack culture, guides still use traditional poems to describe scenic spots in the
area. For instance, when tourists reached the Zhanglao Peak, the guide was observed to
recite the poem In order to have a thousand mile view, there is a need to climb a higher
stair to encourage the tourists to continue climbing (JjTli!,J!_t-Ji). When
guides talked about the red bean, one of three local precious products, they recited the poem
by Wang Wei: When those red berries come in springtime, flushing on your southland
branches, take home an armful, for my sake, as a symbol of our love (H-'S:1IE,*
JLx,t.S$Hi,t ;). When they introduced the mandarin duck tree (two
trees intertwined together), they told a love story from the famous poem Chang Heng Ge
by Bai Juyi. Such interpretation is acceptable and pleasing to Chinese visitors.
When visiting mountainous areas, the motivation and behaviour of Chinese tourists are
very much orientated towards climbing the peak. The famous poem When shall I reach
the top and hold all mountains in a single glance (3&:@fi!,-%fAL1\) by Du Fu
is a popular and well-known poem for Chinese and inspires tourists to climb to the top of
mountains to see the view. Reaching the peak is thus often the most important goal for
Chinese tourists when visiting a mountainous area. Tourists in the group often compete
with each other to see who can reach the top first. They seldom stop to appreciate the views
along the climbing routes, let alone the signage. Researchers observed a group of visitors
led by a guide as they climbed the Zhanglao Peak. Only one or two of the group stopped
on their climb to look at interpretive boards. According to guides, more Chinese tourists
are interested in story-telling and poetry about the site than in the scientific information
provided on interpretation boards.
Discussion
In order to apply for or keep World Heritage titles, governments in developing countries such
as China are required to follow guidelines regarding the provision of interpretive materials.
However, no guidance or assistance is provided on how to develop interpretation that is
appropriate to the local context. In the case of Danxia Shan, this has resulted in a narrow
interpretation of the guidelines, leading to interpretation materials that are inappropriate
and do not follow some important principles of effective interpretation (see Table 1). In any
context, the provision of bare factual information devoid of personal connection to visitors
is unlikely to inspire or provoke visitors (Kuo, 2002).
Chinese motivations, needs and engagement with interpretive materials in natural environments need to be taken into account in designing effective interpretive materials. In
particular, the importance of aesthetics and story-telling needs to be recognised in developing Chinese visitors understanding and appreciation of natural landscapes.
It is often taken for granted that scientific information should inform interpretation in
natural areas in order to develop visitors environmental knowledge, attitudes and adoption
of responsible environmental behaviour both on-site and later off-site at home. In China,
however, cultural factors should also be considered in the design of interpretation in order to
engage visitors and thus improve their development of environmental knowledge, attitudes

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H. Xu et al.

and behaviour. Visitor research clearly indicates that to be effective, interpretation needs to
be informed by a comprehensive understanding of visitors prior learning and experience
(see Table 1). Since relationship and a concrete way of thinking is the Chinese way (Lin,
1939; Needham, 1956; Ronan, 1978), an aesthetic approach to Chinese interpretation
might contribute to visitors adoption of environmentally sustainable practices by building
on their cultural appreciation of the value of nature, rather than focusing on the technical
details of how the natural system actually works. In the Chinese context this implies an
understanding of traditional teachings, which provide a familiar and emotional connection
between visitors and the appreciation of nature. In Buddhist teaching, human systems and
natural systems are perceived as equal in importance and are inter-related. Confucian and
Taoist teachings all emphasise the importance of the nature towards humanity and the need
to build harmonious relationships between human beings and nature (Sofield & Li, 2011;
Tu, 1998). These teachings support the contention that people should balance their needs
with those of the environment and should not dominate or hurt the environment.
The case study of interpretation at Danxia Shan reveals that very few interpretive signs
are designed in a way that is culturally appropriate for Chinese visitors. Signs need to
support an aesthetic interpretation of the landscape through the use of poems and stories
rather than the presentation of scientific geomorphological information. At present, an
aesthetic approach to interpretation, which is more likely to find favour with Chinese
visitors, is only provided in guidebooks and orally by visitor guides. Not surprisingly then,
observation of visitors during this study showed that few Chinese tourists actually read the
signage provided. Rather, they preferred to follow and listen to a tour guides explanations
that covered scientific and local knowledge of the site as well as poems and stories.
Chinese tourists preferences for guide-delivered interpretation rather than signage have
been found in other studies (Tao & Du, 2009). Tour guides are able to be flexible in providing interpretive services to visitors and are thus able to meet Chinese visitors interpretation
preferences by telling local stories related to landscape features they convey their interpretive information and messages through an oral medium, which is largely aesthetic in
approach. Guides are thus able to mediate understanding by making connections with what
visitors already know and care about (Weiler & Yu, 2007). However, the possibility that
Chinese visitors may seek a range of different experiences at the same site should not be
overlooked (Poria et al., 2009).
In order to meet the requirements for accreditation as World Heritage Sites without
compromising the needs of Chinese visitors, interpretation strategies need to be developed
that are true to both best practice principles of interpretation (Moscardo, Ballantyne, &
Hughes, 2007) and culturally relevant ways of understanding the landscape. Further research
is necessary to explore effective ways of doing this, and to identify the types of messages
most likely to lead not only to enhancing Chinese visitors understanding and appreciation,
but also challenging them to reflect and take action on conservation and environmental
issues. Such research will enable Chinese National Parks to meet requirements for the
provision of interpretation programmes that are appropriate and effective.
At the same time, more needs to be done to support the development of tour guiding as
a profession in China (Huang & Weiler, 2010). Tour guides are among the key front-line
players in the tourism industry. Through their knowledge and interpretation of a destinations
attractions and culture, and their communication skills, they have the ability to transform
a visit from a tour into an experience (Ap & Wong, 2001; Weiler & Yu, 2007). As well as
improving the physical interpretation infrastructure, there is a need to improve tour guides
social status skills in delivering messages that use a culturally meaningful approach to
support environmentally sustainable attitudes and behaviour. In the case of Danxia Shan,

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131

although the interpretation offered by guides was more popular and engaging for Chinese
visitors than the self-guided interpretation, there was no evidence that it had any influence
on visitors environmental attitudes or sustainable behaviour, or even their appreciation for
the site. Tour guides have the potential to offer more than a superficial introduction to the
site with appropriate skills, they can help visitors to form meaningful connections with
the site (Weiler & Yu, 2007).
Further research is necessary to evaluate what visitors take away as a result of their
participation in either self-guided or guided interpretation. Such outcome measures, it could
be argued, are essential in determining the success of the interpretive experience (Van Dijk
& Weiler, 2009). There is great potential to draw on Chinese ways of thinking, religious
teachings and cultural heritage to promote a more harmonious relationship with nature,
and to suggest ways of living that respect these ancient values. Guide training programmes
need to focus on developing these skills and strategies.
This case study was conducted at only one site, using relatively unstructured observations and informal interviews with visitors. There were no formal measurements of visitor
outcomes or responses to different interpretation strategies. A number of areas for further
research have been identified and provide a valuable basis for the development of structured
instruments and research methods.
Conclusions
This study examined the interpretation programmes and interpretive media offered at a
National Park in China, in response to the requirements for accreditation as a World Heritage
Site. It was found that the self-guided interpretation not only failed to take account of the
Chinese way of approaching natural landscapes, but also failed to apply commonly accepted
practices of interpretation. The interpretation offered by tour guides was more consistent
with the Chinese way of appreciating the landscape, but was not necessarily effective
in increasing visitors awareness of conservation issues. The case study of Danxia Shan
revealed the need for further research regarding the development of culturally appropriate
and effective interpretation strategies in Chinese National Parks that could engage Chinese
visitors, enhance their appreciation of the landscape, and encourage further awareness and
action in relation to sustainable behaviour.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Professor Bernard Lane for providing valuable contributions in the revision and
editing of this paper.

Note
1. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 2010 Crete conference on Sustainable
Tourism: Issues, Debates and Challenges, hosted by TEI Heraklion, Crete, and the School of
Sport, Leisure and Travel, Buckinghamshire New University, UK.

Notes on contributors
Honggang Xu is Associate Dean of the School of Tourism Management, at Sun Yat-sen University,
Guangzhou, China. She obtained a PhD and MA from the Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand,
and a BA from Beijing University, China. Her research interests include sustainable tourism, tourism
geography and complexity theory in tourism.
Qingming Cui is a Masters student in the School of Tourism Management, Sun Yat-sen University,
Guangzhou, China.
Roy Ballantyne is Research Professor at the School of Tourism, University of Queensland, Australia.
His research focuses on visitor research, environmental interpretation, free-choice environmental

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H. Xu et al.

learning, wildlife tourism and ecotourism. He is the co-author of Contemporary Issues in Heritage
and Environmental Interpretation and Designing Effective Interpretive Signs and Exhibits: Principles
in Practice.
Jan Packer is a Senior Research Fellow at the School of Tourism, University of Queensland, Australia.
Her research focuses on applying principles from educational, environmental and positive psychology
to understand and improve visitor experiences at natural and cultural tourism attractions such as
museums, zoos and aquariums, botanic gardens, national parks, ecotourism and wildlife tourism
attractions.

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