POSITION AND

WARNING SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Pilots of today's complex aircraft can no longer fly by the seats of their pants. The pilot receives indications of
what the aircraft is doing through instruments and warning systems. These include airspeed indicators, unsafe
system warnings, and remote position indicators. Some systems, such as antiskid brake systems, allow the pilot
to obtain maximum performance, which may be impossible without mechanical assistance. This section covers
some of these systems and the hardware necessary to operate them.

ANTISKID BRAKE CONTROL SYSTEMS

method only works well when the control valves
are capable of operating very quickly. [Figure 10-1]

It is important that a pilot avoid excessive braking

to prevent skidding and loss of control. With a
tail-wheel-type airplane, too much braking could
result in a nose-over or ground loop. With
large-diameter tires on small wheels, heavy
braking could cause the tire to slip on the rim and
pull the valve out of the tube.
Modern high-speed jet aircraft usually have more
than one wheel on each side, and all of the brakes
on one side are controlled with one pedal. With this
arrangement, the pilot has no way of knowing when
one of these wheels begins to skid. Without prompt
corrective action to release a locked-up wheel, the
tire is likely to blow out and damage the aircraft, or
in severe cases, result in loss of control.
Friction created by the brakes reduces the wheel
rotation rate, and friction between the tire and the
runway slows the aircraft. If the tire rotation slows
too rapidly, the tire will begin to slip on the runway
instead of gripping it. Once the tire begins to slip, a
skid soon develops and braking effectiveness
decreases rapidly to near zero. For maximum brake
effectiveness, only enough brake pressure should be
applied to cause the tire to reach the point where it
just begins to slip. This produces the maximum
deceleration rate.
Maintaining this optimum friction is not easy. As the
airplane slows, less brake pressure is needed to
maintain the correct balance. Contamination such as
water, snow or ice on the runway reduces the coefficient of friction between the tire and the runway.
This, too, complicates the problem of maintaining
the right amount of brake pressure to achieve maximum braking without excessive tire slippage.

SYSTEM OPERATION
You use a simple form of manual antiskid control
when driving on ice. For the most effective stopping, you pump the brakes. They are applied only
enough to slow the wheel, then released before the
wheel decelerates enough to lock up. This same
on-and-off type of operation was employed in some
of the early aircraft antiskid systems. However,
this

Figure 10-1. This graph shows the wheel speed relative to

the amount of brake pressure applied manually by the pilot
of an aircraft.

In figure 10-1, the brakes are applied and the pressure rises until the wheel starts to slip, but not skid,
at point A. This is the ideal condition, but the pilot,
having no indication that a slip has been reached,
continues to increase the force on the brake pedal.
Sufficient pressure is soon reached to produce
enough friction in the brake to cause the tire to start
to skid on the runway, as shown at point B. The
wheel now decelerates fast enough to be felt, so the
pilot reduces pressure on the pedal. Since the braking force that is needed lessens as the wheel slows,
the wheel continues to decelerate even though the
brake pressure decreases. At point C, the wheel has
completely locked up, even though the pressure
continues to drop. At point D, the pressure is low
enough for the friction between the tire and the runway surface to start the wheel rotating again, and
soon after, the brake pressure drops to zero. The
wheel then comes back up to speed.
A successful antiskid system requires two features
that early on-and-off systems did not have. There
must be some form of wheel-speed sensor that can
detect a change in the rate of deceleration and send a
signal for the pressure to be released before the wheel

Position and Warning Systems

10-3

gets deep into a skid. A valve is also needed that acts

quickly enough to prevent all of the pressure from
being released before the next application of the
brake. This controlled amount of retained pressure
prevents the brake-return system from pulling the
pressure plate all of the way back, and allows the
brakes to reapply almost immediately. The modern
modulated antiskid system provides the fastest
wheel-speed recovery and produces the shortest
stopping distance on any kind of runway surface.
When the pilot wants to stop the aircraft in the shortest distance possible, it is necessary to depress the
brake pedals all the way to induce maximum braking.
All of the brakes receive the maximum pressure. If any
wheel should decelerate at a rate indicating an
impending skid, some of the pressure to that brake is
dumped into the system-return manifold. The control
circuit then measures the amount of time required for
the wheel to spin back up and applies a slightly
reduced pressure to the brake. This reduced pressure
is determined by the time required for the spin-up. If
this reduced pressure again causes a skid to develop,
the cycle is repeated. Some pressure is maintained in
the wheel cylinders to prevent the pressure plate from
moving all of the way back. This application and
release process continues with progressively decreasing pressure until the wheel is held in the slip area,
but not allowed to decelerate fast enough to produce a
skid. It produces the proper amount of braking for any
runway surface condition, with the pilot having only
to apply a hard, steady pressure to the brake pedal.
When the airplane slows down to approximately 20
miles per hour (m.p.h.) and there is no further danger of skidding, the antiskid system automatically
deactivates. This gives the pilot full control of the
brakes for maneuvering and parking. As with most
auxiliary systems in modern aircraft, the antiskid
systems have built-in test circuits, and may be deactivated in the event of a malfunction to give the
pilot normal braking but no antiskid protection.

Figure 10-2. A typical antiskid brake system consists of

wheel-speed sensors on each main wheel, a control unit,
and control valves for each brake.

WHEEL-SPEED SENSORS
There are two types of systems in use, an AC system
and a DC system. They are essentially alike except
for the wheel-speed sensors and one circuit in the
control unit. The AC sensor is a variable-reluctance
AC generator in the axle of the landing gear that
uses a permanent magnet surrounded by a pickup
coil. The outside of this sensor has four equally
spaced poles with teeth cut into their periphery.
A soft iron exciter ring with internal teeth is
mounted in the hubcap of the wheel so that it
rotates around the sensor. The two sets of teeth are
separated by a small gap, and as the exciter ring
rotates, the teeth approach each other and then
move apart. As the distance between the teeth
changes, the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is
alternately increased and decreased. This causes the
amount of magnetic flux cutting across the pickup
coil to change and induces an alternating current in
the coil. The faster the wheel turns, the higher the
frequency of the induced current. [Figure 10-3]

Many large jet-transports have an auto-brake feature

that works in conjunction with the antiskid system.
When the system senses weight on the main wheels,
it automatically applies the brakes to produce one of
several pilot-selected levels of deceleration. This
results in a more immediate application of the
wheel brakes and maximizes the use of the antiskid
system. The pilot can override and disarm the
auto-brake system by applying manual brakes.

SYSTEM COMPONENTS
An antiskid system consists of three basic components: wheel-speed sensors, an antiskid computer,
and control valves. [Figure 10-2]

Figure 10-3. The AC wheel-speed sensor creates a variable

frequency AC current. The control unit converts the varying
frequency AC into a DC signal voltage that is proportional
to the frequency of the AC current.

70-4

Position and Warning Systems

The DC sensor is essentially a small,

permanent-magnet direct-current generator, which
produces a voltage output directly proportional to
the rotational speed of its armature. With this type
of sensor, there is no need for a converter in the
control unit. There also is less danger of
interference with the brakes due to the induction of
stray voltage into the sensing system. [Figure 10-4]

Figure 10-5. The antiskid control unit operates a brake control valve.

Figure 10-4. The DC wheel-speed sensor does not require an

AC-DC converter in the control unit because it generates a
direct current proportional to wheel speed. The shaft of the
armature is fitted with a blade driven by a bracket in the
wheel hubcap and rotates with the wheel. The generator
output usually is in the range of one volt for each ten m.p.h.
of wheel speed.

CONTROL VALVES
A three-port antiskid control valve is located in the
pressure line between the brake valve and the brake
cylinder, with the third line connecting the control
valve to the system-return manifold. During normal
operation of the brakes, with no indication of a skid,
the valve serves only as a passage and allows the
brake fluid to flow into and out of the brake. When
a wheel begins to decelerate fast enough to cause a
skid, the control unit detects the changing output
voltage of the wheel-speed sensor. The control unit
sends a DC signal to the control valve, which closes
off the pressure port and opens the passage between
the brake and the system return. This rapidly operating valve maintains an output pressure that is
directly proportional to the amount of signal current
from the control unit. [Figure 10-5]
The DC signal from the control unit flows through a
coil around the armature of the flapper valve. This
armature is free to pivot and is centered between
two permanent magnets. [Figure 10-6]
When the signal from the control unit indicates that
no skid is impending, and the braking action should
be normal, the magnetic field of the coil reacts with
the fields of the permanent magnets and holds the
flapper centered between the nozzles. [Figure 10-7]

Figure 10-6. A direct-current signal from the control unit

energizes the coil on the armature of the flapper valve, and
the movement of the flapper changes the pressure drop
across the fixed orifices.

Fluid from the brake valve flows through the filter

and discharges equally from each nozzle. Since the
amount of flow is the same through each orifice, the
pressure drop across the orifices will be the same,
and the second-stage spool valve will assume a
position that allows free passage between the brake
valve and the brake.
When the control unit receives a signal from the
wheel-speed sensor indicating an impending skid,
it sends current through the coil of the armature to
polarize it. This causes the flapper to pivot and
unbalance the flow from the nozzles. In figure 10-8,
the flapper has moved over, restricting the flow

Position and Warning Systems

10-5

Figure 10-7. When the flapper is centered between the nozzles, the pressure-drops across orifices O, and O 2 are
equal, resulting in output pressure P 1 equaling P 2.

Figure 10-8. When the armature of the flapper valve is energized, the flapper moves over and restricts the flow through
orifice O 1 while increasing it through O 2 . The increased
pressure drop across O2 causes P 1 to be greater than P2 .

from the left nozzle and opening the flow from the
one on the right. There is now more flow through
orifice O 2 and therefore a greater pressure drop
across it, leaving P a greater than P 2 . This imbalance
of pressures moves the second-stage spool over,
shutting off the flow of fluid from the brake valve to
the brake, and opening a passage from the brake to
the return manifold.

vents
the
pilot from
landing
the brakes applied. [Figure 10-9]

with

The extremely fast reaction time of this valve allows

it to maintain a pressure at the brake that is directly
proportional to the amount of current flowing in the
armature coil.
CONTROL UNIT
The control unit has three main functions: to generate electrical signals usable by the control valve; to
regulate brake pressure to prevent a skid during
landing deceleration; and to prevent application of
brake pressure prior to touchdown. Before the airplane touches down, the locked-wheel detector
sends a signal into the amplifier, which causes the
control valve to open the passage between the
brakes and the system-return manifold. This pre-

Figure 10-9. The locked-wheel detector receives a signal

from the squat switch, which indicates whether the aircraft
is airborne or on the ground. If airborne, the circuitry prevents the brakes from being applied before touchdown.

As soon as the airplane touches down, the squat

switch registers that weight is on the wheels. The
wheels start to spin up, and at approximately 20
m.p.h., generates enough voltage in the wheel-speed
sensor to signal the locked-wheel detector.
The

70-6

detector then removes the touchdown control signal

from the amplifier. This allows the control valve to
apply full pressure to the brakes. [Figure 10-10]

Position and Warning Systems

this pressure to increase slowly until another skid

starts to occur, repeating the cycle.
When the aircraft is on a wet or icy runway, the antiskid system holds the wheels in the slip region.
However, the locked-wheel detector activates whenever one wheel hydroplanes or hits ice and slows
down to less than ten m.p.h. while its mated reference wheel still rotates faster than 20 m.p.h. A timer
measures the duration of the skid detector signal. If
it is more than one-tenth of a second, it sends a "full
dump" signal that holds the valve in the full-dump
position until the wheel spins back up above
ten m.p.h.

Figure 10-10. On touchdown, the squat switch removes the

ground from the locked-wheel arming circuit, and the
wheel-speed sensor generates a signal which allows the
control valve to send full pressure to the brakes.

When the airplane is on the ground and the wheels

are rotating at more than 20 m.p.h., the skid detector and modulator provide almost all of the antiskid
control. [Figure 10-11]

When all of the wheels are turning at less than 20

m.p.h., the locked-wheel arming circuit disarms,
giving the pilot full braking action for low-speed
taxiing and parking. [Figure 10-12]

Figure 10-12. When the airplane is on the ground and all

three wheels are rotating less than 20 miles per hour, the
locked-wheel arming circuit is inoperative and the pilot has
full brake control for low speed taxiing and parking.

Figure 10-11. When the airplane is on the ground and all

wheels are rotating more than 20 miles per hour, the skid
detector and the modulator provide signals for the amplifier.

A deceleration threshold is designed into the skid

detector circuit. The reference normally is set to
about 20 feet per second, with a wheel speed that is
at least six m.p.h. below the speed of the airplane.
When a wheel decelerates at a rate greater than this
threshold value, the skid detector signals the amplifier and then the control valve to reduce the brake
pressure. It also signals the modulator, which automatically establishes the amount of current that will
continue to flow through the valve after the wheel
has recovered from the skid. When the amplifier
receives its signal from the modulator, it maintains
this current, which is just enough to position the
flapper to prevent the pressure from being completely released. The applied current maintains a
pressure slightly less than that which caused the
skid. A timer circuit in the modulator then allows

The control unit for antiskid systems using AC sensors operates in the same way as those using DC
generators, the only difference being the addition of
a converter circuit. This circuit receives the
varying-frequency alternating current and converts
it into a varying voltage of direct current. The
changes in the DC voltage exactly follow the
frequency changes of the AC. [Figure 10-13]

SYSTEM TESTS
Because it is vitally important that a pilot know the
exact condition of the brake system before using it,
antiskid systems include test circuits and control
switches. These allow the pilot to test the entire system, and if any faults are found, disable the system
without affecting normal braking action. There is an
anti-skid warning light in the flight deck to warn
pilots whenever the system is off or has failed.
GROUND TEST
The integrity of the antiskid system can be tested on
the ground before flight. The pilot turns on the anti-

10-7

Position and Warning Systems

tem before condemning the antiskid system. If the

brakes are spongy, remove the air by bleeding them.
Carefully check for warped disks, malfunctioning
return systems, and any indications of damage.

Figure 10-13. The difference between the control unit of an

antiskid system using an AC wheel-speed sensor and one
using a DC sensor is in the converter between the sensor
and the control circuit.

skid control switch and presses the brake pedal.

Both the left and right brake lights should illuminate, indicating that all of the pressure from the
brake valves is being routed to the brakes.
With the brakes still applied, the pilot presses the
test switch and holds it for a few seconds. This sends
a signal through the wheel-speed sensors into the
control unit to simulate a wheel speed of more than
20 m.p.h. The lights should remain on. When the
test switch is released, the two brake lights should go
out and stay out for a couple of seconds, then come
back on. This simulates a wheel lockup that causes a
release of, then restoration of, pressure. This test
checks the continuity of all of the wiring and operation of the locked-wheel circuits, amplifiers, and
control valves. These procedures vary with aircraft
type. Consult the appropriate manuals to determine
the correct procedure for your aircraft.

Inspection and maintenance of antiskid systems

requires logical troubleshooting to locate faults. Due
to the complexity of the components, they are usually returned to the manufacturer or a repair station
for any needed repairs. If one of the tests shows a
malfunction in the system, the most logical place to
start troubleshooting is with the wheel-speed sensor.
WHEEL-SPEED SENSOR
Some DC wheel-speed sensors can be checked on

the
airplane by removing the wheel hubcap to
expose the blade of the sensor. With your finger,
give the blade a sharp spin in its normal direction of
rotation with the brakes applied and the antiskid
switch on. It will not turn more than 180 degrees.
It is not the amount of rotation that is important,
but the rate at which it is turned. If the system is
operating
properly,
the
brakes
should
momentarily release and then reapply. Watch the
brake disk stack for relaxation then tightening, this
will confirm proper system operation. If this
"tweak" test does not cause the brakes to release,
consult the maintenance manual for the specific
type of airplane on which you are working to
determine the correct test procedures. [Figure

IN-FLIGHT TEST
The antiskid system is included in the pilot's
pre-landing checklist. With the airplane configured
for landing, the pilot depresses the brake pedals.
The brake lights should remain off, which indicates
the control valves are holding the brakes in the fully
released position.
The pilot then presses the test switch, which should
illuminate the brake lights for as long as the switch
is held down. The test switch sends a signal through
the wheel speed sensors, simulating a wheel speed
greater than 20 m.p.h. If the system is operating
properly, the control valve will direct normal pressure to the brake.
SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
If a flight crew reports an antiskid or brake malfunction, verify that there is no air in the brake sys-

Figure 10-14. When the blade of the wheel-speed sensor is

flipped, it should cause the brakes to release and then
reapply.

10-14]

70-8

Position and Warning Systems

CONTROL UNIT

CONTROL VALVE

The control unit, shown in figure 10-15, may be

checked using a substitution method. Remove both
of the connector plugs from the box and swap them
left to right. For example, suppose the trouble indication was originally on the left side of the airplane.
If the leads from the box are switched and the indication remains on the left side, the trouble is probably not with the control unit. However, if the indication moves to the right side, the control unit may be
defective. Any time you switch the leads, be sure to
reinstall them on the proper receptacles and properly
secure them before returning the aircraft to service.

If the trouble remains after checking the two devices

that were the easiest to access, all that remains in
the antiskid system is the control valve. These
valves are electrohydraulic, and the trouble could
be in either the electrical or hydraulic section.

Figure 10-15. The two leads on the antiskid control unit may
be switched as a part of the troubleshooting procedure.

The easiest check is the electrical resistance of the

coil. Remove the connector plug and measure the
resistance of the coil with an accurate ohmmeter. It
should measure within the tolerance specified in
the service manual. If the trouble is traced to the
control valve and is not electrical, the valve must be
removed. The problem is probably in the hydraulic
portion of the valve.
The extremely close tolerances used in the manufacture of this valve make the use of absolutely
clean fluid imperative. A fifteen-micron steel-mesh
screen is commonly installed in the line before the
orifices to insure that no contaminants reach the
inside of the valve. If this screen clogs, the valve
may malfunction. Check the manufacturer's service
manuals to see if it is possible to replace this filter
in the field. If it is allowed, follow the service
instructions carefully. If any field servicing is
allowed on the valve, it must be done in an area free
from contamination. Again, be certain to follow the
manufacturer's latest service information.

INDICATING AND WARNING SYSTEMS

STALL WARNING INDICATOR
A stall is a flight condition where the airflow over
the upper surface of the wing separates and
becomes turbulent. It occurs when the aircraft
reaches a critically high angle-of-attack (AOA). If an
airplane does not provide sufficient aerodynamic
warning of an impending stall, such as buffeting,
the pilot must be warned through some other
means. Small general aviation aircraft usually use
an audible tone or a red light. Many high-performance aircraft use a stick shaker, which vibrates the
control column, or which may even force the column forward to reduce the angle-of-attack.
Many stall warning systems, particularly on lower
performance aircraft, measure the movement of the
stagnation point on the wing. The stagnation point
marks the particular location on the leading edge of
an airfoil where the air separates, some passing over
the top of the surface and the rest passing below it.
As the angle-of-attack increases, the stagnation
point moves down toward the lower surface. The
stagnation point is always in the same location
when the airflow over the surface becomes turbulent, indicating the approach to a stall.
ELECTRIC STALL WARNING
An electrically operated stall warning system uses a
small vane mounted near the stagnation point in the
leading edge of the wing. At flights above the stall
speed, the airflow over the vane is downward and
the vane is held down. An electrical switch connected to the vane is open while the vane is down.
As the angle-of-attack increases toward an impending stall, the stagnation point moves down until the
airflow over the vane is upward. The vane is blown
up, closing the switch and illuminating a red light
or sounding a warning horn. [Figure 10-16]
NON-ELECTRIC STALL WARNING
The reed-type stall warning system operates in a
manner similar to a musical instrument reed which
produces a tone when air travels through it. The
inlet of the small reed-type horn is located on the
leading edge of the wing near the stagnation point.

Figure 10-16. W hen the wing is nearly stalled, the upward

airflow moves the vane to activate the stall warning.

As the angle-of-attack increases, the low-pressure

air traveling over the wing moves into an area
"where the reed inlet is located, causing it to sound.
By listening to the changing pitch of the horn, the
pilot can easily identify the point at which the stall
will occur.
On many high-performance aircraft, the margin
between the aerodynamically generated pre-stall
buffet and the actual stall is insufficient. Using the

70-70

Position and Warning Systems

stagnation point to activate a stall warning system

may not provide enough warning. Many corporate
jet and transport category aircraft use a stick shaker
to provide the pilot with an earlier and more reliable warning of an impending stall. The stick shaker
consists of a motor that drives an eccentric weight.
This motor is attached to the control column and
shakes it to alert the pilot before a stall develops. A
stall-warning computer based on airspeed,
angle-of-attack, flap configuration, and power
setting activates the stick shaker. The system is
energized at all times when the aircraft is airborne
and is deactivated on the ground by squat switches
on the gear.

ANGLE-OF-ATTACK INDICATORS
All stall warning systems provide an indication of
an impending stall that is related to the
angle-of-attack. For precision flying, the pilot needs
to know the actual angle-of-attack during various
stages of the flight. One system for measuring and
displaying the angle-of-attack uses a slotted probe
sticking out of the side of the aircraft fuselage. The
slots carry impact air into the housing of the probe
where it moves a set of paddles connected to a
variable resistor. The change in resistance moves
a pointer around the indicator dial, which is
calibrated in percent of the stall-speed
angle-of-attack, or color-coded with a qualitative
indication of angle-of-attack. [Figure 10-17]
Another method of measuring angle-of-attack utilizes a vane-type sensor. A thin, wedge-shaped vane
is mounted on a short arm that is free to rotate. In
flight, the vane streamlines with the relative wind.
As the angle-of-attack changes, the arm pivots and a
potentiometer connected to the arm transmits a position signal to the stall warning system. The vane is
heated to prevent ice formation. [Figure 10-18]
The pilot can set a reference bug to show the desired
ratio of the airspeed to the stall airspeed. For example, if the pilot wants to make an approach to landing at an airspeed of 30% over the stall speed, the
reference bug would be set on 1.3. The pilot then
maintains the attitude needed to center the
angle-of-attack needle on the reference bug and the
approach speed will automatically be correct. If the
angle-of-attack goes above or below the desired
value, the indicator will move away from the bug.

REMOTE POSITION INDICATING

SYSTEMS
A pilot needs to know that a control surface has
actually moved when commanded. Remote position
indicating systems provide feedback about the status of control surfaces, landing gear, control valves,

Figure 10-17. As the angle-of-attack changes, the amount of

air entering the angle-of-attack sensor changes. This
causes the paddles inside to change position. These paddles are attached to a potentiometer that varies the current
to an indicator that in turn gives an indication of AOA.

and other mechanically actuated devices.

DIRECT CURRENT
Direct-current remote indicating systems are used
in some aircraft to transmit position information so
that it can be seen on an instrument dial. The position pickup, or transmitter, is a variable resistor

Position and Warning Systems

10-11

Figure 10-20. A variable resistor provides a variable current

to a coil that aligns a permanent magnet with the resistor's
wiper.
Figure 10-18. Many large airplanes utilize a vane-type sensor for angle-of-attack.

AUTOSYN SYSTEMS

One of the more popular remote indicating systems

used for all types of mechanical movement is the
Autosyn
system. Autosyn
is a registered
trade name for a system that uses a single-phase
electromagnet for the rotor and a three-phase delta
connected coil for the stator. [Figure 10-21]

Figure 10-19. When the pilot selects the Test position on a

Boeing 747 stall warning system, the air/ground relay is
bypassed, the stick shaker operates, the black and white
test indicator rotates, and the system checks the
angle-of-attack vane and flap position sensor.

made of wire wound around an insulating core in

the shape of a cylinder. Two wipers contact bare
portions of the wire along one edge of the cylinder,
and current flows into the circuit through one of the
wipers and out through the other. The cylindrical
resistor is tapped at each 120-degree position and is
connected to a coil in the indicator that is wound on
a ring-shaped core. The indicator coil is also tapped
at each 120 degrees and connected to form an electrical delta circuit. The current through each of the
three portions of the coil varies depending upon the
position of the two wipers in the transmitter. As the
current changes, so does the magnetic field. Since a
small permanent magnet attached to the pointer
always aligns with the composite magnetic field,
the indicator is always aligned with the wiper arms
in the transmitter. [Figure 10-20]
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Many larger aircraft require greater accuracy than is
available from a DC remote position indicating system. For these applications, alternating-current systems
of
either
the
Autosyn
or
Magnesyn -type are used.

Figure 10-21. The Autosyn -type alternating-current remote

indicating system employs two delta-wound coils. These
coils align with each other; one of them attached to an input
shaft and the other to a remote pointer.

The synchronous motors in the indicator and transmitter are identical. The rotors are connected in parallel and supplied with 28-volt, 400-hertz AC. The
three-phase stators are also connected in parallel,
and in most installations, one side of the rotor is
connected to one of the terminals of the stator.
Whatever position is being monitored physically
moves the rotor of the transmitter. This could be the
flap position, landing gear position, or oil or fuel
quantity, as well as many of the pressure measurements made with bourdon tubes or pressure capsules.
The AC magnetic field in the rotor induces a voltage
in the three windings of the stator, and because the
two stators are connected in parallel, the magnetic
field in the indicator will be exactly the same as that

70-72

Position and Warning Systems

in the transmitter. The same AC voltage as the rotor

in the transmitter excites the rotor in the indicator
so their magnetic fields are identical. Since mechanical load on the indicator rotor is nothing more than
a small pointer, the rotor will assume the same position inside the indicator as the rotor inside the
transmitter. The rotor in the indicator immediately
follows any movement of the transmitter rotor.
Many Autosyn systems use dual indicators. The
two synchronous motors are stacked, and the shaft
of the rear motor sticks through the hollow shaft in
the forward motor. One dial serves both indicators,
and the two pointers move in the same way the
hands of a clock do.
MAGNESYN SYSTEMS

Magnesyn is another remote indicating system

bearing a registered trade name and operating on
AC. The basic difference between an Autosyn
and a Magnesyn system is in the rotor. The
Magnesyn system uses a permanent magnet for its
rotor rather than the electromagnet used in the
Autosyn system.
The stator of a Magnesyn system is a toroidal coil:
a coil wound around a ring-shaped iron core. The
transmitter and indicator are not necessarily the
same physical size and configuration, but they are
alike in their electrical characteristics.
The coils in both the transmitter and the indicator
are supplied with 28-volt, 400-Hertz AC, are tapped
each 120 degrees, and are connected in parallel. The
voltage generated in the transmitter coil is carried
into the indicator coil where it produces magnetic
fields in its three sections. The composite field of
these coils pulls the permanent magnet in the indicator into exactly the same alignment as the magnet
in the transmitter. Any movement of the transmitter
magnet causes the magnet in the indicator to mirror
the transmitter position. [Figure 10-22]

CONFIGURATION
WARNING SYSTEMS
The number and complexity of modern aircraft systems require various warning systems to alert the
pilot of malfunctions or incorrect aircraft configuration for a particular flight mode. Most warnings are
visual, aural, tactile, or some combination.
Warnings alert the aircrew to conditions that require
some sort of action to ensure proper and safe operation of the aircraft. The type of signal depends upon
the degree of urgency. One type of warning system
is the fire warning system, which will be covered in

Figure 10-22. A Magnesyn -type AC remote indicating system uses the paired relationship of two permanent magnets
to transfer transmitter position information to an indicator.

depth in Chapter 16. Other types of warning systems include takeoff configuration warning, landing
gear configuration warning, Mach/airspeed warning, stall warning, ground proximity warning system (GPWS), and the engine indication and crew
alerting system (EICAS).
TAKEOFF CONFIGURATION
WARNING SYSTEM
The takeoff configuration warning system is armed
when the aircraft is on the ground and one or more
thrust levers are advanced to the takeoff power position. A warning light and/or aural warning will
sound if the stabilizer trim is not properly set, trailing edge flaps are not in the correct position, any
leading edge devices are not properly set, or the
speed brake is not properly stowed. The warning
signal stops when all monitored devices are properly set.
LANDING GEAR CONFIGURATION
WARNING SYSTEM
The landing gear indication lights are activated
according to signals from each gear and the landing
gear lever. The particular gear indications may vary
slightly, but the FAA requires positive indication of
"up and locked" and "down and locked" gear positions. A typical system might indicate the landing
gear down and locked with an illuminated green
light for each individual gear. Another may use a
single green light for the entire gear configuration
"down and locked" indication. If a single green light
is used, the switches at each gear are connected in
series so that the "down and locked" light only illuminates when all gear are in the proper position.

10-13

Position and Warning Systems

When the landing gear is in disagreement with the

landing gear lever position, a red light illuminates,
meaning that the gear is in transit or in an unsafe
condition. When the landing gear is in the proper
up position and the gear lever is also in the "UP"
position, the gear position lights go out signifying
an "up and locked" condition. A technician normally checks the gear warning system during landing gear retraction tests. Problems with the warning
system are often caused by the gear position
switches. Always consult the manufacturer's service
manual for the proper procedures for adjusting the
landing gear position switches in addition to any
other maintenance performed.

Excessive descent rate.

On some aircraft, a steady warning horn is provided

to alert the pilot that the airplane is in a landing
configuration and the gear is not down and locked.
The landing gear warning horn is usually dependent on flap and thrust lever position.

When one of these conditions is encountered, the

computer flashes warning lights and sounds an
alarm or warning. Some warnings are computer-generated directions such as "Pull up" or "Windshear."

Generally, when a thrust lever is retarded and any

landing gear is not down and locked, the landing
gear warning horn will sound, but can be silenced
using the warning horn cutout switch. Under certain conditions, the landing gear warning horn cannot be silenced. Although the actual flap settings
and thrust lever positions will vary from one aircraft
type to another, generally some provision is made to
remove the pilot's ability to silence the gear warning
when specific conditions occur. For example, the
warning horn cutout might be disabled if the radar
altimeter indicates less than 1,000 feet above
ground with the aircraft in a landing configuration
and with an unsafe gear.
MACH/AIRSPEED WARNING SYSTEM
Some aircraft are equipped with Mach/airspeed
warning systems that provide a distinct aural warning any time the maximum operating airspeed is
exceeded. Reducing speed below the limiting value
is usually the only way to silence the warning.
The system operates from an internal mechanism
inside the Mach/airspeed indicator. Test switches
allow an operational check of the system at any
time. Maximum operating airspeeds exist primarily
due to airplane structural limitations at lower altitudes and airplane handling characteristics at
higher altitudes.
GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING
SYSTEM (GPWS)
The ground proximity warning system (GPWS) provides warnings and/or alerts to the flight crew when
any of the following conditions exist:

Excessive terrain closure rate.

Altitude loss after takeoff or go-around.
Unsafe terrain clearance when not in the landing
configuration.
Excessive deviation below an ILS
(Instrument
Landing System) glide slope.
Descent below the selected minimum radio alti
tude.
Windshear condition encountered.

ENGINE INDICATION AND

CREW ALERTING SYSTEM (EICAS)
Older commercial airplanes utilize electromechanical system indicators that employ multiple visual
and aural cautions and warnings to alert of hazardous conditions such as engine problems or open
cabin doors. Most of these systems use an annunciator that provides a master warning light along with
an aural indication to alert the crew that a malfunction has occurred and that corrective action may be
required. These indicators do not offer the versatility and redundancy available with modern digital
technology.
New generation aircraft use electronic displays and
a full-time monitoring system known as EICAS,
Engine Indication and Crew Alerting. The use of
EICAS requires very little monitoring by the crew
and promotes quick, accurate identification and
recording of problems.
EICAS reduces flight crew workload by automatically monitoring and recording engine parameters
for later review. EICAS also alerts the aircrew of
problems when necessary. It is operative through all
phases of flight, from power-up through post-flight
maintenance. Parameters used to set and monitor
engine thrust are displayed full time. The system
automatically displays any out-of-tolerance values
on a cathode-ray-tube (CRT) or liquid-crystal display (LCD) in an appropriate color. The colored
messages are designed to alert the aircrew to any
failure and convey the urgency in which to respond.
By utilizing electronic displays, EICAS provides
accurate, timely information on a single screen
rather than multiple engine instruments scattered
throughout the panel.

70-74

Position and Warning Systems

Figure 10-23. A simplified system diagram of the EICAS installed in the Boeing 757 shows its typically required components.

EICAS provides an improved level of maintenance data for the ground crew without causing
the flight crew any extra workload. This has been
achieved by designing a system that will automatically record subsystem parameters when malfunctions are detected. The system also provides
the flight crew with the capability for manual data
recording with the push of a single button. This
eliminates the need for extensive hand recording
of systems and performance data. These features
increase the accuracy of maintenance data recordings and improve the communication between the
aircrew and ground maintenance crews.

upper display unit shows primary engine parameters and crew alerting messages, and the lower display unit shows secondary engine parameters.
[Figure 10-24]
EICAS monitors inputs from airplane subsystems
and sensors. When an abnormal condition is
detected, EICAS will generate and display an alert,
status, or maintenance message.

EICAS usually includes two multicolor display

units, two computers, and two control panels.
These
components,
together
with
two
display-switching modules, cancel/recall switches,
and captain's and first officer's master caution
lights, jointly perform the various EICAS
functions. [Figure 10-23]
The EICAS computer processes and displays all
engine and aircraft system information required by
the crew. One computer is used at a time for displaying the data on both display units. Computer
selection is done on the display select panel. The

Figure 10-24. EICAS operational mode displays and engine

parameters are presented on two displays. A pilot can
select status and maintenance readouts on the secondary
display using the EICAS maintenance panel.